Notes

Epigraphs 1. “MuskieHearings”:Hearingsbeforeasubcommitteeonairandwater

pollutionofthecommitteeonpublicworksoftheU.S.Senate,59thCongress,June7–15,1966(Washington,DC:U.S.GovernmentPrint-ingOffice),pp.113–343.

Note on Terminology 1. Forvolatility:“AtatmosphericpressureC-216maycombinewith

almostallknownelements,withalmostexplosiverapidity,givingoffextremeheat.”ManhattanProjectMemo,“SafetyandHealthCon-ferenceonHazardsofC-216(CodeforFluorine)”To:SafetySectionFiles.RHTGClassifiedDoc.,1944-94,Box166,Building2714-H,Vault#82761.Suchviolencealsomakesfluorinedifficulttoisolate.Althoughitisthethirteenth-mostabundantelementintheearth’scrust,itwasnotuntil1886thataFrenchscientist,HenriMoissan,wasfinallyabletosegregatethevolatileelement.R.E.Banks,“IsolationofFluorinebyMoissan:SettingtheScene,”J. Fluorine Chem.,vol.33(1986),pp.1–26.

2. J.Emsleyetal.,“Anunexpectedlystronghydrogenbond:Abinitiocalculationsandspectroscopicstudiesofamide-fluoridesystems,”J. Am. Chemical Soc.,vol.103,(1981),pp.24–28.

3. TheNationalResearchCouncil,forexample,“usestheterm‘fluoride’asageneraltermeverywhere,whereexactdifferentiationbetweenionicandmolecularformsorbetweengaseousandparticulateformsisuncertainorunnecessary.”Biological Effects of Atmospheric Pollut-ants: Fluorides(NationalAcademyofSciences,1971),p.3.

Acknowledgments 1. SaidRalphNader:“OncetheU.S.governmentfiftyyearsagodecided

topushfluoridation,theystoppeddoingwhatAlfredNorthWhite-headoncesaidwasthecardinalprincipleofthescientificmethod,andthatistoleaveoptionsopenforrevisions,anditbecameapartyline,itbecameadogma,andtheyweren’tinterestedincriticism.”

Introduction 1. L.Tye,The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public

Relations(NewYork:Crown,1998).

2. From1957to1968,fluoridewasresponsibleformoredamageclaimsthanalltwentyothermajorairpollutantscombined,accordingtoU.S.NationalAcademyofSciencesmemberEdwardGroth.N.Groth,“AirIsFluoridated,”Peninsula Observer,January27–February3,1969.Seechapter15foralistoffluoridedamagesuitsandcomparisonwithotherairpollutants.

3. Seechapters7,9,10,and11. 4. Forfluoridesynergy,seeA.S.RozhkovandT.A.Mikhailova,“TheEffect

ofFluorine-ContainingEmissionsonConifers,”TheSiberianInstituteofPlantPhysiologyandBiochemistry,SiberianBranchoftheRussianAcad-emyofSciences,trans.L.Kashhenko(Springer-Verlag,1993),excerptedontheFluorideActionNetworkwebsite.Also,HerbertE.Stokingeretal.,

“TheEnhancingEffectoftheInhalationofHydrogenFluorideVaporonBerylliumSulfatePoisoninginAnimals,”UR-68,UniversityofRochester,unclassified;andN.Groth,“FluoridePollution,”Environment,vol.17,no.3(April/May1975)pp.22–38.For“Greatesthealthadvance,”seeA Century of Public Health: From Fluoridation to Food Safety,CDC,DivisionofMediaRelations,April2,1999.For“Pollutionandchemicalpoisoningofchildren,”seechapters1,2,and16.

5. Seechapter3. 6. Seechapters9and3. 7. Seechapters4through8. 8. Wall Street Journal,September27,2001,sectionA,p.1. 9. Seechapters9through16. 10. ThepapersofDr.HaroldHodgeoftheUniversityofRochesterareclosed.

ArchibaldT.HodgetoMr.J.B.Lloyd,UniversityArchivesandSpecialCol-lections,HoskinsLibrary(UniversityofTennessee),July7,1996:“RegardingyourletterofJune19,1996,concerningmyfatherHaroldC.Hodge’sarchives,theywillbedepositedintotalattheUniversityofRochesterMedicalCen-terwhenaroomdedicatedtohisfilesisready.”ThoseofDr.RayWeidlein,directoroftheMellonInstitute,aremissing.GabrielleV.Michalek,theheadofarchivecentersatCarnegieMellonUniversity,whichholdssomeoftheMellonInstitutepapers,explainedtomethatWeidleinhadinstructedapreviousarchivistto“throwthepapersintheDumpster.”Formoreonblackballing,seechapter12.

11. Nile Southern interviewed by Russ Honicker, transcript supplied byHonicker.

12. Seechapter12. 13. Hollanddiscontinuedfluoridationin1976.Waterfluoridationwasdiscon-

tinuedinWestGermanyafter1950s.B.Hileman,“FluoridationofWater,”Chemical and Engineering News,vol.66(August1,1988),pp.26–42.ItwasalsobannedintheformerEastGermanyfollowingreunification.

14. “Asystematicreviewofpublicwaterfluoridation,”The York Review,NHSCentreforReviewsandDissemination,UniversityofYork(2000).Forthe65percentreductionincavitiesclaim,seeOscarEwing’srationalizationfornationalwaterfluoridation:OscarEwing,“OralHistoryInterview,”by

J.R.FuchsoftheTrumanLibrary,ChapelHill,NC,AprilandMay1969(interviewavailableonline).

15. InterviewwithPaulConnett,postedontheFluorideActionNetworkwebsite.

16. Forexample,“RecommendationsforUsingFluoridetoPreventandCon-trolDentalCariesintheUnitedStates,”FluorideRecommendationsWorkGroup,CDC(MMWR,vol.50,no.RR14,pp.1–42),August17,2001.

17. G.L.Waldbott,A.W.Burgstahler,andH.L.McKinney,Fluoridation: The Great Dilemma(Lawrence,KS:CoronadoPress,1978),149–151.

Chapter 1 1. JackHein,authorinterview,March21,2001.Reluctanttogivemeaformal

interview,Heinneverthelessmadeseveralcommentsthathavebeenincor-poratedhere.MullenixhadbeenteachingatHarvardanddoingresearchinthelaboratoryofDr.HerbertNeedleman,whowasfamousforprovingthatlowlevelsofleadingasolinewouldharmchildren’sintelligence.

2. HeintoldtheBritishTVjournalistBobWoffindenin1997thatthecom-poundhadbeeninventedbyaGermanchemist,WillyLange,whowaswork-inginCincinnati.AchemistfromtheOzarkMahoningcompany,WayneWhite,hadthenbroughtMFPtoRochester.AccordingtoHein,“WhenWayneWhitefirstcametoRochesterwiththecompound,HaroldHodgelookedatitandsaid,‘Well,Iwonderifit’sanervegasorisitgoingtopre-venttoothdecay?’”(tapetimecode,04.31.15,1997).Seealsotheimportantessaydiscussingtheabilityoffluoro-chemicalstoinhibitenzymeactivity.WillyLange(TheProcterandGambleCompany),“TheChemistryofFluoroAcidsofFourth,Fifth,andSixthGroupElements,”Fluorine Chemistry,vol.1,ed.J.H.Simons(NewYork,NY:AcademicPress,1950),125.

3. HeinwasalsoaluminaryinsuchinfluentialdentalorganizationsastheInternationalAssociationforDentalResearch(IADR).AccordingtoPhyllisMullenix,hehadraisedfundstobuildaWashingtonheadquartersforIADR.

4. HeinhadbeenagraduatestudentunderHaroldHodgeattheUniversityofRochesterinthe1950s.HetoldtheBritishTVjournalistBobWoffinden,

“WegotinvolvedwithfluoridebecauseHaroldHodgewasinterestedfromhisconnectionoverattheManhattanProject.”Interviewtapetimecode04.26.49,1997.

5. V.O.Hurme,“AnExaminationoftheScientificBasisforFluoridatingPopu-lations,”Dent. Items of Interest,vol.74(1952),pp.518–534.

6. Commemorativeplaqueattheannexentrance,notingthattheindustrialdonorslistedhad“insuredcompletion.”Also,p.7ofForsythDentalCen-terbrochure,undated:“from1969through1979...federalsupportfortheresearchprogramsatForsythincreasedthreefoldandsupportfromindus-trialgrantsincreasedtwofold.”

7. Wall Street Journal,June13,1986,p.25. 8. Ibid.

9. LetterofrecommendationfromMehlmanonAgencyforToxicSubstancesandDiseaseRegistryletterhead,May31,1992.“OfthemanyscientistswithwhomIhaveworked,IconsiderProfessorMullenixtobeoneofthemosttalentedIhaveknown.Ihavethehighestregardforherscientificabilityandintegrity,”Melmanadded.

10. In1994PhyllisMullenixsuedthedentalcenteralleging,amongotherthings,sexualdiscrimination.Thesuitwassettledoutofcourtunderterms which neither Mullenix not Forsyth are permitted to discuss.AlthoughMullenixwillnotdiscussherlawsuit,KarenSnappisbluntaboutthe“darkside”ofForsyth,describing“anoldboysclub”wherechauvinismandbadsciencemixedfreely.Shedescribedtothiswritersev-eralinstancesofcrudesexualharassmentatForsythandtheoccasionallysloppyprofessionalismofsomeofhercolleagues.“Iwouldnotdescribetheatmosphere[atForsyth]asbeinghighlyscientific,”shesaid.“Itwasverystrange,itwasveryuncomfortable.Thereweretotallyincompetentpeopletherewhoweredoingquitewellbecausetheyplayedthegame.Theykindofdecidedwhattheresultsweregoingtobe.Iftheydidnotgettheresult,theywouldeithermodifytheexperimenttogivethemtheresult,orjustforgetaboutit.”

Chapter 2 1. HaroldHodgediedonOctober8,1990. 2. TheNew York Times,December16,2002,obituaryofFlorenceS.Mahoney. 3. Inthe1920sintheUnitedStates,forexample,between11and16million

outof22millionschoolchildrenhaddefectiveteeth.SimilarconditionswerefoundintheUnitedKingdom.“IntheEnglandofthepasttheteethwerenotasfrailorastroublesomeastoday,”SirJamesCrichton-Browntolddentistsin1892,afterdescribingthemanystudiesthathadfounduni-formlybadteethamongBritishchildren.Dentalhealthin1920s,estimateoftheJointCommitteeonHealthProblemsoftheNationalEducationalAssociationandtheAMA,citedinletterfromDr.WilliamGiestoDr.F.C.KeppeloftheCarnegieCorporation,November18,1927,DentalResearchProgram,Box121,CarnegieGrantsIIIa,CarnegieArchiveCollection.ForUnitedKingdom,seeJ.Crichton-Browne,“Anaddressontoothculture,”Lancet,vol.II(1892),p.6.

4. J.S.Lawson,J.H.Brown,J.H.andT.I.Oliver,Med. J. Aust.,vol.1(1978),pp.124–125.CitedinM.Diesendorf,“TheMysteryofDecliningToothDecay,”Nature,vol.32(July1986),pp.125–129.Fallingdental-decayratespresentedadilemmaforsomeintheUnitedStates,itseems.AresearcherattheForsythDentalCenterapparentlywarned,“RecalltheEuropeandata,forexample,whichshowsdeclinesincarieswhichareoccurringwithoutfluoridationand,indeed,seemtorivaltheeffectsobtainablewithfluoridation.Thiscouldeasilybecomeammunitionfortheantifluoridationists.”Citedine-mailto

HardyLimebackdatedMay15,2003,fromMyronCoplan,ofNatick,MA,whoexplainedthathehadreceivedthecommentsdirectlybymailfromtheofficeofPaulDePaolaattheForsythCenterintheearly1980s.

5. SeeespeciallyJ.D.B.Featherstone,“PreventionandReversalofDentalCar-ies:RoleofLowLevelFluoride,”Community Dent. Oral Epidemiol.,vol.27(1999),pp.31–40.Also,“RecommendationsforUsingFluoridetoPreventandControlDentalCariesintheUnitedStates,”FluorideRecommenda-tionsWorkGroup,CDC(August2001).

6. Linkingfluoridetobetterteethwasnotanewidea.Asearlyas1892therehadbeenmedicalspeculationthatbecausefluoridewasfoundindentalenamel,itwasnecessaryforstrongteeth.In1925scientistsatJohnsHopkinsUni-versitytestedthattheorybyfeedingratsfluoride.Theyweredisappointed;thefluoridemadetheteethweaker,notstronger.Theyfound,“contrarytoourexpectations,thattheingestionoffluorineinamountsbutlittleabovethosewhichhavebeenreportedtooccurinnaturalfoods,markedlydis-turbsthestructureofthetooth.”E.V.McCollum,N.J.E.Simmonds,andR.W.Bunting,“TheEffectofAdditionofFluorinetotheDietoftheRatontheQualityoftheTeeth,”J. Biol. Chem.,vol.63(1925),p.553.In1938thebiochemistWallaceArmstrongoftheUniversityofMinnesotamaywellhavecontributedtotheconfusion.Hereportedthatteethwithfewercavitieshadmorefluorideinthem.W.D.ArmstrongandP.J.Brekhus,“ChemicalCompositionofEnamelandDentin.II.FluorineContent,”J. Dent. Res.,vol.17(1938),p.27.

Thatdatawas,inturn,citedbyGeraldCox(whomwewillmeetinthenextchapter)alongwithDean’sworkandhisown,permittinghimtocon-cludethat“thecaseforfluorideshouldberegardedasproved.”ThatwasnottheconclusionoftheeditorialwritersattheJournal of the American Medical Association (JAMA),whonotedafterreadingDean’sstudythat“thepossi-bilityisnotexcludedthatthecompositionofthewaterinotherrespectsmaybetheprincipalfactor.”Deanalsosaidthatotherdifferencesinthemineralcompositionofthewaterinthestudycities—especiallycalciumandphosphorus—wereafactorthatshouldnotbeoverlooked.H.T.Dean,

“EndemicfluorosisandItsRelationtoDentalCaries,”Public Health Reports,vol.53(August19,1938),p.1452.CitedinG.L.Waldbott,A Struggle with Titans(NewYork:CarltonPress,1965),p.13.Butin1963oneofthethreeplanksinCox’sargumentcollapsedwhenWallaceArmstrongrealizedthathehadgottenitwrong—increasedfluorideintheteethwasafunctionofageandhisearliersimpleequationoffewercavitiesandgreaterfluoridecontentwasthereforeinvalid.“Ageasafactorinfluoridecontentwasnotthen(in1938)appreciated.”W.D.ArmstrongandL.Singer,“FluorideContentsofEnamelofSoundandCariousTeeth:AReinvestigation,”J. Dental Res.,vol.42(1963),p.133.CitedinWaldbott,A Struggle with Titans,p.119.

7. Asweshallsee,fluoride’sabilitytopoisonenzymeshaslongbeenfingeredbyscientistsasamainpathwayofitsvarioustoxiceffects.

8. FluoridationhasbeenroutinelyusedbybureaucratstowintaxdollarsfortheNIHandprivateresearchinstitutions.Forexample,whileseekingfundingfortheentireNIH,DirectorDr.HaroldVarmussaidin1994tes-timonybeforetheSenateAppropriationsSubcommitteeonLabor,HealthandHumanServices,EducationandRelatedAgencies,thatfluoridationhadbeenthemostcost-effectivehealthadvanceinthehistoryoftheNIH.CitedinletterfromGertQuigleyoftheForsythInstitutetoNationalAffairsCommitteeCohorts,AmericanAssociationforDentalResearch,April25,1994.TheQuigleymemo,presumablyreflectinghowVarmus’scommentshadonceagainendorsedtheworthoffundingfluoridedentalresearch,istitled“Itcouldn’thavebeenbetterifwehadwrittenthescript.”Thefollow-ingmonth,May1994,MullenixwasfiredfromForsyth.

9. P.M.Mullenix,P.K.DenBesten,A.Schunior,andW.J.Kernan,“Neuro-toxicityofSodiumFluorideinRats,”Neurotoxicology and Teratology,vol.2(1995),pp.169–177.(Teratologymeans“thestudyofmalformations.”)

10. LetterfromHaraldLöe,NIDR,toJackHein,October23,1990. 11. Themixedmessagescontinued.Anotherofficial1996communication

toMullenixfromNIH,rejectingagrantapplication,neverthelessstated,“Theproposaladdressesanextremelyimportantquestionrelatedtopublichealth—whethertheofficiallyrecommendedsafelevelsoffluorideintakeposerisksofadversehealtheffects,especiallyimpairmentofcentralnervoussystemfunction.”CherylKitt,PhD,NeurologicalDisordersandStroke,toMullenix,“ClinicalSciencesSpecialEmphasisPanel,”August15,1996.

12. ThatwasnottheimpressionofProfessorAlbertBurgstahler.TheUniver-sityofKansaschemistwasamemberoftheofficialreviewcommitteethatexaminedMullenix’sproposalforNIHfundingforfurtherstudies.HeisalsotheauthorofseveralscientificpapersandbooksontheinjurioushealtheffectsofsmallamountsoffluorideandisapastpresidentoftheInternationalSocietyforFluorideResearch.Dr.Burgstahlerblamedfearofa“lossofface”atthePublicHealthServiceandamongotherscientistsonthereviewcommitteeforrejectingherresearchrequest.Inaletter,July11,1996,BurgstahlerwrotetoDr.AntonioNoronhaoftheNIH,“YouarewellawareoftheenormousamountofcontroversyandsensitivitytolossoffacethatsurroundstheissueoftheMullenixproposalandtheveryupsettingcharacteroftheworkshehaspublishedonthe50thanniversaryofthestartoffluoridationintheUnitedStatesandCanada.”Heasked,“IfanymemberoftheSpecialReviewCommitteeweretohavegivenamorefavorableratingtotheproposal,andtheirnamesbecameknowntothoseinfunding-decisionlevelsoftheUSPHS...mighttheynotriskjeopardiz-ingfurtherfundingfromtheUSPHSforhavingsupportedaproposalforresearchthathasalreadyrevealedseriouserrorsinUSPHSthinkingandpolicyregardingthehealthhazardsofcurrentlevelsoffluorideexposureinthegeneralpopulation?”

13. M.HertsgaardandP.Frazer,“AreWeBrushingAsideFluoride’sDangers?”Salon.com,February17,1999,http://www.salon.com/news/1999/02/17news.html.

14. TonyVolpeandSalMazzanobile,whohadattendedthefluoridetoxicitymeetinginJackHein’soffice,wereinstalledasOverseers.ForsythDentalCenterbrochure,undated,p.10.

15. Hodge’sboss,ManhattanProjectCaptainJohnL.Ferry,isthememo’sauthor.ColonelWarrenapprovedtherequestthesamedayandallocatedabudgetof$7,500.Md3,Md700,GeneralEssays,Lectures,MedicalReport,Box34,ManhattanEngineerDistrictAccession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.(Hodge’stwo-partresearchproposal,however,listedasanenclosure

“Outline—proposedresearchproject—nervouseffectsofTandFproducts,”ismissingfromthefiles.)

16. AtRochesterduringthecoldwar,“Thetoxicologystudieswereverycompre-hensive.Theywerelookingfortoxiceffectsonthebone,theblood,andthenervoussystem....WithouttheManhattanProjectandtheatomicbomb,wewouldn’tknowanywherenearasmuchaswedoaboutthephysiologicaleffectsoffluoride.”InterviewwithBobWoffindenandMarkWatts,Chan-nelFour(UK)Transcript,1997.

Chapter 3 1. FamilydatafromDanishnewspaperclippingsinRoholmfamilyscrapbook,

readintranslationbyRoholm’sdaughter-in-law,KarinRoholm.PersonalmeetinginNewYork,May2001.

2. Brunwasthenninety-fiveyearsold.HepublishedapaperwithRoholmonfluorideexcretioninworkers’urine.Nordisk Medicin,vol.9(1941),pp.810–814.Alsofoundat:GeorgeC.Brun,H.Buchwald,andKajRoholm,“DieFluorausscheidungimHarnbeichronischerFluorvergiftungvonKryoli-tharbeitern,”Acta Medica Scandinavica,vol.CVI,fasc.III(1941).Citation,photocopyofpaper,andseveralRoholmbiographicaldetailsprovidedbyDonaldJerneoftheDanishLibraryofMedicine.

3. J.H.Simons,ed.,Fluorine Chemistry,vol.IV(NewYorkandLondon:Aca-demicPress,1965),p.vii.

4. Fluorine Chemistry,vol.IV,p.viii.Roholm’smembershipsincludedTheSocietyforHealthCare,TheYoungerDoctors’CommitteeforContinuationCoursesinSocializedMedicine,TheDanishAssociationforthePreventionofVenerealDisease,aCommitteetoOrganizeaPermanentHygieneExhi-bition,andthePharmacopeialRevisionCommittee.LettertoauthoronJanuary31,2002,fromDonaldJerne,medicaladviser,TheDanishNationalLibraryofScienceandMedicine.

5. LetterfromFrankJ.McClure(U.S.NationalInstituteofDentalResearch)toLisaBroeChristiansen(Roholm’sdaughter)onSeptember19,1956.(Let-terprovidedtoauthorbydaughter-in-lawKarinRoholm.)

6. Forhistoryofcryoliteexploitation,seeK.E.Roholm,Fluorine Intoxica-tion: A Clinical-Hygienic Study, with a Review of the Literature and Some

Experimental Investigation(London:H.K.LewisandCo.Ltd.,1937)andR.K.Leavitt,“ProloguetoTomorrow:AHistoryoftheFirstHundredYearsintheLifeofthePennsylvaniaSaltManufacturingCompany”(ThePennsyl-vaniaSaltCompany,1950).TheDanishstateownedtheGreenlandcryolite.Therewereonlytwobuyers,theØresundChemicalWorksofCopenhagenandthePennsylvaniaSaltCompanyofPhiladelphia,whoheldavaluablemonopolyforDanishcryoliteintheUnitedStatesandCanada.

7. P.F.MøllerandSk.V.Gudjonsson,“MassiveFluorosisofBonesandLiga-ments,”Acta radio,vol.13(1932),p.269.

8. KajRoholm,Fluorine Intoxication,pp.192and205. 9. Ibid.,pp.150,202,143,andfig26. 10. Ibid.,pp.142–143,and178.TheU.S.nuclearworkerJoeHarding,whosuf-

feredfromfluoridepoisoning,mighthaverecognizedthiskindofskeletalpoisoning;bonyoutgrowthscoveredHarding’spalmsandfeet.NoAmericandoctordiagnosedthesebonyoutgrowthsasasymptomoffluorineintoxi-cation,despiteHarding’sworkinthefluoridegaseousdiffusionplant.Seechapter18.SeealsoJoeHardinginterview:

In1970,Ialsobegannoticinganddevelopingsomethingelsethatwasveryunusualandnew.Ihadalwayshadperfectlynormalandgoodfingernailsandtoenailsandneveranytroublewiththem.But,alongduringthesummerandfallof1970,Igotsomesoreplacesontheballsofmythumbtipsandfingertips,whereyourfingerprintsare,thatfeltlikeIhadmaybestuckathornorasplinterrealdowndeepintothem.WhenIwouldrubmyotherfingeroverit,Icouldfeelitwaydowninthere,butyetIcouldn’tseeanything.Thesekeptgettingalittlemoresore,andfinally,whenthesorenessgotupnearenoughtothesurface,Ikindofdugin.Ifoundsomethingkindoflikeapieceoffingernailstickingthroughthere.Thiswasvery,verypainful.IwouldtrimitoffbackjustaboutasdeepasIcouldreach.Itwouldcomebackagain.Itreallydidn’tdawnonmeforsurejustwhatthismightbeatfirst.But,itdidn’ttaketoolongtillIbegantorealizethatfromoverontheotherside,nearthebaseofmyregularfingernails,Iwasgrowingfingernailsstraightthroughmyfingersandcomingoutonthewrongside.Thiswasprettypainful.Ihadtheseonmythumbsandthreeorfourofmyfingers.Thiswasthebeginningofanotherveryunusualthingforme,whichIwilltalkmoreaboutlater....In1971,then,Iwasstillworkinginthe35controlroom,andkneeandlungsandhemoglobininmybloodallaboutthesame,skinslowlyworse,thisfingernailbusinessalittleworse,andbythisspring,IfirstnoticedthatIhadsomethingsoreunderthearchofmyrightfoot.AndthenIhadsomethinggettingsoreuponthetopofthearchboneofmyrightfoot.Astimegoton,Idiscovered,Isupposeyouwouldcallthesetoenailsgrowingoutfromunderthearchofmyrightfoot,andoutunderthepeakofthearchboneofmy

rightfoot.Itwasprettyhardformetokeepmyshoetiedverytightonthatone,andIhadtokeepdiggingthesethingsout.(InterviewwithDolphHonicker,tape13.)

11. Roholm,Fluorine Intoxication,pp.138–139.TheDaneespeciallynotedanill-nesscalledneurasthenia,aconditiondefinedas“anemotionalandpsychicdisorderthatischaracterizedbyimpairedfunctioningininterpersonalrela-tionshipsandoftenbyfatigue,depression,feelingsofinadequacy,headaches,hypersensitivitytosensorystimulation(asbylightornoise),andpsycho-somaticsymptoms(asdisturbancesofdigestionandcirculation)”(refonpp.178and193).DefinitioninWebster’s New World Collegiate Dictionary(NewYork:PocketStarBooks,1990).

12. Whilethisfieldhadbeen“littleexplored,”Roholmadded,“itisextremelyprobablethatfluorineactsonthemetabolisminvariouswaysandthatthesymptomsofchronicintoxicationhaveacomplicatedgenesis.”Roholm,Fluorine Intoxication,p.286.

13. J.Crichton-Browne,“AnAddressonToothCulture,”Lancet,vol.2(1892),p.6.Crichton-Brownewrote,“Ithinkitwellworthyofconsiderationwhetherthereintroductionintoourdiet,andespeciallyintothedietofchildbearingwomenandofchildren,ofasupplementoffluorineinsomenaturalform...mightnotdosomethingtofortifytheteethofthenextgeneration.”

14. E.V.McCollum,N.J.E.Simmonds,andR.W.Bunting,“TheEffectofAddi-tionofFluorinetotheDietoftheRatontheQualityoftheTeeth,”J. Biol. Chem.,vol.63(1925),p.553.

15. Formorefluorideinbadteeth,seeK.E.Roholm,Fluorine Intoxication,p.150.Inmother’smilk,ibid.,p.199.

EarlierspeculationfromJ.Crichton-Browne“AnAddressonToothCul-ture,”wastestedexperimentallyandrejectedbyMcCollum,Simmonds,andBuntingin“TheEffectofAdditionofFluorine,”J. Biol. Chem.Roholmcitedbothreferencesinhisbibliography.Thefolknotionpersisted,however,thatfluorinemighthelpteeth.SeethesuggestionsthatapparentlyfollowedtheAlcoachemistH.V.Churchill’sannouncementthatfluorinecauseddentalmottling.“AttheverymeetingwhereChurchillannouncedhisdiscoveryoflargeamountsoffluorineinawatersupplywhichcauseduglymottlingofteethachemistfromHollywood,California,saidhefelttheremustbeathresholdpointuptowhichfluorinewasdesirable....InJune1931,afellowtownsmanofChurchill’s,adentist,suggestedthatfluorinemightpreventdentalcavities.”DonaldMcNeil,The Fight for Fluoridation(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1957),p.37.

16 Roholm,Fluorine Intoxication,p.315. 17. Ibid.,p.321.Further,“Everyformoffluorineingestioniscounter-indicated

inchildrenwhenthepermanentteetharecalcifying,”Roholmwroteonp.311.

18. Ibid.,vi.Also,e-mail,March8,2001,toauthorfromDonaldJerne,medicaladvisor,DanishNationalLibraryofScienceandMedicine.

19. VolcanicactivityintheUnitedStatesalsobringsfluoridetothesurface.TheOldFaithfulgeyserinYellowstoneNationalParkshootsforthsteamandwaterpoisonedwithextraordinarilyhighlevelsoffluoride(20ppm.)See:J.Cholak,“CurrentInformationontheQuantitiesofFluorideFoundinAir,Food,andWater”(KetteringSymposium,1957),RAKCollection.

20. InNorthAfrica,scientistsblamedfluorideinthesoilforcripplinglocalpeople,Roholmlearned.Speder:L’Osteopetrosegeneralizeout“Marm-morskelett”n’estpasunemaladierare.Safrequencedansl’intoxicationfluoree.”J. Radiol. Electrol.,vol.20(1936),p.1,andJ. Belg. Radiol.,vol.140(1936).Inpartsoftheworldtodaysuchskeletalfluorosisisendemic.InIndia,forexample,thousandsoffresh-waterwellsdrilledbytheUnitedNationsduringtheInternationalWaterDecadeofthe1980s—toimprovelocalaccesstocleanwaterandbettersanitation—haveinsteadproducedapub-lic-healthcrisis,withmanythousandsnowsufferingfromskeletalfluorosis.

“Theproblemisenormous,unbelievable,”notedAndezhathSusheela,oftheFluorosisResearchandRuralDevelopmentFoundationinDelhi.QuotedinFredPearce,“WellsThatBringNothingButIlls,”Guardian(UK),August2,1998.Seealso,OmerFarooq,BBCcorrespondentinHyderabad,“IndianVillagersCrippledbyFluoride,”BBCi,UKEdition,NewsFrontPageNews,April7,2003.

21. Roholm,Fluorine Intoxication,p.297. 22. H.Ost,“TheFightAgainstInjuriousIndustrialGases,”Ztschr. Agnew. Chem.,

vol.20(1907),pp.1689–1693. 23. K.Roholm,“TheFogDisasterintheMeuseValley,1930:AFluorineIntoxi-

cation,”J. Hygiene and Toxicology(March1937),p.131. 24. “Intheindustrialsmokeprobleminvestigatorshavebeeninterestedmostly

intheveryfrequentoccurrenceofsulfurouswasteproducts...butlittleinfluorine,”Roholmremarked.Butfluorinecompoundsweremuchmoretoxicthatthesulfurcompounds,heexplained,while“manismoresensitivetofluorinethanothermammals.”K.Roholm,“TheFogDisasterintheMeuseValley,1930:AFluorineIntoxication,”p.126.Also,G.L.Waldbott,“Fluo-rideVersusSulfurOxidesinAirPollution,”Fluoride,vol.7,no.4(October1974),pp.174–176.

25. “Theimmensemassesofsootanddustemanatingfromtheworkshaveservedtopromotecondensation.Fluorinecompoundsmusthavebeenpres-entindissolvedforminmicroscopicparticlesofwaterandconsequentlyinaveryactiveandeasilyabsorbableform.”Headded,“Itisquiteprobablethattheaffectionfromwhichthesepeoplesufferedwasanacuteintoxica-tionbygaseousfluorinecompoundsemanatingfromcertainfactoriesintheregion.”K.Roholm,“TheFogDisasterintheMeuseValley,”p.126.

26. Ibid.,p.133. 27. H.ChristianiandR.Gautier,Am. Med. Legale,vol.94(1926),p.821.Citedin

F.DeEds,“ChronicFluorineIntoxication:AReview,”Medicine,vol.XII,no.1(1933).Roholm,Fluorine Intoxication,pp.38–39.P.BardelliandC.Menzani,

“Richerchesullafluorosisspontaneadeiruminanti,”Ann. D’Igiene,vol.45

(1935),p.399.Forworkerconditions,seeA.W.Frostad,“Fluorforgiftninghosnorskealuminiumfabrikkarbejdere,”Tiskr. F. Den norske Laegefor,vol.56(1936),p.179.BothcitedinRoholm.

28. Roholm,Fluorine Intoxication,p.37. 29. Roholm,“TheFogDisasterintheMeuseValley,”p.136. 30. Roholm,Fluorine Intoxication,p.310.“Physiciansshouldbeobligedtonotify

alldiseasesacquiredwhileworkingwithfluorinecompounds.ThisisonlypracticedinUSSRandSweden,wherealloccupationdiseasesarenotifiable.”RoholmnotestheSovietpracticeapprovingly:“InthelabourlegislationoftheUSSRgreatconsiderationisgiventopersonnelworkingwithfluorinecom-pounds(shorterdays,extraholidays,lowerpensionage,increasedpensionintheeventofinvalidity).”See,however,theprobableunhappyfateofgaseousdiffusionworkersinRussia’snuclearprogram,inDavidHolloway,Stalin and the Bomb(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,1994),pp.189–195.

31. Roholm,Fluoride Intoxication,p.321.Drugreferenceatp.311. 32. TheBuhlfoundationgivesgrantsforeducation,economics,recreation,

andsocialresearch.Itwasestablishedin1927byHenryBuhlJr.,ownerofPittsburgh’sBoggsandBuhldepartmentstore.WeidleinwrotetoCharlesLewis,directoroftheBuhlFoundation,onMarch25,1935:“Thisinvestiga-tionwasinitsoriginapartoftheSugarInstitute’sIndustrialFellowshipworkbutthisphaseofthatproblemisnolongerrelatedtosugar.”Folder8,DentalStudy1935,Box32,BuhlFoundationRecords,LibraryandArchivesDivision,HistoricalSocietyofWesternPennsylvania.

33. TheestimateofGauleyBridgedeathsisconservative,accordingtoMartinCherniak’sepidemiologicalstudyinhisThe Hawks Nest Incident(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,1986).ForboththescaleofthelegalthreatfacingcorporationsandthekeyroleoftheMellonInstitute,seeespeciallyD.Ros-nerandG.Markowitz,Deadly Dust: Silicosis and the Politics of Occupational Disease in Twentieth-Century America(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1991).FortheessentialobfuscatoryandpublicrelationsroleoftheMellonInstituteinthesilicosisdebate,seealsoRachelScott,Muscle and Blood(NewYork:E.P.DuttonandCo.,Inc.,1974).

34. JohnF.McMahontoRayWeidlein,January16,1939,CarnegieMellonArchives,citedinDeadly Dust,p.107.

35. Seechapter4ofDeadly DustforfullerdescriptionofRayWeidlein’skeyleadershiproleinformingtheAirHygieneFoundationandshapingitsagenda.TheFoundation—renamedtheIndustrialHygieneFoundationin1941—wouldcontinuetoexertapowerfulcorporateinfluenceinthenationaldebateoverairpollutionandoccupationalhazards,includingakeyearlyroleintheDonoratragedy.

36. E.R.Weidlein,“PlanforStudyofDustProblems,”citedinDeadly Dust,p.108.

37. PaulGross,LewisJ.Cralley,andRobertT.P.DeTreville,“AsbestosBodies:TheirNonspecificity,”Am. Industrial Hygiene Assoc. J. (November–Decem-ber1967),pp.541–542.

38. AnexcellentdiscussionoftheroleofPaulGrossandtheMellonInstituteintheasbestosstory—includingthedissentofhisfellowscientists—canbefoundinRachelScott,Muscle and Blood,pp.185–189.

39. Forscaleofasbestosdamageawards,seeNew York Times,December31,2002,sectionC,p.1.Further,recentbigasbestoscourttrials,whichhaveawardedhugesumstoplaintiffs,havecitedIndustrialHygieneFoundationdocuments.

40. Alcoa’sFrancisFrarysatonthemembershipcommittee,andtheprominentfluorideattorneyTheodoreC.WaterswasamemberoftheAirHygieneFoundation’slegalcommittee.AnAugust30,1956,lettertoWatersfromAlcoa’sattorneyFrankSeamansillustratestheirmutualinterestinfluoride:“YouwillrecalltheoccasionofourmeetingtogetherinWashingtonwithagroupoflawyerswhohaveclientsinterestedinthefluorineproblem,atwhichtimewewerediscussingtheU.S.PublicHealthService.”Waterswasalsosentinformationonthe1953KetteringFluorideSymposium.Seenoteattachedtosymposiumprogram,inKetteringfiles,RAKCollection.

41. Dr.PaulBovard,“RadiologicConsiderations,”SymposiumonFluorides,May13,1953,paper,p.2,inKetteringInstitute,RAKCollection.

42. G.D.Smith,From Monopoly to Competition: The Transformation of Alcoa(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1988),pp.165and175.

43. RussellD.Parker,“Alcoa,Tennessee;theEarlyYears,1919–1939,”The East Tennessee Historical Society,vol.48(1946),p.88.Also,“Itwasinthehotpot-roomsoftheSouthPlant—inthesmeltingorreductionprocess—thatblacksweretobeemployedonapermanentbasis.”Smith,From Monopoly to Com-petition,p.176.ConditionsatMassenaweresohorrendousforworkers,andmanagementwassoindifferenttotheirfate,thatoneyoungMITgraduate,ArthurJohnson,quitindisgust,hetoldSmith.Also,inMayandJune1948,scientistsfromtheKetteringLaboratoryattheUniversityofCincinnatidis-coveredseriousinjuryanddisabilityamongworkersinanotherAlcoaplant,atNiagaraFalls,NewYork.Thefactoryhadbeenproducingaluminumsince1912.TheinvestigatorsconfirmedjusthowdangeroustheAlcoaplanthadlongbeen.“Therecanbenodoubtthathazardousexposuretofluoridesis(andforyearshasbeen)present,”statedascientistforKettering,Dr.Wil-liamAshe.Hestudied128meninthe“pot”roomwherethealuminumwassmelted:“Themostoutstandingcharacteristicofthisgroup,”Ashereported,

“istheoccurrenceof91casesoffluorosisofthebone.”Atleastthirty-threeoftheseX-rayedworkers“showedevidencesofdisabilityranginginesti-mateddegreeupto100percent,”Asheconcluded.HisfindingsparalleledKajRoholm’sstudyofcryoliteworkersinDenmark.Serioustoothdecay,gumdisease,andheartproblemswerecommonintheAlcoaworkers;thescien-tistsaddedthat“anabnormalamountoflungfibrosisamongtheemployeesofthepotroomwasfound.”Also,“oneseeshypertrophicchangesinbonealongtheshaftsofthelongbones,alongthecrestsoftheilia,theribs,andtheramioftheischium,intheformofstalagmite-likeexcrescenceswhichappearsimilartochangesseeninexperimentalanimalswithbonefluorosis.The

interosseousmembranesareoftenossified.Thesechanges,innowayrelatedtoarthriticprocesses,arebelievedtobeduesolelytofluorosisandtoindicatethatchangesaboutjointsmaybeexpectedinthisdisease.Therefore,whenonefinds,incasesofseverefluorosisofthebone,limitationofmotionoftheelbowandtheX-rayrevealsexostosesofunusualdensityabouttheelbow,oneisprobablyentirelyjustifiedinconcludingthatthedeformityanddysfunc-tionareduetofluorosis,andthatdisabilityexistsinassociationwithandbecauseofthisdisease,whetherornotthemanisawareofit,andwhetherornothecontinuestodohisjobattheplant.”AluminumCompanyofAmerica,NiagaraFallsWorksHealthSurvey,p.13,File4,Box82,RAKCollection.TheKetteringteamincludedthescientistWilliamF.Ashe,whofivemonthslaterwouldleadtheconfidentialKetteringinvestigationoftheDonoraairpollutiondisaster.AshewouldreceivesecretautopsybloodtestsfromDonoravictims,performedbyAlcoa,showinghighlevelsoffluoride.

44. ThemembershipofcommitteesoftheNationalResearchCouncilisaguidetosomeoftheserelationships:BothFraryandKetteringweremembersofaJointCommittee,forexample,representingtheNRC’sScienceAdvisoryBoard,advisingonrailwaypolicy.OthermemberswereFrankJewett,vicepresident,AT&T;E.K.Bolton,chemicaldirector,DuPont;JohnJohnston,directorofresearch,U.S.Steel;andIsaiahBowman,chairmanoftheNRCanddirectoroftheAmericanGeographicalSociety.CharlesKetteringpapers,OfficeFiles,Box96,87-11.2-296b,and296f,ScharchburgArchives.

45. Frarywasalsoapoisongasexpert,makingphosgenepoisonfortheOldburyChemicalCompanyinNiagaraFalls,beforeworkingfortheU.S.ArmyduringWorldWarIandthenjoiningAlcoa.SeeG.D.Smith,op.cit.Also,MargaretB.W.GrahamandBettyeH.Pruitt,R & D for Industry: A Century of Techni-cal Innovation at Alcoa(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1990).

46. F.DeEds,“ChronicFluorineIntoxication—AReview,”Medicine,vol.XII,no.1(1933).Onindustry,F.DeEds:“Thepossibilityofafluorinehazardshould,therefore,berecognizedinindustrywherethiselementisdealtwithorwhereitisdischargedintotheairasanapparentlyworthlessby-product.ForinstanceithasbeenshownbyCristianiandGautierthatthegasesevolvedatalumi-numplants,usingcryoliteasarawmaterial,containsufficientquantitiesoffluorinetocauseanincreasedfluorinecontentoftheneighboringvegetation,andthatcattlefeedingonsuchvegetationdevelopacacheticcondition,”p.2.HisreferenceistoH.CristianiandR.Gautier,Am. Med. Legale,vol.6(1926),p.336.Further,DeEdscalculatedthateachyear25,000tonsofpurefluorinewas“pouringintotheatmosphere”fromtheU.S.superphosphatefertilizerindustryalone.Hewasconcernedaboutwhereallthefluorineaddedtosoilasphosphatefertilizerendedup.“Assuminganaveragefluorinecontentof4percentforphosphaterock,andthat75percentofthefluorineremainsinthesuperphosphateusedasfertilizer,itisseenthat90,000tonsoffluorinearebeingaddedannuallytothetopsoil.Thissizeablequantitygivespauseforthoughtofthepotentialtoxicitiesconcernedtherewith.”DeEdsdidnotincludethe1933reportofthickenedbonesinDanishcryoliteworkers,byP.F.

MøllerandSk.V.Gudjonsson,whichpromptedRoholm’smassivestudyanddeterminationoffluorineintoxication.P.F.MøllerandSk.V.Gudjonsson,

“AStudyof78WorkersExposedtoInhalationofCryoliteDust,”J. Ind. Hyg.,vol.15(1933),p.27.

47. OneofthosestudieshadbeendonebyAlcoa’sH.V.Churchill,whofounddentalmottlingandhighlevelsoffluorideinthewellwaterofBauxite,Arkan-sas.Churchill’sstudywasreportedin1931,thesameyearH.VeluinNorthAfricaandtheSmithsinArizonamadethesamediscovery.(Verycuriousaretheapparentlyunsuccessfuleffortsby“Pittsburghinterests”tofundtheSmithstudyinArizona.ThatfragmentedhistoryisrelatedinMcNeil,The Fight for Fluoridation,p.31.)H.Velu,“LeDarmous(oudermes),”Arch Inst. Pasteur d’Algerie,vol.10,no.41(1932).

48. “AsrequestedinyourletterofJune8th,wehavequestionedthreeofourlocaldentistsastotheprevalenceofcasesofmottledenamelinMassena.Allofthedentistsstatedthattheyhavetreatedsuchcaseshere.”ExchangeoflettersbetweenV.C.Doerschuk,MassenaWorks,andH.V.Churchill,AluminumResearchLaboratories,June1931,inAlcoaletters,McNeilCol-lection,WisconsinHistoricalSociety.

49. SeeexchangeoflettersbetweenH.V.ChurchillandC.F.DrakeoftheCityofPittsburghBureauofWater,June1931.Drakehadnotedthe“Pittsburghspasmodicfluorinecontentwhichappearstohavenoexplanation.”HeinformedChurchillthat“anindustrialplantnotfarfromNewKensingtonhadbeendischargingfluorineintheAlleghenyRiver.Theofficialsofthatplantdiscontinuedsuchdischargewhenrequested.”SeveralglassandsteelplantswereinthevicinityofNewKensington.H.V.Churchillresponded,tellingly,“thepresenceoffluorineinwaterisapparentlynotnecessarilyproofofindustrialcontaminationsinceitoccursinsmallamountsinsomanywatersupplies.”(InAlcoaletters,McNeilcollection,WisconsinHistoricalSociety.)In1950,AlcoawasfinedfordumpingfluoridewasteatVancouver,Washington,intotheColumbiaRiver,Seattle Times,December16,1952.(CitedinWaldbottetal.,Fluoridation: The Great Dilemma(Lawrence,KS:CoronadoPress,1978),p.296.)

50. Thefollowingdecade,anEnglishscientist,MargaretMurray,wouldcallsimilardentalmottlingfoundnearanaluminumsmelterintheUnitedKingdom“neighborhoodfluorosis.”M.MurrayandD.Wilson,“FluorineHazards,”Lancet,December7,1946,p.822.ReferringtostudiesnearanaluminumfactoryinScotland,theywrote,“InthesamepartofInverness-shirewefoundthatthelocalwatersupplyhadaverylowfluorinecontent(0.2ppm),butweobserved“moderate”dentalfluorosisinthemilkteethofyoungchildrenwhosehomeslaywithinthedistrictcontaminatedbyvapoursfromthefactorychimneys.Suchaconditioninthetemporarydentitionisusuallyassociatedwithahighmaternalintakeoffluorine.Childrenusingthesamewater,whosehomeslayoutsidetheaffectedarea,didnotshowthemottledenamel.”

MottledteethinchildreninthefactorytownofDonora,Pennsylvania,in1948wasalsoblamedbyPhilipSadtleronfluoridesmokeandfumes(authorinterview),anassociationthatwasconfirmedaroundthecountrybytheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)in1970.TheUSDAreportstates:“Whereeverdomesticanimalsexhibitedfluorosis,severalcasesofhumanfluorosiswerereported,thesymptomsofwhichwereoneormoreofthefollowing:dentalmottling,respiratorydistress,stiffnessinthekneesorelbowsorboth,askinlesion,orhighlevelsofFinteethorurine[sixrefer-encescited].ManismuchmoresensitivethatdomesticanimalstoFintoxi-cation.”R.J.Lillie,“AirPollutantsAffectingthePerformanceofDomesticAnimals.ALiteratureReview,”AgriculturalResearchService,U.S. Dept. Agric. Handbook,no.380(Washington,DC,August1970).

MottlingwasalsoseeninchildrenlivingnearDuPont’swartimefluorideoperationatPennsGrove,NewJersey.AscientitstactiveontheManhat-tanProject,HaroldHodge,wasquicktoblamefluorideinwatersupplies.Roholmreporteddentalmottlinginthechildrenoffluorideworkers.Theirmothershadtransporteditfromtheworkplaceinbreastmilk.SeeFluorine Intoxication,p.199.TheCornellveterinarianLennartKrookalsosentmephotographsofmottledteethfromchildrenontheAkwesasneMohawkreservation,neartheReynoldsaluminumsmelterinupstateNewYork.

51. Thenotoriouslyclose-knitinternationalaluminumindustrycouldfollowaccountsoflitigationfollowingWorldWarI,whichallegedfluoridedam-ageoutsideanaluminumsmelterinSwitzerland.Theycouldreadtheslewofnewmedicalinformationaboutchronichealtheffects,summarizedbyDeEds.Ortheycouldlookinsidetheirownfactories.A1932studypublishedinEnglishhadfound“fluorosis”incryoliteworkersinDenmark.(P.F.MollerandSk.V.Gudjonsson,“MassiveFluorosisofBonesandLigaments,”Acta radiol,vol.13[1932],p.269.)SicknesswasreportedinaNorwegianaluminumsmelterin1936:A.W.Frostad,“Fluorforgiftninghosnorskealuminiumfab-rikkarbejdere,”Tiskr. F. Den norske Legefor,vol.56(1936),p.179.Thefollow-ingyearaninvestigationatDuPontfound“high”fluoridelevelsinworkers’urine.(LetterfromWillardMachle,MD,oftheUniversityofCincinnatitoDr.E.E.Evans,DyeWorksHospital,PennsGrove,NewJersey,December28,1937,DuPontfile,KetteringPapers,RAKCollection.)Andaconfiden-tial1948studyofAlcoa’splantatNiagaraFalls,NewYork,confirmedthathorriblycrippledworkersweretheresultofafluoridedusthazardthathadexistedforyears.Alcoamayalsohavefacedliabilityinitsflurosparmines.TheFranklinFluorsparCompanywasanAlcoasubsidiary(seeMellon’s Millions, The Biography of a Fortune: The Life and Times of Andrew W. Mellon,byHarveyO’Conner[NewYork:BlueRibbonBooks,Inc.,1933],p.390).FluorsparminersinHardinCounty,Illinois,wrotetoAliceHamiltonabouttheirplight.SeeDeadly Dust,80,fn10:D.RosnerandG.Markowitz.Theentireissueofhowmuchfluoridecontributedtoindustrialsilicosis,orhowmuchfluorosiswasmisdiagnosedassilicosis,isbeyondthescopeof

thisbook.Fluoridewaswidelyusedinthefoundryplaceandisfoundinmuchmineralore.

52. Bytheendof1935GeraldCox’stoothstudyattheMellonInstitutewasnotgoingwell.Despitethespringpressreleasetrumpetingtheimminentdis-coveryofa“factor”preventingdecay,Cox’sdatastill“didnotrevealanypositiveeffects,”hestatedinaconfidentialmemototheInstitute’sdirector,RayWeidlein.OnMarch24,1936,almostayearafterhisBuhlFoundationstudyhadbegun,CoxreportedtoWeidleinthatfeedingamilkextract,knownasXXXliquor,toratshadfailedtofindthepositiveresultsclaimedinthepreviousyear’spressrelease.“Thedataatthattimedidnotrevealanypositiveeffects,”CoxtoldWeidlein,andrequiredtherefore“intensiveworktore-scoreallofoursetsofteeth.Withthenewanddiscriminatingsystem,wehavebeenabletoshowsomepositiveeffects.”InApril1936,fol-lowingFrancisFrary’sSeptember1935suggestionthatfluoridehadaroleindentalhealth,CoxannouncedtohisBuhlFoundationsponsorsthathewasproposingto“investigatetheeffectsofdietaryfluorineoncariessus-ceptibility.”SeeMellonInstituteSpecialReport,April6,1936,“AstudyofToothDecay,”markedConfidential.Coxlaterclaimed,somewhatconfus-ingly,thattheXXXliquorhadcontainedenoughfluorine“toexplainthebeneficialeffectsoftheearlyexperimentsinwhichitwasfedtothemoth-ers.”BuhlFoundationRecords,Box33,Folder7,DentalStudy1936,LibraryandArchivesDivision,HistoricalSocietyofWesternPennsylvania.

53. TheletterlinkingAlcoa’sFrancisFrarytoGeraldCox’shistoricsuggestionthatfluoridewasresponsibleforgoodteethwasfoundinMcNeil’spersonalpapers.CoxtoauthorDonaldMcNeil,August19,1956.“ThefirsttimeIevergavefluorineathoughtwasinanswertoaquestionofDr.FrancisC.Frary,whowasatthattimeanduntilaboutthreeorfouryearsago,DirectorofResearchatAlcoa.Heaskedifourfinding,—IwasthespeakerintheSep-tember1935meetingofthePittsburghSectionoftheAmericanChemicalSociety—oflesscariesinratsfrommothersonXXXliquorcouldbeduetofluorine.”FileADA53–56,McNeilPapers,WisconsinHistoricalSociety.

WhetherthisisindeedthefirsttimeCoxwonderedabouttheuseful-nessoffluorideinpreventingtoothdecayisnotclear.Itisclear,however,thatthealuminumindustryhadbeenmullingtheideaforawhile.Inthe1931lettertoC.F.Drake,citedabove,H.V.ChurchillofAlcoastatedthatfluorineinlowdoses“maybepositivelybeneficial.”

54. E.R.Weidlein,Ind. Eng. Chem.,NewsEd.,vol.15(1937),p.147.SeealsoG.J.Cox,“ExperimentalDentalCaries.I.NutritioninRelationtotheDevelop-mentofDentalCaries,”Dental Rays,vol.13(1937),pp.8–10,and“Discus-sion,”JAMA,vol.113(1938),p.1753.

55. Coxetal.,“ResumeoftheFluorine-CariesRelationship,”Fluorine and Den-tal Health,PublicationoftheAmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience,no.19(1942):“Thefirstexperimentalresults,usingsodiumfluoridewereobtainedinAugust1937.”

56. P.C.LowerytoC.F.Kettering,April25,1936,filedbyletterandyear,OfficeFiles,PersonalCorrespondence,ScharchburgArchive.

57. DuPonthadbecomesowealthysellingmunitionsduringWorldWarIthatthecompanyhadboughtacontrollinginterestinGeneralMotors.Thegiantenterprisewasonlypriedapartinthe1950s,followingfederalantitrustaction.

58. D.RosnerandG.E.Markowitz,Deceit and Denial: The Deadly Politics of Industrial Pollution(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2002).

59. “OrganizedOpposition...ParticularlybytheAmericanStandardsAsso-ciationandtheNewYorkCityFireDepartment,”ReportonOperationsofKineticChemicals,Inc.,from1930through1943,p.15.Including“HistoryofDevelopmentofFluorineChemicalsfrom1928through1930,”forpre-sentationtotheGeneralMotorsPolicyCommittee,byDonaldsonBrown.PreparedbyE.F.JohnsonandE.R.Godfrey,October1944.FilesofCharlesKettering,ScharchburgArchive.

Also,“Freon...comingincontactwithopenflameswilldecomposeandyougetacertainamountoffluorineandacertainamountofchlo-rine,andyoualso,justbyhappen-stance,getaslightamountofphosgene.”DirectexaminationofDuPontdirectorWillisHarrington,chairmanofKineticChemicals.United States vs. DuPont,CivilActionNo.49C-1071,p.3922(U.S.DistrictCourtfortheNorthernDistrictofIllinois,EasternDivision,1953).

Therewereotherconcerns,aswell.ThemanufactureofFreonrequiredhugequantitiesoftheextraordinarilycorrosiveandtoxichydrofluoricacid,and“high”levelsoffluorideweresoonreportedinDuPontworkers’urine. WillardMachle,MD,oftheUniversityofCincinnatitoDr.E.E.Evans,DyeWorksHospital,PennsGrove,NewJersey,December28,1937,DuPontfile,KetteringPapers,RAKCollection.

60. Kehoeetal.,“AStudyoftheHealthHazardsAssociatedwiththeDistribu-tionandUseofEthylGasoline”(April1928),fromtheEichbergLaboratoryofPhysiology,UniversityofCincinnati,Cincinnati,OH,NationalArchivesRG70,101869,File725;citedinRosnerandMarkowitz,Deceit and Denial,p.313.Kehoe’sessentialhypothesis,thatlowlevelsofleadinbloodweresafeandnormal,wasundercutinthelate1960sbythescientistClairPatter-sonoftheCaliforniaInstituteofTechnology,whoexaminedpolariceandconcludedthatindustrializationhadgreatlyincreasedleadinthehumanenvironment.Kehoe’sdefenseofleadsafetywasdealtacoupdegrâceinthe1970sbyHarvard’sHerbertNeedleman,whosestudieswithchildrenshowedleadtobefarmoretoxicthanKehoehadclaimed.

ForKehoe’scontributiontoindustryprofitability,seeL.P.Snyder,“‘TheDeathDealingSmogOverDonora,Pennsylvania’:IndustrialAirPollution,PublicHealth,andFederalPolicy,1915–1963,”1994PhDthesisavailablefromUniversityMicrofilms.Seeespeciallychapter5.Also,J.L.Kitman,“TheSecretHistoryofLead,”The Nation,March20,2000.Seealsochapter8ofthisbookforfurtherdiscussionoflead.

61. W.F.Ashe,“RobertArthurKehoe,M.D.,”Archives of Environmental Health,vol.13(August1966),p.139.CitedinSnyder.

62. EthylhadbeenestablishedbyStandardOilandGeneralMotorstomarketTEL.

63. “StudiesoftheCombinationProductsofDi-Fluoro-DichloroMethane”and“NotesontheToxicityofDecompositionProductsfromDichlorodi-fluoromethane”inKetteringUnpublishedReports,vol.1.d.,RAKCollec-tion.Kehoedismissestheriskfromphosgene,arguingthatthepresenceofirritatingHFacidwouldforcepromptevacuationfromthedangerzone.Hedoesnotaddresstherisktofirefightersortosubjectsunabletofleethegases.

“TheonlyexperimentalsituationwhichhasbeenfoundtoberesponsiblefortheproductionofsignificantproportionsofphosgeneinthedecompositionproductsofCCl2F2wastheresultofrapiddischargeoftherefrigerantinhighconcentration, through theflameofanoilfireinanenclosedcham-ber—thatis,theconditionswerethoseofaconflagration.Situationswhichcorrespondtothosewhichmightdevelopfromaleakinahomeorbuild-ing,areuniformlyfoundtoproducesuchrelativelylowconcentrationsofphosgene,thatnoamountofdilutionofthedecompositionproductscouldeliminatetheirritatingandwarningpropertiesoftheacidswithoutelimi-natingthetoxiceffectsofphosgene.”

Ataprivatethree-day“SymposiumonFluorides”givenforindustryattheKetteringLaboratoryattheUniversityofCincinnatiinMay1953KehoediscusseddetailsofsecrethumanexperimentshehadperformedtotestFreon’stoxicityfortheU.S.governmentduringWorldWarII.Hehadusedhimselfasoneofthegas-chambertestsubjects.(See:GeneralWorkonProj-ectP.D.R.C.377(secret)fortheOfficeofScientificResearchandDevelop-ment,U.S.GovernmentWashington,DC,7-15-43,unpublishedVolumes1-d,RAKCollection.)Freonproduced“unconsciousnessaftersomeminutesofexposuretoconcentrationsoftheorderofmagnitudeof11percentormore,”Kehoerecounted.Headded,“Asthesubjectoftheexperimentscarriedoutatthehigherconcentrations,Iwasalarmed,fleetingly,atthepointofrapidebbofconsciousness,beingconvincedthattheobserversoutsidethecham-berwerenotawareofwhatwashappeningtome.Anothersubject,exposedtomuchlowerconcentrations,hadconsiderablylessassurancethanIandbecameapprehensiveandaggrieved...hebecamequitesurethatwewereexposinghimtoariskwhichhefeltwewereconcealingfromhim.

“Idescribetheseasyetunpublishedexperiments,”hetoldthegatheredindustrydoctors,“sinceitissomethingyou,asphysicians,shouldknow.Itisbelieved,generally,thatexposuretoFreon12isofnegligibleimpor-tance,andthatthematerialisquiteharmless.Thesignificanceofthematterrelatesprimarilytotherepairman,whocangetintosituationsinvolvingtheescapeofthematerialfromequipmentintosmallenclosures.Suchaworkmanmaybecomeunconsciousandreceiveseriousphysicalinjury,orevenbekilled.It is not true that this is a harmless material.”Kehoeleftunexplainedwhytherepairmanhimselfshouldnothavetheinformation

onFreontoxicity.Severalofthepapersgivenatthesymposiumwerelaterpublished.Kehoe’swasnot.

64. KehoediedinNovember1992,attheageofninety-nine.AnobituaryintheCincinnati Enquirer,November29,1992,notedthathehadretiredfromtheLaboratoryin1965.

65. W.Langewiesche,“AmericanGround,”The Atlantic Monthly(July–August2002),pp.44–79.AlsopublishedinfullasAmerican Ground: Unbuilding the World Trade Center(NewYork:NorthPointPress,2002).

66. Numerousandmultiplephosgeneinjurieswerereportedasaresultofchlo-rofluorocarbondecompositionbytheManhattanProject.Chlorofluorocar-bonswereusedinmassivequantitiesintheK-25plantatOakRidge.

Freoncauseddeathsandinjuriesinthehome,too:“Dahlmanencoun-teredtwo[poisoningcases]resultingfromheatingfluorocarbonsabovethedecompositiontemperatures.Inthefirstcase,amechanicoperatedwithanacetylenetorchonarefrigeratorleakingFreon12.Hedevelopeddyspnea,vomiting,andmalaiseandrequiredhospitaltreatmentforfivedays.Inthesecond,anagriculturalworkersprayedhisbedroomwithaerosolFreonflyspray.Hethenswitchedontheelectricheaterandwenttobed.Duringthenighthedevelopedvomiting,diarrhea,andmalaiseanddiedonthefol-lowingday.”T.Dahlmann;Nord. Hyg. Tidskr.,vol.39(1958),p.165.CitedinR.Y.Eagers,Toxic Properties of Inorganic Fluorine Compounds(AmsterdamandNewYork:Elsevier,1969).(DuPont’sNewJerseyChamberWorksplantalsowasblamedforpoisoninglocalfarmersandworkerswithfluoridepol-lutioninthe1940s.)Theozone-depletinggaswasscheduledtobephasedoutbythe1987MontrealProtocol.

67. OneKetteringstudymonitoredfluoridelevelsinDuPontworkers’urineandconfirmedthat“theseresultshavebeenhigh.”LetterfromWillardMachle,MD,oftheUniversityofCincinnatitoDr.E.E.Evans,DyeWorksHospi-tal,PennsGrove,NJ,December28,1937,ReportonOperationsofKineticChemicals,Inc.,from1930through1943,p.17,RAKCollection.Including

“HistoryofDevelopmentofFluorineChemicalsfrom1928Through1930,”forpresentationtoGeneralMotorsPolicyCommittee,byDonaldsonBrown.ScharchburgArchive.

FreonsalesagainskyrocketedhigherduringWorldWarII,withFreonusedasacoolantintheK-25gaseousdiffusionplantandasapropellantinDDTantimalariabugbombs.

68. W.Machleetal.,“TheEffectsoftheInhalationofHydrogenFluoride.1.TheResponsetoHighConcentrations.2.TheResponsetoLowConcentrations,”J. Industrial Hygiene,vol.16,no.2(1934),p.129;andvol.17,no.5(1935),p.221.

69. TheAdvisoryCommitteeonResearchinDentalCaries(DanielF.Lynch,chairman;CharlesF.Kettering,counselor;andWilliamJ.Gies,secretary), Dental Caries: Findings and Conclusions on its Causes and Controls. Stated in 195 Summaries by Observers and Investigators in Twenty-five Countries,TheResearchCommissionofTheAmericanDentalAssociation(NewYork,1939).

70. P.C.LowerytoC.Kettering,KetteringOfficeFiles1937,“L”,87-11,1-412,ScharchburgArchive.

71. “ArmedwithaletterfromDr.WeidleinofMellonInstitutetoMr.A.W.Mellon,he[Friesell]wenttoWashingtontoenlistthesupportofthePublicHealthService.Mr.MellonreferredhimtoSurgeonGeneralCummings.”LetterfromH.V.ChurchillofAlcoatoDr.FrederickMcKayoftheRock-efellerFoundation,May20,1931,discussingtheroleofH.E.Friesell,deanoftheUniversityofPittsburgh’sDentalSchool.AlcoaDocuments,Wiscon-sinHistoricalSociety.FriesellsoughttohavenaturallyoccurringdentalfluorosisstudiedinArizona,byUniversityofArizonascientistsH.V.andMargaretSmith(farfromtheindustrialcentersoftheEast).

SeealsotheletterofAugust6,1930,fromC.T.MessnerofthePublicHealthServicetoFriesell:“YouareprobablyawareofthefactthattheU.S.PublicHealthServiceisaBureauintheTreasuryDepartmenttherefore,itmightbeadvisable,especiallyasourSecretaryisfromyourcity,toalsourgehisendorsementofthisprogram.TheslightestinterestonhispartwouldinfluencetheServicetoagreatdegreeintakingupthisproblem.Iamsureyouwillholdthisstatementinstrictconfidence...afteryourletterisreceivedhereIwillkeepyouadvisedastohowthingsaregoingalong.”File9,Box2,McNeilCollection,WisconsinStateHistoricalSociety.

Thefollowingyear,inthespringof1931,thesameCaptainC.T.MessneratthePublicHealthServicetoldH.TrendleyDeanhewouldbestudyingmottledenamel.Deanstatedthathewas“assigned”toconducttheepide-miologicalstudiesthatresultedinthekey“fluorinecarieshypothesis,”—thescientificbasisforU.S.waterfluoridation.SeeDonMcNeilinterviewwithDean,May3,1955,inFile13,Box2,McNeilCollection,WisconsinStateHistoricalSociety.

72. HowlongAlcoahadknownthatfluorideproduceddentalmottlingisnotclear.(AlcoawasalsoconcernedthatthebadteethinitscompanytownofBauxitewouldbelinkedtoaluminumsaltsandfurthertarnishthepublicimageofaluminumkitchenware.SeeMcNeil,The Fight for Fluoridation,p.27.)PerhapsitwascoincidencethattheAlcoachemistH.V.Churchill’s1931correlationofbadteethwithfluoride-contaminatedwellwaterinthecompanytownofBauxiteappearedinthescientificpressjustweeksbeforeseparatestudiesconfirmingfluoride’slinktomottledteethwerealsopub-lished(bySmithandbyVelu).Whatiscertain,however,isthatassoonasfluoride’slinkstomottledteethwerepublicknowledge,AlcoaprivatelyconfirmedthatdentalfluorosiswasalsofoundnearitsaluminumsmelterinMassena,NewYork.Seeearliernote.

73. H.T.Dean,“ChronicEndemicDentalFluorosis(MottledEnamel),”JAMA,vol.107(1936),pp.1269–1272.

74. “Ordered”and“hunch”quotedfromDonMcNeilinterviewwithDean,May3,1955.DeantoldMcNeilthatin1931,beforehebeganhiswork,he

“hadahunch”therewouldbefewercavitiesinmottledteeth.McNeilCol-lection,Box2,File13.ItisnotknownhowDeanarrivedatthishunch.Nor

isitknownwhetherDeanhadbeenorderedto“discover”somegoodnewsaboutfluoride.Ofinterest,however:themanwhogaveDeanhismarch-ingorders,thePHS’sC.T.Messner,wasthesameofficialwho,fiveyearslater,metinDetroitwiththeFreongasmagnateCharlesKettering.ThismeetinghelpedtoproducethebookDental Caries,whichalsofavorablyintroducedmanydentiststofluoride.Indeed,Dean’s“hunch”flewinthefaceofastudydoneatJohnHopkinsin1925byE.V.McCollum,whowashopefulthatfluoridewouldstrengthenteethbuthadinsteadconcludedthat“theresultsshowed,contrarytoourexpectations,thattheingestionoffluorine,inamountsbutlittleabovethosewhichhavebeenreportedtooccurinnaturalfoods,markedlydisturbsthestructureoftheteeth.”E.V.McCollum,N.Simmons,J.E.Becker,andR.W.Bunting,J. Biol. Chem.,vol.63(1925),pp.553–561.

75. H.T.Dean,“EndemicFluorosisandItsRelationtoDentalCaries,”Public Health Rep.,vol.53(1938),pp.1443–1452.AlsoH.T.Deanetal.,“DomesticWaterandDentalCaries,”Pub. Health Rep.,vol.56(April11,1941),pp.756–792.Deanwascross-examinedinthe1960Schuringa vs. Chicagolawsuit,toenjointhecityfromfluoridatingwatersupplies.AccordingtothecriticDr.RichardG.Foulkes,Dean,undercross-examinationbyMr.DillingandaidedbyF.B.Exner,aradiologistandcriticoffluoridation,wasforcedtoadmitthathisearlystudiesofGalesburg,Quincy,Monmouth,andMacombandhislaterstudiesintwenty-onecitiesof7,257children,didnotmeethisowncriteriaof“lifetimeexposure”and“unchangedwatersupply”andwere,therefore,worthless.Dr.Exnerpreparedan“AnalyticalCommentary”onDean’stestimony.Exner“referstothetranscriptandexhibitsthatshowthatnotonlywerethebasiccriterialackinginDean’swork,butalsorandomvariationsfoundinbothhighandlowfluorideareascancelledoutany‘ben-efits’thatappearedinthehighfluoridevs.lowerfluoridecities,”accordingtoFoulkes.State of Wisconsin Circuit Court Fond Du Lac County Safe Water Association, Inc., Plaintiff,vs.City of Fond Du Lac, Defendant CaseNo.92CV579,AffidavitofDr.RichardG.FoulkesinSupportofMotionforSummaryJudgment.

76. G.J.Cox,“NewKnowledgeofFluorineinRelationtotheDevelopmentofDentalCaries.”J. Am. Water Works Assoc.,vol.31(1939),pp.1926–1930.PHSregulationsfor1939stated,forexample:“Thepresenceof...fluorideinexcessof1ppm...shallconstitutegroundsfortherejectionofwatersup-ply.”PHS,“PublicHealthServiceDrinkingWaterStandards,”Public Health Rep.,vol.58(1943),pp.69–111(atp.80).Atenfoldmarginofsafetyrequiredthatfluorideinwaterbenohigherthan1partpermillion,waterworksengineersagreed.H.E.BabbittandJ.J.Doland,Quality of Water Supplies in Water Supply Engineering.3rdEdition(NewYork:McGrawHill,1939),p.454.CitedinWaldbottetal.,Fluoridation: The Great Dilemma,p.302.

Chapter 4 1. RichardRhodes,The Making of the Atomic Bomb(NewYork:Touchstone,

1986).Onp.605RhodesquotestheFrenchchemistBertrandGoldschmidt,whowrotethattheManhattanEngineeringDistrictwas“theastonishingAmericancreationinthreeyears,atacostof$2billion,ofaformidablearrayoffactoriesandlaboratories—aslargeastheentireautomobileindustryoftheUnitedStatesatthatdate.”Oncongressionalsecrecy,L.Groves,Now It Can Be Told(NewYork:DaCapo,1962),p.362.

2. Lt.Col.E.MarsdentoGen.Groves,December3,1943,Memorandum,“ObtainingofInformationfromC.W.S.onPhosgene,Fluorine,andFluorineCompounds”:“Itisrequested...fortheMedicalSectionoftheManhattanDistricttobeinfullpossessionofalltheinformationonphosgene,fluorine,andfluorinecompoundsthatispresentlyinpossessionoftheWarDepart-ment.”FileEIDMD-2-b.MD723.13MemototheCommandingGeneral,ArmyServiceForces,Washington,DC,December3,1943,fromBrigadierGeneralL.R.Groves:“ItisrequestedthatColonelStaffordL.Warren,M.C.,beauthorizedtocontacttheChief,ChemicalWarfareService,toobtainallinformationthatmaybeavailableinthefilesoftheChemicalWarfareService...onthedetectionof,andprotectionagainst,phosgene,fluorine,andfluorinechemicals.”EIDMD-2-a.

3. Theenrichmentfactorwas1.0043.Rhodes,The Making of the Atomic Bomb,p.340.Atfirst,theK-25plantproducedonlypartiallyenricheduranium,whichwasfurtherenrichedatEastmanKodak’sOakRidgeY-12plantandthentransportedasuraniumtetrafluoridetoLosAlamos.SeealsoRhodes,552,553,and602.

4. Uraniumhexafluoridequantities:“Considerableamountsofspecialfluo-rinatedchemicalswillbesuppliedtotheK-25plant,”including“Uraniumhexafluoride33tonspermonth—requiredbyOctober1944.”See“FunctionsofMadisonSquareArea,”Md319.1,Box26,ReportMadisonSquareAcces-sion#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.Alsomemo,“StorageFacilitiesattheSiteForC-616,”whereCaptainL.C.Burman,CorpsofEngineers,notesa“2150lbdailyrequirement”forhexafluoride.Md3,Md700,Gen-eralEssays,Lectures,Box34,ManhattanEngineerDistrictAccession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.Workforceandpowerconsumption:AEC Handbook on Oak Ridge Operations(1961),OakRidgePublicLibrary.

5. Freshair:UniversityofChicago,MetallurgicalLaboratory,October30,1942,MemorandumtoC.M.CooperfromR.S.Apple.Also,memorandum:

“MedicalConsiderationsofWorkinthePilotPlant,PhiladelphiaNavalYard”fromCol.WarrentoRearAdmiralMills,October25,1944.C-216referstothesubstancereferredtoas“freshair.”Md702.1,MedicalExamsSpecimens,Box54,MedicalConsiderationsAccession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

“MadisonSquareAreafunctionsastheMaterialsSectionoftheMan-hattanDistricttoobtainspecialmaterials.Theprincipalprojectsarethelocation,procurementandrefiningofuraniumore,preparationofuranium

oxide,uraniumhexafluorideanduraniummetal,andproductionoffluori-natedhydrocarbons.”“FunctionsofMadisonSquareArea,”Md319.1,Box26,ReportMadisonSquareAccession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.Howwellthefluoridesecretswerekept,atleastfromforeigngovern-ments,isunclear.TheSovietspyKlausFuchshadworkedonfluorinediffu-sionattheUniversityofBirminghaminEnglandandspentseveralcrucialmonthsinNewYorkin1944withtheBritishDiffusionMission.HegavetheRussianskeydetailsoftheU.S.fluoridediffusionprocess,includinginformationaboutthetop-secretsinterednickelbarriersthroughwhichthegasdiffused.SeeHolloway,Stalin and the Atomic Bomb,p.104.

6. SeeRhodes,494forK-25sizeandcomplexity.SeeL.Groves,Now It Can Be Told(NewYork:DaCapo,1962),pp.114–115forcorrosionandneedto

“condition”equipment.Also,atanOctober23,1942,presentationtotheS-1CommitteeoftheOSRD,aprecursortotheManhattanProject,Mr.Z.G.DeutschoftheStandardOilcompany,whichwasbuildingapilotcentri-fugeplanttoseparateuraniumatStandard’sBaywayrefineryinLinden,NJ,stated,“Alldevelopmentwork,towardadesignofplantfortheseparationofourisotopeshasvisualizedworkingwithasinglematerial—uraniumhexafluoride.”Headded,“Theprincipalobjectiontoitisitsextremechemi-calreactivity.”SeeManhattan District History,BookI,vol.4,chapter14.

7. OnOctober19,1943,topdoctorsfromtheManhattanProjectmetinCaptainJohnL.Ferry’sMadisonSquareAreaofficesinNewYork.HaroldHodgefromtheUniversityofRochesterwasthere.SowereseveraldoctorsfromDuPont,Chrysler,andtheKellexCorporation,aswellasthetopmedicalofficersfortheManhattanProject,includingCol.StaffordWarren.Theirsecretagenda:“fluorinehazardstoworkers.”Purefluorine“wouldconsumetheskinandflesh,”ofexposedmen,thedoctorswerewarned.Ordinarypro-tectiveclothingwas“notsatisfactory.”Afluorineexplosionwouldproduceaterrifyingmixofhydrofluoricacidand“oxygenfluorides.”Theacidburnmightgoundetectedfortwelvehoursbutwouldbefollowedby“extremepain.”Eventuallythefluoride“penetratestothebone,andthenwillspreadalongtheboneandrequireamputation,”thedoctorsweretold.Noonewasthencertainwhattheoxygenfluoridesmightdo.Memo:SafetyandHealthConferenceonHazardsofC-216[codeforF]October19,1943,OakRidgeRecordsHoldingTaskGroupBox166Building2714-H,Vault,#82,761.

Seealso,forUF6,UnionCarbideSafetyBulletinNoS-1,June16,1945.UF6breaksdownintoHFanduranylfluoride[UO2F2].Thelatter,thebul-letinnotes,“hasanactionbothasasurfaceirritantandasapoisonousagentactinginternally.”“Wheninhaledasafinedustorfume,itreadilygoesintosolutiononthemoistliningsoftherespiratorytractfromwhichitisread-ilyabsorbed...alloftheUO2F2absorbedfromanysurfaceiseliminatedbythekidneys,whichcauseskidneydamage.”“Deeppenetratingburns”wereproducedbysurfaceskinexposuretohydrolysisproducts,HFandUO2F2,SafetyReports,Bulletins,Box55,Accession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

8. “PriortotheexistenceoftheDistrict,elementalfluorinewasalaboratorycuriosity.”The Manhattan District Official History,p.3.13,Book1General,vol.7,MedicalProgram.Formostreactiveelement,R.E.Banks,“IsolationofFluorinebyMoissan:SettingtheScene,”J. Fluorine Chem.,vol.33(1986),pp.3–26.Foractiononsteel,abovereference,“Memo:SafetyandHealthConferenceonHazardsofC-216”[codeforF],October19,1943.“Mildsteelvalvesandpipeshavebeenused[tohandlefluorine]butitseemsthatanyimpurityorforeignsubstanceinthepipeorvalvemaybetheactivat-ingagenttostartareaction.Dr.Benning[fromDuPont]exhibitedasteelvalve...whichhadbeenconsumedbyactionofC-216.Theheatgeneratedbythereactionistremendousandaconsiderableflashhazardispresentasthereactionisalmostinstantaneous.”

9. ThesecompaniesandtheirrolesaredescribedingreaterdetailinThe Man-hattan District Official History,Book1,General,vol.7,MedicalProgram.

10. TheliquidwasnamedafterProfessorJosephSimonsofPennStateUniversity,whoinventedaprocessknownas“electro-chemicalfluorination,”whichusedelectricitytoreplacethehydrogenwithfluorideinhydrogen-carbonbonds,producingfluorocarbons.(Afterthewarthetechnologywouldbelicensedtothe3Mcorporation,whichwoulduseittomake,amongotherthings,thefabricprotectorScotchgard.Seechapter17.)SeeJ.H.Simons,ed.,Fluorine Chemistry,vol.1(NewYork:AcademicPress,1950),p.423.

11. H.Goldwhite,J. Fluorine Chem.,vol.33,p.113. 12. See“ReportontheFluoroCarbonwork”byHaroldUrey,September26,

1942,S-1files.Further,seeGoldwhite.SeealsoIndustrial and Engineering Chem.,vol.39,no.3,p.292.

13. Forexample,35,000poundsamonthof“polytetrafluorethylene”(Teflon);1,600,000poundsof“hexafluorxylene”;and1,400lbsof“fluorinatedlubricat-ingoil.”Fordeliveryscheduleoffluorocarbons,see“FunctionsofMadisonSquareArea,”Md319.1,ReportMadisonSquare,Box26,Accession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

14. Rhodes,The Making of the Atomic Bomb;p.494.DickPowellauthorinter-view;andalsoGoldwhite,J. Fluorine Chem.,abovereference.

15. Groves,Now It Can Be Told,p.8. 16. TheplantwasbuiltinthebasementoftheSchermerhornLaboratoryin

January1943.Rhodes,The Making of the Atomic Bomb,p.494. 17. “InitiationofMedicalProgramforProjectatColumbiaUniversity,”Friedell

totheDistrictEngineer,U.S.EngineerOffice,ManhattanDistrict,January20,1943.

18. Capt.JohnFerrytoCol.StaffordWarren,November10,1943;andCapt.JohnFerrytotheAreaEngineer,ColumbiaArea,July14,1944.“Itwouldbediffi-culttoprovethathisillnesshadnotbeenaggravatedbyhisfumeexposure,”FerryconcludedinSpelton’scase.IllnessofMr.ChristianSpelton,Md726.2,OccupationalDiseases,Box55,Accession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.Forpulmonaryfibrosisassymptom,seeRoholm,Fluorine Intoxi-cation,p.150.

19. Onteethfallingout,seeNewYorkOperationsResearchandMedicineDivi-sion,Correspondence1945–1952,Box28–47,Box36,“DuPontFile,”AtlantaFRC,RG326.ForPriest’sfluorineworkatColumbia,seeIndustrial and Engineering Chem.,March1947.

20. PrincetonaccountatMd319.1,FerryReportMedical,Box25,Accession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.ForIowaState,caseofMaxRankinseeMd702.1,MedicalExamsSpecimens,Box54,Accession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.ForcaseofDr.OscarN.Carlson,reportofAllanP.Scoog:CarlsonhadworkedatAmessince1943.Heworkedwithberylliumfluoride.Multiplehospitalizationswerefollowedwithadiagnosisof“dif-fusefibronodularpathologicprocessthroughoutbothlungs. . .occupa-tionalfibrosis.”Medicine, Health and Safety, Beryllium,July1951–December1951.NARAII.ThegassedPurdueresearchershadlunginjuriesresemblingthoseinsoldiersexposedtotheWorldWarIpoisongasphosgene.Capt.JohnFerrytoCol.StaffordWarren,May22,1944.Also,Capt.JohnFerrytoCol.StaffordWarren,June23,1944,Md319.1,ReportMedicalFerry,Box25,Accession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

21. MemorandumtoCol.WarrenfromCapt.JohnFerry,November15,1943,“VisittoDuPont”:“TheprevailingopinionisthattheirritatingpropertiesoftheHFalsoformed,willnotbeasatisfactoryguideagainstthetoxicityoftheoxyfluoride.”“DuPont”File,NewYorkOperationsResearchandMedi-cineDivision,Correspondence1945–1952,Box28–47,Box36,AtlantaFRC,RG326;“DuPont,”Box14,Accession#72C2386,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

22. MemotoCol.E.H.MarsdenfromCol.Warren.January6,1945,“SafetyofOperationsatS-50,”C-616,Box28,Accession#72C2386,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

23. “Oneisimpressed,”notedCaptainJohnL.Ferry,seniormedicalofficerfortheMadisonSquareArea,“bythesimilaritybetweenthesecasesandper-sonsdyingfromworkinberylliumplants.”Heremindedhisbossthat“oneexplanationoftheberylliumdeathswasthattheyresultedfromexposuretoberylliumoxyfluoride.”Capt.FerrytoCol.Warren,February2,1944.

“FatalitiesOccurringfromaBy-ProductofT.F.E.,”Md729.3,SafetyProgramProtectionAgainstHazards,Book1,6/25/42–7/31/44,Box55,Accession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

24. Dr.G.H.Gehrman,DuPontMedicalDirector,toCapt.Ferry,May5,1944.Md319.1,GeneralEssays,Lectures,MedicalReport,Box34,#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

25. Capt.FerrytoCol.Warren,February2,1944.“FatalitiesOccurringfromaBy-ProductofT.F.E.”Also,DuPontwasreluctanttohavethegovernmenttest

“theirowncommerciallydevelopedmaterialsinceseveralofthecomponentsthusfaridentifiedgivegoodpromiseforcommercialusesotherthanthatcontemplatedhere.”DistrictEngineerRuhofftoDr.H.T.Wensel,ClintonEngineerWorks,March30,1944,Documents366and367,RG227.3.1.

26. Capt.FerrytoCol.Warren,February2,1944.“FatalitiesOccurringfromaBy-ProductofT.F.E.”

27. RichardPowell,“FluorineChemistry:TheICIlegacy,”inFascinated by Fluo-rine(AmsterdamandNewYork:Elsevier,2000).HequotesthevisitingICIscientistJ.H.Brownonp.345.

28. Kramish,A.,“TheyWereHeroesToo,”Washington Post,December15,1991.

29. ThesecretfacilitywasapilotversionofthemassiveS-50“thermaldiffu-sion”factorybeingreadiedatOakRidge,Tennessee.TheplantatOakRidgeappearsalsotohavepresentedconsiderablefluoridehealthriskstowork-ers,accordingtotheofficialhistory.EachtimeanewhexafluoridecylinderwasattachedtotheS-50equipment,“thedangerofbreathingUF6andofbeingburnedbyitinthisoperationisconsiderable.”The Manhattan District Official History,Book1,General,vol.7,MedicalProgram,p.3.22.

30. ConanthadrespondedtoCol.Warren’srequestforinformation,sendinghimreportsonfluoridefromtheChicagoToxicityLaboratory,andOSRDReport#3285“TheToxicityofCompoundsContainingFluorine.”ConanttoH.T.Wensel,October6,1943,RG227.3.1,Document#0398,andRuthJenkins(Conant’ssecretary)toWensel,February15,1945,RG227.3.1,Docu-ment#0341.Conantsoughttokeepspecializedinformationaboutfluorideoutofscientificjournalsduringthewar.HewrotetotheeditoroftheJournal of the American Chemical Society,ArthurLamb,onDecember29,1943:“Ishouldappreciateitifyouwouldsendanypapersconcerningfluorinecom-poundstomeiftheyaresubmittedinthefuture,andIwilltryandgetintouchwiththemoreconservativereviewers.”Document0114,RG227.3.1.

31. TDMR-628(TechnicalDivisionMemorandumReportfromEdgewoodArsenal)citedp.20,OSRDReport3285.“Amongtheeffectsnotedwerepho-tophobia,headaches...aswellasdifficultyandpaininaccommodation.”

32. Lowconcentrationsoftheorganiccompoundcitedproduced“markedweariness,verystrongmentaldepression,reluctanceforanyphysicaleffort.Quitedistinctperiodsofnervousirritationdifficulttocontrol,followedbyperiodsofphysicalandmentalexhaustion,drowsinessandgiddiness.”SporzynskiY.5682May5,1943,citedinOSRDReport3285,p.37.

33. E.C.Andrus,D.W.Bronk,G.A.CardenJr.,etal.,eds.,Advances in Military Medicine,2vols.(Boston:Little,Brown,1948),p.561.SeealsoFascinated by Fluorine,p.347;andauthorinterviewwithformerImperialChemicalIndustries(ICI)scientistDickPowell.

34. J.ConanttoDr.H.T.Wensel,ClintonEngineeringWorks,October6,1943.RG227.3.1Document0398.

35. Authorinterview,July27,2003. 36. Capt.JoeHowland,“StudiesonHumanExposuretoUraniumCompounds,”

inHaroldHodgeandCarlVoegtlin,eds.,Pharmacology and Toxicology of Uranium Compounds, with a Section on the Pharmacology and Toxicology of Fluorine and Hydrogen Fluoride(NewYork:McGrawHill,1949),p.1005.TheofficialhistoryoftheManhattanProject,likeGen.Groves,givesaconflict-ingaccountofthedisaster.Onp.5.3,BookVI,Section5,itstatesonlythat

“severalpersonswereinjured.”However,BookI,vol.6,p.3.19notesthat,

“DouglasP.Meigsdiedasaresultofburnsduetosteam.TheAetna,insur-ancecarrierforFercleve[thecontractor],wasnotpermittedtoinvestigatethecause,northesceneoftheaccident,butwaspermittedtomakearou-tinedependencyinvestigation.AftercompletefactswereavailabletotheInsuranceSection,theinsurancecarrierwasinstructedtomakepaymentasawardedtoMeigs’swidowbytheBureauofWorkmen’sCompensation,StateofPennsylvania.”

37. A.Kramish,“TheyWereHeroesToo,”Washington Post,December15,1991.KramishtoldmethattheManhattanProjectofficer,“Dusty”Rhodeswassenttosilencethepress.ThePhiladelphia Recordmayhavegonetopressbeforehearrived,Kramishthinks.Thefollowingmorningthenewspaperreportedthattwo“specialists”hadbeenkilledinanaccident.“Gaswasreleased,”thenewspaperadded.

38. LeslieGroves,Now It Can Be Told(NewYork:DaCapo,1962),p.121. 39. Washington Post,December15,1991. 40. AtoneberylliumfactoryinOhiodoingsecretfluorideworkfortheMan-

hattanProject,skinlesionsandacripplinglungdiseasecalledberylliosisproducedanemployeeturnoverrateof100percenteachmonth.CaptainMearstoMajorFerry,July30,1945.Hereportson“chemicaldermatitis...resultingfromthefluoridecompoundsenteringthroughahairfollicle,contaminatingawound,orthroughapuncturewoundbyasharpcrystal.Inthesecasesapapuledevelopsslowlywithsomeofthelesionsendinginulcerationtakingmonthstoheal.Someoftheworkmen’shandsandfore-armsarecoveredwithinflamedhairfollicles,papules,anddepressedsharplycircumscribedscars.”Md319.1,GeneralEssays,Lectures,MedicalReport,Box34,Accession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

41. “Neverbeforehadsuchquantitiesofelementalfluorinegasbeenhandleddaily,”wroteaManhattanProjectdoctor,HerbertStokinger,whosawthedailyhealthrisktoAmericanworkers.“Continuousexposuretolowcon-centrationsfromunavoidablelossesfromtheequipmentwasasourceofconsiderableconcern,”headded.HodgeandVoegtlin,eds.,Pharmacology and Toxicology of Uranium Compounds,p.1024.

42. “Fluorine:PrecautionstobeObservedinHandling,ShippingandStor-age.”Manhattan Project Official History,OccupationalHazards,Book1,General.

43. HerbertStokingerreportedthatanimaldeathswereseeninlaboratoryexperi-mentsat0.3-mg/cumforfluorine.HodgeandVoegtlin,eds.,Pharmacology and Toxicology of Uranium Compounds,p.1033.Also,“Thetoxicityofoxy-fluoridesoccurringfromtheliberationoffluorineintheatmosphere”wasgivenahighpriorityforresearch.MemotoCol.WarrenfromCapt.JohnL.Ferry,November29,1943,Md3,Md700,GeneralEssays,Lectures,MedicalReports,Box34,ManhattanEngineerDistrictAccession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

Thattoxicitydata,onlydeclassifiedin1994,istrulyspectacular.Whileexposureoflaboratoryanimalsto0.5partspermillionofpurefluorinefor

thirtydayswasconsidered“safe,”asimilar,microscopicquantityofoxygenfluoride“waslethalafter14hours,”thescientistsreported.See“Detailed Duties of Harold Hodge,”listof“problems”and“results”encounteredbytheRochesterDivisionofPharmacologyandToxicology.Folder2,BoxSOFO1B219,ACHRE,RG220;also,C-212[codeforoxygenfluoride]—1ppmkilledallanimals(ratsandmice),in“ToxicityofC-616,C-212andC-216”‘MemotoFiles’byCapt.B.J.Mears.MedicalCrops,Md3,Md700,GeneralEssays,Lectures,MedicalReports,Box34,ManhattanEngineerDistrictAccession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.(Bycomparison,thistox-icityappearsatleastasbadastheWorldWarIpoisongasphosgene,whichwasalsofoundinthebombplants,asaresultoftheheatingofFreon.)TheChemicalWarfareServicehadreportedtoCol.StaffordWarrenthat,whenexposedtophosgene,“micesuccumbtochronicexposureofonepartpermillion.”)MemorandumfortheFiles,“Subject:SurveyofPhosgeneEffects”byStaffordWarren,February23,1944,A2,Box26,Accession#72C2386,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

AlthoughtheManhattanProjecthadgivenahighprioritytotheexperi-mentalinvestigationofsuchoxyfluorides,theofficialandpublishedworkdoesnotmentiontheresults—perhapsaworrisomeomission,giventhatthescientistssuspectedthatthecompoundsmightbeencounteredinthevicinityofbombplants.Thestandardtext,Pharmacology and Toxicology of Uranium Compounds,editedbyCarlVoegtlinandHaroldHodge,hasnomentionofoxygenfluoride.Also,forevidencethatscientistssuspectedoxygenfluoridewouldbeencounteredbycitizensandworkers,afteranindustrialhygienesurveyatHarshawChemicalinClevelandinMay1947,Rochesterscientistsreportedthat“theresultsareonthelowside,sincetheefficiencyofthesamplingprocedureweusedisnottoogoodforfluorineandoxyfluoride;ifconsiderablequantitiesofthesetwogaseswerepresentintheair,weprobablymissedapartofthem.”SeePharmacologyReport#558,TheUniversityofRochesterAtomicEnergyProject,BoxS09F01B227,ACHRE,RG220.

44. “HFisaprotoplasmicpoisonwithgreatpenetratingpowerandcausesdeep-seatedburnsthathealveryslowly....WhenHFcomesintocontactwiththeskin,aburnresults.IfHFisnotremoved,ittendstokeeppenetrat-ingwiththeproductionofadeep,slow-healingpainfululceration.”Capt.JohnL.FerrytoDr.RalphRosen,KellexCorp,January24,1944,Md729.3SafetyProgramProtectionAgainstHazards,Book1,6/25/42–7/31/44,Box55,Accession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.Also,thechemicalwasdescribedbyDr.Stokingeras“possiblythegreatestsinglesourceofminorincapacitationofworkers”inthebombplants.HodgeandVoegtlin,eds.,Pharmacology and Toxicology of Uranium Compounds.

45. ConfirmedinauthorinterviewwiththeICIfluoridescientistDickPowell.Such“conditioning”wasamassiveindustrialundertaking.Theuraniumhexafluoridegaswassocorrosivethatthousandsofpumps,blowers,andpipingfirsthadtobetreatedwitheitherchlorinetrifluoride,orelemental

fluorine,leavingathinfilmoffluorideonthemachinery,protectingitfromfuturecorrosion.JoeHardinglikenedtheprocessto“seasoningtheinteriorofprocessequipment,likesomepeoplehaveheardof‘burning-in’anoldcastironskillet.”MemorandumtoLt.DavidGoldringfromBirchardM.Brund-age1stLt.,MedicalCorps,July13,1945.“Subject:S-50MedicalCheck-ups”:ItemI.“Definitions1.ConditioningArea—BuildinginwhichpartsandapparatustobeusedintheProcessAreaaretreatedchemicallybeforebeingplacedinoperationaluse.”ItemII.“Conditioningshopoperator—handlesthechemicalpreparationofequipmentbeforeitishandledforoperations.Healsocleansusedequipmentbeforeitsreconditioningandreuseinopera-tions.”ItemIII.“HazardClassifications.1.Mostserious.A.Transferroomoperator.B.Conditioningshopoperator.”S-50,Box14.Also,“ConditioningofEquipment,”Manhattan Project Official History,bookVI,p.5.17.

46. JoeHardinginterviewedbyDolphHonicker,undatedtranscriptsuppliedbyhisson,CliffHonicker.

47. Stokingeretal.,The Enhancing Effect of the Inhalation of Hydrogen Fluoride Vapor on Beryllium Sulfate Poisoning in Animals,UR-68UniversityofRoch-ester,unclassified,June13,1949.Also,“FluoridematerialsareundoubtedlysignificantlymoretoxicfromthestandpointofacutediseasethananyotherberylliummaterialnowbeinghandledattheLuckeyplant.”MemofromMerrilEisenbudtoW.B.Harris,2/27/51,Box3353,MHS2Beryllium,Ger-mantownDOEHistoryArchive.Eisenbudalsoestimatedthat50microgramsofberyllium—inhaledasberylliumfluoride—had“producedacutediseaseinthreeindividuals”injusttwentyminutes,andthat“toproduceinjurybyphosgeneinacomparableperiodoftimeonewouldhavetoinhaleapproxi-mately50milligrams!”HealthHazardsfromBeryllium,MerrilEisenbud,speechpresentedatameetingoftheAmericanSocietyforMetals,Boston,March1954.DocumentDOE#051094-A-312,ACHRE,RG220.

48. Fordeaths:M.Eisenbud,“OriginsoftheStandardsforControlofBeryl-liumDisease(1947–1949),”Environmental Research,vol.27,no.1(February1982).ByJune1949RobertHasterlik,thetopdoctoratArgonneNationalLaboratory,reportedaboutsixtydeathfromberyllium.Physics Today(June1949),p.14.

Forsickness:“Byfarthegreatestnumberofcasesoccurredinthefluo-ridehandlingoperations,”notedonegovernmentreportonsicknessattheBrushBerylliumCompanyinLucky,Pennsylvania.MemofromMerrilEisenbudtoW.B.Harris,stampedFebruary27,1951:“AcuteBerylliumTox-icity—BrushBerylliumCompany—LuckyExperience,”Div.BiologyandMedicine,folderMHS2andBeryllium,Box335,RG326.AtBrushBerylliumPlantinLorain,Ohio,“InJuly,1947,24percentofemployeesintheberyl-liummetaldepartmentwerestrickenwithdermatitisorrespiratorydisease,comparedto6.4percentforallotherdepartments.TheapparentincreaseinratesmaypossiblybeexplainedbytheshiftsinproductiontopuremetalsastheresultofAECcontracts.”BobTumbleson,“PublicRelationsProblemsinConnectionwithOccupationalDiseasesintheBerylliumIndustry.”

TheRochesterAtomicEnergyProject’sIndustrialHygieneSectionsur-veyedtheBrushBerylliumCompanyinLorain,Ohio,inDecember1946andfoundupto64.1mg/m3fluoride,withparticlesizesbelow0.1micron(acrucialfactorindeterminingtoxicity).“Theauthorsconcludethattherelativelyhighfluorideconcentrationsobtainedinthesurveyedareasareofparticularsignificancesincetheymayrepresentahazardbythemselvesandalsosuggestacombinedactionwithberyllium.Furtherstudyofthisfactorissuggested,especiallyneartheberylliumfluoridefurnacewheretherelativefluorideconcentrationwas1000timesthatofberyllium.”BobTumbleson,PublicandTechnicalInformationService.“PublicRelationsProblemsinConnectionwithOccupationalDiseasesintheBerylliumIndustry,”p.18,Medicine,HealthandSafety—Beryllium(1947–1948),RG326.

49. MemofromBobTumblesontoMorseSalisbury,“CurrentStatusoftheBerylliumProblem,”January26,1948.“AlthoughthefourneighborhoodcasesappearedatBrushinLorain,thereporterfromtheClevelandPRESSinterviewed[AECofficial]WyndeckeratClifton,Painesville....WyndeckertriedtoquiethimbysayingthatalargepartoftheirworkwasbeingdoneforAECandhencewassecret.”RG326Medicine,HealthandSafety—Beryllium(1947–1948)NationalArchive.

50. Turnerreported:“Controlexperimentswithelectrolyticdustproducedwithfluorides,butintheabsenceofBeryllium,causedthesamesymptomsandmortality.Itisevident,therefore,thatelectrolyticdustowesitstoxicitypri-marilytothehalogenradical[fluoride]andnottoitscontentofBeryllium.”RobertA.N.Turner,ResidentSafetyEngineer,MadisonSquareArea,Man-hattanEngineerDistrict,“TheToxicityofBerylliumandItsSalts,”p.2,“OakRidgeCopy,”Box39,Accession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

51. RobertA.N.Turner,ResidentSafetyEngineer,MadisonSquareArea,Man-hattanEngineerDistrict,“PoisoningbyVaporsofBerylliumOxyfluorides,”p.1,“OakRidgeCopy,”Box39,Accession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

52. SeeRochesterAEP,minutesof“TheSecondProgressMeetingonBeryl-liumToxicity,”February5and6,1947.Also,“TheFirstProgressMeetingonBerylliumToxicity”:0.5mg/kgof“5BeO-7BeF2”killedrats,while0.75mg/kgofintravenousberylliumfluorideandberylliumoxyfluoridekilledrabbits.“Injectionofberylliumoxyfluoride...causedhistologicdamagetothekidneyprobablyasaresultofthefluoridemoiety.”(5.0mg/kgBeSO4,berylliumsulfate,killedrats.)Thismeetingproducedacrucialdetermi-nationofapermissiblelimitof1.5mgof beryllium compound(underlinedinoriginal)per10m3ofair.Bynotspecifyingwhichcompound,publicnoticewasnotmadeofthespecificandmoretoxicnatureofthefluoridecompounds,itseems.Indeed,justdayslater,theheadoftheRochesterAEP,HerbertStokinger,madearecommendationof1.5mgofberylliumper10m3totheAECforthe“MaximalpermissibleLimitofExposuretoBeryl-lium.”Hedoesnotmentionnorcitethefluoridetoxicityresultsbutratherusesfiguresfromtheberylliumsulfatecompound,whichRochesterhad

determinedtobetentimeslesstoxic.Stokingeradds,“Thesuggestedlevelpermitsaneasilyattainedlimitbothasregardsventilatorandventilatingsystem.”H.E.StokingertoFredBryan,February18,1947,Rochester,400.112(Pharmacology)Beryllium,Box48,NewYorkOperationsOffice,68F0036,Accession#4kr326-83-010,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

Also,researchersatRochesterandatthePHSdidnotfindmuchtoxiceffect,chronicoracute,withpureberyllium,whichfactallowedindustrytodenythattherewasanygreatproblemfromberylliumpoisoning.AhintattheagendaoftheRochestergroupandofDr.HaroldHodgeinparticularcomesfromoneoftheleadingscientistsonberylliumtoxicity,Dr.HarrietHardy.“Thoseresponsibleforthemedico-legalaffairsoftheAECshouldconsidertheproblemofthedisabilityinvolvedinthegrowinggroupofindi-vidualswithchronicberylliumdisease,”shewritesandaddsthat“casesofchronicberylliumpoisoningarebeinguncovereddailyfromavarietyofremoteandapparentlyslightberylliumexposures.”However,Hardywrites,while“Thechronicdiseaseiscertainlyourmostpressingproblem,andatpresentthewholeweightoftheRochesterwork,ifIunderstoodDr.Hodge,isontheacutemanifestation....Icannotunderstandthedefeatistattitudeaboutproducingchronicchangesinanimalswithberylliumcompoundssufficientlyapproximatetothehumanpathology.”Dr.HardytoDr.Warren

“RecenttripstoClevelandandRochester,”September13,1949,DOEOpen-net#1153735.

“Thus,wehaveakindofexplosiveactionwiththeformationoffluorineinstatusnascendi,”Turnerstated.“Hencethedeeperandmostimportant,moreprolongedactionofthisgasincomparisonwiththatwhichweseefol-lowingtheinhalationnotonlyofoxidesofnitrogenandchlorinebutalsovaporsoffluorineorhydrofluoricacid,”p.6“Theactionofthefluorineinsuchconditionsisespeciallystrongandprolonged,”Turneradds,“whichinfactconditionsthespecificityofthepictureofpoisoningbyBerylliumoxyfluoride.”RobertA.N.Turner,ResidentSafetyEngineer,MadisonSquareArea,ManhattanEngineerDistrict“PoisoningbyVaporsofBeryl-liumOxyfluorides.”

53. AlthoughtheMaximumAllowableConcentration(MAC)forUO2F2hadbeenofficiallysetbythegovernmentat50microgramsofuraniumpercubicmeter,nevertheless,“thelowestconcentrationofthesecompoundsthatwillgiveauniformlypositiveresponseinallanimalshasnotbeencriti-callyestablished.”HodgeandVoegtlin,eds.,Pharmacology and Toxicology of Uranium Compounds,p.2203.Hodge’sresearchersproducedrenalinjuryinadogateven50micrograms/cum.Dogswerejudgedtohave“unusualsusceptibility.”Also,HaroldC.HodgeandCarlVoegtlinattheUniversityofRochestertoLt.Col.H.L.FriedellatOakRidge,April26,1945.Md3,Md700,GeneralEssays,Lectures,Box34,ManhattanEngineerDistrictAccession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

54. “Uranylfluorideisconsideredoneofthemosttoxicuraniumcompounds,”wroteHaroldHodge,Pharmacology and Toxicology of Uranium Compounds,

p.33.Also,“Itwasenvisionedthatexposuresofhumanbeingstothiscom-poundwouldoccurmostlybyinhalationandalmostsolelytothefumes,UO2FO2andHF,produceduponitsreleaseintotheair.Suchexposuremighttaketheformofeitheraccidentalhighconcentrationsforarelativelyshorttime,possiblyrepeatedseveraltimesduringamonth,oroflowlevel,con-tinuousexposuresthroughouttheperiodofemploymentarisingfromthelossofsmallamountsofmaterialfromsystemscontainingUF6.”Pharma-cology and Toxicology of Uranium Compounds,p.1492.

DangerouslevelsoffluoridewerequicklydetectedinK25plantwork-ers’urine.Intheearlysummerof1952,forexample,almost10percentofemployeestestedhadtoomuchfluorideintheirbodies,doctorsreported.Andthepoisoningwasgettingworse,“theresultofanincreaseinthemag-nitudeandfrequencyofindividualexposuretofluorideandfluorinatedcompounds,”officialsadded.Of535workers,58tested.“SanitizedversionofK-25PlantQuarterlyReportforFourthFiscalQuarterApril1–June30,1952,”p.E-9,ORF1000605,OakRidge,DOEPublicReadingRoom.

55. LettertoRalphRosenoftheKellexCorporation,whichbuilttheK-25plant.FerrytoldDr.Rosenitwas“likely”thattheconcentrationsofgaswouldbeator“near”thelevelsetforchronicexposure.(However,theMACforUO2F2wasthensetat150microgramspercubicmeter.Thatlevelwasreducedto50microgramsin1948,althoughUniversityofRochesterscientistsfoundkidneydamageindogsatthatleveltoo;seenote53above.Noinforma-tionwasfoundonwhethertheconditionsinsidethecoldtrapchamberchangedafter1948astheMACwasraised.)CaptainJohnL.FerrytoDr.RalphRosen,KellexCorporation,June16,1944.SafetyProgramProtectionAgainstHazards,Book1,6/25/42–7/31/44,Md729.3,Box55,Accession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.AsimilarhazardfacedworkersattheHar-shawChemicalplant,whomadeuraniumhexafluorideforshipmenttoOakRidge.“Workmeninhale616[codeforhexafluoride]whendisconnectingthereceiversfromthereactors,”notedareport.“Acloudofhydrolyzed616escapesduringthisoperationandisnotentirelyvented,”thememoadded.MemofromCapt.B.J.Mears,theMadisonSquareArea,October11,1945,toCaptainFredA.Bryan,MedicalSection,ManhattanDistrict,OakRidgeTennessee.Subject:UrinalysisonHarshawChemicalCompanyWorkers.

56. Tape-recordedinterviewwithJoeHarding. 57. Severalaccountsmentionthenoiseandheatinsidethegaseousdiffusion

plant.Anearlyreportdetermininghowlongmencouldtolerateworkinginthe“cells”notestemperaturesof118degreesFandstatesthat“Entranceintoacellwhichisinoperationisadramaticexperiencetotheuninitiated,apttobeassociatedwithsomeemotionalism.Thenoisewithinthecellmightberesponsibleforpartofthelightheadednessexperienced,althoughthesymptomisalsorecognizedasaresultofsevereheatexposure.”“PermissibleWorkPeriodsinCells,”Box9,Accession#72C2386,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

58. AccidentswerefrequentatK-25.Forexample,“OnApril1,areleaseoccurredinBuildingK-1004-Awhenacylindercontaining2,559gramsofuranium

hexafluoridebecameoverheatedduringamaterialtransferringoperation,releasingtheentirecontentsofthecylinder.”SanitizedversionofK-25PlantQuarterlyReportforFourthFiscalQuarterApril1–June30,1952.InORF100605OakRidgeDOEPublicReadingRoom.Also,“OnDecember30th[1953]...atotalof2,506poundsofuraniumhexafluoride...wasreleased[whenacylinderfailed],contaminatingallofBuildingK-27...thegaswasspreadwidelybeforetheventilatingsystemcouldbeshutdown.”K-959—PlantQuarterlyReportforSecondFiscalQuarter,October1–December31,1952,p.C-12,inORF18729,OakRidge,DOEPublicReadingRoom.

59. Anotherworker,SamRayofLucasville,Ohio,toldCongressinSeptember2000that“Compressorswouldmalfunctionandprocessgas(UF6)wouldleaktotheatmosphere.Ononeoccasion,itwassobadthatitlookedlikeafogmovingupthemilelongbuilding....Wehavehadmanysmallreleasesthatwereneverreported,aswellasdocumentedlargereleases.Insideofthewithdrawalroomwehadamajorrelease.Thereweregreen‘icicles’hangingintheroomfromcrystallizeuraniumhexafluoride.”Healsotoldthemthat

“processgaseswereroutinelyventedtotheatmosphere”and“fluorinegasesfromtheplantstackareawerefrequentandresultedinnumerouscomplaintsfromworkersinthearea,especiallyduringtemperatureinversions.”Com-pensationforIllnessesRealizedbyDepartmentofEnergyWorkersDuetoExposuretoHazardousMaterials.HearingbeforetheSubcommitteeonImmigrationandClaimsoftheCommitteeontheJudiciaryHouseofRep-resentatives106thCongress,serialno.132,p.210.

60. Col.StaffordWarrentoDr.FredBryan,September24,1947,DOEstamp000019,ACHRE,RG220.

61. ReportofMeetingofClassificationBoardDuringWeekofSeptember8,1947,BoxSO9FO1B22,ACHRE,RG220.SeealsohandwrittenletterinACHREfilesfromanunnamedfluorideworkerwhoworkedatPortsmouthGas-eousDiffusionPlantinPiketon,Ohio,inthe1950s.Hewrites:“Intheearlyyearsweusedtotalkaboutyoungpeopledyingfromcancerandleukemiathatworkedattheplantandwonderedifitwasduetoworkingthere.”DOEdocument#000010,BoxS0901B146,ACHRE,RG220.

62. Anadditionalfiveworkerswerepoisonedby“fluorineanalogsofphosgene,”plantoperatorsatUnionCarbideclaimed,causedby“pyrolysisoffluoro-carbonsandfluorolubes.”PhosgenecanbeproducedwhenFreongasisexposedtoveryhightemperatures.“SummaryofK-25chemicalhazards,”RHTG101001,Box219,RG326.Thedocumentwasonlydeclassifiedin1997.

“Poisoning”wasoneofthehealtheffectsreportedatK-25,alongwithrespi-ratoryirritation,burns,anddermatitis.

63. WorkReportforJune1944.To:TheChiefoftheMedicalSection,U.S.Engi-neerOffice,OakRidge,Tennessee;From:2ndLt.RichardTybout,CorpofEngineers,MedicalSection.DocumentviaPeteEisler,USA Today.

64. “AdistincthazarddoesexistinAreaC”thatlefttheAtomicEnergyCom-mission“veryvulnerable,”Kellyconcluded.Thegovernmentespeciallyfeared“pulmonarydamage”inworkers.Whilesafetylevelsforuranium

hexafluoridehadbeensetat40microgramspercubicmeter,testsshowedthatonSeptember30,1944,dustlevelsinAreaCwereashighas9,130micro-gramspercubicmeter—228timestheofficialtolerancelevel.March1,1945,lettertoHarshawmanagerFredBeckerfromRichardTybout,1stLt.CorpsofEngineersMedicalSection,viaPeteEisler.

65. Roholm,Fluorine Intoxication,p.26. 66. AnalysisofthekidneytissueofoneofthevictimsbytheUniversityofRoch-

esterconfirmedseverefluoridedamage.“ThepathologicalchangesinthekidneyareaccountedforbytheoverwhelmingdoseofHFandtheacuteasphyxia.”Capt.B.J.MearstotheDistrictEngineer,ManhattanDistrict,OakRidge(Attention:MajorJ.L.Ferry.)November1,1945.OakRidgeOperationsRecordsHoldingTaskGroup.ClassifiedDocuments1944–1994,RHTGdocument#38,658,OR0034167,Box214,Vault,Bldg.2714-H.

67. Rochesterkidneyreport:“Thisreportisofparticularinterestbecause(nameredacted)wasemployedintheC-616[uraniumhexafluoride]plantandhisdutiesrequiredhimtoremovethereceiverfromthereactors.ItisinthisprocedurethattheemployeescomeincontactwithacloudofPG[processgas]. . .hewasexposedtoC-616tothesameextentasanyothersingleemployee.”Capt.B.J.MearstotheDistrictEngineer,ManhattanDistrict,OakRidge(Attention:MajorJ.L.Ferry.)November1,1945.OakRidgeOperationsRecordsHoldingTaskGroup,classifieddocuments1944–1994,RHTGdocument#38,658,OR0034167,Box214,Vault,Bldg.2714-H.

68. P.DaleandH.B.McCauley,“AStudyofDentalConditionsinWorkersExposedtoDiluteandAnhydrousHydrofluoricAcidinProduction,”Decem-ber31,1943,FileG-118,NewYorkOperationsResearchandMedicineDivi-sion,Correspondence1945–1952,Box28–47,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

Also,onrace:“SpecimensshowinglargeamountofT[codeforura-nium]areusuallyfromthecoloredemployees,”notedanOctober1945memofromManhattanProjectCapt.B.J.Mears.“Becauseoftheirlackofpersonalresponsibility,”Mearscomplained,“thisofficerrecommendedthatthesespecimensbecollectedbeforetheemployeestartstowork.”Ofcourse,ifworkersgaveurinespecimensbeforetheirshiftbegan,itwouldhavetheeffectofmeasuringandrecordinglowerlevelsoftoxicexposurethantheywereactuallyreceiving.Capt.Mearsdiscriminatedbetweentheblackworkersand“employeeswhocanbetrusted.”Theywereallowedtogiveurineattheendoftheirshift.Perhapsmoreimportantly,those“trusted”workers,“consistentlyshowTvalueswellbelow1mgperliter.”MemofromCapt.B.J.Mears,theMadisonSquareArea,October11,1945,toCaptainFredA.Bryan,MedicalSection,ManhattanDistrict,OakRidgeTennes-see.Subject:UrinalysisonHarshawChemicalCompanyWorkers,viaPeteEisler.

69. P.DaleandH.B.McCauley,J. Am. Dent. Assoc.,vol.37,no.2(August1948),p.132.

70. Fedorformedaunionsafetycommittee,thencontactedtheOhioDivisionofSafetyandHealthandpersuadedthatofficetodoastudyofconditionsin

thefluorideplant.Thestateinspectorsfoundfluoridelevelsashighas6andeven18ppm.Stateregulationpermitted3partspermillion.In1949FedorsubmittedthefirstmotiontoanAmericanFederationofLabornationalconvention,seekinggreaterunioninvolvementinoccupationalsafetyissues.Authorinterview,October2001.

71. Despitemultiplewarningsfromfederalandstategovernment,theindustrialaccidents,andpressurefromJohnFedor’ssafetycommittee,Harshaw’sman-agementseemedstrangelyunmoved.“OurplanthourlysafetycommitteehasbeenquiteconcernedaboutourHFproblems,andIbelieveareexag-geratingthem,asIbelievethehazardsinAreaChavebeenexaggerated,”VicePresidentC.S.ParkewrotetotheAECofficialW.E.KellyonFebru-ary3,1948.“Ispeaksomewhatasalayman,butwehavemanufacturedHFfluoridesforfortyyears.Itisonlylatelythatoccupationaldiseasehasbeensuspected.Twoofourmenarereputedtohavefluorosis,butnobodycantellushowthishasharmedthem.Infact,theinferencebysomedoctorsisthattheyhavebenefited.Certainlythesituationisnothingtogetalarmedat.”C.S.ParketoW.E.Kelly,February3,1948.AECdocumentviaPeteEisler.

72. SecretlythegovernmentwasintenselyinterestedinthemedicalfateoftheAreaCworkers.Whentheplantfinallyclosedin1952,AECdoctorspro-posedcovertly“keepingtabs”onformeremployees—withoutlettingthemenandwomenknowwhytheywerebeingwatched.“Theultimateobjec-tiveistodeterminetheincidenceoflungcancer...tojustifythecurrentM.A.C.’s[maximumallowableconcentrationsintheotherAECplants],”Dr.RoyE.Albert,theAssistantChiefoftheDivisionofBiologyandMedi-cine,explainedina1955lettertotheUniversityofRochester’sDr.LouisH.Hempleman.“Wehaverackedourbrainsforanyusefulsubterfugeincar-ryingoutthestudybutnonecametomindwhichcouldpossiblyholdwaterforanylengthoftime,”headded.

ThesubterfugetheyusedintheendtoexamineformerworkersattheClevelandCityHospitalwasexplainedtoahospitaldoctor,Dr.RobertR.Stahl.“Toputitbaldly,”AlbertwroteDr.StahlonAugust1,1955,“Ithinkwearefundamentallyinterestedintheautopsydata,theexaminationpro-grambeingamechanismtokeeptabsonthepeopleinvolvedinthesurvey.”Extremecarewasneeded.Iftoomuchmedicaldataweregatheredfromtheworkers,“therewouldbeadistinctriskofstimulatinglawsuitsagainsttheAtomicEnergyCommission,”Dr.AlbertemphasizedtoDr.JosephT.WearnattheSchoolofMedicineatWesternReserveUniversityinCleveland,whowouldsupervisethe“study.”

Theplanfellthrough.Dr.StahlwasappalledwhenhereadtheAECproposal.Hepushedthegovernmentmenaway,withanadmonitionaboutmedicalethics.“Theprojectprotocol...grosslymisrepresentsthetypeofinformationthatAECisapparentlyattemptingtoobtain,”Dr.StahltoldDr.Albert.“Basically,”headded,“ahealthsurveyisbeingusedasa‘front’forobtainingsuchautopsydata...sincethisisthebasicmotiveinvolved

neitherDr.Scottnormyselfareinterestedinsuchaproject.”TheAEChadwantedtokeepthemen’srecordssecret.“Allowmetoremindyou,”Stahladded,“thataphysicianhasalegalresponsibilitytowardanypatientseentokeepthispatient’srecordsinhisfiles.”File092694-a,BoxS09501B196,ACHRE,RG220.

Onedisturbingaspectofthisproposedstudyisthenumberofpeoplewhoappeartohaveknownofthegravityoftheworkers’exposure.Forexample,aMay7,1953,memototheExecutiveofficeoftheCDC,fromAlexanderD.Longmuir,chiefofthePHSEpidemiologyBranch,states,“ThursdaymorningIreceivedatelephonecallfromDr.RoyE.Albert,MedicalOfficer,NewYorkOperationsOffice,AEC,70ColumbusAvenue,NewYorkCity.Dr.Albertcalledmeatthesuggestionofmypersonalfriend,Dr.DavidD.Rutstein,ProfessorofPreventiveMedicineHarvardMedicalSchool,becausehefeltwemightbeinterestedinaproposalhehadtomake.Hisproposalwasthedesirabilityofafollowupofbetween400and600employeesoftheHarshawChemicalCompanyinCleveland,Ohio.Theseemployeeswereexposedforaperiodoffromonetothreeyearsin1945,1946,and1947to600timesthetolerancedoseofradioactivedust,resultingfromtheprocessingofuraniumandradon....InviewofreportsfromEurope,thaturaniumminerssufferanexceptionallyhighincidenceofcancerofthelung,Dr.Albertandhisadvisorygroupsrecommendthattheseemployeesalsobestudiedforthesamecondition.”Memocc’dDr.RoyEAlbertandDr.AlexanderGilliam.MedicineHealthandSafety,AEC,RG326.

73. StaffordL.Warren,The Role of Radiology in the Development of the Atomic Bomb,p.856.DOEOpennetaccession#NV0729054.

74. IntheofficialreviewofthematerialreleasesfromOakRidgeandtherela-tionshiptocommunityhealtheffects,fluorideemissionswerenot even considered,anomissionthatconcernedatleastonetopscientist.LettertoDr.KowethaA.Davidson,ChairOakRidgeReservationHealthEffectsSubcommittee,OakRidgeNationalLaboratory,fromKathleenM.Thiessen,PhDSeniorScientist,SENES,OakRidge,January16,2001.Re:OakRidgeReservationHealthEffectsSubcommitteeandreviewoftheOakRidgeDoseReconstruction.Thiessenwrotethat“thereareanumberofcontaminantsthatwereneverevaluatedquantitativelyduringeithertheOakRidgeDoseReconstruction(1994–2000)ortheprecedingPhaseIDoseReconstructionFeasibilityStudy(1992–1993)....[I]tisclear...thatthefluorineandfluo-ridereleasesfromK-25alonewereverylarge....Itismyprofessionalopin-ionthatthehistoricalfluorineandfluoridereleasesfromtheK-25andY-12sitesshouldbeassessedquantitatively,bothwithrespecttotheamountsofmaterialusedandreleased,andwithrespecttothepotentialhealthimpli-cationsforoff-siteindividuals.”cc:RearAdmiralRobertWilliams,ATSDR,Mr.JackHanley,ATSDR.

75. Paducahbeganproductionin1954.AtPortsmouth,Ohio,whichopenedin1954,“thequantityoffluorinetobereleasedwassteadilyincreasingandthatthisfluorinecouldnotbecontainedinanyholdingdrum,butmustbevented

tokeepthecascadeinproperoperation.”MemotoH.LCatersontoK.H.Hart,“VentingofFluorinefromtheX-326Building,October3,1955,1089/120”citedinArjunMakhijani,BerndFranke,andMiltonHoenig,Preliminary Estimates of Emissions of Radioactive Materials and Fluorides to the Air from the Portsmouth Gaseous Diffusion Plant, 1954–1984 (unpublished),p.19.

76. SeveraloftheAreaCworkersreferredtothebridgedamageandtothepainttarnishingoncars.TheSierraClubfiledalawsuitfor$9,960,000inCuyahogaCountyCommonPleasCourtalleging“fluoridefumesfromtheplantat1000HarvardAve.,SEoverthepasttwenty-twoyears,havedestroyedthenearbyHarvardDennisonBridge.”National Fluoridation News(January–February,1971),p.2.

77. PharmacologyReport#558,MonthlyProgressReportforJune1947,BoxS09F01B227,ACHRE,RG220.

78. AECMonthlyStatusandProgressReports,July1949,viaPeteEisler,USA Today.Thesamedocumentnotesthe“disastrousDonoraepisodeoflastwinter.”

79. SadtlertoldmethatafterWorldWarII,“IwaslecturingtotheAmericanChemicalSocietyinCleveland. . .[on]‘smoke,dust,fumesandfellowtravellers.’...AndalawyercameuptomeandsaidthejudgewantstodosomethingforthemonsignorinacertainsectionofCleveland.AndweagreedthatIwouldinvestigate....IdidfindoutthatHarshawChemicalwaslettingoff,Ibelieve,HF.”

80. “Atthepresenttime,atleast10percentofthefluorinegeneratedforuseinthemanufactureofuraniumhexafluorideisunavoidablylostintheventgasesfromtheprocess.Therecoveryofthisfluorinehasbecomeofprimeimportancesincetheexpansionoftheuraniumhexafluoridemanufacturingfacilitiestothe48tonsofuraniumperdayproductionlevel.Theestimatedcostoftheventedfluorinewillamountto$400,000peryearbasedontheabovepercentagelostandacostperpoundof$0.65.”Memo,“RecoveryofFluorinefromFeedPlantVentGases,”March2,1955,ORF14753,ORF18718forplantdamage.BothinOakRidgeDOEPublicReadingRoom.

Fordumping,seeCapt.BernardBlumtoLt.Col.LuvernW.Kehe,“Con-taminationofWaterinPoplarCreek,”August10,1945,Md319.1,GeneralEssays,Lectures,Box34,ManhattanEngineerDistrictAccession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

81. SeealsoChapters5and8.ForaccountsofpollutioninNewJerseyandPenn-sylvania,see“ThePeachCropCases.”Seealso,forlitigation,E.J.Largent,Fluorosis: The Health Aspects of Fluorine Compounds(Columbus,OH:OhioStateUniversityPress,1961),p.124.“Claimsofdamagetoplantsandani-malsappearedinalmostepidemicnumbersalongtheDelawareRiverinthePhiladelphiaareain1944and1945....Sincethebeginningofthissameperiodoftime,aseriesofclaimsoffluorideinduceddamagehaveappearedinTennessee.”

82. “Fluorineisanextremelytoxicandhazardouschemical.Therearethreepotentialliabilitiesassociatedwithitsreleasetotheatmosphere.Thefirst

andmostsignificantisthepotentialeffectonagriculturecropsandlivestockinthesurroundingarea....Thesecondsignificantliabilityisahazardtopersonnelintheimmediatearea,bothemployeesandthegeneralpublic.Themaximumallowableconcentrationoffluorineintheairasrecommendedbythenationaladvisorygroup,theAmericanConferenceofGovernmentalIndustrialHygienists,is0.1partpermillion.Anyappreciablereleaseoffluo-rinetotheatmospherewillinallprobabilityresultinsomeconcentrationsinexcessofthislevel.Althoughconcentrationsconsiderablyinexcessofthislevelcanbetoleratedwithoutpermanentinjury,abasisforcomplaintandpossiblelegalactiondoesexist.”LetterA.J.GarciatoC.L.Becker,

“FluorineAirPollutionatGATPlantSite,August30,1954,1089/124.”CitedinArjunMakhijanietal.,Preliminary Estimates.

83. A.Stern,Air Pollution(NewYork:AcademicPress,1962),p.391. 84. J.G.Rogersetal.,Environmental Surveillance of the U.S. Department of

Energy Portsmouth Gaseous Diffusion Plant and Surrounding Environs during 1987, April 1988,(ES/ESH-4/V4),18.SeealsoMakhijani,Franke,andHoenig,Preliminary Estimates of Emissions of Radioactive Materials and Fluorides,p.20.

Also,forlaterHFreleasesatthePortsmouth,Ohiogaseousdiffusionplant,althoughOhiohadnostandardsforgaseousfluorides:“Asof1986,Kentucky’ssevendayambientairstandardwas.8microgramHF/m3...incomparisondatarecordingsheetsfrom1973showindividualfluoridemea-surementsashighas5micrograms/m3.1982and1983measurementsalsoexceededtheabovestandard,withthemaximumoff-siteaveragemonthlyconcentrationsoffluoridesasHFaroundtheplantvaryingbetween1.94and6.09microgram/m3in1982,andbetween1.83and15.1microgram/m3in1983.”CitedinMakhijanietal.,Preliminary Estimates,p.21.

Chapter 5 1. ThreeyearslaterHaroldHodgewouldlookoutoveranotherspectacular

viewasanofficialobserverofthe1946atomicbombblastatBikiniAtollintheSouthPacific.H.Hodge,J. Dental Res.,vol.26(1947),pp.435–439.

2. Md600.914,ProgressReportsRochester,Box47,Accession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

3. Prioritiesweredeterminedbycombiningtheratingof:“(1)thetoxicityand(2)thenumberofpersonswhohadrealorpotentialexposuretoeachcompound.”Thetoptoxicologicalprioritieswere(uraniumcompounds)UO2F2and(nonuranium)F2andHF.HaroldHodgeandCarlVoegtlin,eds.,Pharmacology and Toxicology of Uranium Compounds, with a Section on the Pharmacology and Toxicology of Fluorine and Hydrogen Fluoride(NewYork:McGrawHill,1949),historicalforeword,p.5.

4. HeininterviewwithBobWoffinden,timecode04.21.13,1997. 5. HodgewasaleadauthorwithR.E.Gosselin,R.P.Smith,andM.E.Glea-

sonofClinical Toxicology of Commercial Products,5thed.(Baltimore,MD:WilliamsandWilkins,1984).

6. “HaroldC.Hodge,1904–1990,PharmacologyandExperimentalTherapeu-tics:OralBiology:SanFrancisco.”InMemoriam.E.Newbrunetal.,Uni-versityofCalifornia,webposting.

7. BiographicaldetailsinP.Morrowetal.,“ProfilesinToxicology—HaroldCarpenterHodge(1904–1990),”Toxicological Sciences,vol.53(2000),pp.157–158.

8. Aoncesecretdocument,“DetailedDutiesofDr.HaroldC.Hodge,”liststheproblemshisPharmacologySectionhelpedtosolve.Oneproblem,the

“necessityofstateddailymaximumintakeoffluoridetoavoidpoisoning,”wassolvedattheConferenceonFluorineMetabolismattheHotelPennsyl-vaniainNewYorkinJanuary1944.Hodgewasoneoftheexpertswhosetthemaximumallowableconcentrationof“6ppmasprojectallowableexpo-sureperday”(emphasisinoriginal).Folder2,BoxS09FO1B219,ACHRE,RG220.

Hodgewaselsewherealsoclearlyconsciousofthehealthtollthewar’shasteimposeduponworkers.Forexample,inApril1945heexplainedtoCol.HymerFriedellthereasonsforincreasingthemaximumallowablecon-centrationofuraniumtetrafluorideandseveralotheruraniumcompoundsinbombfactoriesfrom150to500microgramsofuraniumpercubicmeteroffactoryair.Itwasan“emergencywarmeasuretoexpediteindustrialproduction,”heexplained,“acompromisebetweentheairconcentrationwhichcanbemaintainedduringmaximumproductionandthechanceofinjurytoplantworkers.”CarlVoegtlinandHaroldHodgetoHymerFrie-dell,April26,1945.(VoegtlinwastheretiredheadoftheNationalCan-cerInstituteattheUniversityofRochesterduringthewar.)Thismeasurewasimplemented,directlyaffectingtheworkenvironmentofthousandsofManhattanProjectindustrialworkers.Col.Warrenexplainedthenewstandardmorebluntly:“Inviewoftheextremedifficultyinmaintainingconcentrationsof150microgramspercubicmeterinindustry,itisfeltthatsuchachangewillbeofdefinitebenefitinexpeditingthewareffort.”War-rentotheAreaEngineers,June1945.BothdocumentsinMm3,Md700,GeneralEssays,Lectures,Box34,ManhattanEngineerDistrictAccession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

9. AkeytextisHodgeandVoegtlin,eds.,Pharmacology and Toxicology of Uranium Compounds.Seealso,J.H.Simons,Fluorine Chemistry,vol.IV,byHaroldC.HodgeandFrankA.Smith(NewYork:AcademicPress,1965)supportedinpartbyacontractwiththeU.S.AECattheUniversityofRoch-esterAtomicEnergyProject.

10. HodgeandVoegtlin,eds.,Pharmacology and Toxicology of Uranium Com-pounds,historicalforeword,p.1.

11. HeininterviewwithMarkWattsforChannel4TelevisionintheUnitedKingdom.Interviewrecordedfor“Don’tSwallowYourToothpaste,”apro-gramthatairedinJune1997.

12. LansingLamont,Day of Trinity(NewYork:Atheneum,1985),p.251:“Thespecterofendlesslawsuitshauntedthemilitary.”SeealsoGroves’smemo,

citedinchapter4,note2,askingfortoxicitydata.AccordingtotheHarvardprofessorPhillipDrinker,amemberoftheAECStackGasCommitteeandanAEClitigationconsultant,“In1947AECwasapprehensiveaboutdam-agesuitsfrompersonnelallegedlyinjuredbyradiationsorbyexposuretovariouschemicalsused.”PhillipDrinkertoDr.ThomasShipman,HealthDivisionLeader,LosAlamos,November14,1950,MedicineHealthandSafety,RG326.

Forinsurance,seearticleforAetna’sinternalmagazineThe Aetna-izer,submittedbyVicePresidentCliffordB.MorcomtoCol.K.D.Nichols,August31,1945,forreview.“Thebillion-dollaratomicbombplantatOakRidge,Tenn.,isprobablythemostinterestingandimportantofthelargenumberofwarprojectsonwhichtheAetnaCasualtyandSuretyCompanyprovidedcoverageinwholeorinpart,inthelastfewyears....Asaresultofthisneedforiron-cladsecrecy,therepresentativesoftheManhattanProjectcouldnotevenhinttous,ortoanyoneelse,astowhattheproductoftheClintonEngineerWorkswasgoingtobe,orwhatexposuresorhaz-ardstherewouldbeinitsmanufacture.Itwasmanifestlyimpossibleforustoprovideinsuranceonanyregularbasisinviewofthesecircumstances;butthegovernmenthadaskedforourhelp,andwewereanxioustocom-ply.”Thefollowingpassageisscratchedout:“inessence,theplanplacedthefacilitiesofourorganizationatthedisposalofourpolicyholders;and,inreturnforthis,theGovernmentagreedtoreimburseusforanylosseswemightsustain.”Aetna,OfficeofPublicInformation1944–1967,Box12,Accession#73A0898,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

ForTravelers,seememotoCol.WarrenfromCapt.Ferry,March25,1944,“ConferenceinWilmington,20thMarch1944.”FiveDuPontofficials,twomajorsfromtheManhattanProject,andMr.Wm.M.WorrelloftheTravelersInsuranceCo.“Item3.Inanumberofinstances,menworkingonconstructionhavebeenexposedtofumesfromprocesseswhichgiveoffHFinconcentrationssufficienttomakethemleavetheirworktemporarily.Inatleastonecaseillnessfollowedtheexposure.”Md700.2,Univ.ofRochester(Medical),Box54,Accession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

Groves,Now It Can Be Told,p.57:“Tofacilitatethehandlingofclaimsnotresultingfromamajorcatastropheaspecialfundwasestablished.ThisfundwasplacedunderthecontrolofduPontsothatitcouldcontinuetobeavailableformanyyears.”AndonMarch28,1944,ataconferenceonExtra-HazardousInsuranceattendedbythemilitaryofficialsandindustrialcontractorsreadyingtheK-25plant,Kellexmanagementstatedthattheywere“especiallyconcerned”aboutthehealthriskfromfluorideexposures.TheK-25employeeswere,accordingly,definedbyasimplecriterion,theirexposuretofluoride,andcategorized“intothree(3)groups;thosehavingregular,casualornoexposuretoC616andC216[codesforuraniumhexa-fluorideandfluorinegas].”AttheconferenceCol.Warrenwasinformedthat

“thedecisionwasmadebyKellexofficialsthatthenamesofallemployeeswouldbesubmittedtothe[ManhattanProject’s]DistrictInsuranceSec-

tion,withestimatesoftheamountoftheirexposure.”MemotoCol.StaffordWarrenfromCaptFerry,April4,1944.“ConferenceonExtra-HazardousInsurance28March1944.”Md337,NewYorkMeetingsandConferences,Box30,Accession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

13. SeveraloftheManhattanProject’sbiggestindustrialcontractorshadbeenbadlyexposedtoworkerlawsuitsbeforethewar.Inthemid-1930sUnionCarbide—nowrunningtheK-25gaseousdiffusionplantatOakRidge—hadenduredcongressionalscrutinyandlegalclaimsfollowingtheGauleyBridgesilicosisdeaths.DuPont,too,hadwoncruelheadlinesintheearly1930sfromtheNewYorkpressfollowinganepidemicofdeathandinjuryatitsNewJerseytetraethylleadplants.

Bomb-programofficialsalsorecalledtheprewarlitigationandpublicscandaloverfemaleworkerswhohaddiedfollowingtheiremploymentattheU.S.RadiumCorporationinOrange,NewJersey,theirjawseatenbycancerafterlickingradiumfromthebrushestheyhadwettedtopaintlumi-nescentwatchdials.See,forexample,“ReviewofDocument”byL.F.Spald-ingoftheInsuranceBranchtoCharlesA.Keller,DeclassificationOfficer,February5,1948:“Wehavereviewed[“BiochemicalStudiesRelatingtotheEffectsofRadiationandMetals”bySamuelSchwartz]fromanontechnicalpointofviewandalthoughitisconceivablethatthecontentsthereofmightarousesomeclaimconsciousnessonthepartofformeremployeesweareunabletopredictthattheCommission’sinterestswouldbeunjustifiablyprejudicedbyitspublication.However,intheeventlatentdisabilitiesduetoexposuresreportedinthisdocumentshouldresultinpublicitysimilartothatwhicharoseoutofthe‘radiumdial’industry,thepublicrelationsdivisionwouldbeinvolved.”DocumentSO9FO1b22,FileDOE120994-A#1,ACHRE,RG220.

SeealsoHodge,J. Dent. Res.,vol.26(1947),pp.435–439.“Thesewomen,despiteallsafeguards,persistedintippingontheirtonguesthebrushestheywereusingtoapplyradiumpainttoairplanedials.Thoseunfortunateenoughtoretainlethalamountsofradioactivematerialdiedofcancerfromradiumdepositedinthebones;deathswererecordedfive,ten,fifteenyearslater.”Foranexcellentsummaryoftheradiumdialpainters,seeEileenWelsome,The Plutonium Files(NewYork:DialPress,1999),p.47.

14. Seeforexample,“TheMedicalSectionhasbeenchargedwiththeresponsi-bilityofobtainingtoxicologicaldatawhichwillinsuretheDistrict’sbeinginafavorablepositionincaselitigationdevelopsfromexposuretothemateri-als,”Col.StaffordWarrentoDr.JohnFoulgarofDuPont’sHaskellLabora-toryinaletterdatedAugust12,1944.Box25,Accession#72C2386,AtlantaFRC,RG326.Also,itappearsthatsomestudiesweresimplynotperformed,oratleastthatdatawerenotpublished.Wherearethepublishedstudiesofthetoxicityofoxygenfluoride,achemicalthatHodge’steamreferredtoas“themosttoxicsubstanceknown”andwaslistedasahighpriorityforbombprograminvestigation?Wherearethechronicstudiesonthevariousfluorocarboncompoundsbeingusedinthediffusionplants?Thereluctance

ofHodge’steamtoperformsuchstudies,whichofcoursebetterresembledtheactualconditionsworkersfaced,wasafrustrationofHarvardUniver-sity’sHarrietHardy,aleadingberylliumresearcher.“Thechronicdiseaseiscertainlyourmostpressingproblem,andatpresentthewholeweightoftheRochesterwork,ifIunderstoodDr.Hodge,isontheacutemanifesta-tion....Icannotunderstandthedefeatistattitudeaboutproducingchronicchangesinanimalswithberylliumcompoundssufficientlyapproximatetothehumanpathology.”Dr.HardytoDr.Warren,“RecenttripstoClevelandandRochester,”September13,1949,DOEOpennet#1153735.

15. Col.StaffordWarren,MemorandumtotheFiles,“PurposeandLimitationsoftheBiologicalandHealthPhysicsResearchProgram,”July30,1945,p.3,MedicalandHealthProblems,Box36,Accession#72C2386,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

16. Lt.Col.HymerFriedell,Memo,“FutureMedicalResearchProgram,”Feb-ruary26,1946,isfoundasthethirditeminafilelocatedat0712317intheDepartmentofEnergy’sHREXelectronicsearchengine.

17. TheRockefellerFoundationandtheCarnegieCorporationhadfundedbroadprogramsofdentalresearchatRochester,Yale,andHarvardduringtheDepression,seekingtoimprovetheterribleconditionofteethintheUnitedStates.Thereisnoindicationinthefilesseenbythisauthorthattheprewargrantingwasanythingotherthanphilanthropicinnature.

ForHodge’srésumé,seehistestimonybeforeCong.Wier.HR2341:“ABilltoProtectthePublicHealthfromtheDangersofFluorinationofWater.”HearingsBeforetheCommitteeonInterstateandForeignCommerce,HouseofRepresentatives,83rdCongress,May25,26,and27,1954,p.470.“Since1937Ihavebeencontinuouslyengagedparttimeasaconsultanttoxicolo-gistforanumberofindustrialcompanies.”

18. HodgelinkstoEastmanfromauthorinterviewwithtoxicologistandRoch-esteralumnusRobertPhalen.

19. TheUniversityofRochester’sManhattanProjectmedicalbudgetincludedspecificfundingforRockefellerprojects.RochesterOrganizationalChart.Also,ESSOlabs,StandardOil,andtheRockefellerInstitutewerework-ingonvariousprojects,includingthehexafluoridegascentrifuge.“PBauthorizationsasofMarch9,1942,1/14/42StandardOilDevelopmentCo.‘Centrifugemethodofseparationleadingtodesignofplant’PB#2amount$100,000’”and“3/9/42StandardOilDevelopmentCo.‘PilotPlantBuilding’PB#12$250,000.”Doc#310,RecordsofSectionS-1ExecutiveCommittee,RG227.3.1.TheCarnegieInstituteofWashingtonhadfluorideinterests,aswell.ItinvestigatedliquidthermaldiffusionwithPhilipAbelsonasearlyas1941,inaprecursorprojecttothePhiladelphiaNavyYardproject,whichwasitselfaprototypeoftheS-50complexatOakRidge.Amato,I.,“PushingtheHorizon.Seventy-FiveYearsofHighStakesScienceandTechnologyattheNavalResearchLaboratory.”

SeealsoHaroldUrey,ProgramChief,ColumbiaUniversitytoJamesConant,January19,1942:“Iwishtorecommendthatacontractbedrawn

totheRockefellerInstituteforMedicalResearch,NewYork,NYforworkontheseparationoftheuraniumisotopesbythemobilitymethod,thisworktobedoneunderthedirectionofDr.DuncanAMacInnesandDr.LewisGLongsworth.”AndNovember19,1942,toDr.WenselfromUrey:“IhaveaskedtheRockefellerInstitutepeopleunderDr.MacInnistodosomeworkonthechemicalseparationwork...Iwonderifitwouldbepossibletoamendtheircontract.”Doc#336,RecordsofSectionS-1,ExecutiveCom-mittee,RG227.3.1.

20. Col.WarrentoDr.JohnFoulgerBox25,Accession#72C2386,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

21. MuchofthisaccountwascowrittenwithJoelGriffithsandfirstappearedin1997invariousalternativemediaoutlets,includingEarth Island Journal,eventuallywinninga1999ProjectCensoredAward.

22. GarfieldClarkwasmeasuredat25.6ppmbloodfluoride,OllieDannerat31.0ppm.FarmerWillardKille,diagnosedbyhisdoctorasfluoridepoi-soned,had15.0ppm.ReportsubmittedbyPhilipSadtler,December11,1945.InGrovespapers,NARA.ThattheselevelsarehighcanbeseenfromH.HodgeandF.A.Smith,Fluorine Chemistry,vol.IV,p.15.(TheNewYorkExaminer’sofficemadeavailableforautopsythebodiesoffatalfluoridepoisoningsfrom1935to1949.Thosedatashowedfluoridebloodlevelsofbetween3.5and15.5ppm.)

23. Thecompany’sgiantChamberWorksatDeepwater,NewJersey,nearthemouthoftheDelawareRiver,haslonghandledsomeofthecompany’smostdangerouschemicals,withworkersandthelocalcommunitytraditionallypayingtheprice.DuringWorldWarIasmanyas10,000workershadbeenemployedtheremakingmunitionsandpoisongas,accordingtoG.Colby,DuPont Dynasty: Behind the Nylon Curtain(Secaucus,NJ:LyleStuart,1984),p.195.

ReferringtoWorldWarIaftermath,Colbywrites,“InDuPont’sDeepwa-ter,NewJersey,plantacrosstheriverfromWilmington,workersdiedfrompoisonousfumesofthelethalbenzolseries,theirbodiesturningasteelblue.AtthePennsGrove,NewJersey,plantworkerswerecalled‘canaries’:picricacidhadactuallydyedtheirskinsyellow.Picricacidpoisonsthemucousmembranesoftherespiratorytract,attackstheintestinaltract,anddestroysthekidneysandnervecenters.”Inthe1920sseveralDeepwaterworkershadalsobeenkilledandhundredsinjuredinanhorrificandmonths-longepi-sode,dubbedbytheNewYorkpress“theloonygas”poisoning,asDuPontbeganmakingthehighlytoxicgasolineadditivetetraethyllead(TEL).SalemCounty,wheretheplantislocated,hadthehighestrateofbladdercancerforwhitemalesintheUnitedStatesfrom1950to1969,accordingtotheNationalCancerInstitute.Also,theNew York Times’MaryChurchilllearnedinJanuary1975thatsince1919,330employeesattheplanthadcon-tractedbladdercancer.

SeealsothetestimonyofWillisF.Harrington,formerChairofDuPont’sKineticChemicals,United Statesvs.DuPont(1953),p.693.United States of

Americavs.E. I. DuPont de Nemours, General Motors, United States Rubber, et al.,CivilActionNo.49C-1071,U.S.DistrictCourtfortheNorthernDis-trictofIllinois,EasternDivision,beforeJudgeLaBuy,April13,1953,p.3798.ForManhattanProjectemployeesduringWorldWarII,WilliamC.Bern-stein,CaptainMedicalCorps.MemorandumToColonelStaffordL.War-ren,ChiefMedicalSection.November3,1944.Subject:ReportonMedicalSectioninWilmington,Delaware.November3,1944,Box14,WilmingtonArea,Accession#72C2386,AtlantaFRC,RG326.(NoteattachedfromHow-land,“totalengagedinworkofManhattanDistrict1122.”)

24. WilliamC.Bernstein,CaptainMedicalCorps.MemorandumtoColonelStaffordL.Warren,ChiefMedicalSection.November3,1944.Subject:ReportonMedicalSectioninWilmington,Delaware.November3,1944,WilmingtonArea,Box14,Accession#72C2386,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

25. B.J.Mears,Captain,MedicalCorps,Assistant.MedicalClearanceonTermi-natedMadisonSquareAreaContracts.To:TheDistrictEngineer,Manhat-tanDistrict,OakRidge,Tennessee.(Attention:MajorJ.E.Ferry).October5,1945,MedicalClearances,TerminatedMadisonSquareContracts,Box36,Accession#4nn326-87-6,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

26. WilliamC.BernsteinCaptain,MedicalCorps,MemorandumtoCol.Staf-fordL.Warren,Chief,MedicalSection,Subject:OccupationalDisabilityCasesObserved.November3,1944,WilmingtonArea,Box14,Accession#72C2386,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

27. ToStaffordWarren,Subject:SupplementaryReportofMedicalExamina-tionatX-Works[codeforChamberWorks]February2,1945,WilmingtonArea,Box14,Accession#72C2386,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

28. WilliamC.Bernstein,Captain,MedicalCorps.MemorandumtoCol.Staf-fordL.Warren,ChiefMedicalSection.November3,1944.Subject:ReportonMedicalSectioninWilmington,Delaware.November3,1944.WilmingtonArea,Box14,Accession#72C2386,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

29. “Memorandumtothefiles,Subject:RecapitulationofWorkAccomplishedDuringTemporaryDutyatXWorks.”1st.Lt.BirchardM.Brundage,Feb-ruary17,1945.

30. MemotoCapt.B.Brundage(throughCol.Warren),November23,1945(draftversion,accompaniedbyhandwrittennotesdetailingother“nuisanceclaims”).GeneralCorrespondence,Box36,NewYorkOperationsResearchandMedicineDivision,Accession#72C2386,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

31. HodgetoWarren,March11,1946.Md700.2,DivisionofRochester,AtlantaFRC,RG326.Forvolumeoffluorideinairpollution,seeexample,“IntheKineticsplant,MrKnowlesdescribedthepracticeoftenyearsbackinwhichSiF4wasventedtotheair.SiF4isquitepoisonous.”HodgetoWarren,May1,1946,ccLt.Col.Rhodes,CropContamination(NewJersey),Box33,Acces-sion#72C2386,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

32. HodgetoWarren,May1,1946,cc.Lt.Col.Rhodes,CropContamination(NewJersey),Box33,Accession#72C2386,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

33. Lt.Col.CooperRhodesmemotoGeneralNichols,“Subject:ConferencewithMr.WillardB.Kille.”March25,1946.GrovesPapers,NARA,viaGriffithsandHonicker.

34. ConferenceonFluorineResidues,February12,1946,GrovesPapers,NARA,viaGriffithsandHonicker.

35. CooperB.Rhodes,Lt.Col.“MemorandumfortheFiles.Subject:PeachCropCases(Kille et al.vs.DuPont),2May1946....Cc:GeneralGroves,GeneralNichols.”GrovesPapers,NARA,viaHonickerandGriffiths.

36. GrovestotheCommandingGeneral,ArmyServiceForces,PentagonBuild-ing,Washington,DC,August27,1945,GrovesPapers,NARA.

37. Gen.GrovestoSen.McMahon,February18,1946,GrovesPapers,NARA. 38. ThenotetoGroves’sseniordeputyincludesaresponse,datedFebruary25,

1946.“GeneralGroves:Thatfirmofconsultingchemistshasbeenemployedbytheplaintiffsinthe‘peachcrop’suitsagainstDuPont,andMr.Sadtlerhasbeenveryactiveingatheringevidencetopresentonbehalfoftheplaintiffsinthosesuits.”GrovesPapers,NARA,viaHonickerandGriffiths.

39. MultipletapedauthorinterviewswithPhilipSadtler,March1993.Also,accountfromThe Chemist(1965),pp.349–350;thattheSadtlerfirmhadtestifiedonbehalfofCoca-Colatosaythatcocainewasnotachemicalingredientofthebeverage.

40. SadtlerrecalledthatoneoftheagentshehadmetintheNewJerseyorchardslatergaveanaccountoftheirwartimesleuthingtothemedia.JosephMar-shall,“HowWeKepttheAtomicBombSecret,”Saturday Evening Post,November10,1945,includesthefollowingstory:“Once,inanEastCoastcity,AgentsHaroldJensenandHaroldZindleweremaintainingconstantsurveillanceofanindividualundersuspicionofbeinginvolvedwithenemyagents.”ThePoststorydoesnotgivethenameofthepersonbeingtailedbutreportsthatthegovernmentagentsbelievedthe“subject...apparentlysuspectedhewasundersurveillance,”andsotheybuiltafencetoblockescapefromthehouseviatherear.Thepublishedaccountconcludes,“Itispresumedthatthesubjectisstillwonderingwhyhisneighbordecidedtoputupthefencesosuddenly,andhisneighboriswonderingwhythesubjectdid.AndSecurityisstillwonderingwhetherthesubjectisaspy.”Sadtlertoldthiswriterthathehadnoideahewasundersurveillancebutthatononeoccasion,“IdecidedtotakethecarratherthanthetrainandIjumpedthefencesotheydidnotseemecomeout.”Sadtlerwasgutsy.HerentedaplaneandflewovertheDuPontworks,toinvestigatethepollution,furtherdispleasingauthorities.Authorinterview.

41. InterviewwithJoelGriffiths,firstpublishedinGriffithsandBryson,“Fluo-ride,Teeth,andtheAtomicBomb,”Waste Not: The Reporter for Rational Resource Management,September1997.

42. File.Lt.Col.CooperB.Rhodes,“Killeetal.(12SeparateCases)vs.DuPont.”February13,1946,GrovesPapers,NARA.

43. GrovestotheCommandingGeneral,ArmyServiceForces,PentagonBuild-ing,Washington,DC,August27,1945.GrovesPapers,NARA.

44. Gen.GrovestoSen.McMahon,February18,1946,GrovesPapers,NARA. 45. Giordanointerviewsconductedin1997byJoelGriffithsandCliffordHon-

ickeronatriptothepeachorchards.Clementeinterviewconductedbytelephoneande-mailwiththeauthorin2002.

46. C.A.TaneyJr.,Major,CorpsofEngineers,toWilliamC.Gotshalk,Sep-tember24,1945,cc.GeneralGroves,inGrovesfileonNewJerseypollution,NARA,viaJoelGriffiths.

47. WilliamGotshalktoMaj.C.A.Taney,U.S.EngineerOffice,NewYork,NY,August28,1945,GrovesPapers,NARA.

48. Maj.C.A.TaneytoGen.L.R.Groves,June1,1945,GrovesPapers,NARA. 49. Thiessen,interviewedseveraltimesforthisbook,isaseniorscientistwith

SENESOakRidge,Inc.,CenterforRiskAnalysis.SheistheauthorofSum-mary Review of Health Effects Associated with Hydrogen Fluoride and Related Compounds.U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,December1988.

50. Lt.Col.CooperB.Rhodes,“MemorandumfortheFiles.Subject:PeachCropCases,Kille et al.vs.DuPont,May2,1946,Cc:GeneralGroves,Gen-eralNichols.”GrovesPapers,NARA,viaHonickerandGriffiths.

Chapter 6 1. Time,April24,1944,p.43. 2. D.B.Ast,“APlantoDeterminethePracticability,Efficacy,andSafetyof

FluorinatingaCommunalWater-Supply,DeficientinFluorine,toControlDentalCaries,”inW.J.Gies,ed.,Fluorine in Dental Public Health(NewYork:NewYorkInstituteofClinicalOralPathology,1945),p.44.

Ast’spaperwasdeliveredatasymposiumoftheNewYorkInstituteofClinicalOralPathology,NewYorkCity,October30,1944.AccordingtotheeditorsofFluorine in Dental Public Health,“Dr.Ast’saddress(pp.40–45)statesthebasisfor,andtheprocedurein,theeffortintheStateofNewYorktodetermine,inacomprehensiveandextendedresearch,whethermassprevention(control)ofdentalcaries(undertheconditionsstatedintheprecedingparagraph)isattainablewithout inducing toxic effects elsewhere in the body,”p.6(emphasisintheoriginal).SeealsoF.McKay,Fluorine in Dental Public Health,p.18,“Newburghhasbecomeanother‘biologicalexperimentstation,’inwhichtherationaleisapplieddirectlytohumanswithoutpreviouslaboratoryexperimentsonanimals.”

3. Memorandum“SummaryofConferencewithColonelNichols,”datedNewYorkCity,July23,1943,notes,“5.AgreedtofarmingoutFlandHFtoxicityexperimentstoDr.FairhalloftheU.S.PublicHealthService,Bethesda,Mr[leftblank]throughDr.Wenzel—withexperimentsoutlinedbyDrsHodgeandFerry.”Thus,theManhattanProjectissecretlydirectingthewartimePHSfluoridestudies.Bomb-programmedicalplanners,includingDrs.Hodge,Friedell,andWarren,decidedonAugust31,1943,thattherewasneedforan“orientationconferenceonfluorinetoxicityunderauspicesoftheU.S.PublicHealthServiceorOSRD.”NewYorkOperationsResearch

andMedicineDivision,Correspondence1945–1952,Box36,RG326.Theconferencetranscriptsareinafileinthesameboxcoded“G-118.”

4. JamesConant,ChairmanNRDC,toMr.J.J.Townsend,PublicHealthService,Bethesda,MD,September25,1943;andTownsendtoConant,Sep-tember29,1943,Documents295and296,RecordsofSectionS-1ExecutiveCommittee,RG227.3.1.

5. TranscriptofMetabolismofFluoridesConference,mainsession,HotelPennsylvania,NewYork,NY,January6,1944,Dr.Neal,p.24,viaPeteEisler,USA Today.

6. Ibid.,Dr.Calvary,ChiefoftheDivisionofPharmacology,FDA,p.22.Onanimaltests,seeMemotoSafetySectionfiles,JosephFaust,Assoc.Engi-neer(Safety)January14,1944,OakRidgeReadingRoom,ORO#1304.

7. Transcriptof“MetabolismofFluorides”Conference,mainsession,HotelPennsylvania,NewYork,NY,January6,1944,viaPeteEisler,Astcom-mentatp.27.(Interviewedbymein1997,DavidAstsaidthathecouldnotrememberhavingattendedtheNewYorkconference.)

8. MemorandumtoTheAreaEngineer,RochesterArea,Rochester,NY.Sub-ject:FundsforIncidentalExpensesofMeetingon“FluorideMetabolism,”December31,1943.JohnL.Ferry,Md123(729.3),FilelabeledG-118(c),A2,Box36,Accession#72C2386,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

9. “Ithinkitwouldbeadefinitestepforwardifweforgotaboutdefinitelim-itsandcalledthem‘controllimits,’”statedHelmuthSchrenkfromtheU.S.BureauofMines.CommitteeonFluorideMetabolism,RoundTableDiscus-sionDuringLuncheonPeriod,continuedintheEvening,January6,1944.Allofthesequotescomefromthesamelunchtimeconferencetranscript.TranscriptinfilelabeledG-118(c),A2,Box36,Accession#72C2386,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

10. E.R.Schlesinger,D.E.Overton,andH.Chase,“Newburgh-KingstonCar-ies-FluorineStudyII.PediatricAspects—PreliminaryReport,”Am. J. Public Health(June1950),p.725.

11. “Itisunknown,”forexample,complainedCaptainPeterP.DaleofHaroldHodge’sDivisionofPharmacology,inSeptember1945,“whatthecriticallevelsofT,For‘P’storageinmanare[codesforuranium,fluoride,andplutonium],orwhethertheymayhaveapotentiallydeleteriouseffect.Aresuchfactorsastheage,sexandthephysicalandchemicalpropertiesofthereagentimportant?”“DentalResearchProgram”MemotoStaffordL.War-ren,September24,1945,fromCapt.PeterP.Dale,Capt.,DCAUS.

12. D.E.Gardner,F.A.Smith,andH.C.Hodge(withD.E.OvertonandR.Feltman)UR 200 Quarterly Technical Report(October1,1951–December31,1951),UniversityofRochester,“FluorideConcentrationofPlacentalTissue,”p.4.“D.E.OvertonoftheNewburghFluorineDemonstrationsecuredthesamplesfrompatientsinthatcity.”PublishedversioninScience115(Febru-ary22,1952),p.208.

13. MemotoLt.Col.HymerFriedellfromCapt.,HenryL.Barnett,February8,1946,“OrganizationalPlanforManhattanDistrictPersonnelAssigned

toJapaneseReport.”BarnetthadalsoseentheTrinityexplosion,andbeenamongthefirsttodetectthefalloutcloud.LansingLamont,Day of Trinity(NewYork:Atheneum,1965),p.244.AnH.“C”Barnettislistedinchargeof“specialstudies”attheUniversityofRochester,“OrganizationChartoftheManhattanDepartment,UniversityofRochester,”inHaroldHodgeandCarlVoegtlin,eds.,Pharmacology and Toxicology of Uranium Compounds, with a Section on the Pharmacology and Toxicology of Fluorine and Hydro-gen Fluoride(NewYork:McGrawHill,1949),p.1061.StillanothermemberoftheNewburghTechnicalAdvisoryCommittee,aColumbiaUniversitybiostatistician,JohnFertig,mayhavebeenconnectedtothebombprogram.FertigdidwarworkfortheOfficeofScientificResearchandDevelopment(OSRD),thesamefederalbureaucracythathadsiredtheatomicbomb.American Men of Science,9thand10theditions.

14. ForHowland’sfluoridework:F.A.Smith,D.E.Gardner,andH.C.Hodge,“InvestigationsontheMetabolismofFluoride,”J. Dent. Research(October1950),p.596:“WeareindebtedtoDr.J.HowlandfortakingtheRochesterbloodsamples.”(ThestudyisacomparisonofthefluoridelevelsinbloodandurineinNewburghandRochester.)Also,Howlandwrote“StudiesonHumanExposuretoUraniumCompounds,”whichinvestigatedthePhiladelphiaNavyYardblast,blaming“thefluorideion”forinjuries.HodgeandVoegtlin,eds.,Pharmacology and Toxicology of Uranium Compounds,p.1005:HowlandhadhelpedtoassembletheatomicbombsonthePacificislandofTinian,thensurveyedtheaftermathwithhisRochestercolleague,Capt.Barnett.

15. EileenWelsome,The Plutonium Files: America’s Secret Medical Experiments in the Cold War(NewYork:RandomHouse,1999).Capt.J.W.HowlandwasselectedasAssistantHeadoftheDivisionofBiologicalandHealthPhysicsResearchoftheMedicalSection.“TheManhattanDistrictOfficialHistory,”Book1,General,vol.7,MedicalProgram,p.5.17.

16. Similarly,Astcouldnotrecalladocumented1946triptoNewJerseywithHaroldHodgeafterthewar,tostudythepoisonedchildrenneartheDuPonturaniumhexafluorideplant.Authorinterview,1997.

17. “FluorideMetabolism:ItssignificanceinWaterFluoridation”J. Am. Dent.Assoc.,vol.52(March1956),p.307.

18. Asmedicaldirector,Capt.FriedellhadbeenwellawareoftheManhattanProject’sconcernaboutfluorides.OnJanuary20,1943,forexample,aftervisitingtheWarResearchLaboratoriesatColumbiaUniversity,whereasmall-scalefluoridegaseousdiffusionplanthadalreadybeenbuilt,hereportedthat“Theprimarypotentialsourcesofdifficultymaybepresentinthehandlingofuraniumcompounds...andthecoincidentuseoffluorideswhichareanintegralpartoftheprocess.”“InitiationofMedicalProgramforProjectatColumbiaUniversity,”January20,1943,FriedelltoDistrictEngineer.FriedellhadalsoinvestigatedfluoridepoisoninginworkersattheHarshawChemicalCompanyinCleveland.

19. “Informationthatfluoridesarenothazardous”wouldhavebeenespeciallyhelpfultothebombprogram’sLegalDivision,suggestedFriedell.

20. Authorinterview,December3,2002. 21. Dean’sepidemiologicalstudiesinthe1930shadgivenkeyscientificsupport

totheideathatfluoridemayplayaroleindentalhealth.AsthePHS’skeyfluorideexpert,DeanattendedatleastoneNewburghAdvisoryCommitteemeeting.

22. G-10file,Correspondence1945–1952,NewYorkOperationsResearchAndMedicineDivision,Box38,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

23. AlsointheG-10fileisaletterfromRochester’sHaroldHodgetoDr.EdwardS.RogersoftheNewYorkDepartmentofHealth,requestingmoreboneX-raysofNewburghandKingstonchildren.“Thiswouldgiveusagoodcheckon...whetherthegeneraldevelopment,especiallytheskeletaldevelopment,inthetwocitiesiscomparable,”Hodgeexplained.Similarinformationwasthenbeingsoughtfromworkersinthewartimebombfactories,whereboneX-rayswereanearlywarningoffluoridepoisoning.“ThepurposeofX-rayingtheNewburghchildrenwas,topickupanytoxiceffectwhichwouldmanifestitselfinbonechanges.”ConferencewithmembersoftheTechnicalAdvisoryCommitteeonFluorinationofWaterSupplies,June1,1944,G-10File.

24. G-10file,Correspondence1945–1952,NewYorkOperationsResearchAndMedicineDivision,Box38,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

25. Dean’sopposition“constitutedastrongminorityexpression”ChairmanHodgenoted.NewYork’sleadingdentalofficial,DavidAst,wasfuriousatthePublicHealthServiceexpert’sbehaviorthatday.“Itupsetmeagreatdeal,”commentedAst.Morethanhalfacenturylater,Aststillsfeelsdouble-crossedbyDean.AsthadbeenplanningtheNewburghexperimentformorethanayear.“IhadconferredwithhimabouttheNewburghstudyandhehadencouragedme,”Asttoldme.Tapedauthorinterview,July31,2002.Astwasthen“almost100.”WhilehesaidthatheknewHodgehad“something”todowiththeManhattanProject,heattributedDean’sflip-floponpublic-healthconcernstocareerambition.BehindthescenesafuriousscramblewastakingplacetobethefirsttoaddfluoridetotheUnitedStates’water.Deanhadbeenplanninghisownfluoridationexperiment,Astsaid.“HewasgoingtodoitinMichigan.HewantedtogetinbeforeIcould.”

26. InanenthusiasticlettertoDr.WilliamDavisoftheMichiganBureauofPublicHealthDentistry,Deanmakesnofurthermentionoftheworrisomepotential“toxiceffects”hehadfearedinNewburgh.“Letmeknowwhatyouthinkofactuallygettingstartedonthisproposition,”hewrotetoDavisonJuly14,1944.“IstillthinkGrandRapidswouldprobablybethemostdesirableplaceforthefluorination.”Moneywouldbenoproblem,Deansuggested.“Youwouldprobablyhavelittledifficultlyinobtainingthisfromafoundation,forinstancetheKelloggFoundation,”hewrotetoDr.Davis.FrankJ.McClure,Water Fluoridation: The Search and the Victory (Bethesda, MD: U.S. NIDR, 1970),p.112.

27. “Letnoonethinkthatanyoneofuswouldseriouslyconsiderexposingthepopulationofacityof165,000[GrandRapids’populationin1944]toapossiblehazardofanunknownrisk,”theChiefDentalOfficerforthePHS,

JohnKnutson,toldtheMichiganStateDentalSocietyin1953.J.W.Knutson,“AnEvaluationoftheGrandRapidsWaterFluoridationProject,”J. Michigan State Medical Sc.,vol.53(1954),p.1001.CitedinMcClure,Water Fluorida-tion,p.110.

28. Multipleinterviewswithauthor.FirstpublishedinGriffithsandBryson,“Fluoride,Teeth,andtheAtomicBomb,”Waste Not: The Reporter for Ratio-nal Resource Management(September1997).

29. ProgressReportNo.1ofContractNo.W-7401-eng-49attheUniversityofRochester(reportoftheworkforperiodMay1,1943,toDecember31,1943,submittedbyAndrewH.Dowdy,M.D.,Director),BoxS09F01B227,ACHRE,RG220.

30. “DuPont”File,NewYorkOperationsResearchandMedicineDivision,Cor-respondence1945–1952,Box28–47,Box36,AtlantaFRC,RG326.ForPriest’sfluorineworkatColumbia,seemultiplepapersinIndustrial and Engineering Chem.(March1947).

31. P.DaleandH.B.McCauley,“DentalConditionsinWorkersChronicallyExposedtoDiluteandAnhydrousHydrofluoricAcid,”JADA,vol.37,no.2(August1948).Firstpresentedatthetwenty-fifthgeneralmeetingoftheInternationalAssociationofDentalResearch,Chicago,June21–22,1947.

32. Seechapter4,notes72and73. 33. Thepublishedstudyacknowledgesthe“assistanceandsuggestionsofDrs

HaroldC.Hodge,...inthepreparationofthispaper.”TheunpublishedversionisviaGriffithsandHonicker.

34. DivisionofSafetyandHygiene,March1,1949,JohnH.Fluker,Superin-tendent,DivisionofSafetyandHygiene,Columbus,OH,InRe:HarshawChemicalCompany.Memo,viaJohnFedor.

35. “TabulationofresultsobtainedfrommeasurementsofurinesamplescollectedfromworkersattheHarshawChemicalCompanyfrom6to13December1945.”ReportNo.5373.FromCapt.B.J.MearstoMr.F.A.Becker,HarshawChemicalCompany,Md319.1,GeneralEssays,Lectures,MedicalReport,Box34,#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

Chapter 7 1. J.Marks,The Search for the Manchurian Candidate: The CIA and Mind Con-

trol(NewYork:TimesBooks,1979). 2. SeeSubproject46ofJohnMarkscollectionattheNationalSecurityArchive.

Thereisaseconddocumentinthesefilesnotinganinterestinfluoride.AredactedNovember29,1949,letterdiscusseschemicalsbestsuitedtokillpeople.“Oneofthese,sodiumfluoacetate,wheningestedinsufficientquan-titiestocausedeathdoesnotcausecharacteristicpathologiclesionsnordoesitincreasetheamountoffluorineinthebodytosuchadegreethatitcanbedetectedbyquantitativemethods.”SeeBox4,filetitled“DocumentIndexesAbstractsandDocuments,”MarksCollection,NationalArchive.

3. “ThosepresentatthemeetingwereDrs.Dowdy,Bale,Fink,McKann,Bas-sett,Hodge,andothersrepresentingtheRochesterGroup,Capt.Bryan

representingCol.Warren’soffice,andW.LanghamrepresentingtheSantaFegroup.”Folder4,BoxS0F01B230,ACHRE,RG220.

4. “DistributionandExcretionofPlutoniumAdministeredIntravenouslytoMan,”September20,1950,DivisionofHealthandBiology,Folder5,BoxS0F01B230,ACHRE,RG220.

5. Welsome,The Plutonium Files,p.475. 6. Detailsofthosegovernmentexperimentsweredeclassifiedin1994.On

June5,1945,forexample,aUniversityofRochesterlettermarked“Secret”detailsplansfor“increasingthehumanmetabolismstudies.”Tenadditionalpatientsarescheduledfor“injectionwithT[codeforuranium],”theletterstates.“ThepreparationandanalysiswillbedonebyDr.Hodge,”notestheauthor,Dr.AndrewDowdy,toDr.W.F.Bale,ofRochester’s“SpecialProb-lemsDivision.”Theletteriscc’dtoDr.Hodge.Dr.AndrewDowdytoDr.W.F.Bale,SpecialProblemsDivision.UniversityofRochesterintramuralcorrespondence,BoxS0F01B230,ACHRE,RG220.

Thefollowingyear,1946,Hodgewasgivendirectresponsibilityfortheexperiments.L.H.HemplemannandWrightH.Langham,“DetailedPlanofProductPartofRochesterExperiment.”Thisdocumenthasasectioncalled

“GeneralPlanoftheRochesterExperiment”atp.5,whichdetailsHodge’sinvolvementintheuraniumexperiments.Documentmarked9000528,BoxS09F01B230,ACHRE,RG220.

7. Thedocument,titled“DetailedPlanofProduct[codeforplutonium]PartofRochesterExperiment,”includesasectiononotherhumanexperiments.Themedicaldirector,StaffordWarren,haddeterminedthat“fiftysubjects”wereneeded,tenforeachsubstance,thedocumentexplained,“inordertoestablish,onastatisticallysignificantnumberofsubjects,themetabolicbehaviorofthehazardousmaterial,product[codeforplutonium],radium,postum,tuballoy[codeforuranium]andlead.”Underthesubheading“Per-sonnelandDistributionofResponsibility,”asinglenameislistedfortheuraniumexperiments:“HaroldHodge.”BothpatientaccountsarefromUniversityofRochesterMonthlyProgressReports,forApril1947(M-1968)andFebruary1947(M-1954),BoxS09F01B230,ACHRE,RG220.

AninternalRochesterreportontheexperiments,“TheToleranceofManforHexavalentUranium,”notedthatforthefinalsubject,thealco-holic,theexperimentshadbeensuccessful,andthatthe“riseinurinarycatalaseandprotein”fromtheman’sliversuggestedthat,foruraniumexpo-sure,“tolerancehadbeenreached.”SamuelBasset,AlbertFrenkel,NathanCedars,HelenCanAlstine,ChristineWaterhouse,andKatherineCusson,

“TheToleranceofManforHexavalentUranium,”Folder4,BoxS0F01B230,ACHRE,RG220.

8. Dr.Sweetwantedtostudywhetheruraniumcouldbeusedin“therapyofbraintumors.”SeeBobBernard,interviewedbyNewellStannardin1975,forHodgelinktouraniuminjectionsonBillSweet’spatientsatMassachusettsGeneralHospital.DOEOpennet#0026691.However,accordingtoaninter-nalreportfromtheUnionCarbideNuclearcompany,theAtomicEnergy

CommissionatOakRidgewas“concernedwiththelong-termradiologicaleffectthatenricheduraniummayhaveuponproductionemployeeswhohaveinhaleddusts,mistsandfumesofuranium.”Accordingly,uraniuminjectionsweregiventoMassachusettsGeneralHospitalpatientsfollow-ingtheirtumoroperations,inordertoobtain“dataonthedistributionandexcretionofuraniuminthesepatients”andto“determinethepermissibleintravenousdose.”S.R.BernardandE.G.Struxness,A Study of the Distri-bution and Excretion of Uranium in Man, An Interim Report,ORNL-2304,BoxS09F01B294,ACHRE,RG220.

9. Morganinterview,January6,1995,byGilWittemoreandMiriamBowling,p.109,ACHRE,RG220.

10. AndasanearlymemberofagroupofscientistsknownastheAmericanConferenceofGovernmentandIndustrialHygienists(ACGIH),Hodgehelpedsetstandardsforthe“threshold”levelsofchemicalsandcontami-nantsthatmillionsofcitizensbreatheinfactoriesandmills.

11. AdvisoryCommitteeonHumanRadiationExperiments,Final Report(Washington,DC:GovernmentPrintingOffice,1995).

12. ThebiomedicalworkhadcontinuedduringthecoldwarattheRochesterAtomicEnergyProject(AEP),fundedwithmillionsofdollarsfromthefederalAtomicEnergyCommission.

13. Inthe1930sgenerallyworkershadcontractedjawcancerfromlickingtheirbrushesastheypaintedradiumontowatchdials.ThepoisoningwaswidelyreportedinthepressandguidedtheManhattanProjectinitsinsistenceonsecrecytopreventsimilarlawsuitsorbadpublicity.Forexample,inalettertoCharlesKelleroftheAECDeclassificationBranch,L.F.SpaldingoftheInsuranceBranchcontemplatesdeclassifyingamedicaldocument“Bio-chemicalStudiesRelatingtotheEffectsofRadiationandMetals”bySamuelSchwartz.Spaldingwarnsthat“thecontentsthereofmightarousesomeclaimconsciousnessonthepartofformeremployees”andwritesthat“intheeventlatentdisabilitiesduetotheexposuresreportedinthisdocumentshouldresultinpublicitysimilartothatwhicharoseoutofthe“radiumdial”industry,thepublicrelationssectionwouldbeinvolved.”WhenGuttman’steamaskedin1995forthefilesoftheAECInsuranceBranch,herecalled,nobodyattoday’sDOEhadevenheardoftheInsuranceBranch.Findingtheolddocumentswaslike“askingmynephewforhisgrandfather’sstampcollection,”Guttmansaid.

14. AECMemorandumdatedOctober8,1947,toAdvisoryBoardonMedicineandBiology,“Subject:medicalpolicy,”DocumentDOE#1019707,alsomarkedRHTGClassifiedDocs,BoxRHA248-72of3,Building2714.H,Vault.ViaPeterEisler,USA Today.

15. “QuestionsofGeneralPolicy,”November16,1943,Md319.1ReportMedi-calFerryBox25,ManhattanEngineerDistrictAccession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.SeealsoJackHeininterviewwithUKjournalistBobWoffinden,attimecode04:18:551997;“Theyalsodidextensivestudieson

thepeopleworkingintheatomicenergyplantsthatmightbeexposedtofluoride.”

16. “MemorandumtoMajorJ.L.Ferry,ManhattanDistrictOakRidge,fromCapt.B.J.Mears,July5,1945,subject,VisittoE.I.DuPontdeNemours&Co.”“PreparationoftheIBMcardswillbedonebyDr.Evans[DuPont]afterhehasreceivedhisnewequipmentandtheoperatorshavebeeninstructedbyMr.M.Wantman[Rochester]....TheresultsofthestatisticalsurveywillbeavailableonlytotheMedicalSectionoftheManhattanDistrict,”Md701,MedicalAttendance,Box54,Accession#4nn326-85-005,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

17. Whetherfluoridedamagedkidneys,andwhetherfluorideinurinewouldthereforebeagoodmeasurementofoccupationalfluorideexposure,waskeyinformationsoughtbythebombprogram.(Extrafluoridewasstoredinthebonesofthoseinjuredpatients,thegovernmentscientistsfound.)AECNo.UR-38,1948,QuarterlyTechnicalReport.AlsocitedinKetteringLabunpublishedreport,“AnnualReportofObservationsonFluorides.Octo-ber25,1954.”Ketteringdidsimilarexperimentsonpatientswithdamagedkidneys,accordingtothisreport.

18. SpecialReport454,“ReportontheWorkofthePharmacologyDivision,”includedinsummarizedsubsection“TheToxicologyofSpecialMaterials,”viaJoelGriffiths.

19. RoholmtoCol.J.P.Hubbard,PublicHealthSection,Dagmarhus,July20,1945.HubbardisprobablyanAlliedoccupationofficial.TheletterisinthefilesoftheRockefellerArchive,Folder2102,Box310,RFRG2713.RoholmexplainedthathewantedtorecontactH.T.DeanattheNationalInstituteofHealthandMargaretC.SmithattheUniversityofArizona,whohaddiscoveredthatfluoridecausesdentalmottling.

20. RoholmtoFrankJ.McClure(U.S.NationalInstitutesofDentalResearch),June13,1946.OnRoholm’sattitudestowardAmericanhealthcare:DanishnewspaperclippinginRoholmfamilyscrapbook,translatedbydaughter-in-lawKarinRoholm.PersonalmeetinginNewYork,May2001.

21. “Fluorineinterfereswiththenormalcalcificationoftheteethduringtheprocessoftheirformation,”theU.S.DepartmentofAgricultureclaimedin1939,“sothataffectedteeth,inadditiontobeingunusuallydiscoloredanduglyinappearance,arestructurallyweakanddeteriorateearlyinlife.Forthisreason,itisespeciallyimportantthatfluorinebeavoidedduringtheperiodoftoothformation,thatisfrombirthtotheageof12years...thisdentaldiseaseisfoundwhenwatercontainingevenaslittleas1partpermillionisused.”Yearbook of Agriculture(1939),p.212.

“Fluoridesaregeneralprotoplasmicpoisons,”theAmericanMedicalAssociationwarnedin1943,“probablybecauseoftheircapacitytomodifythemetabolismofcellsbychangingthepermeabilityofthecellmembraneandbyinhibitingcertainenzymesystems....Thesourcesoffluorineintoxi-cationaredrinkingwatercontaining1partpermillionormoreoffluorine....Anothersourceoffluorineintoxicationisfromthefluoridesusedinthe

smeltingofmanymetals,suchassteelandaluminum,andinproductionofglass,enamelandbrick.”JAMA,vol.123(September18,1943),p.150.EventheAmericanDentalAssociationhadeditorializedinOctober1944,“ourknowledgeofthesubjectcertainlydoesnotwarranttheintroductionoffluorineincommunitywatersupplies,”theassociation’smagazinestated,

“wedoknowthattheuseofthedrinkingwatercontainingaslittleas1.2to3.0partspermillionoffluorinewillcausesuchdevelopmentaldistur-bancesinbonesasosteosclerosis,spondylosisandosteopetrosis,aswellasgoiter.”(Today,theEPApermits4partspermillionoffluorideinwater,astandardvigorouslyresistedbysomeEPAscientists,includingtheformerseniortoxicologistoftheOfficeofDrinkingWater,Dr.WilliamMarcus.)Marcusinterviewwithauthor.

22. K.Roholm,Rejsebreve Indtryk Fra USA(Efteraar1945);Ugeskrift For Laeger,vol.108(1946),pp.234–243.

23. Ibid.Beforethewar,Roholmrecalled,“itwasdiscoveredthattheconcen-trationoffluoride;1milligramoffluorideper1literdrinkingwater;causesmottledteethamongstthosewhodrinkthewater,whilethepermanentteethcalcify,i.e.,duringinfancy.Theenamelbecomeindistinct,chalklikeandsometimesdarkcoloredandfragile.Thediseasehassincebeendiscov-eredthroughouttheentireworldandcontinuestobeaseriousproblemofsanitaryreasons,whichmakesitnecessarytochangethewatersupply.”

24. Ibid.,pp.234–243. 25. Inearly2001Roholm’sdaughter-in-law,Karin,showedmeascrapbookofnews

storiescollectedbyafamilyfriendduringhislifetime.ShetranslatedthemformeovercoffeeattheNewYorkYMCAatWestSixty-thirdStreet.InhisaddressRoholmmadeasinglereferencetofluoride.“Inrecentyears,wehavelearnedthatasmallquantityoftheelementfluorideinthedrinkingwatersignificantlyseemstoprotectagainstcaries,”hesaid.Ugeskrift For Laeger,vol.110(1948),pp.221–226.

Chapter 8 1. JamieLincolnKitman,“TheSecretHistoryofLead,”Part1,The Nation

(March20,2000),inwhicha1985EPAstudyiscitedforheart-diseasedeaths.Kitmanwrote,“Accordingtoa1988reporttoCongressonchildhoodleadpoisoninginAmericabythegovernment’sAgencyforToxicSubstancesandDiseaseRegistry,onecanestimatethattheblood-leadlevelsofupto2millionchildrenwerereducedeveryyeartobelowtoxiclevelsbetween1970and1987asleadedgasolineusewasreduced.Fromthatreportandelsewhere,onecanconservativelyestimatethatatotalofabout68millionyoungchil-drenhadtoxicexposurestoleadfromgasolinefrom1927to1987.”

2. Humorandancestry;InterviewwithEdwardLargentJr.Arrogance:inter-viewwithDr.AlbertBurgstahler.

3. KehoetestimonyatMartintrial,p.965. 4. Forexample,hewasanassociateeditoroftheAmericanMedicalAssocia-

tion’sArchives of Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Medicine.

5. From1925to1958KehoewasthemedicaldirectoroftheEthylCorporation,thepartnershipbetweenStandardandGeneralMotorsthatdistributedtheDuPont-manufacturedantiknockgasolineadditiveknownastetraethyllead(TEL).In1966hetoldCongressthathe“hadbeenlookingfor30yearsforevi-denceofbadeffectsfromleadedgasolineinthegeneralpopulationandhadfoundnone.”Kitman,“TheSecretHistoryofLead.”Kehoe’sworkwouldtakehimtoGermanyimmediatelyafterWorldWarII,fromwhichhesenthomephotographsoftheNazideathcamps.Seealsodiary,RAKCollection.

TheGermanindustrialconglomerateI.G.FarbenhadoperatedtheAuschwitzcampwithHitler’sSS.BeforethewarFarbenhadpartneredinGermanyandtheUnitedStateswithStandardOil.ShortlybeforeEuropeanhostilitiesbrokeout,EthylCorporationtransferredthetechnologyformak-ingTELtoitsGermanpartner,greatlyaidingtheNaziwareffort.Accord-ingtoFarbenofficialAugustvonKnieriemattheNurembergwarcrimestrial,“Withouttetraethylleadthepresentmethodofwarfarewouldhavebeenimpossible.Thefactthatsincethebeginningofthewarwecouldpro-ducetetraethylleadisentirelyduetothecircumstancethatshortlybefore,theAmericanspresenteduswiththeproductionplans,completewiththeirknowhow.”J.Borkin,The Crime and Punishment of I. G. Farben(NewYork:TheFreePress,1978),p.78.

6. OnApril17,1952,KehoewrotetoSewardMiller—medicaldirectoroftheDivisionofIndustrialHygiene,PublicHealthService—onbehalfofninecorporationsthensponsoringhisfluorideresearch,torequestthatthePHSperformsomefluoridesafetystudiesonanimals.Theindustrygroups,Kehoenoted,“areconcernedmainlywiththeresultsofexposuretofluo-ridesinvariousoccupations.”Theseindustriesincluded“ThePennsylvaniaSaltManufacturingCompany,AluminumCompanyofAmerica,ReynoldsMetalsCompany,UniversalOilProductsCompany,AmericanPetroleumInstitute,KaiserAluminumandChemicalCorporation,TennesseeValleyAuthority,TheHarshawChemicalCompany,[and]MinnesotaMiningandManufacturingCorporation.”RAKCollection.

7. Agreatnumberofclaimsweresettledoutofcourt.Thefollowingisapar-tiallistingoflegalactionsagainstU.S.corporationsfollowingthewar,andduringtheearlycoldwar,inwhichfluoridewassuspectedasapoison.Thesedataareculledfrompressaccountsandthisauthor’sresearch.SeealsoE.J.Largent,“Fluorosis—TheHealthAspectsofFluorineCompounds,”forthedifficultyofcomprehensivelytrackingthefrequencyandnumberoffluoridelawsuits.Also,M.J.PrivalandF.Fisher,“FluoridesintheAir,”Environment,vol.15,no.3(April1973),pp.25–32.“Thenumberofoutofcourtsettlementsofclaimsoffluoridedamagetovegetationisimpossibletodetermine,althoughitcertainlyexceedsthenumberofcourt-orderedpayments.”• 1946.The“PeachCropCases”byNewJerseyfarmersinGloucester

andSalemCounty,claiming$430,000againstDuPontandtheU.S.government.

• 1946. Suit “exceeding half a million dollars” mounted against the Penn-sylvania Salt Company, Sun Oil, and the General Chemical Company by some 41 farmers near the town of Delran, New Jersey, on the Delaware River.PennsylvaniaSaltwasbeingsuedalongwithSunOilandGeneralChemicalformorethanahalf-milliondollarsbyasmanyasforty-onedifferentfarmersinNewJerseyandPennsylvania.Thefarmersclaimedthattheyhadbeenpoisonedbyfluoride—theircropsandfarmanimalskilled.DownwindofthePennsylvaniaSaltCompany’splantinCorn-wallHeights,builtbythegovernmentduringthewar,layahalf-mile-squarezonejustacrosstheDelawareRiver,“wherealltreeshavebeenkilled.”Anotherofthecompany’sfluorideplantsinEaston,Pennsylva-nia,“revealedanalmostidenticalpictureofdamage.”JohnH.ClaypooltoEdwardLargent,10/19/45;“Recentlythefirstactionsinbringingsuithavebeentakeninbehalfof26,outofanoriginal41,peachgrowers.”AlsoLargenttoR.W.Champion,HarshawChemical,4/25/1946,File13,Box32,RAKCollection.

• Immediately postwar. A Philadelphia gun club filed suit against the nearby Pennsylvania Salt Company.AccordingtoPhilipSadtler:“ThePlanthaddamagedthePhiladelphiagunclubwhichwasnextdoor—thatwasarelativelysimplecase.Thegunclubwonbecauseofmytestimony,andallIhaddonewasgathersomeofthevegetationandmeasuredthefluo-rine.”Tapedauthorinterview,March23,1993.

• 1948. Claims filed by a group of horticulturist farmers against phosphate fertilizer manufacturers in Bradenton, Florida, on the Gulf Coast, alleging agricultural damage.“Theywonalargesettlement,”accordingtoleadinvestigatorPhilipSadtler.“Thevegetationshowed[damage]aroundtheedges.Onefarmernamedthe(claprood?)familygrewalargenumberofgladioliwhichwereshippedallovertheUnitedStates.Foratleasttwoyearstheywereruinedbythephosphateroasting.Therefore,IwasaskedtogodowntoBradentontoinvestigatetheproblem.Itooksamplesandcamehomeandanalyzedthem.Theywerenodifferentfrom[whatSadtlerhadfoundinthefluorinepoisoningfromindustryin]NewJersey.Theywonalargesettlement.Ittookseveralyearsbuttheygotrepaidforwhattheyhadlost.”

• October 1948. Donora, Pennsylvania. Four and half million dollars in legal claims against U.S. Steel following some two dozen fatalities and thousand of injuries, blamed by one investigator on fluoride.Thelegalactiondidnotfocusonfluoride.

• 1949. Lawsuits filed against the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) alleging fluoride pollution.Forexample,“InconnectionwiththeplaintiffslivingintheColumbiaareawhoshouldbeexaminedforpossiblefluorosis,”EdwardLargenttoJosephC.Swidler,GeneralCounsel,TVA,Knoxville,Tennessee.Also,Kettering’sWilliamAsheperformedapilotstudyin1950ofconditionsatTVA’sphosphatefertilizerplantattheWilsonDam.Whilemostofthemenhadworkedintheplant“arelativelyshorttime

(afewmonthsto7years;av.2.6years),”X-rayandurineanalysisofthemenfoundwidespreadbonefluorosis,urinevaluesashighas27.28mgsoffluorideperliter,andconcluded“1)TherewasafluorideprobleminthefertilizerplantsatWilsonDam2)Someworkmenareabsorbingabnor-malamountsoffluorideinquantitiessufficienttoproducefluorosisofthebone.”AshetoDrE.L.Bishop,DirectorofHealthTVA,File14,Box15,RAKCollection.

• 1950 Alcoa was fined for dumping fluorides into the Columbia River. Air-borne fluorides heavily contaminated the grass and animal forage “which resulted in injury and death to cattle” and a claim for $200,000 compensa-tion, according to newspaper accounts.“OregonRancherasks$200,000ofAluminumCompany,”Seattle Times,December16,1952.CitedinG.L.Waldbottetal.,Fluoridation: The Great Dilemma,p.296.Alcoahaddumpedbetween1,000and7,000poundsoffluoridespermonthintotheColumbiabefore1950,accordingtoNational Fluoridation News(March–April,1967),p.3.

• 1950. Mr. and Mrs. Julius Lampert won suit against Reynolds’ Troutdale, Oregon, plant for fluoride damage to gladiolus crops.CitedinWaldbottetal.,Fluoridation,p.298,“DamagesforCropBurns,”Lewiston (ID) Morn-ing Tribune,February6,1962.

• Alcoahadcompensated141farmersandcattleraisersinBlountCounty,Tennessee,priortoJanuary1,1953,whenanothersuitchargedthatfluo-ridefumeshaddamagedfarmlandsandinjuredcattle.CitedinWaldbott,Fluoride,p.298,“JuryDecidesAlcoaLiabilityEndedin1955,”Knoxville (Tenn.) Journal,July30,1955.CitedinWaldbottetal.,Fluoridation,p.298,

“AlcoaSuedforNearly$3Million,”Knoxville (TN) Journal,October29,1970.

• AlsoinTennessee,by1953Monsantowas“facedwithanumberofclaimsforpersonalandpropertydamagewhichtotalaconsiderableamount”including“claimsforpersonalinjuryduetofluoride-containingeffluentsreleasedfromthestacksoftheplantatColumbiaownedbyMonsanto.”(“LastweekwhenMr.WheelerwasinCincinnatihetalkedbrieflywithDr.HeyrothaboutMonsanto’sfluorideproblems.Asyouknow,Mon-santoisfacedwithanumberofclaimsforpersonalandpropertydam-agewhichtotalaconsiderableamount.Thesecaseshaveaccumulatedoverquiteaperiodandhavebeenpendingforthreeorfouryears.Itnowappearsthattheymaycometotrialthisfall.”R.EmmetKelly,M.D.,Monsanto’smedicaldirector,toRobertKehoe,July7,1953,File26,Box38,RAKCollection.Also:“Twocouples,amanandawifeineachcase,havefiledclaimsforpersonalinjuryduetofluoride-containingeffluentsreleasedfromthestacksoftheplantatColumbiaownedbyMonsanto...Symptomsdescribedbytheplaintiffsinpartfitthedescriptionofacutefluoridepoisoning,inpartfitthedescriptionofchronicfluoridepoisoning,andinparttheyappearsobizarreastofitneither.”Memo-randumofmeetingheldAugust19,1953betweenEdwardLargent,Dr.

FrancisHeyroth,Mr.JohnJewell.MonsantoChemicalCompany,andtheirattorney,Mr.LonMcFarland,August20,1953,File26,Box38,RAKCollection.

• In Utah, by 1957, U.S. Steel had settled 880 damage claims totaling $4,450,234 with farmers in Utah County. An additional 305 claims for a further $25,000,000 were filed against the company.D.A.Greenwood,“Back-groundforStudiesinUtahCounty.”Unpublishedpapergivenatthe1957KetteringFluorideSymposium,File17,Box42,RAKCollection.AnotherfigurestatesthatthelegalclaimsagainstU.S.SteelinUtahwerefor$30million.C.Butler,Discussionin:Proceedings: Nat’l. Conf. on Air Pollution, Nov. 18–20, 1958(Washington,DC:GovernmentPrint-ingOffice),p.268.Also,PrivalandFisher:“U.S.Steelpaid$4milliontocattleranchersarounditssteelmillnearProvo,Utah,beforespending$9milliononpollutioncontroldevices,”citingChemical and Engineer-ing,vol.65,no.4,p.66,February24,1958,andW.T.Purvance,Chem. Eng. Prog.,vol.55,no.7(July1959),p.49,.Thiswriterdidnotdelveintothelegalpaperssurroundingthesecases.However,aclueastotheirultimatefatemaybefoundinanessaybyKeithE.TaylorEsq.,seniorpartner,Parsons,Behle,andLatimer,SaltLakeCity.Hewritesin1982ofaproceeding“ofnearly25yearsago[inwhich]farmersandranch-ers,approximately300strong,soughtdamagesinaFederalCourtforclaimedinjurytothousandsofcattleandsheepandtonumeroustypesofvegetationfromfluoridesemittedfromanindustrialfacility.”AccordingtoTaylor,UtahStatescientistsexaminedadairycow,Ms.Penelope,“eartagNo.G-571023,”thatplaintiffsclaimedhadbeenpoisonedbyfluoride;thesescientiststhen“testifiedonbehalfofthedefendant,[and]cameupwithoppositeconclusions.Theyfoundnoevidenceoffluorosis.Thecauseofherpoorhealthwasawirethatshehadingested,whichhadpuncturedherheart....Exceptforthatresearch...theresultwouldprobablyhavebeendifferent.CowslikePenelopewouldhavecontinuedtobediagnosedasdyingoffluorosis.Thefarmerswouldnothavehadacompellingreasontocleanthenailsandwirefromcattlefeed,andtocorrectthevariousotherproblemsthatwerecontributingculprits.Inthelongruneventhefarmerswouldhavebeenthelosers.”K.E.Taylor

“ResearchNeeds—ALawyer’sView”inJ.L.Shupe,H.B.Peterson,andN.C.Leone,eds.,Fluorides: Effects on Vegetation, Animals, and Humans(SaltLakeCity,UT:ParagonPress,1983),p.359.

8. Atagatheringofindustryscientistsandprofluoridedentalresearchersin1983,Seamansexplainedhowwartimeproductionhadpropelledawaveoffluoridepollutionlawsuitsagainstindustry.“AftertheGermanbombingofCoventryhadknockedouttheEnglishaluminumproduction,”Sea-mansbegan,“PresidentRooseveltannouncedthatAmericawouldbuild50,000planes.Thiswasanunbelievablenumberandrequiredatremen-dousamountofaluminum,farmorethanexistingcapacitycouldproduce.Accordingly,throughagovernmentagencyknownastheDefensePlant

Corporation,aluminumsmelterswerebuiltwherevertheneededelectricitycouldbeobtained...oneDPCplantwasbuiltintheSanJoaquinValleyofCalifornia....Therewere,ofcourse,nocontrolsofanykindonthisplant.Asyoucanexpect,therewasagreatconsternationintheSanJoaquinVal-ley.Vigilantecommitteeswereformed,andaninjunctionsuitwasfiled.InAugust1943,asayounglawyerforAlcoaIwassentouttheretofindoutwhattheproblemwasallabout....Fortunately,Dr.FrancisC.Frary,whowasthendirectorofresearchatAlcoa,hadseenRoholm’sbookdescrib-ingsomeoftheconsequencesofcryolitemininginGreenlandandthisledhimtowonderwhetherfluoridesweretheculprit...weallfinallybecameconvincedthattherehadbeenundueexposuretofluorides.Becausewehadtheinjunctionsuitandotherclaimstohandle,assoonaspossiblewepersuadedtheDefensePlantCorporationtoclosetheSanJoaquinPlant.Thereafter,overaperiodofyearswewereabletosettleallthecases,andthusthe‘Riverbank,California’nightmarecametoanend.Afterthisexperiencehowever,knowledgequicklyspreadandsoonwehadclaimsandlawsuitsaroundaluminumsmeltersfromcoasttocoast.Theserequiredprodigiouseffortandgreatexpendituresoftimeandmoneytosettle.Duringthecourseofevents,manysignificantandextendedlawsuitsweretried.SomeofthemorecrucialweretheFrasercaseinvolvingtheVancouver,Washington,plantandtheHitchcaseinvolvingtheAlcoa,Tennessee,Plant.”Seamanscontinued,“Therewasverylittlesolidinformationonthesubjectaboutwhatharmfluoridescoulddo,whatharmtheydidnotdoandwhatthetol-erancelevelswereforpeople.”Accordingly,“researchwasencouragedandsupportedattheUniversityofWisconsin,UtahState,StanfordResearchInstitute,UniversityofTennessee,KetteringInstitute,theBoyceThompsonInstituteforPlantresearchandothernotedscientificcenters.”F.L.Seamans,

“Historical,EconomicandLegalaspectsofFluoride,”inShupeetal.,eds.,Fluorides,p.5.

9. FrankSeamanstoattorneyTheodoreC.Waters,August30,1956.“YouwillrecalltheoccasionofourmeetingtogetherinWashingtonwithagroupoflawyerswhohaveclientsinterestedinthefluorideproblem,atwhichtimewewerediscussingtheU.S.PublicHealthService.Thegroup,whichinthepasthasconsistedofrepresentativesofAluminumCompanyofCanada,FoodMachineryandChemicalCorporation,U.S.Steel,KaiserAluminumandSteel,TennesseeCorporationandsubsidiaries,MonsantoChemical,VictorChemical,ReynoldsMetalsCompany,T.V.A.andAlcoahashadsomediscussionswithDr.Kehoerelativetosomeresearchandregardingtheeffectoffluoridesonhumanbeings.”File5,Box76,RAKCollection.

10. OntherelationshipofMedicalAdvisoryCommitteetotheFluorineLaw-yers,SeamanstoMedicalAdvisoryCommittee,April16,1957:“ThelegalrepresentativesoftheseveralcompaniesinterestedintheKetteringResearchprojecthaveagreedthatitwouldbeadvantageousiftheprincipalliaisonwithKetteringwereundertakenbypersonsofcompetenttechnicalback-ground...[to]conductthenecessaryliaisonbetweentheKetteringInsti-

tuteandthelawyers’groupbyasystemofregularlyscheduledvisitationstoKetteringandregularreportstothelawyer’sgroup.”File17,Box42,RAKCollection.

11. MemorandumontheMeetingofthePittsburghSectionoftheIndustrialHygieneAssociation,April30,1946,marked“Confidential.”

12. DuringthekeywartimeManhattanProject–sponsored“ConferenceonFluorideMetabolism”atNewYork’sHotelPennsylvaniaonJanuary6,1944,Largentwasamemberofaninner-sanctumgroupofexperts—alongwithHaroldHodgefromtheUniversityofRochester—thathaddecidedhowmuchfluorideU.S.workerscouldbe“safely”exposedtoinsidethegiantwartimeatomic-bombfactories.

13. ThephraseisfromFrancisMcClureoftheNationalInstitutesofDentalResearch.Largent’shumanexperiments,McCluresaid,“providedmuchbasicinformationnotonlyforappraisalofindustrialfluoridehazardsbutforresolutionofapublichealthhazardwhichmightbeassociatedwithuseoffluoridedrinkingwaters.”F.J.McClure,Fluoridation(NIHpublication,1970),p.200.

14. Fromthe1933levelof1.43mgF/Kg,raisedin1944to7mgF/Kg.K.Roholm,Rejsebreve Indtryk Fra USA(Efteraar,1945);Ugeskrift For Laeger,vol.108(1946),pp.234–243.

15. Mellonguestsweretoldthatfluorideairconcentrationsofupto4partspermillionhadbeenfoundinsideAlcoaplants,accordingtoDr.LesterCraw-leyofAlcoa.MemorandumontheMeetingofthePittsburghSectionoftheIndustrialHygieneAssociation,April30,1946.Stamped“Confidential.”File13,Box38,RAKCollection.

16. Seenote7above.Also,E.J.Largent,Fluorosis: The Health Aspects of Fluorine Compounds(Columbus,OH:OhioStateUniversityPress,1961),p.124.

17. “Wehaveonfileinourlaboratoryevidenceofbonechangesinemployeesinmanufacturingoperationswherethereareknownatmosphericcontami-nationsfromfluorides,”Largentnoted.AttendingtheMellonconferencemighthelpindustryconfrontsuchthreats,Largentadded.Thealuminumindustry,inparticular,hadlongagoseenthedangerofworkers’lawsuitsforfluorideexposureandhadtakenpreemptiveaction.“Itwasinanticipa-tionofsuchaneventualitythatAluminumCompanyofAmericasetoutseveralyearsagotoobtainallpossibledatawithwhichtomeetsuchasitu-ation,”LargenttoldtheHarshawChemicalCompany.EdwardLargenttoR.W.Champion,assistantsalesmanager,HarshawChemicalCompany,April25,1946,File13,Box38,RAKCollection.

18. BovardannouncedatthePittsburghconferencethattherewas“noevidencetoprovethattherewasanyrelationbetweenankylosingspondylitis[thefus-ingofspinalvertebra]andthedepositionoffluoridesintheosseoustissue,”Largentreported.MemorandumontheMeetingofthePittsburghSectionoftheIndustrialHygieneAssociation,April30,1946.Stamped“Confidential.”RAKCollectionBox38File13.BovardwouldregularlyconsultfortheKet-teringLaboratoryandindustryduringthecoldwar,helpingtheTVA,for

example,inpreparingits1953report,“StudyofFluorideHazards—FinalReport—ProjectAuthorization408.”

19. EdwardLargenttoDr.S.C.OgburnJr.,manager,ResearchandDevelop-mentDepartment,PennsylvaniaSaltCompany,May8,1946,File13,Box38,RAKCollection.

20. MemorandumonthemeetingofthePittsburghSectionoftheIndustrialHygieneAssociation,April30,1946.Stamped“Confidential,”File13,Box38,RAKCollection.

21. “SuggestionshavebeenmadebothbyDr.FraryandbysomeoftheduPontgroup,includingtheirmedicaldirector...thatitmightbeadvisableforrepresentativesofduPont,AluminumCompany,andPennsylvaniaSalttogettogetherandtodiscusscarefullythewholeproblem.”RobertKehoetoS.C.OgburnJr.,PennsylvaniaSaltCompany,May25,1946,File13,Box38,RAKCollection.

22. JoelGriffithsinterview. 23. GeorgeBlakstonesaidthatMauriceandElmohadbothparticipatedinthe

leadexperiments.HerecalledthatMaurice“wouldgoinachamberandinhale.”GentryBlackstone,whoinhaledhydrogenfluoridegas,wasalso

“drinkingsomething,Ithink,”accordingtoGeorge. 24. “SummaryofInvestigationsoftheMetabolismofFluoridesbyManand

Dogs,”Nov.1,1950,UnpublishedReports,vol.24b,RAKCollection. 25. GeraldMarkowitzandDavidRosner,Deceit and Denial: The Deadly Poli-

tics of Industrial Pollution(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2002),p.110.

26. E.K.Largent,P.G.Bovard,andF.F.Heyroth,“RoetgenographicChangesandUrinaryFluorideExcretionamongWorkmenEngagedintheManu-factureofInorganicFluorides,”Amer. J. Roentgenol,vol.65(1951),p.42.

27. TheduelingEuropeanandAmericanmedicaltheorieshadanoddtrans-atlanticsymmetry.Bothscientistshadstudiedworkershandlingcryolite,minedintheDanishcolonyofGreenland.MostofEurope’scryolitearrivedviaRoholm’shometownportofCopenhagen,whileanoldPhiladelphiaQuakerfirm,thePennsylvaniaSaltManufacturingCompany,whoseworkersLargentstudied,hadbeengrantedsolerightstosellDanishcryoliteintheU.S.DuringWorldWarII,whentheNazisoccupiedDenmark,GreenlandwasgovernedbytheDanishministerinWashingtonandacommitteeoffiveadvisers,oneofwhomwasLeonardT.Beale,thePresidentofPennsyl-vaniaSalt.R.K.Leavitt,Prologue to Tomorrow: A History of the First Hun-dred Years in the Life of the Pennsylvania Salt Manufacturing Company(ThePennsylvaniaSaltCompany,1950),chapteronfluorine,“BadActorturnsPatriot,”p.78.

28. From1939to1944,forexample,industrialconsumptionofthemostvolu-minousfluoridemineral,fluorspar,hadmorethandoubled.Itrosefrom176,000tonsoffluorsparin1939to410,000tonsin1944.SeeLargent,Table4,“TheOccurrenceandUseofInorganicFluorides.”Papergivenat1953FluorideSymposium,inUnpublishedReports32b,RAKCollection.

29. NationalInstituteforOccupationalSafetyandHealth,1975DHEW/NIOSH-76-103.Citedin“SummaryReviewofHealthEffects”EPA/600/8-89/002F,December1988,pp.3–5.

30. LargentspentacareerdoubtingRoholm.Roholm’sfindingswerenot“authenticated”and“cannotbegenerallyaccepted,”Largentinsisted.TheDanehadfailedtoshow“acausalrelationship”betweenfluorideandinjury,hetoldaKetteringroundtableofindustrydoctors.1957KetteringFluorideSymposium,Box63,RAKCollection.

31. H.C.HodgeandF.A.Smith,Fluorine Chemistry,vol.IV,p.385.Also,“Largent’sresearchisoftenquotedasevidencethatbonechanges,ofthekindencoun-teredinhighfluorideareasandinindustry,areneverassociatedwithharmelsewhereinthehumanorganismandthereforehavenosignificance.”G.L.Waldbott,A Struggle with Titans(NewYork:CarltonPress,1965),p.289.

32. “Whenonefinds,incasesofseverefluorosisofthebone,limitationofmotionoftheelbowandtheX-rayrevealsexostosesofunusualdensityabouttheelbow,oneisprobablyentirelyjustifiedinconcludingthatthedeformityanddysfunctionareduetofluorosis,andthatdisabilityexistsinassocia-tionwithandbecauseofthisdisease,whetherornotthemanisawareofit,andwhetherornothecontinuestodohisjobattheplant.”AluminumCompanyofAmerica,NiagaraFallsWorksHealthSurvey,File4,Box82,RAKCollection.

33. “Anexostoses(abonyoutgrowthfromthesurfaceofthebone)ononeofthebonesoftherightforearmandsomecalcificationoftheligamentsofthelowervertebraewerenoted”inIraTempleton’sX-rays,accordingtoDrSmyth.Healsofound“InseveralinstancesbonyoutgrowthswhichseemedverymuchlikethebonechangesseenbyRoholminthemonograph,‘Fluo-rineIntoxication,’”LargenttoldthePennsylvaniaSaltCompany.“Onthebasisofthedataandtheconclusionsofthatbookalone,onewouldacceptthepresenceoftheseoutgrowthsasevidenceoftheexistenceoffluorineintoxication.TheconclusionsofDr.Smyth,whousedtheexpression‘fluo-rineintoxication,’intheinterpretationofhisfindings,wouldseemtofollowthisthesis,”Largentadded.EdwardLargent,“ReporttothePennsylvaniaSaltCompany,”May8,1948,File13,Box38,RAKCollection.

34. BovardtoKehoe,February28,1946.Also,BovardX-rayinterpretation,Feb-ruary19,1946,File13,Box38,RAKCollection.

35. J.RussellDavey,M.D.,toPennsylvaniaSaltCo.,InRe:IraTempleton.Janu-ary31,1947,File13,Box38,RAKCollection.

36. S.C.OgburnJr.,manager,ResearchandDevelopmentDepartment,Penn-sylvaniaSaltCompany,toKehoe,February10,1947,File13,Box38,RAKCollection.

37. KehoetoS.C.OgburnJr.,February12,1947,File13,Box38,RAKCollection. 38. “FinalReportoftheResultsofInvestigationsRelatingtoFluorideMetabo-

lismConductedUndertheSponsorshipofthePennsylvaniaSaltCom-pany.”UnpublishedReportsvol.24-a,KetteringLaboratory,p.13,RAKCollection.

39. LargentwasfamiliarwithRoholm’sresearch,ofcourse,andknewaboutthesubtleeffectsoffluoridepoisoning.Duringthewar,forexample,Lar-genttolda1943industryconferenceattheMellonInstitutethat“itseemsprobablethatexposuretofluoridedustsmaybecapableofloweringtheeffi-ciencyandwell-beingofworkmenwithoutinducinganyveryspecificanddramaticsymptoms.”ProceedingsoftheEighthAnnualMeetingofIndus-trialHygieneFoundationofAmerica,Inc.,November10–11,1943,p.32.

40. E.J.Largent,P.G.Bovard,andF.F.Heyroth,“RoetgenographicChangesandUrinaryFluorideExcretionamongWorkmenEngagedintheManu-factureofInorganicFluorides,”Am. J. Roentgenol.,vol.65(1951),p.42.

41. Seechapter6fortheJanuary1944fluorideconferenceheldattheHotelPennsylvaniainNewYork.

42. TheKetteringLaboratory’s“investigationofthemetabolismoffluoridesinthehumanbody”wasfundedin1953byAlcoa,Reynolds,Kaiser,HarshawChemical,MinnesotaMiningandManufacturing,UniversalOilProducts,theTennesseeValleyAuthority,andtheAmericanPetroleumInstitute.KehoetoSewardE.MillerMedicalDirector,DivisionofIndustrialHygiene,PublicHealthService,April17,1952,RAKCollection.

43. H.E.Stokinger,“ToxicityFollowingInhalationofFluorineandHydrogenFluoride,”The Pharmacology and Toxicology of Uranium Compounds(NewYork:McGrawHill,1949),p.1021.(StokingerwasaformerKetteringscien-tistwhowenttoRochesterduringthewar.LargentcalledhimHerb).Also,in1909RonzanihaddoneHFinhalationstudiesonanimals.Hefoundnoharmat3ppm,duringamonth’sexposure,butwasunabletoreportthesameat5and7.5ppm.TheKetteringLaboratoryhadabstractedRonzaniintheirKetteringAbstractsseries.

44. AmongtheattendeeswerethemedicaldirectorsofDuPont,Alcoa,andTVA.Alcoa’sattorney,FrankSeamans,fromthePittsburghfirmofSmith,Buchanan,Ingersoll,Rodewald,andEckert,wasalsoinattendance.File13,Box38,RAKCollection.

45. Largenthadsuggestedin1943that1.5–2.00mg/literoffluorideinurinemightbeassociatedwithdepositioninworker’sbones.“ProceedingsoftheEighthAnnualMeetingofIndustrialHygieneFoundationofAmerica,Inc,”November10–11,1943,p.32.

46. “Iftherewereanychangesintheboneasaconsequenceof3ppmitwasbeneficialdepositionoffluoride,notharmful,”hetoldwriterJoelGriffiths.Griffithsinterview.

47. Largent,“AbsorptionandEliminationofFluoridesbyMan,”KetteringFluorideSymposium1953,p.92.Also,Largentreportedintheunpublished“IndustrialHealthSurveysinPlantsProcessingInorganicFluorides,”thatin“aplantdealingwithhydrogenfluoride...Oneman,whohadanaverageurinaryfluorideconcentrationof9mg.perliter,gaveevidenceofamoderateincreaseinradiopacity.”Hecontinued,“Ifallthreatsofmedico-legalproblemsaretobeavoideditseemsprobablethataverageurinaryfluoridelevelsmustbekeptbelow10mg.perliter.”FluorideSymposium,11.1,RAKCollection.

48. See2001ACGIHTLV,datasummaryforHF,“basedonresultsofcontrolledinhalationstudiesinhumanvolunteers”(Largentcited).ACGIHalsociteE.Ronzani,“InfluenceoftheInhalationofIrritantIndustrialGasesontheResis-tanceoftheOrganismtoInfectiousDisease.ExperimentalInvestigations.II.HydrofluoricAcidGas,Ammonia,HydrochloricAcidGas,”Arch. Hyg.,vol.70(1909),pp.217–269.Ronzaniwaspromptedtohisstudiesbecause“disputesaboutthedutiesoffactoryandworkshopownerstowardstheirneighborsarebroughttothecourtinrisingfrequency.”Hethereforesoughta“noeffect”leveltohelpresolutionofsuchdisputes.Hestudiedanimalsatvariouscon-centrationsofHF,including7.5ppmand5.0ppm,butwasforcedtogoto3ppmtofindano-effectlevelover31days—littlecomfortsurelyalmostacen-turylaterforworkersbreathingHFtodayat3ppmfor all of a working life.

IntheNIOSH“CriteriaDocumentforaRecommendedStandard:Occu-pationalExposuretoHydrogenFluoride,”Publication76-143,itisnotedthatElkinshadfound“workersintheetchingprocesshadnosebleedsasdidweld-ersexposedto0.4–0.7mgF/cumwhowereexcreting2–6mgF/literofurine...otherworkersexposedto0.1–0.35mgF/cumandexcreting,ontheaverage,4.5mgF/literreportedlyexperiencedsinustrouble.TheACGIHsuggestedthattheurinaryexcretionvaluesreportedbyElkinsseemed‘inconsistentlyhigh’relativetoairborneHFlevels,andthatdietaryFwassuggestedasapossiblefactor.”Citation,H.B.Elkins,The Chemistry of Industrial Toxicol-ogy,2nded.(NewYork:JohnWileyandSons,Inc.,1959),pp.71–73.

TheramificationsoftheACGIHrelianceonLargentandRonzanicanperhapsbeseenintheU.S.standardforHFoccupationalexposureof2.5mgHF/cum,comparedtoothercountries(citedinNIOSH,abovedocument,1976):The(former)SovietUnion,0.5mgHF/cum,HungaryandPoland0.5mgHF/cum,(theformer)EastGermanyandCzechoslovakia,1mgHF/cum,andBulgaria1mgHF/cum.

49. Inthatsecondinterview,LargentbecameawarethattheinterviewerJoelGriffithsmightnotviewhisexperimentalworkfavorably.Theverbatimexchangecontinuedasfollows:

EL:Ineverdiddeveloposteofluorosis.JG:Excuseme?EL:Ineverdevelopedpersonallyanyaspectofosteofluorosis—youjustgot

throughsayingIdevelopedosteofluorosis.JG:BecauseIthinkthatiswhatyoutoldmethelasttimewetalked.EL:No—Iwouldhavetalkedaboutskeletaldeposition,andthatisnotosteo-

fluorosis.JG:Well,skeletaldeposition,right—thatledtosomedifficultieswithyour

knees.EL:Notintheslightest.JG:Well,thisdoesn’tseemtojibewithwhatyoutoldmethefirsttime.EL:That’snottrue—Iwasdevelopingmorelikeosteoporosis—Ihavearthritic

difficultiesinmyextremitiesseriousenoughthattherightkneewas

replacedwithaprosthesisbutthatwasmoreonthesidetowardosteo-porosisthanfluorosis—Ididn’tgetenoughtodomeanygood,Icantellyouthat.[Osteosclerosis,thickeningofthebone,isasignofasmallamountofadditionalfluorideexposure;osteoporosisisanindicationofmassivefluorideexposure,Roholmandothersreported.]

JG:Becauseyousaidtomequitedistinctlythefirsttimethatitwasosteo-fluorosis.

EL:No.JG:Andthatfluoridecancausethiscondition.EL:No.JG:Andthatasfarasyouwereconcernedthatwaswhatitwas.EL:No.JG:Andthatyoubelieveditcouldhavepossiblycomefromthedrinking

waterinthehighschoolyouattendedinFortAmes,Iowa,backinnine-teen-whatever-it-was.

EL:Yeah.JG: Andalsothatthefluoridethatyouabsorbedinyourexperimentsmight

possiblyhavebeenacontributingfactor.EL:Factor—whatfactor?JG:Totheosteofluorosis.EL:Ididn’thaveosteofluorosis—atanytime.JG: Isee,becausethefirsttimeI’mcertainthatyousaidyoudid.EL:No—Idon’tthinkthatIdid.JG: Inotherwords,you’renotsayingitnow.EL:Idon’tknowwhatIsaidthen,butifIsaiditthenIwaswrong....If

yousayIdevelopedosteofluorosisIwillchallengethat...Ididn’tgetenoughfluoridetodomeanygood.

JG:Well,letmeseeifIcanfindthetapeandseeI’llseeifImisheardyou.EL:Youmaynothavemisheardme,butyoumaybeabletocorrectmeifI

misspoke.

50. Fluorideappearstocarryaluminumovertheblood-brainbarrier;thealu-minofluoridecomplexesthendamagethebrainstructure.Seeesp.J.A.Varner,K.F.Jensen,W.Horvath,andR.L.Isaacson,“ChronicAdministra-tionofAluminum-FluorideorSodium-FluoridetoRatsinDrinkingWater:AlterationsinNeuronalandCerebrovascularIntegrity,”Brain Research,vol.784(1998),pp.284–298.“Therearestrikingparallelsbetweenal-inducedalterationsincerebrovasculature[and]thoseassociatedwithAlzheimer’sdiseaseandotherformsofdementia.”

Chapter 9 1. CollectedbyDanHoffman,“ThreeBalladsoftheDonoraSmog,”New York

Folklore Quarterly,no.5(spring1949),pp.58–59.QuotedinLynnePageSnyder,“‘TheDeathDealingSmogoverDonora,Pennsylvania’:IndustrialAirPollution,PublicPolicy,andFederalPolicy,1915–1963”(1994).AvailablefromUMIDissertationServices.

2. Bulletin No. 306, Air Pollution in Donora, PA, Epidemiology of the Unusual Smog Episode of October 1948(PublicHealthService).

3. Donoraisoftenreferredtoastheworstrecordedair-pollutiondisasterinU.S.history.Thismayormaynotbeentirelytrue.Duringasimilarsea-sonaltemperatureinversionfromNovember12to22,1953,between175and260peoplewerekilledinNewYorkCityfromairpollution,accordingtoHowardR.Lewis,With Every Breath You Take(NewYork:CrownPublish-ers,1965),p.19.Althoughtherewerenumerouscomplaintsofeyeirritationandcoughing,thetotalnumberofNewYorkdeathsfromthesmogincidentwasonlyrevealedlaterbystatisticalanalysis,Lewiswrites.

4. AkeysourceforthischapterisLynnePageSnyder’sexcellent“‘TheDeathDealingSmogoverDonora.’”

5. The1949officialPublicHealthServicereport,Bulletin No. 306, Air Pollution in Donora, PA,liststwentydeaths.However,Snyderrefersto“dozens”ofdeaths,p.viii.Residentsreportmanyadditionaldeathsintheweeksafterthedisaster.Forexample,“Thedeathofanestimated100peopleinthefol-lowingyearwasattributedtothesmog.Also,therewerealotofpeoplewhowereaffectedinotherways.Theyweresickwithrespiratoryproblems.Inter-nalillnessandacoupleofcasesofblindnessoccurred.”AccountofformerresidentJoeBattilana,submittedasa1970reporttoProfessorGerardJuddofPhoenixCommunityCollege.

6. BertonRoueché,articleinThe New Yorker,September30,1950. 7. Roueché,case11,p.51;andfromPHSBulletinNo.306.Ceh’snameisfrom

The New Yorkerarticle. 8. Roueché,case9,p.50;PHSBulletinNo.306. 9. Author’stapedinterview,March24,1993. 10. Snyder,p.25. 11. Roueché,p.41. 12. Author’stapedinterview,March24,1993. 13. RecollectionsofMayorJohnLignelli,whoattendedthegame,in“Donora’s

KillerSmogNotedat50,”Pittsburgh Tribune,October25,1998.SeealsoPHSreportandSnyder,p.27,fordeathtally.

14. Snyder,p.28. 15. New York Times,November1,1948;citedinSnyder,p.29. 16. Snyder,p.33. 17. Foremploymentdata,seeSnyder,p.35.Forprofitdata,seeRossBassett,

“AirPollutioninDonora,PA”(December6,1990),unpublishedpaper,pp.11,21–41.PaperfromAllenKline.SeealsoPaulA.Tiffany,The Decline of American Steel: How Management, Labor, and Government Went Wrong(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1988).

18. Themainthoroughfare,McKeanAvenue,wasnamedforAndrewMellon’sbankerJamesS.McKean,whohadbroughtMellonandDonnertogetherwithcokebaronHenryClayFrickandwhosecombinedinvestmentof$20millionraisedthefirststeelworksonthevirginsitein1901.Pittsburgh Press,

March18,1934,SocietySection,p.11.Also,H.O’Conner,Mellon’s Millions(NewYork:BlueRibbonBooks,1933).

19. Bassett,“AirPollutioninDonora,PA.” 20. Snyder,p.71.Also,authorinterviewwithBillandGladysShempp. 21. K.E.Roholm,“TheFogDisasterintheMeuseValley,1930:AFluorineIntoxi-

cation,”J. Hygiene and Toxicology(March1937),p.126.Also,W.S.Leeuwen,“FogCatastropheinIndustrialSectionSouthofLiege,”abstractedin J. Ind. Hygiene,vol.13,no.7(September1931),pp.159–160(abstractsection).

22. Sadtlergatheredvegetationfromacrosstheregion,testedit,andfoundthatfluoridepollutionwasendemicandserious.“Buttonwoodleaveshadany-whereuptotwelvehundredpartspermillionoffluorine,”Sadtlernoted.Furtherafieldtherewasmuchlessfluorideintheenvironment.“Togetcleanairwithnofluorinedamage,IhadafriendwhowasaprofessoratPennStateUniversityandhepickedupleavesformeandtheyhadtenpartspermillion,”Sadtlersaid.Authorinterview.

23. Althoughcoalwasasourceoffluoride,thisknowledgewaspoorlydissemi-nated.(FrancisFraryannouncedthediscoverytotheAirHygieneFounda-tionin1946,aswesawinchapter8.)RoholmmakesnomentionofcoalinhisdiscussionoftheMeuseValleydisaster,forexample.AndtherolethatfluoridefromcoalmayhaveplayedintheLondonsmogdisastersisalmostentirelyignored.

24. K.E.Roholm,Fluorine Intoxication: A Clinical-Hygienic Study, with a Review of the Literature and Some Experimental Investigations(London:H.K.LewisandCo.Ltd,1937),chapter13.

25. WhentheseniorU.S.SteelmetallurgistGlenHowis,whowasborninDonora,hadaroutinemedicalexambeforeattendingPennState,acollegedoctortoldhim,“IcanalwaystellyouboysfromthevalleyfromthelooksofyourX-rays.Yourlungsarealwaysclouded,”Howisrecalled.AuthorinterviewinDonora.

26. TheU.S.steelindustryemitted64,600tonsoffluoridein“1968or1972,”accordingtoEPAfigures,citedbytheCanadianNationalResearchCoun-cil,NRCC#16081,ISSN0316-0114.“Coalforpower”isnextat26,000tons,phosphaterockprocessingat21,200tons,andthenaluminumsmelting,at16,230tons.Seesimilardatain“SummaryReviewofHealthEffectsAsso-ciatedwithHydrogenFluorideandRelatedCompounds”(U.S.Environ-mentalProtectionAgency,December1988).Forcharacterizationoffluorideas“worst,”seecitationsforfluoridetoxicityanddamageinchapter15.Forexample:“From1957to1968,fluoridewasresponsibleformoredamageclaimsthanalltwentyotherairpollutantscombined.”N.Groth,“AirIsFluoridated,”Peninsula Observer,January27–February3,1969.Seealsochapter8,citationsonlawsuitsagainstthesteelindustry,andchapter15’sreferencetofluoride’ssynergisticpotentialtoworsenthetoxicityofsuchpollutantsassulfurdioxide.

27. Forfluoride’schronichealtheffectsinDonora,seeaccountofresidentDevraLeeDavis,When Smoke Ran Like Water(NewYork:PerseusPress,2002).

28. B.Davidson,Collier’s(October23,1948).Butotherairpollutionexperts,suchasHarvardProfessorPhilipDrinker,hadscornedtheideathataMeuseValley–typedisastercouldoccurintheUnitedStates.“Wehavenodistrictsinwhichthereisevenareasonablechanceofsuchacatastrophetakingplace,”heasserted.P.Drinker,Industrial and Engineering Chem.(November1939).

29. MedicalexamsofplaintiffsbyKetteringphysicians,July1950,WilliamAshephysicianincharge.Box5,RAKCollection.

30. Snyder,p.28. 31. DudleyA.Irwin,AluminumCompanyofAmerica,minutesofmeeting,

AirPollutionAbatementCommittee,theChemistsClub,NewYorkCity,January11,1950.MinutesofManufacturingChemistsAssociation,fromsearchabledatabaseoftheEnvironmentalWorkingGroup.

32. OscarEwingalsoledasemisecretgroupofadministrationinsidersknowninformallyastheMondayNightSteakGroup.ThesemenmetmostweeksatEwing’sWardmanParkapartmentinWashington,DC,toplotstrategyanddiscussgovernmentpolicyoverdinnerandcigars.ClarkClifford,amilitaryconfidanteandTrumanfavorite,wasaregularattheMondaynightmeetings.SeeEwinginterviewandClarkClifford’sintheTrumanLibrary(availableonline).

33. P.Healy,“TheMantheDoctorsHate,”Saturday Evening Post,July8,1950. 34. Ewing’swaryearswerespentinaWashingtonhotelsuitewithAlcoasenior

management,defendingthecompany’sstrategicinterestsfromupstartcom-paniessuchasReynoldsandKaiser,whowerefightingAlcoa’snearlyfifty-yearmonopolyonaluminumproduction.AfterthewarEwingwasinvitedtoanintimateWashingtondinnerwithAlcoa’spresident,ArthurViningDavis,andseniorofficialsfromtheAlcoa“family.”ArthurHalltoEwing,Septem-ber4,1945.PersonalCorrespondence:August1,1944–September20,1945.

35. Inearly1947Ewingwasaspecialassistanttotheattorneygeneral.HebecameFSAadministratorinAugust1947.Seeoralhistoryinterview,Tru-manLibrary,availableonline.

36. EwingtoIngersoll,June30,1947,PoliticalFile,Correspondence,EwingCollection.Ewinghelpedfamilymembersgainfromtradingfluoride.OnJuly8,1946,hearrangedameetingforarelative,ThomasBatchelor,andPaulCollom,presidentoftheFarmersBankofFrankfort,Indiana,withPresidentAllenB.WilliamsoftheAluminumOreCompany,inregardto

“somefluorsparpropertyinKentucky”thatCollumhadacquired.PersonalCorrespondence,EwingCollection.

37. Pittsburg Press,November3,1948.JohnBloomfieldwasnostrangertoDonora.Twentyyearsearlier,asapublicofficial,hehadhelpedAmericanSteelandWireattorneystopreparealegaldefenseagainstpollution-damageclaimsbyarearesidents.Hisjobhadbeentotestairquality.BloomfieldnowtoldthenewspaperthatherecalledthathisoldmeasurementsinDonorahadshownthatindustrialemissionsweresafelydiluted.Snyder,p.40.

38. “ThereforetheCompanycomestous.”Kehoehandwrittennote,withtheword“Mr.Jordan”(presidentofAmericanSteelandWire)atthetop.Box5,RAKCollection.

39. Snyder,p.148. 40. OnSchrenk’sparticipation,see“CommitteeonFluorideMetabolism,Round

TableDiscussionDuringLuncheonPeriod,ContinuedintheEvening,Janu-ary6,1944.”ConferenceonFluorideMetabolism,HotelPennsylvania,NewYork.FileLabeledG-118(c),A2,Box36,Accession#72C2386,AtlantaFRC,RG326.Also,JamesConantwrotetotheBureauofMines,atCol.Warren’srequest,tohaveSchrenkgototheRochesterbombprogramduringthewar.ConanttoR.R.Sayers,February3,1944,Document#0291,RecordsofSec-tionS-1ExecutiveCommittee,RG227.3.1.

41. Snyder,p.152. 42. Snyder,p.152. 43. Chemical and Engineering News(December18,1948)andauthorinterview.

ThePHSreportonDonoradidnotfindexcessivedentalmottling.AuthorvisittoDonorain1993notedseveremottling.Forpreexistingcommunityhealthproblems,seeDonoraresidentDevraLeeDavis’sWhen Smoke Ran Like Water: Tales of Environmental Deception and the Battle Against Pollu-tion(NewYork:BasicBooks,2003).

44. U.S.SteelofficialsknewoftheMeuseValleydisasterandofRoholm’sreportthatblamedfluoride.CourtBrief,“EvidenceofForeseeability,”Box5,RAKCollection.

45. Snyder,p.29. 46. PeteEisler,“PoisonedWorkersandPoisonedPlaces,”multipartseries,USA

Today,September6–8,2000. 47. Allcorrespondence,Box5,RAKCollection. 48. W.F.AtoDr.Kehoe,undated,RAKCollection. 49. Box5,RAKCollection. 50. Ashe,ofcourse,waswellacquaintedwithAlcoaofficialsandtheirconcerns

withfluoride.ThatsummerhehadperformedaninvestigationofhealthconditionsforKetteringinAlcoa’sNiagaraFallsaluminumplantandfoundwidespreadinjuryanddisabilityinworkersthatheattributedtofluoride.AluminumCompanyofAmerica,NiagaraFallsWorksHealthSurvey,File4,Box82,RAKCollection.

51. NotaconclusionsharedbyPhyllisMullenix,whosaidthatifthefluorinehadbeeninsolublegaseousform,thenitmightreadilyhavepassedintotheblood,leavingnotraceinthelungtissue.

52. Themeetinghadbeenarrangedinadvancethroughafamilyfriend,Sadtlerexplained.Authorinterview.

53. AftermeetingdirectlywiththeFSAinWashington,theCIOallocated$10,000fortheinvestigation.OscarEwingwasclosetolaborleadersandhadbeenanassociateofSidneyHillman,bossoftheCIO.Hillmandiedin1946.

54. PHSmemorandum,November16,1948:“ReportofInvestigationatDonora,Pennsylvania,”toChiefofIndustrialHygieneDivisionfromChiefoftheFieldUnit,DuncanA.Holaday.PHS,AirPollutionMedicalBranch,SpecialProjects,Folder542.1(1956).NationalArchives.

Chapter 10 1. Snyder,p.70. 2. AuthorinterviewwithAllenKline,March23,1993. 3. “TheDonoraSmogDisaster,”Hygia, The Health Magazine(AMA),October

1949. 4. ThomasBell,Out of This Furnace(Boston:LittleBrownandCo.,1941;

reprintedPittsburgh:UniversityofPittsburghPress,1976),pp.356–357,citedinRossBassett,“AirPollutioninDonora,PA,”unpublishedpaper,December6,1990.

5. Snyder,p.217. 6. Followingthesmog,“Notasingleadjustmentwasmadeintheproduction

system—nopollutioncontroldevices,nothing,andtherewasnothingtenyearslater,”AllenKlinetoldme.

7. Snyder,p.219. 8. KehoetoJ.G.Townsend,TownsendtoKehoe,anddataforAshe,Box5,

RAKCollection.Also,Snyder,p.258. 9. Seechapter9. 10. Air Pollution in Donora, PA,Bulletin306,USPHS,p.161. 11. Box5,RAKCollection. 12. W.F.AshetoE.Soles,July11,1949,andLargent’sreportfromAugust8,

1949,whichfound110mgsf/kilo(drybasis)inelmleavesthreequartersofamileoppositetheopen-hearthfurnace.Box5,RAKCollection.

13. F.A.Exner,“EconomicMotivesBehindFluoridation,”addresstotheWest-ernConferenceofNaturalFoodAssociates,SaltLakeCity,Utah,October27,1961.

14. Monessen Daily Independent,November18,1949,citedinSnyder,p.170. 15. ShehasevaluatedthehealththreatfromseveralgovernmentDepartment

ofEnergynuclearsites,includingOakRidge.Shewrotethegovernmentmonograph“SummaryReviewofHealthEffectsAssociatedwithHydrogenFluorideandRelatedCompounds.”(U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,December1988).

16. SodidtheSocietyforBetterLiving,whichchargedthemillwithreducingeffluentsduringthetestsmogbystaggeringtherunofmillprocessesratherthanperformingthemsimultaneously,aswasstandardpractice.Snyder,p.170.

17. Drinker,too,waswellawareofthefluorideproblemfacingtheAEC,sinceheservicedtheagencyasalitigationconsultantonstack“wastegases.”Phil-lipDrinkertoDr.ThomasShipman,HealthDivisionLeader,LosAlamos,November14,1950.RG326.MedicineHealthandSafety.NARA.

18. A.CioccoandD.J.Thompson,“Afollow-upofDonoratenyearsafter:methodologyandfindings,”Am. J. Public Health,vol.51(1961),pp.155–64.H.Lewis,With Every Breath You Take,p.201

19. Memorandum:“DiscussionwithMr.Rumfordonhis‘StudyoftheCorrela-tionofMeteorologicalConditionsandMorbidityinDonora’duringhisrecentonedayvisittoWashington,”fromNicholasManos,ChiefStatistician,AirPollutionMedicalProgram,DivisionofSpecialHealthServices,toRecordsFile,November18,1957,Box13,File542.1,RG90RecordsofthePublicHealthService,AirPollutionMedicalBranchProjectRecords,1953–1960.

20. SnyderdescribesRumfordasa“consultant.”Heisdescribedasbeing“assigned”toDr.Cioccointhememorandum“Mr.Rumford’sReportonDonora”fromNicholasManos,ChiefStatistician,AirPollutionMedicalProgram,toChief,AirPollutionMedicalProgram,January29,1958,Box13File542.1,RG90RecordsofthePublicHealthService,AirPollutionMedi-calBranchProjectRecords,1953–1960.

Chapter 11 1. In1946CongresspassedtheStrategicandCriticalMaterialsStockpiling

Act.In2001theDefenseNationStockpile,maintainedbythePentagon,held112,000tonsoffluorideinsitesaroundthecountry.U.S.GeologicalSurvey,Minerals Yearbook,2001.

2. ThetaskforcewasknownformallyasthePresident’sMaterialsPolicyCom-mission;itsreportwaspublishedinfivevolumesasResources for FreedominJune1952.(Anannextothisreport,referredtoinseveralcommissiondocumentsfoundintheTrumanLibrary,isnotintheNationalArchivesholdings,andresearcherswerenotabletofindareferenceforit.“ThefinalreportofthePaleyCommissionconsistsofonly5volumes,allofwhichareopen,”statedane-mailfromNARAarchivistTabLewis,June26,2001.)

3. D.M.Lion,“Fluorspar,DraftCommodityStudy,”marked“Restricted,”Box12,Folder“Fluorspar,”PMPC,TrumanLibrary.Fluorspar’suseincreasedahundredfoldfrom1887to1950—annualconsumptionfrom5,000shorttonsto426,000thousandshorttons.D.M.Lion,“CommodityStudies,Fluor-spar,”NSRB6109,PaleyCommission,TrumanArchive.

4. HamanandAndersontoPMPC.Hamannotedespecially“thecompara-tivelynewuseoffluorsparintheproductionofuraniumhexafluorideforthemanufactureoftheatomicbomb.”PMPC,TrumanLibrary,Box113,Fluorspar.

5. D.M.Lion,“Fluorspar,DraftCommodityStudy.”Also,H.Mendershausen,“ReviewofStrategicStockpiling.”Only28,671tonsofbomb-quality“acidgrade”fluoridewasstockpiledinOctober1951,just11percentofdesiredlevels,Menderhausenreported.PMPC,TrumanLibrary.

6. Analystswereenthusiasticaboutthephosphatebedsasasourceoffluorine.“Ifeconomicmethodscanbedevelopedandappliedforrecoveringmostofthisfluorineasabyproductofphosphateprocessing,theyieldwouldamounttotheequivalentofabout600,000to700,000tonesof100percent

calciumfluoride...Suchanannualincrementwouldmorethanmakeupourpotentialdeficit10yearshence,”thePaleyCommissionstated.“Alltheresourcesoftechnologymustbeenlistedtosolvetheproblemsofassuringamplesuppliesoffluorspar,orfluorinecontainingmaterials,”thereportadded.Resources for Freedom,June1952.

7. A.F.Blakey,The Florida Phosphate Industry(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1973),p.112citingtheFloridaAirPollutionControlCommission.

8. PaulManningtoDonorM.Lion,August13,1951,PMPC,TrumanLibrary,Box113,Fluorspar.

9. Foranaccountofthislongstandingbattle,seeA.F.Blakey,The Florida Phosphate Industry,citingtheFloridaAirPollutionControlCommission.AlsointerviewwithPhilipSadtlerandCongressionalhearingschairedbySenatorEdMuskie.SubcommitteeonAirandWaterPollutionoftheCom-mitteeonPublicWorksoftheUnitedStatesSenate,59thCongress,June7–15,1966(Washington,DC:U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice),pp.113–343.

PaulManningwaswellawareofthescaleofthefluoride-pollutionprob-lemaroundthecountry.HewasanassociateofbothRobertKehoeandtheheadoftheFluorineLawyersCommittee,FrankSeamans,whoinvitedhimtoparticipateinthesponsoredresearchattheKetteringlaboratory.“Onbehalfofourclient,Alcoa,Ihaveforsometimebeenparticipatinginaninformalgroupoflawyers,allofwhomhaveclientsinvolvedinfluorideclaimsofonekindoranother....IknowthatyourcompanyisinterestedinthisproblemtosomeextentandthatconversationshaveoccurredbetweenmyselfandotherAlcoarepresentativesandpersonnelofyourcompany.”SeamanstoPaulD.V.Manning,InternationalMineralsandChemicalCorporaton,August30,1956.File76,Box5,RAKCollection.

10. TheTennesseeValleyAuthoritywasalsointerested.“Arecoverysystemthatwouldpayitsownwayshouldbeattractive. . .thepresentpriceofsodiumfluosilicateandincreaseddemandforitwillverylikelyencouragemoremanufacturestorecoverit”saidTVA’sT.P.Hignett.PMPC,TrumanLibrary,Box113,Fluorspar.

11. Elias,TechnologyReports,p.9,PMCC,TrumanLibrary,Box130. 12. ItwasbeyondmyresourcestoprobedeeplytheFloridacold-waruranium

story.Howmuchadditionalfluoridewasproducedbysuchproduction,andwhethermoneywassavedbyusingfluorsilicicacidasawaterfluoridationagentremainstobereported.ForFloridaassourceofcold-waruranium,seeP.Eisler,“PoisonedWorkersandPoisonedPlaces,”USA Today,multipartseries,September6–8,2000.Ofinterest,twocompaniesproducinguraniumfromphosphateincludedInternationalMineralsandChemicalCorporationandtheOlinMathiesonCorporation.Theformeriscitedinthetextandnotesabove,whileOlinwasoneofthecompaniesthatjoinedReynoldsintheamicuscuriebrieffortheMartintrialappeal(seechapter13).

13. RebeccaHanmer,DeputyAssistantAdministratorforWater,toLeslieARussell,DMD,March3,1983.

14. D.McNeil,Fight for Fluoridation,(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1957),p.209,n.22.

15. “BytheendofthefifthyearareexaminationoftheschoolpupilsinNew-burghandKingstonshowedthattheNewburghchildrenhadapproximately65percentfewercavitiesthanthechildrenofKingston.Thereportofthesefindingswasmadepublicovermyname...,”OscarEwing,OralHistoryInterviewwithJ.R.FuchsoftheTrumanLibraryinChapelHill,NorthCarolina,AprilandMay1969.TrumanLibrary.

16. PhilipR.N.Sutton,Fluoridation; Errors and Omissions in Experimental Tri-als(Carlton:MelbourneUniversityPress,1959),p.49,forcalciuminwater,citingE.W.LohrandS.K.Love.,1954,“TheIndustrialUtilityofPublicWaterSuppliesintheUnitedStates,1952”(U.S.GeologicalSurvey),andUnitedKingdomMissionReport,The Fluoridation of Domestic Water Sup-plies in North America as a Means of Controlling Dental Caries(London:HMStationaryOffice,1953).JohnA.Forst,MD,TheUniversityoftheStateofNewYork,theStateEducationDepartment,Albany,NY,DivisionofPupilServices,toDr.JamesG.Kerwin,theDepartmentofHealth,Passaic,NewJersey,October26,1954.ViaMarthaBevis.

17. Seechapters9and10forEwing’sprofile.CliffordhadhelpedtowritetheNationalSecurityActof1947,whichhadauthorizedtheCIA.Seehisinter-viewattheTrumanLibrary.

18. LetterfromH.V.SmithtoGeorgeWaldbott,January6,1964,citedinA Struggle with Titans,p.65.Seealso,“Beyondcertainlimits,fluoridesaretoxicandthatthefirstevidenceoftoxicitymanifestsitselfintheformofmottledenamel,”B.Bibby,“EffectsofTopicalApplicationofFluoridesononDentalCaries.”InFluorine in Dental Public Health(NewYorkInstituteofClinicalOralPathologyInc,ASymposium,1944).

19. D.McNeil,Fight for Fluoridation,p.74. 20. M.C.SmithandH.V.Smith,“ObservationsontheDurabilityofMottled

Teeth,”Am. J. Public Health,30(1940),p.1050,citedinWaldbott,A Struggle with Titans,p.12.

21. B.Lee,“BoonorBlunder?”Toronto Globe and Mail,January1954, citedinG.L.Waldbott,A Struggle with Titans,p.11.

22. WaldbotthademigratedtotheUnitedStatesin1923.Hisfather,LeoWald-bott,barelyescapedtheterrorofHitler’sregime,inDecember1938joiningGeorgeandanelderbrotherEmilinDetroit,Michigan.Forseveralgen-erationstheWaldbottshadbeenimportantmembersofthecommunityofSpeyer,ontheRhine.LeoWaldbottwaschairmanoftheSpeyerteachers’andcantors’club,andtreasurerofthelocalJewishhomefortheelderly,whichwasburnedtothegroundbytheNazisonNovember10,1938.“MyLifeBeforeandAfterJan.30,1933,”byLeoWaldbott,viaElizabethRamsay,GeorgeWaldbott’sdaughter.

23. Forpollen,“InMemoriam—G.L.Waldbott(January14,1898–July17,1982),”Fluoridevol.15,no.4(1982);Contact Dermatitis(Springfield,IL:CharlesC.Thomas,1935);“AnaphylacticDeathfromPenicillin,”J. Am. Med. Assoc.,

vol.139(1949),pp.526–527;Time,March7,1949;“Smoker’sRespiratorySyndrome,”J. Am. Med. Assoc.,vol.151(1953),pp.1398–1400.

24. EdithWaldbottreferredherhusbandtothehearingschairedbyNewYorkCongressmanJamesDelaney(Dem.)inFebruary1952,beforetheHouseSelectCommitteetoInvestigatetheUseofChemicalsinFoodandCosmet-ics.(CongressmanA.L.MillerhereexposedOscarEwing’svestedinterestasaformerAlcoaattorney.)ShepointedtoaJanuary1954eight-partseriescalled“BoonorBlunder”intheToronto Globe and Mail.ShehadalsoseenaSeattle TimesstoryofDecember16,1952,whichdetailedAlcoa’seffortstofundfluorideresearch,accordingtoWaldbott,A Struggle with Titans.ThefirstarticleEdithWaldbottgaveherhusbandwasJamesRorty’s“TheTruthAboutFluoridation”inThe Freeman(Irvington-on-Hudson,NY:June1953).

25. G.L.Waldbott,“ChronicFluorineIntoxicationfromDrinkingWater,”Int. Arch. Allergy Appl. Immunol.,7(1955),pp.70–74.“IncipientChronicFluo-rineIntoxicationfromDrinkingWater,”Acta Med. Scand.,156(1956),pp.157–168.“TetaniformConvulsionsPrecipitatedByFluoridatedDrinkingWater,”Confin. Neurol.,17(1957),pp.339–347.

26. G.L.Waldbott,“AllergicReactionstoFluorides,”Intern. Arch. Allergy,12(1958),p.347,and“UrticariaDuetoFluoride,”Acta Allergologica,13(1959),p.456.

27. R.FeltmanandG.Kosel,“PrenatalandPostnatalIngestionofFluorides—FourteenyearsofInvestigation—FinalReport,”J. Dent Med.,16(1961),pp.190–199. SeealsodoubleblindtestsinHaarlem,Holland,byMoolenburghandothers.G.W.Grimbergen,“ADoubleBlindTestforDeterminationofIntolerancetoFluoridatedWater(PreliminaryReport),”Fluoride,7(1974),pp.147–152.

28. ThedirectoroftheForsythDentalInfirmaryforChildreninBoston,V.O.Hurme,warnedin1952,“Medicalresearchershavepaidrelativelylittleattentiontotheproblemofchronicfluoridetoxicosis.”Heworriedaboutfluoride’spotentialeffectonteethandgums.“Amongtheveryinadequatelystudiedphysicalsignsoffluoridetoxicosisareinflammationanddestruc-tionofgingivalandperiodontal(gum)tissue.Publishedandunpublishedobservationsbymanymensuggestratherstronglythatperiodontoclasia(gumdisease)maybeinducedbycertainchemicals,includingfluoride,”notedHurme.V.O.Hurme,“AnExaminationoftheScientificBasisforFluoridatingPopulations,”Dent. Items of Interest,74(1952):pp.518–534.

29. G.W.Rapp,“ThePharmacologyofFluoride,”The Bur(April1950).CitedinWalbott,A Struggle with Titans,p.19.

30. H.T.Dean,“ChronicEndemicDentalFluorosis,”JAMA,107(October17,1936),pp.1269–1273.Also,H.T.Dean,F.S.McKay,andE.Elvove,“MottledEnamelSurveyofBauxite,ArkansasTenYearsAfterChangeintheCommonWaterSupply,”Pub. Health Rep,53(September30,1938),pp.1736–1748.

31. H.C.HodgeandF.A.Smith,“SomePublicHealthAspectsofWaterFluo-ridation,”inJamesH.Shaw,ed.,Fluoridation as a Public Health Measure(AAAS,1954),andThe Problem of Providing Optimum Intake for Prevention

of Dental Caries: A Report of the Committee on Dental Health of the Food and Nutrition Board, Prepared by the Subcommittee on Optimal Fluoride Levels(NRCPublication294,1953).

32. HodgereliedontheunpublishedpersonalassertionsofAlcoa’stopfluo-rideexpert,Dr.DudleyIrwin,forhisfrequentlyreiteratedassurancesthatindustrialworkers,andbyextensionthegeneralpopulation,werenotbeinginjuredbyfluoride.“Inindustrialpopulations,Irwin(REF:Irwin,Dud-ley.Personalcommunication)hascometotheconclusionthatiftheurinecontainslessthan5mg.perliter(presumablyindicatingafluorideintakeoflessthan5to10mgperday),osteosclerosisneverdevelops.On this basis,itcanbepredictedthatpersonsdrinkingfluoridatedwaterandexcretingapproximately1mgoffluorideperdaywillneverdevelopdemonstrableosteosclerosis.”(Emphasisadded)–H.C.Hodge, “Fluoridemetabolism:itssignificanceinwaterfluoridation,” JADA,vol.52(1956)pp.307–314. SuchreassurancesflewinthefaceoftheworkofSiddiqui(1955),forexample,whomeasuredtheurineFinskeletalfluorosis:“Theurinaryfluorideexcretionvariedbetween1.2and5.8ppm...Themeanvaluesforbloodandurinaryfluoridewere0.34and2.75ppmrespectively.”A.H.Siddiqui,“FluorosisinNalgondadistrict,Hyderabad-Deccan,”British Medical Journal(Decem-ber10,1955),pp.1408–1413. ThereareanumberofadditionalandobviousproblemswithrelyingonDr.DudleyIrwinformedicalreassurances.Thealuminumindustrywasoneofleadingfluoridepollutersinthecountry,withanenormousinterestin‘proving’fluoridesafe.AndAlcoainparticu-larhadfailedtodiscloseagreatdealofhealthinformationaboutfluoride.Forexample,theirdiscoveryofhighfluoridelevelsinthebloodofoneoftheDonoradeadwasnevermadepublic(seechapter9).Their1948studyofaluminumworkersinNiagaraFalls,NY,inwhichhighincidenceofdis-abilitywasreportedwasalsoneverdisclosed(seechapter3).Additionally,Dr.IrwinwastheheadoftheMedicalAdvisoryCommittee,whichhadbeenconstitutedbytheFluorineLawyersCommitteeinordertohelpindustryfightanddefendagainstlegalclaimsoffluorideinjuryfromworkers(seechapter8).NorwouldthethresholdinjurylevelforskeletalfluorosisbetheonlyseriousmisstatementbyHodgerelatingtofluorideanalysis.Astonish-ingly,andwithsurelydevastatingconsequencesforpublichealth,heclaimed,

“Seriouskidneyinjuryordiseasedoesnotinterferewithfluorideexcretion,e.g.,inrabbitsgivennear-fataldosesofuranium(akidneypoison),inratspoisonedwithfluoride,inelderlypatientsandinchildrensufferingfromkidneydiseases(HodgeandSmith1954).”H.C.Hodge.“Safetyfactorsinwaterfluoridationbasedonthetoxicologyoffluorides.”Proceedings of the Nutrition Society22(1963),pp.111–117.

33. D.McNeil,The Fight for Fluoridation,p.184. 34. HR2341“ABilltoProtectthePublicHealthFromtheDangersofFluorina-

tionofWater.”HearingsBeforetheCommitteeonInterstateandForeignCommerce.HouseofRepresentatives,83rdCongress.May25–27,1954.Fred-

erickExnerofSeattleandDr.VeikkoHurmeoftheForsythDentalInfir-maryalsotestifiedagainstfluoridation.

35. Hearings,HR2341,p.472. 36. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D,

and Fluoride.InstituteofMedicine(Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress,1997),p.311,citingH.C.HodgeandF.A.Smith,“OccupationalFluo-rideExposure,”J. Occup. Med.,19(1977),pp.12–39.

Chapter 12 1. “Outlook,”November22,1991,BBCWordService. 2. AlthoughafavoriteBernaysstrategywastoharnessliberalidealssuchas

women’ssuffrageforclients,itwasoftendonewithcynicalormercenaryintent.Privatelyhewascontemptuousofthosewithaverageintelligenceandwoncorporateclientsbywarningthemofthedangersofdemocracyandsocialism.Seetheaccountofhisspeechtooilexecutives:“Eddieledtheoilboysuptothebrinkofthepublicownershipprecipice,andletthemlookintotheyawningabyss.Ohmy,holdontight!”E.L.Bernays,Biography of an Idea: Memoirs of Public Relations Counsel Edward L. Bernays(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1965),p.780.

Bernays’s“hallucinationofdemocracy”wasdescribedbywriterStuartEwenasahierarchicalworldinwhich“anintelligentfew”hadtherespon-sibilityof“adjustingthementalsceneryfromwhichthepublicmind,withitslimitedintellect,derivesitsopinions.”S.Ewen,PR: A Social History of Spin(NewYork:BasicBooks,1996),p.10.

3. Bernaysdoesnotmentionthefluoridecampaigninhisautobiography,Biog-raphy of an Idea.Hewasreluctanttodiscussitwiththisauthor,atfirstdeny-inghisinvolvement.WhenconfrontedwithhisownprioradmissionstothemedicalwriterJoelGriffiths,Bernaysagreedtodiscussseveralaspectsofhisinvolvement.SecondtapedauthorinterviewatBernayshome,Decem-ber11,1993.

4. L.Tye,The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public Rela-tions(NewYork:Crown,1998);forCrisco:ProcterandGamblefileinELBArchive,LibraryofCongress.

5. E.L.Bernays,Propaganda(NewYork:HoraceLiveright,1928). 6. Chapter11. 7. BernaystoDr.LeonaBaumgartner,commissionerofhealth,theCityofNew

York,December8,1960.CityofficialswerealsoadvisedbyDr.EdwardA.Suchman,asocialscientistemployedbytheHealthDepartment,onhow“toobtainfluoridationbyedictratherthanreferendum”because,heexplained,

“theoppositionseemstogetabetterreceptionfromthepublicinanybattleofpropagandaorpublicdebate.”E.SuchmantoDr.PaulDensen,Decem-ber13,1960.

Fluoridationcouldbeachieved,Suchmanadded,by“asystematictargetedcampaigndirectedatthosespecificofficialswhohadvotedagainstfluorida-tion”andbylobbying“ethnicgroupsofpoliticalimportance.”E.Suchman

toDr.ArthurBushel,DirectoroftheBureauofDentistry,NewYorkHealthDepartment,February9,1961.Suchmansuggestsseveral“coursesofaction.”Thefirst:“Removethefluoridationissuefromthearenaofpublicopinion.MakethedecisionahealthrulingformtheBoardofHealthand/orsecureenoughvotesfromtheBoardofEstimatetobackupthisruling.”Thesec-onditem:“Changethebalanceofpublicopinionsothatthepoliticalleadercanbeconvincedthatalargemajorityofhissupportersfavorsthisaction.Thisisdifficulttodoonamassbasis,butshouldbepossibleintermsofspe-cificgrouppressures,especiallyfromthosegroupscarryingpoliticalweight.Thisisbehindourcurrentattempttodeterminethemajorethnicgroupsofpoliticalimportanceinparticularcommunities.”Thismemoiscc’dtoLeonaBaumgartner,PaulDensen,andEdwardBernays.LeonaBaumgartnerfile,ELBCollection,LibraryofCongress.

8. BaumgartnerwroteBernays:“Theproblemofequaltimehasbeenacon-tinualheadachewiththenetworks.Idon’tknowwhattodoaboutthis.”BaumgartnertoBernays,February14,1961,Baumgartnerfile,ELBpapers,LibraryofCongress.HerespondedonFebruary16,1961.

9. RobertKehoewrote,“Thequestionofthepublicsafetyoffluoridationisnon-existentfromtheviewpointofmedicalscience.”Our Children’s Teeth(NewYork:CommitteetoProtectourChildren’sTeeth,1957),p.31.

10. Thecommitteereceiveda$25,350grantfromKelloggFoundationand“asecond”$2,500grantfromtheRockefellerBrothersFund.BethuelWebstertoDetlevBronk,January13,1958.Folder42,Correspondence,Box21,DetlevBronkCollection,RockefellerArchive,RG303-U.

11. BeginninginMay1940,WebsterhadbeenpresentatluncheonmeetingsoftheprestigiousCenturyAssociation,aneliteclubofpowerbrokersandwealthyfamilies,whosemembershaveincludedeightpresidentsoftheUnitedStates.Thoseluncheons,“resultedintheorganizationofthewartimeOfficeofScientificResearchandDevelopment,ledbyCenturionsVannevarBushandJamesConant,”accordingtoachroniclerofthegroup,WilliamJ.VandenHeuvel.See“FranklinDelanoRoosevelt:AManoftheCentury,”anaddressbyWilliamJ.VandenHeuveltotheMonthlyMeetingofTheCenturyAssociation,April4,2002,pressreleaseoftheFranklinandElea-norRooseveltInstitute.

Also,WebsterworkedwithVannevarBushandCarrollL.Wilson(theAEC’sfirstgeneralmanager)tohelpshapethedirectionofscientificresearchintheimmediatepostwarperiod.SeeJ.D.Kevles,“TheNationalScienceFoundationandthedebateoverPostwarResearchPolicy—APoliticalInter-pretationofScience—theEndlessFrontier,”inR.L.NumbersandC.Rosen-berg,eds.,The Scientific Enterprise in America:Readings from Isis(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1996),p.313.

WebsterwantedtowinthepublicbattleforfluoridationinNewYorkandthuspersuadetheentirenation.SeeWebster’slettertoRobertKehoe,askinghimtocontributetotheCommittee’sbooklet:“Localauthoritiesmustbemorethanconvinced... .ForthegoodofthecauseIhopeyou

willnotbeundulymodest...theymustbefurnishedwithirrefutableevi-denceinapopularformtoprotectthemfromcriticismofthefavorableactionwhichwehopetheywilltake....Byconclusivelydemonstratingtolocalauthoritiesourabilitytomeetanddemolishtheopposition,fluorida-tionandfuturepublichealthmeasuresmaybesavedfromtheimpossiblerequirementsofmassscientificeducation,popularreferenda,etc.”Web-stertoKehoe,December11,1956,Box42.File:“CommitteetoProtectOurChildren’sTeeth,”RAKCollection.

12. ListeningasBronkdictatedhiscontributiontoOur Children’s Teeth wasShieldsWarren,theformerdirectoroftheAEC’sDivisionofBiologyandMedicine.Dr.Warren“wasinagreementwithallthatIhavesaid,”wroteBronkinhiscontribution.BronkwaspresidentoftheRockefellerInstituteforMedicalResearch.

13. Bernays,Biography of an Idea,p.380. 14. NewYork’sBoardofEstimatevotedforfluoridationafteramarathonpublic

hearing,whichlastedfortwentyhours. 15. Dr.J.Knutson,AssistantSurgeonGeneral,ChiefDentalOfficerPHStoE.

L.Bernays,February14,1961,andBernaystoKnutson,February16,1961,inBaumgartnerfile,E.L.Bernayspapers,LibraryofCongress.

16. Inthesummerof1951,justoneyearafterthePHSendorsement,Dr.JohnKnutson—thenthetopofficialattheNationalInstitutesofDentalHealth—summonedstatedentaldirectorstoWashington.Itwastimeforasalespitch.Theofficialsgatheredat9:40amintheWashington,DC,officesoftheFederalSecurityAdministrationonWednesday,June6,1951.Sittinginthemeetingwerethesurgeongeneral,LeonardScheele,KatherineBainoftheChildren’sBureau,PhilPhairfromtheAmericanDentalAssociation,andatopofficialfromtheKelloggFoundation,PhilBlackerby.

ThekeynotespeakerwasWisconsin’sstatedentaldirector,Dr.FrankBull.HehadrecentlyfoughtafuriousbutlosingbattleforfluoridationinthetownofSevenPoints.Henowoutlinedagameplanforstateauthori-ties.“Keepfluoridationfromgoingtoareferendum,”advisedBull.“Arewetryingtopromotethisthing,ordowewanttoargueaboutit?Whenweareinvitingthepublicinandthepressin,don’thaveanybodyontheprogramwhoisgoingtogoaheadandopposeusbecausehewantstostudyitsomemore....Youarelikeanysalesman,”Bulltoldhisfellowdentaldirectors,

“Youhavegottobepositive.”Headded,“Don’tputanyifs,andsorbuts,ormaybesinthething...youhavegottogetapolicythatsays‘Doit.’Thatiswhatthepublicwants,youknow.”

Healthofficialshadtochoosetheirwordscarefully,Bulladvised.Ifasked,“Isn’tfluoridethethingthatcausesmottledenamelorfluorosis?”Bullsug-gested,“Tellthemthis,thatatonepartpermilliondentalfluorosisbringsaboutthemostbeautifulteeththatanyoneeverhad.Andweshowthemsomepicturesofsuchteeth.Wedon’ttrytosaythatthereisnosuchthingasfluorosis,evenat1.2partspermillion,whichwearerecommending,butyouhavegottohaveananswer.Maybeyouhaveabetterone....Wenever

usetheterm‘artificialfluoridation,’”headded.“Thereissomethingaboutthattermthatmeansaphony....Wecallitcontrolledfluoridation.”

BullespeciallychidedKatherineBainoftheChildren’sBureau.Fluo-ridetoxicitywasprobablythetoughestissuefacingpromoters,henoted.

“InoticedthatDr.Bainusedtheterm‘addingsodiumfluoride.’Weneverdothat.Thatisratpoison,”Bullsaid.“Youaddfluorides.Nevermindthatsodiumfluoridebusiness...allofthosethingsgivetheoppositionsome-thingtopickat,andtheyhavegotenoughtopickatwithoutourgivingthemanymore.Butthistoxicityquestionisadifficultone.Ican’tgiveyoutheansweronit.”

17. SomeofthebestinformationonthisspyingcomesfromthearchiveofauthorDonaldMcNeil.WhilewritinginfluentialarticlesonfluorideforThe Nation,amongothers,McNeilhadcompiledanextensivelistofantifluorideopponents.Hewashelpedinhislist-keepingbytheAmericanWaterWorksAssociation.HehadwrittentoitsexecutivesecretaryRaymondJ.Faust,onMay5,1954,askingforthenamesoffluorideopponents:“IhaveadossieroneveryantiIhaveeverheardofinthecountry.ThisincludesevennamesandwhatbackgroundIknowaboutofapersonwhomightonlyhavewrit-tenalettertotheeditor.BycollectingthebackgroundonEVERYONEIhopetofindapatternwhichwilleventuallyleadtoanintelligentlabelingoftheopposition”(emphasisinoriginal).

FaustwrotetoMcNeilinreply,“Wehavefromtimetotimedevelopedsomebackgroundinformationonsomeopponentsoffluoridation.Iwillsendyouacopyofthematerialwehaveproduced,however,itissenttoyouwiththeunderstandingthatitmustbekeptconfidentialorifusedthesourceofthematerialmustnotbemadepublic.Wehavebeenverycare-fultokeepthismaterialunderlockandkeyasyoumaywellunderstand.”Adocumententitled“ListofRabidOpponentsofFluoridation”isfoundalongside.FausttoMcNeil,May13,1954,FileADA53–56,andADAMisc,Box1,McNeilCollection,WisconsinStateHistoricalSociety.

18. Science,vol.153(September23,1966),p.1498.SeealsoletterfromDonaldMcNeiltoPeterGoulding,DirectorofPublicInformation,ADA,February24,1961.“DearPete...Iseeyourpowerfulhandatwork....Today,alongwithyourletter,IreceivedonefromDr.VanRensselaerSill,InformationOfficer,DivisionofDentalPublicHealthandResources,DepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfare.HewrotetomecareofThe Nation,whichwasstrange,butbecauseofwhathesaid,IcanonlyconcludethathehasbeenintouchwithyouorsomeonefromtheADA.Hesaidthathewasinterestedinthe‘paperbackontheopponents’[abookMcNeilwasthenshopping]andthathehad‘somematerialontheselearnedgentlemen.’HehopedthatIwouldcallonhimforanyoftheinformationtheyhadintheiroffices.”File15,ADACorrespondence60–63,Box1,McNeilCollection,WisconsinStateHistoricalSociety.

19. SeveralexamplesofprofessionalcensureforopposingfluoridationarecitedinG.L.Waldbottetal.,Fluoridation: The Great Dilemma(Lawrence,KS:

CoronadoPress,1978),p.324.“In1961Dr.MaxGinnsofWorcester,Mas-sachusettswasdroppedfromhisstatedentalsocietyafterherefusedtodiscontinueuseofapetition,circulatedin1953,whichlisted119dentistsand59physiciansinWorcesterwhoopposedfluoridation....[In1962]theADAHouseofDelegatesvotedtoupholdtheexpulsion.”

20. F.B.ExnerandG.L.Waldbott,The American Fluoridation Experiment(NewYork:Devin-Adair,1957),p.232,letterexchangebetweenJohnW.Knutson,assistantsurgeongeneral,chiefdentalofficerPHS,andMr.JamesRorty.FeltmanwaschargedinhisPHSgrant,accordingtoKnutson,withdeter-mining“theefficiency(inpreventingdentalcaries)oftheadditionofmea-sureddosesoffluoridesaltstopregnantwomenandchildren.”Hisfundingwascutoffbecausehehad“notreachedhisobjectiveandwasnotlikelytodoso.”LettertoRortyfromKnutson,August9,1956.

21. Waldbott’sbooksonfluorideincludeFluoridation: The Great Dilemma,withAlbertW.BurgstahlerandH.LewisMcKinney;The American Fluoridation Experiment,withF.B.ExnerandJamesRorty;andA Struggle with Titans.

22. B.Hileman,“FluoridationofWater,”Chemical and EngineeringNews,vol.66(August1,1988),pp.26–42.

23. Dr.ExnerhadservedsixtermsassecretaryoftheAssociationofAmeri-canPhysiciansandSurgeons.ForMcNeil’ssubterfuge,seeFileADA53-56,McNeilCollection,WisconsinStateHistoricalSociety.

24. IreneR.Campbell,The Role of Fluoride in Public Health: The Soundness of Fluoridation of Communal Water Supplies, A Selected Bibliography,Sup-portedbyResearchGrantDE-01493(FormerlyD-1493)fromtheNationalInstituteofDentalResearch,PublicHealthService,U.S.DepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfare.Asanexampleofthecensorshipinthebibliography,thereisnotasolitarycitationforthepublishedworksofDr.GeorgeWaldbottdiscussingfluoride’stoxiceffectsinlowdoses,norofthepublishedstudiesofFrenchepidemiologistIonelRapaport,wholinkedfluorideinwatertomongolism,alsoknownasDownsyndrome.

Rapaport’sworkisdiscussedinWaldbottetal.,Fluoridation.Thefollow-ingcitationofRapaport’sworkincluded:“Rapaport,I.:‘Lesopacificationsducrystallinemongolismeetcataractesenile.’Rev. Anthropol. (Paris),Ser.2,3:133–135,1957.‘Contributional’etudedumongolisme.Rolepathogeniquedufluor.’Bull. Acad. Natl. Med. (Paris),140:529–531,1956. ‘Contributional’etudeetiologiquedumongolisme.Roledesinhibiteursenzymatiques.Encephale,46:468–481,1957.‘Nouvellesrecherchessurlemongolism.Apro-posdurolepathogeniquedufluor.’Bull. Acad. Nat. Med. (Paris),143:367–370,1959.‘Oligophreniemongolienneetectodermosescongenitatles.Ann. Der-matol. Syphiligr.,87:263–278,1960.‘Aproposdumongolismeinfantile.Unedeviationdumetabolismedetryptophanechesesenfantsmongoliens.C.R.Hebd.Acad. Sci.251:474–476,1960.‘Oligophreniemongolienneetcariesdentaires.’Rev. Stomatol.64:207–218,1963.”

25. From1957to1973theADAreceived$6,453,816fromthefederalgovern-ment,accordingtoWaldbottetal.,Fluoridation,p.294,citing“Directory

ofDentalConsultantsandExecutivePersonnelandRepresentativesoftheAmericanDentalAssociationtoNationalAgenciesandSocieties,”BureauofPublicInformation,Am.Dent.Assoc.,October19,1955.Directfund-ingforfluoridationfromthePHSishardertoascertain.AccordingtoS.J.Kreshover,directoroftheNationalInstituteofDentalResearch,theOfficeofManagementandBudget“advisesthatabreakdownofbudgetedfundsspentspecificallyonsuchprogramsorportionsofprojectsdealingwithfluoridesisnotavailable.”CitedinNational Fluoridation News,vol.21.no.1(October–December1975),p.4.

26. AmericanDentalAssociationRadioScript,NationalChildren’sHealthDay,“FluoridationFightsToothDecay,”ADADuplicates,Box1.

27. ThisnotewasfoundinDonaldMcNeil’spapers.Itismarked“ADAFiles.”Thenewspapersidentifiedascarryingtheidenticalstoryarelistedas:HotSprings,AR,Sentinel Record,August20,1952;Lead,SD,Daily Call,August19,1952;Idaho Evening Statesman,Boise,Idaho,August18,1952;PoplarBluff,MO,American Republic,August21,1952;Newton Daily News(Iowa)reprintedinBoone,IowaNews-RepublicanonAugust22,1952.Thenoteisinafilemarked“ADAduplicates,”Box1,McNeilCollection,WisconsinStateHistoricalSociety.

Chapter 13 1. SeeReynolds Metals Company vs.Paul Martin.Appellant’sBrief,Appealfrom

FinalJudgementsoftheDistrictCourtfortheDistrictofOregon,Honor-ableWilliamG.East,Judge.May14,1956,p.3.U.S.CourtofAppeals,9thCircuitCt.ofAppeals,SanFrancisco,CourtCasePapersandPrintedMat-ter,Case#14990,transcriptofRecordinsixvolumes,Folder14990–14992,Box5888–5890,RG276.

2. TheattorneyswereFrankSeamans,forAlcoa;GordonMartin,forKaiserAluminumandChemicalCorporation;E.J.Epielman,LouisC.Viereck,andLawrenceA.Harvey,forHarveyAluminum;B.W.Davis,forWestVacoChemicalDivisionofFoodMachineryandChemicalCorporation;LonP.MacFarland,forMonsantoChemicalCompany;andR.E.McCormickandFrancisR.Kirkham,forOlinMathiesonChemicalCorportaion.BriefAmicusCuriae,IntheUSCourtofAppealsfortheNinthCircuit,Rehear-ingenbanconAppealfromFinalJudgmentsoftheDistrictCourtfortheDistrictofOregon,File18,Box63,RAKCollection.

3. AtHarvard,HunterhadstudiedwithDr.PhilipDrinker.Reynolds Metals Company vs. Paul Martin,plaintiffsdirectexamination,p.471,USCourtofAppeals,9thCircuitCt.ofAppeals,SanFrancisco,CourtCasePapersandPrintedMatter,Case#14990,transcriptofRecordinsixvolumes,Folders14990–14992,Boxes5888–5890,RG276.

4. TestimonyofDr.DonaldHunter,p.492. 5. Ibid.,p.473. 6. Ibid.,p.475.

7. Ibid.,p.476.HunterwasanexamineratCambridgeUniversity.Cambridgehadbeenafluoridepoisongasresearchcenterduringthewar.SirRudolphPetersalsodidhisenzymestudiesatCambridge.R.E.Banks,ed.,Fluorine Chemistry at the Millenium(AmsterdamandNewYorkElsevier,2000),R.E.Banks(ed)p.500.]

8. UniversityofRochester,ProgressReportforOctober,1944—Abstracts,Dr.HaroldHodge,p.478.“TheresultsindicatedthattheinhibitionofesteraseactivityproducedbyT[codeforuranium]wassmallcomparedwiththatbyC-216[codeforfluorine].Thus0.025ppmC-216causedthesamepercentageinhibitionofesteraseactivityas100ppmT(33percent).FromtheseresultsitisconcludedthatinamixtureofTandC-216inwhichtheamount(byweight)ofTisnotmorethan50-foldthatofC-216theeffectoftheTupontheactivityofliveresterasecanbeneglected.”Also,“TheusefulrangeofthiscurvefordeterminingC-216concentrationswasfrom0–0.5ppm,C-216.”Document#SO9FO1B227,p.19,ACHRE,RG220.Foradiscussionoftheroleoffluorideonenzymeinhibition,andforcomprehensivecitations,seeWaldbottetal.,Fluoridation: The Great Dilemma.

9. CourtofAppealsfor9thCircuit,,BriefAnswertoPetitionforRehearing,AppealsfromtheFinalJudgementsoftheDistrictCourtfortheDistrictofOregon,p.5,Folders14990–14992.

10. Reynolds Metals Company vs. Paul Martin.Plaintiffsdirectexamination,p.500,U.S.CourtofAppeals,9thCircuitCt.ofAppeals,SanFrancisco,CourtCasePapersandPrintedMatter,Case#14990,transcriptofrecordinsixvolumes,Folders14990–14992,Boxes5888–5890,RG276.

11. Ibid.,p.492. 12. Ibid.,p.1913,depositionofPaulaMartin. 13. Ibid.,pp.259and213,directandcrossexaminationofRichardCapps. 14. Ibid.,p.245. 15. Ibid.,p.197. 16. Seechapters3and9. 17. DirectexaminationofRobertKehoe,Reynolds Metal Company vs.Paul

Martin,pp.995and997. 18. RobertKehoetoEdwardLargent,February13,1956,File5,Box76,RAK

Collection. 19. ManufacturingChemistsAssociation,Inc.MinutesoftheAirPollution

AbatementCommittee,November2,1955.ViaEnvironmentalWorkingGroupsearchabledatabase.

20. Appellant’sBrief,AppealfromFinalJudgmentsoftheDistrictCourtfortheDistrictofOregon,HonorableWilliamG.East,Judge.May14,1956,p.7.

21. FollowingtheMartintrial,thecompanyputLargentdirectlyonitspayrollasahealthandenvironmentconsultant.IntheyearstocomeReynoldsanditshealthconsultantswouldbepreoccupiedwithanothercitizenprotest,thistimefromMohawkIndiansontheAkwesasnereservationontheNewYork–Canadaborder,wholiveddownwindofanewlybuiltReynoldsalu-

minumplantandwhoclaimedthattheirhealthandeconomywerebeingdestroyedbyfluoride(seechapter15).

Chapter 14 1. Reynolds Metals Company vs. Paul Martin.PetitionforRehearingenbanc,p.

6,andAppellant’sBrief,p.32AppealfromFinalJudgmentsoftheDistrictCourtfortheDistrictofOregon,HonorableWilliamG.East,Judge.May14,1956.P.3.RG276,USCourtofAppeals,9thCircuitCt.ofAppeals,SanFrancisco,CourtCasePapersandPrintedMatter,Box5888–5890,Folder14990to14992,case#14990,transcriptofrecordinsixvolumes.

2. ThejudgesweretoldthatOur Children’s Teethincluded“thestatementsofonemedicalandscientificexpertafteranother,alltotheeffectthatfluo-ridesinlowconcentrations(suchasarepresentaroundaluminumandotherindustrialplants)presentnohazardtoman.”BriefAmicusCuriae,IntheU.S.CourtofAppealsfortheNinthCircuit,RehearingenbanconAppealfromFinalJudgementsoftheDistrictCourtfortheDistrictofOregon,p.8,File18,Box63,RAKCollection.

3. StatementofRobertKehoe,Our Children’s Teeth, A Digest of Current Scien-tific Opinion Based on Studies of Fluorides in Public Water Supplies,preparedbytheCommitteetoProtectOurChildren’sTeeth,Inc.,submittedtotheMayorandtheBoardofEstimateoftheCityofNewYork(1957),p.31.

4. R.Kehoe,“MemorandumonthePresentStatusandtheFutureNeeds,withRespecttoInformationDerivingfromObservationandInvestigationoftheBehaviorofInorganicCompoundsofFluorineintheAnimalOrganism,”February1,1956,File5,Box76,RAKCollection.

5. RobertKehoetoJamesM.McMillan,September20,1961,cc:Mr.FrankSeamans,Box63,RAKCollection.

6. R.Kehoe,“MemorandumonthePresentStatusandtheFutureNeeds,withRespecttoInformationDerivingfromObservationandInvestigationoftheBehaviorofInorganicCompoundsofFluorineintheAnimalOrganism,”February1,1956,File5,Box76,KetteringFiles.

7. Thecorporations“whichareconcernedmainlywiththeresultsofexpo-suretofluoridesinvariousoccupations”included“ThePennsylvaniaSaltManufacturingCompany,AluminumCompanyofAmerica,ReynoldsMetalsCompany,UniversalOilProductsCompany,AmericanPetroleumInstitute,KaiserAluminumandChemicalCorporation,TennesseeValleyAuthority,TheHarshawChemicalCompany,[and]MinnesotaMiningandManufacturingCorporation,”KehoetoldtheMedicalDirectoroftheDivi-sionofIndustrialHygiene,Dr.SewardMiller.

8. “Inameetingalittlewhileago,”KehoewrotetoDr.Miller,“thequestionwasraised,naturally,astothelong-terminfluenceofsmallquantitiesoffluorides,suchasthosewhichmightbetakeninwithdrinkingwater,bothinareasinwhichfluoridesoccurinsomewhatunusualconcentrationsinthedrinkingwateraswellasthoseareasinwhichfluoridesarebeingaddedtocommunitywatersupplies...IfeelthatIshouldtransmittoyouthe

opinionsexpressedbythisgroupandbytheindustriesforwhomtheyspeak,notasamatteroftheirrighttorequestanyactivityonthepartofthePublicHealthService,butratherasevidenceoftheirinterestinabroadproblemofpublichealth,”Kehoewrote.“Thatthisinteresthasbeenarousedbytheirconcernfortheemployeesoftheirowncompanies,isaphenomenonwhichseemstometobeofsomepublicconsequence.”KehoetoMiller,May20,1952,RAKCollection.

9. TheBartlettCameronstudyexaminedthehealthof116peopleinBartlettand113fromCameron.GeorgeWaldbottnotedthattherewasnoinfor-mationabouthowmuchfluoridetheCameronresidentsmighthavecon-sumedinfood,whichhadperhapsbeengrowninthenearbyBartlettarea,orelsewhereinWesternTexas,knownasahighfluorideregion.Althoughthestudyreportedno“significantdifferences”inthehealthstatusofthetwopopulations,therewasahighincidenceofcataracts,bonechanges,arthritisanddeafnessinboth communities,comparedtothenationalaver-age.Also,mortalityinBartlettwas265percenthigherinBartlettthaninCameron.Furthermore,usingdataonjust116individualstojustifyaddingfluoridetothedrinkingwaterof50millionpeoplemeantthat,accordingtoGeorgeWaldbott,“if1in117weretosufferilleffectfromfluorideinwater,thenumberofthosesoafflictedamongthefiftymillioncitizenswouldbe427,350—asizableincidence.ThusthesamplingintheBartlettsurveywasfartoosmalltoassurethesafetyofmillionsofpeopledrinkingfluoridatedwater.”G.L.Waldbott,A Struggle with Titans,p.296.(Leone’sBartlettresearchwaspublishedas“MedicalAspectsofExcessiveFluorideinaWaterSupply,”Public Health Report,vol.69,no.10(October1954).SubmittedaspartoftheamicuscuriaebriefintheMartintrial,itwasadditionallypub-lishedasN.C.Leone,etal.1955.“ReviewoftheBartlett-Cameronsurvey:ATen-YearFluorideStudy,”J. Amer. Dent. Assoc.,vol.50,pp.277–281.AndLeoneetal.,Am J. Roentgen,vol.74(1955),p.874.

10. “ThisundoubtedlywasthepaperDr.LeonereferredtoinourlongdistancetelephoneconversationwhileIwasengagedinthetrialoftheMartinper-sonalinjurycase.”W.T.LennontoRobertKehoe,March15,1957,cc:R.W.Anderson,Alcoa,File5/6,Box76,RAKCollection.

11. LeonehadgivenLennonthereferencetoaversionoftheBartlettCameronstudy,publishedas“ARoentgenologicStudyofaHumanPopulationExposedtoHigh-FluorideDomesticWater”inAm. J. Roentgenology, Radium Therapy and Nuclear Medicine,vol.74,no.5,November1955.Thepaperincludedreferencetoanautopsy,LennonwroteKehoe.“Evidentlytheautopsywasonlycompletetotheextentofboneanalysisasthepapercontainednocom-mentonsofttissue.IwaswonderingwhetherornotyouhadanytalkswithDr.Leoneregardingthisautopsyandwhetherornotanyexaminationwasmadeofsofttissue.”W.T.LennontoRobertKehoe,March15,1956,cc:R.W.Anderson,Alcoa,File5/6,Box76,RAKCollection.

12. Dr.LeonetoDr.Irwin,lettersentonMarch5,1957,File5/6,Box76,RAKCollection.

13. D.A.Greenwood,“BackgroundforStudiesinUtahCounty,”papergivenatthe1957KetteringFluorideSymposium.GreenwoodwasProfessorofBiochemistryandPharmacology,UtahStateUniversity.AnotherfigureclaimsthatthelegalclaimsagainstU.S.SteelinUtahwerefor$30million.ButlerC.,Proceedings:NationalConferenceOnAirPollution,November18–20,1958,p.268.

14. Leonewasanunapologeticpropagandistforfluoride.Forexample,in1983hehelpedorganizeaconferenceatUtahStateUniversity.Intheproceedingshewrites,“Furtherpublicizingtheimportance[offluoride]inthetreatmentofselectedcasesofosteoporosiscanhelpusachievecontrolofanotherfacetofthefluorideproblem.Byemphasizingandappraisingtheoldermembersofouragingpopulationastothebeneficialaspectsoffluorideatlevelsintheneighborhoodof5mgperday,wecanmakeknowntheobvioussafetyoffluoridelevelsathigherthantheadvocated(1ppm)inthepreventionofdentalcariesinchildren.Theprocesswouldthusgivesupportiveevidenceastothesafetyanddesirabilityoffluoridesinhumandiets.”J.L.Shupe,H.B.Peterson,andN.C.Leone,eds.,“Fluorides: Effects on Vegetation, Animals, and Humans”(SaltLakeCity,UT:ParagonPress,1983),p.361.

15. DudleyIrwintoFrankSeamans,March13,1957,42.17,RAKCollection. 16. Reynolds Metals Compvs.Yturbide,258F.2d321(9thCir.)cert.den.358U.S.

840(1958),p.25. 17. MotionforLeavetoFileBriefAmicusCuriae,p.2,andBrief,p.5,File18,

Box63,RAKCollection. 18. Kehoenotesofmeeting,Folders18,19,and23,Box63,RAKCollection.For

therelationshipoftheMedicalAdvisoryCommitteetotheFluorineLaw-yers,seeSeamanstoMedicalAdvisoryCommittee,April16,1957:“ThelegalrepresentativesoftheseveralcompaniesinterestedintheKetteringResearchprojecthaveagreedthatitwouldbeadvantageousiftheprincipalliaisonwithKetteringwereundertakenbypersonsofcompetenttechnicalbackground...[to]conductthenecessaryliaisonbetweentheKetteringInstituteandthelawyers’groupbyasystemofregularlyscheduledvisita-tionstoKetteringandregularreportstothelawyer’sgroup,”File17,Box42,RAKCollection.

19. Leone’sBartlettCameronstudy,comparingtwoTexascommunitieswithlowandhighnaturalfluorideinwater,wascited.SowashisworkinProvo,Utah,whereU.S.Steel’sgiantplantwasbeingblamedforwidespreadinjurytocropsandlivestock,andwhereLeonewasservingasaconsultanttoR.A.Call,whowasstudyingfluoridedepositioninsofttissues.LeonewasalsoworkingwithHaroldHodgeandFrankSmithatRochester,studyingthesofttissuesofpeoplewhohaddiedinareaswithvaryinglevelsoffluo-rideinwater.Muchofthiswork,includingasummaryofCall’swork,wasbroughttogetherinthe1957SymposiumattheKetteringLaboratoryandpublishedbyeditorPhilipDrinkerintheArchives of Industrial Health,vol.21(1960).SeealsoPublic Health Report.,no.80(1965),pp.529–538,foranexpandedversionofCall’sreport.InregardstotheCallstudy(Leonewasnot

publiclylistedasanauthoror‘consultant’onthework),GeorgeWaldbottnoted,“Theirgrantswerenotrenewed,accordingtoDr.Call’slettertotheauthor,June22,1964.Therefore,thestudyofill-effectofairbornefluorideonkidneydiseasewhichtheirresearchhaddisclosedwasabandoned.”G.L.Waldbott,A Struggle with Titans: Forces Behind Water Fluoridation(NewYork:CarletonPress,1965),p.251.

20. ThefinalrulingoftheAppealsCourtonabsoluteliabilitywasavictoryforindustry.“Thiscasecannolongerbecitedforthepropositionthatinacaseofthiskindabsoluteliabilityexists.Thus,thecompaniesfilingamicuscuriaebriefsatleastsucceededinwinningthemajorpointwhichtheyargued.Thismaybeofdoubtfulvaluebecauseoftheviewtakenonproofofnegligencebutatleastwesucceededonthispoint.”LegalmemofromFrankSeamans,senttoRobertKehoe,June13,1958,File18,Box64,RAKCollection.

21. Ibid. 22. KehoetoWillardMachle,May29,1956,Box42;andDrinkertoKehoe,July

8,1958,File17,Box42,RAKCollection.

Chapter 15 1. Boscak,1978.EPAreportNo.EPA-450/3-78-109.CitedinEPA,“Summary

ReviewofHealthEffects.. . ,”EPA/600/8-89/002F(December1988),pp.3–5.Itstates,regardingHFmanufacturingplantsandadditionalsourcesofindustrialairexposure,“ThefigureisnaturallyhigherwhenotherfluorideorHFsourcesareconsidered.”

2. In1975,350,000menandwomenin92occupationswereexposedtofluorides.NationalInstituteforOccupationalSafetyandHealth,1975,DHEW/NIOSH-76-103.CitedinEPA,“SummaryReviewofHealthEffects,”pp.3–5.Also,22,000workerswerepotentiallyexposedtohydrogenfluoridegasalone,in57occupations.CriteriaForaRecommendedStandard...OccupationalExposuretoHydrogenFluoride,NIOSHDHEW/PUB/NIOSH-76-143,citedpp.3–5,EPA,“SummaryReviewofHealthEffects.”

3. KehoetoDerryberry,January9,1956,File18,Box63,RAKCollection. 4. “MemorandumConcerningtheObjectivesoftheInvestigativeProgramon

theBehaviorofFluorideintheHumanBodyandConcerningthePurposesandPoliciesoftheKetteringLaboratoryandtheUniversityofCincinnati,intheProsecutionofThisInvestigativeProgram,”PreparedbyRobertKehoe,November10,1956.Box42,RAKCollection.

5. Some2,845poundsadayofReynolds’sfluoridehadspilledovertheMar-tinranchashydrofluoricacidgasandalsoastinyparticlesoffluoridedust.MemorandumfromFrankSeamanssummarizingthefindingoftheAppealsCourtenbanc,June12,1958,File18,Box63,RAKCollection.

6. R.Kehoe,“MemorandumonthePresentStatusandtheFutureNeeds,withRespecttoInformationDerivingfromObservationandInvestigationoftheBehaviorofInorganicCompoundsofFluorineintheAnimalOrganism,”February1,1956,File5,Box76,RAKCollection.

7. Ibid.

8. MinutesofthemeetingoftheFluorideCommitteeonOctober10,1956,at10.00a minRoom207,CollegeofMedicine,Folders18,19,and23,Box63,RAKCollection.

9. HostedbytheKetteringLaboratory,thesymposiumhadbeenplannedear-lierintheyearattheMay20meetingattheKetteringLaboratory,follow-ingtheMartinAppealsCourtverdict.ItwasarrangedbyAlcoa’sDudleyIrwin,RobertKehoe,andthegovernment’sDr.NicholasLeoneaspartoftheir“strategic”informationplan.

10. R.A.Kehoe,handwrittennotes,“AWorldofWelcomeonBehalfoftheKetteringLaboratory,”1957FluorideSymposium,File42,Box17,RAKCollection.

11. Foraluminumemployees,seeamicuscuriaebrief,Reynolds vs. Martin,p.2.

12. OtherpapersonfluoridesafetyweregivenbyNIDRofficialsNicholasLeone,IsadoreZipkin,andHaroldMcCann.AnotherstudybyRichardA.CallontheeffectsoffluorideairpollutiononhumanswasbeingconductedinUtah.ThatprojecthadbeenexplainedbytheNIDR’sDr.Leone,whodescribedhimselfasa“consultant”ontheproject,toAlcoa’sDudleyIrwininaletterofMarch5,1957:“Asyouknow,ithasbeenprovenbeyondaquestionofadoubtthatsimilarconditionshaveaneffectuponanimals,”wroteLeone.HeexplainedthatthePublicHealthServicewasfinancingthehumanstudies

“withfundssuppliedbyanotherBureau.”TheywerebeingconductedinthelaboratoriesoftheMormonLatterDaySaintsHospitalinProvo,Utah.Urinelevelswerebeingrecorded.Thebonesandtissuesofindividualswhodiedsuddenlywereexamined.“Inmatesofamentalinstitutionclosebycomprisethestudymaterial,”Leonenoted.Thestudyofforty-eightautopsiedbodiesthathadexperiencedsuddendeathconcludedthat“nohistologicabnormi-tiesattributabletofluorideswererecognized.”Nevertheless,29.3percentofthe“majorcausesofdeath”inthestudyareawerelistedas“respiratorytract”inorigin,comparedwithjust5.9percentinthecontrolgroup.NicholasD.Leone,MD,ChiefMedicalInvestigationsNIDR,toDudleyA.Irwin,MD,AlcoaMedicalDirector,March5,1957,RAKCollection.

13. KehoetoDudleyIrwin,Alcoa,December4,1959.“DearDudley:TheSym-posiumhasbeenacceptedforpublicationbyPhilDrinkerinthe[AMA]Archives[ofIndustrialHealth]anditwillappearintheAprilorMaynum-ber.Itwillbemadeavailableinonevolumeinreprintsand,therefore,itisnowtimetodecidehowandinwhatnumberswewishtohaveitassembled....Iwouldsuggestthatthesponsorsbepolledforthenumbersofcopiestheydesire,thatthisinformation,togetherwiththeaddressestowhichthereprintsandthebillforthemaretobesent,beforwardedtome,sothatIcanhandallofthis,inacompleteandorderlymanner,toPhilDrinker.Thesoonerthisisdonethebetteritwillbe,Ibelieve,sinceIwouldliketobesurethatthesponsorsgetjustwhattheywant.”File17,Box42,RAKCol-lection.(TheeditorialboardoftheArchivesofIndustrialHealthincludedDuPont’sJohnFoulger,theMellonInstitute’sHelmuthSchrenk,theKettering

Institute’sFrankPrinci,andHerbertStokinger,formerlyoftheUniversityofRochester’sAtomicEnergyProject.)Thepublicationofthepaperswaspartofthepost-MartinstrategydrawnupbyKehoe,Alcoa,andDr.LeonefromtheNIDRattheirplaningmeetingthatspring.ThecollectedpapersappearedintheArchives of Industrial Health,vol.21(1960).

14. FrankSeamanstoRobertKehoe,April16,1957,File17,Box42,KetteringFiles.

15. WilliamJolleydiedofcoloncancerinthe1970s,theresultofwhatBinghamandJolley’sfamilybelievewasradiationpoisoningfromhisearlierworkattheAEC’sMoundLaboratoryinMiamisburg,Ohio.AccordingtoaJuly15,2002,authorinterviewwithEulaBingham,Davis“hadworkedupatMoundlaboratory,theradiationlaboratoryupinMiamisburg,Ohio,BillJolleyworkeduptherealso.Billdiedofcoloncancerintheseventiesandhisfamilytriedtofilealawsuitandtheydidn’tgetanythingoutofit.Hegotoutofthatjob—theycameheretotheuniversitybecausetheyreallywereworriedaboutalltheradiationupthere.”BinghamalsobelievedradiationkilledJolley:“Ifeelso,too,”shesaid.

16. AnearlierdraftofthereportfoundinKehoe’sfilesrecordstheinvestigators’shockattheresults,andthediscussionsectionnotesthateventhecontrolanimalshadbeenhurtbyasmallamountoffluoride,towhichtheyhadsomehowbeenexposed.“Theprincipalfindingsinthelungwereofperi-bronchialfibrosisandscatteredgranulomatous(inflammatory)lesions. ...Thestrikingenlargementofthetracheallymphnodeswascausedbyahyperplasticlymphadenitis.Inthelungstherewasastrikinglylargeamountofcholesterol,which,atpresent,hasnoclearexplanation....Somedegreeof‘reactiontoinjury’wasencounteredeveninthelungsofthecontroldogswhichsustainedonlyamodestdegreeofincidentalexposuretoairbornecalciumfluoride.”Folders18–20,Box63,RAKCollection.

17. AlbertA.Brust,Director,ToxicologyDivision,toDudleyIrwin,February10,1960,cc:R.A.KehoeandR.K.Davis,File17,Box42,RAKCollection.

18. Industry’sfearoflawsuitsforemphysemadamagecanbeseenina1966symposiumattheMellonInstituteinwhichthemanagingdirectoroftheIndustrialHygieneFoundation,RobertT.P.deTreville,MD,announced:“TheFoundation’sinterestinemphysemastemspartlyfromtheconcernreflectedbyitsmembershipthatthepotentialforabuseintheawardingofclaimsforcompensationcouldeasilydwarfthatforsilicosisatitsworst.”Emphysema in Industry,MedicalSeriesBulletinNo.10,MellonInstituteLibrary.(SeealsoEpiloguefordiscussionofemphysemainindustryin2003.)

19. CharlesMcCarthytoRobertKehoe,July9,1962,RAKCollection. 20. Dr.ArdenPopeattheUniversityofUtahrecommendedPhalen.Pope

describedPhalenas“honestandcandid.” 21. TwoearlyinfluentialmembersofACGIHwereHaroldHodgeandJim

Sterner.(BothhadattendedtheConferenceonFluorideMetabolismattheHotelPennsylvania.)HodgeandSternerwerebread-and-butterpragma-tists,inPhalen’sopinion,forgingcompromiseintherealworldofindustry

smokestacksandworkerpaychecks.“IfIwantedtoharmsomeone’shealth,Iwouldputtheirbreadwinneroutofajob,”Phalensaid.“Ithasagreaterhealtheffectdroppingsomeonebelowthepovertylevelthanbecomingaheavysmoker.Thesepeoplerealizedthecriticalnatureofsomeoneearningaliving.TheyhadseentheDepression.ACGIHdecideditwouldestablishlimitsthatworkerscouldbeexposedtoandmostworkers,thevastmajor-ity,notgetill...Haroldwasofthatsort,”Phalenadded.

22. “Nostudieswerelocatedregardingrespiratoryeffectsinanimalsfollowinginhalationoffluoride.”DraftToxicologicalProfileforFluorides2001(Depart-mentofHealthandSocialServices,PublicHealthService,ATSDR).p.50.

23. ACGIH’scurrent2.5mg/mstandardisbasedona1963paperbyDr.O.M.DerryberryoftheTennesseeValleyAuthority,amemberoftheMedi-calAdvisoryCommitteethathadshapedtheoriginalKetteringresearchprogram.

24. “Ifitisastudythatyouaresayingisveryimportantandclearlyhassomerelevance,Ithinkitisunlikelythatwewouldignoreit,soIthinkthatyoumightassume[thatwedidn’tseeit]...butIcan’tsaythatforsure,”Bros-sardadded.Authorinterview,July22,2002.

25. OfsignificanceisthereportbyLauraTrupin,anepidemiologistattheUni-versityofCalifornia,SanFrancisco,intheEuropean Respiratory Journalvol.22,no.3(September2003),thaton-the-jobexposuretodustortoxicfumesmaycauseasmanyasfivemillioncasesofagroupofdeadlylungdiseasescalledchronicobstructivepulmonarydisease[COPD.]AccordingtoUSA Today,“thisstudysuggeststhatworkplaceexposuretopollutantsmaybeamoreimportantcauseofthediseasethanpreviouslysuspected.Thenewstudyfoundthatworkplaceexposuremaycauseasmuchas31percentofallcasesofCOPD,whichkillsmorethan100,000Americanseachyear.”USA Today,August26,2003,SectionD,p.7.

26. “CompensationforIllnessesRealizedbyDepartmentofEnergyWorkersDuetoExposuretoHazardousMaterials”—HearingsbeforeSubcommit-teeonImmigrationandClaims,September21,2000,SerialNo.132,p.147.

27. Ibid.,p.142. 28. Hardingrecalled,“Atanytime,youcouldseethathazeofsmokeandsmell

astrongacridodor,andyoucouldtasteitinyourmouth.Soyouwereliter-allybreathingandeatinguranium-containinggasesanddustsandpowderallthetime.”

29. For“Buchenwald,”seeJ.G.Hamilton,UniversityofCalifornia,toShieldsWarren,DBM,AEC,November28,1950(“Unfortunately,itwillnotbepos-sibleformetobeatthemeetingonDecember8”),Document#DOE-072694-B-45,p.1,ACHRE,RG220.

30. CongressionaltestimonyofRep.EdWhitefieldoftheStateofKentucky.“CompensationforIllnessesRealizedbyDepartmentofEnergyWorkersDuetoExposuretoHazardousMaterials,”HearingsbeforeSubcommitteeonImmigrationandClaims,September21,2000.SerialNo.132,p.123.

31. Ibid.,pp.234–235.

32. However,asofAugust2003,accordingtoanInternetpostingfromtheworkeradvocacygroup,theAllianceforNuclearAccountability,“DOEhasreceivedover17,000claimsrequestingassistancewithstateworkers’com-pensationforoccupationalillnesses,butasofJune25hadprocessedonly45claimsthroughitsPhysicians’Panelsforadetermination,andnoneoftheseclaimshadyetbeenpaid.DOEhasadvisedCongressthatitexpectsitwilltakeanother5yearstoworkthroughitsbacklogofclaims.”

33. “TheLinkBetweenExposuretoOccupationalHazardsandIllnessintheDepartmentofEnergyContractorWorkforce”(TheNationalEconomicCouncil,2000),p.18.Thisstudyprovidedthescientificfoundationuponwhichthelegislationwasbased.AtOakRidge,aK-25worker,SamVest,watchedhisfathersickenwithchronicfatiguesyndrome.Hewatchedanunclegetcancer.BothhadworkedintheK-25uraniumproductionplantatOakRidge,andbothdiedintheirfiftiesandsixties.TodaytheyareburiedalongsideeachotherinanOakRidgecemetery.Vestcontinuedtoworkattheplantduringthe1990s.Henowhasbladdercancer,arthritis,andmem-oryloss,heasserts.Hewasplacedondisabilityin1998.HedescribesOakRidgeas“atragedy,”wheresicknessstalksformerworkers.“Theyallhavejointandmuscularproblems,skeletalproblems,alotofthemhavememoryproblemssimilartomine,”saysVest.“Alotofpeoplehaverespiratoryprob-lems.”“Nobodywantedtoworkinthegaseousdiffusionbuildings,”Vestadded.“Deepdowntheyknewtheywerebeingexposedtoveryhazardouschemicals,theHFandthehexafluorideandalltheotherthings.”

34. Althoughthelegislationandcompensationprocessdidnotcreateaspecialcategoryforfluorideinjury,fluoridehadplayedaleadingroleinhurtingatomicworkers,Congressheard.Onegovernment-fundedstudyfoundthat20percentofformergaseous-diffusionemployeeshavechronicbronchitisand/oremphysema.Exposureto“hydrofluoricacidandotherpowerfullungirritantsinthegaseousdiffusionprocessplayedasignificantcontributingrole,”incausingthatillness,scientistssaid.CongressionaltestimonyofStevenB.Markowitz,DirectoroftheCenterfortheBiologyofNaturalSys-tems,QueensCollege,Flushing,NY,September21,2000,“CompensationforIllnessesRealizedbyDepartmentofEnergyWorkersDuetoExposuretoHazardousMaterials”—HearingsbeforeSubcommitteeonImmigrationandClaims,September21,2000,SerialNo.132,p.163.

35. Otherinvestigators,whileseeminglyawarethathazardsexist,aresimplyunwillingtoevaluatetheriskcommunitiesandworkersfacefromfluoride.ArjunMakhijani,directoroftheInstituteforEnergyandEnvironmentResearchandoneofthenation’smostquotednuclear-healthexperts,toldmethathehad“madeadecisionnottogothere”inexaminingfluoride’shealtheffects,choosinginsteadtofocusontherisksfromradiation.Heconfirmedthatlittleaccountinghasyetbeenmadeofthehealthdamagefluoridehasinflictedonnuclearworkers.“Idon’tknowhowtobeginthink-ingaboutthisquestion.Itisasleeper,”Makhijanisaid.

36. RichardWilsonandJohnSpengler,eds.,Particles in Our Air: Concentra-tions and Health Effects(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1996),p.212.

37. C.Schneider,Death, Disease, and Dirty Power: Mortality and Health Damage Due to Air Pollution from Power Plants(TheCleanAirTaskForce,October2000).ThisreportisasummaryofafullerreportdonebyAbtAssociatesfortheCleanAircampaign.Onp.5itstates,“TheAbtAssociatesreportfurthershowsthathundredsofthousandsofAmericanssufferfromasthmaattacks,cardiacproblemsandupperandlowerrespiratoryailmentsassociatedwithfineparticlesfrompowerplants.”LungcancerstudycitedintheNew York Times,March6,2002,SectionA,p.14,fromJAMAstudyofsamedate.

38. Childrenbreathe50percentmoreairperpoundofbodyweightthanadults.Childrenmakeup40percentofallasthmacases,whileonly25percentofthetotalpopulation.“Asthma:APublicHealthResponse”(U.S.CDC),citedinDeath, Disease, and Dirty Power,p.9.

Onestudyfoundinfantsinhigh-pollutionareaswere40percentmorelikelytodieofrespiratorycauses.Anotherfounda26percentincreaseintheriskforsuddeninfantdeathsyndrome.T.J.Woodruffetal.,“TheRelation-shipBetweenSelectedCausesofPostneonatalInfantMortalityandParticu-lateAirPollutionintheUnitedStates,”Environmental Health Perspectives,vol.105,no.6(June1997);citedinAsthma: A Public Health Response.U.S.CDC;citedinDeath, Disease, and Dirty Power,p.9.

39. New York Times,May12,2000,p.32. 40. EPAToxicReleaseInventorydata—1999data,updatedasofAugust1,

2001. 41. Forfluoridesynergy,seeA.S.RozhkovandT.A.Mikhailova,The Effect of

Fluorine-Containing Emissions on Conifers,trans.L.Kashhenko,SiberianInstituteofPlantPhysiologyandBiochemistry,SiberianBranchoftheRus-sianAcademyofSciences(Frankfurt:Springer-Verlag,1993).PartofthistextwasexcerptedontheFluorideActionNetworkwebsite.SeealsoStok-ingeretal.,“TheEnhancingEffectoftheInhalationofHydrogenFluorideVaporonBerylliumSulfatePoisoninginAnimals,”UR-68,UniversityofRochester,unclassified.

42. Florida: from the late 1940s through the 1960s, multiple lawsuits were launched against several fertilizer manufacturers mining the state’s rich natural phosphate beds.U.S.Senatehearingswerepromptedwhen25,000acresofcitruslandinPolkCountyweredamagedand150,000acresofpastureabandonedas

“fluoridesgushedintotheorange-blossom-scentedair....Ascattleatethegrass,theyabsorbedfluorineintothebloodstream.Teethdecayed,jointsstiffened,andbonesbecamebrittle,”theAssociatedPressreported.Localcitizenswerealsoinjured,accordingtonewsreports.AccordingtoonenewsaccountinFlorida’sPolkandHillsboroughCounty,“17plantsareclusteredaboundrichdepositsofphosphaterock.Fumesfromtheseplantshavedestroyed25,000acresofcitrustreesanddamagedvegetationfor50milesinalldirections.CattleinPolkcountyhavesufferedfromfluoro-

sisanddiedandpeoplehavebeenafflictedwithsorethroatsandburningeyesandnosebleedsandrespiratoryproblems.Millionsofdollarsindam-agesuitshavebeenfiledagainstphosphateplants.”NedGroth,Pennisula Observer,January27–February8,1969.In1966theChemicalManufacturersAssociationmandatedadecreaseinairbornefluorideemissionsfromthephosphateindustryinPolkCounty,from17tonsto9tonsperday,accord-ingtoDr.D.R.Hendrickson,professorofSanitaryEngineering,UniversityofFlorida.CitedinManufacturingChemistsAssociationminutes,January26–28,1966,CMAArchives,Document085439,EnvironmentalWorkingGroupsearchabledatabase.

HumaneffectswerealsoclaimedbyanattorneyinLakeland,Florida,A.R.CarverfromthefirmofCarverandLangston,whoselettertoDr.RobertKehoerefersto“airpollutionlitigation”onbehalfof“Aman,hiswifeandtwoteenagechildren.Theyhavebeenlivingforseveralyearsincloseprox-imity;thatistosay,withinacircle,theradiusofwhichextendsfivemiles,wouldincludeeightproducingsupertriplephosphateplants.”May8,1956,A.R.CarvertoKehoe,RAKCollection.

ALakelandresident,Mrs.HarrietLightfoot,toldtheAPaboutthehumaneffectsoffluoridepollution:“Itseemedasshecamesuddenlyawakethatastrangler’shandswereatherthroat.Madlyshegaspedforbreath.Herheadwaspiercedbyasplittingpain.Herthroatandeyesburned.”Pensacola News-Journal,December18,1966.

Seealsotheaccount“DeathinOurAir,”reportedinThe Saturday Eve-ning PostbyBenH.Bagdikian,“DonaldMcLean,ofPolkCounty,Fla,toldaSenatesubcommitteethatsincephosphateplantsbeganputtingseventonsoffluorideadayintotheairhehashadtosellhiscattleandhiscitruscropsbecausecattledied,cropsthatusedtomaturein80daysnowtake200,barbedwirethatusedtolast20yearsrotsin4,andhedoesn’tdaregrowvegetablesforhisfamilyforfeartheywillpickupthesamechemicalsthatfallontohispasturesandgroves.‘Iteatsupthepaintandetchesglass,itkillstrees,itkillscattle.Itisanirritanttomucousmembrane,andwehavesorethroats,tearsrunoutofoureyes,wesneeze,wehavenosebleeds.Gentlemen,amIafooltoassumethatthatstuff[is]injurioustohumans?’”(Datemissingonarticle.)• 1961, The Dalles, OR: Fairview Farms Inc. received $300,000 from the Harvey

Aluminum Company’s reduction plant because of damage to farmlands and animals.OrchardistW.J.MeyerandhiswifeMaryAnnalsoreceived$485,000for“willfuldamage”tocherry,apricot,andpeachcrops,accord-ingtonewsaccounts.(“HarveyLosesFluorideCase,”Hood River (OR) News,October29,1970.CitedinG.L.Waldbottetal.,Fluoridation: The Great Dilemma,p.298.Thecompanyarguedthatpollutionreduc-tionequipmentwouldcost$15millionandrequire100extraemployees.National Fluoridation News(March–April1965),p.3.

• 1962, Vancouver, WA: Alcoa paid William Fraser $60,000 and, in the same year, $20,000 to Earl Reeder because of fluoride injury to their cattle on Sau-

vies Island.SauviesIsland.Portland (OR) Reporter,June26,1962.CitedinWaldbottetal.,Fluoridation,p.298.

• 1962, Contra Costa County, CA: Cattle ranchers in California sued four chemical plants for damages to their herds.NedGroth,Peninsula Observer,January27–February8,1969.

• Garrison, MT: Human harm from fluoride pollution was alleged after the Rocky Mountain phosphate plant opened in 1963, with residents complain-ing of, among other symptoms, heart problems and asthma.Lawsuitsfor$740,000werefiled.“SmogBattleEndsinMontanaTown,”New York Times,September17,1967.CitedinWaldbottetal.,Fluoridation,p.299.SeealsoNew York Times,December1966:“Itischargedamongotherthingsthatfluoride-ladensmokefromthephosphateplanthascausedmalformationsanddeterioratingteethincattleandhorses,thattreeshavebeenafflictedbycancerousgrowthsandthatpeoplehavedevelopedsymptomsakintobronchitis,sinustroubleandheartattacks.”Seealso,B.Merson,“TheTownThatRefusedtoDie,”Good Housekeeping,Janu-ary1969,lawsuitscitedinNational Fluoridation News,March–April1965,p.3.“Peopleweremadesoillthatmanywereliterallydrivenoutoftheirhomes,”accordingtoNedGrothinPeninsula Observer.

• 1968: Cominco American Phosphate Company in Douglas Creek was suc-cessfully sued for $250,000.L.Greenall,“IndustrialFluoridePollutioninBritishColumbia,”CanadianScientificPollutionandEnvironmentalControlSociety,Vancouver,mimeo,January1971.CitedinM.PrivalandF.Fisher, “FluoridesintheAir,”Environment,vol.15,no.3(April1973),pp.25–32.

• Columbia Falls, MT, 1970: Six damage suits for $625,402 were filed on Sept 24 by residents for alleged fluoride damage caused by the Anaconda Alumi-num Company and the Anaconda Wire and Cable Co, according to news accounts.Aweekearliera$21.5milliondollaractionwasfiledagainstthetwocompaniesbyDr.andMrs.LorenKreckofColumbiaFalls,andasuitfiledbyMr.andMrs.HaroldDehibomasked$1,650,000fromthesamedefendants.National Fluoridation News(September–October1970),p.4.

• Tennesse, 1970: Reports of $3 million in fluoride claims against Alcoa.“AlcoaSuedforNearly$3Million,”Knoxville (TN) Journal,October29,1970,CitedinWaldbottetal.,Fluoridation,p.298.

• 1971: $9 million lawsuit in by the Sierra Club against the Harshaw Chemical Company for fluoride pollution, which, the Club charged, had corroded a main bridge over the Cuyahoga River.

• Ferndale, WA, 1972: $83,060 judgment by farmer against Intalco Aluminum Company in Ferndale, WA.R.Park,“TheItalcoTrial,”Bellingham (WA),Northwest PassageMarch20–April2,1972,citedinPrivalandFisher.

• 1980: $150 million lawsuit against Reynolds Metals and Alcoa, alleging fluoride injury to cattle on the New York–Canadian St. Regis Reservation, during the period of 1960–1975, settled for $650,000.KarenSt.Hilaire,“St.

RegisIndianstoSettleFluorideDispute,”Syracuse Post Standard,Janu-ary8,1985,citedinGriffiths“Fluoride:CommiePlotorCapitalistPloy?”Covert Action Information Bulletin,no.42(fall1992),p.26.

43. NedGroth,“CapitalistPlot?AirIsFluoridated,”Peninsula Observer,Janu-ary27–February3,1969.Also,PublicLaw84-159ofthe84thCongress(1955)establishedthePHS’sfirstair-pollutionprogram.“AtthetimePublicLaw84-159wasimplemented,fluoridesconstitutedthemajorindustrialpol-lutantofimmediateconcerntoagriculture,”in“SixYearsofResearchinAirPollution:AreviewofGrantsinaid,Contracts,andDirectOperationsSponsoredbytheDivisionofAirPollution,BureauofStateServices.July1,1955,toJune30,1961.”U.S.DepartmentofHealth,EducationandWelfare.

44. Agriculture Handbook,No.380,publishedbytheAgricultureResearchSer-viceoftheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture(1970),citedinE.JerardandJ.B.Patrick,“TheSummingofFluorideExposures”Intern. J. Environmental Studies,vol.4(1973),pp.141–155.“Wheneverdomesticanimalsexhibitedfluorosis,severalcasesofhumanfluorosiswerereported,thesymptomsofwhichwereoneofmoreofthefollowing;dentalmottling,respiratorydis-tress,stiffnessinkneesorelbowsorboth,skinlesion,orhighlevelofFinteethandurine.ManismuchmoresensitivethandomesticanimalstoFintoxication,”thatreportadded.

45. Weinstein:“Whereasthresholdconcentrationsforozoneorsulfurdioxidethatwillproduceanirreversibleeffect[uponplants]werefoundtobegen-erallyabove0.05ppmforexposureperiodsofabout7days,andmorethandoublethatconcentrationandtimefornitrogendioxide,gaseoushydrogenfluoridecouldcauseametabolicorphysiologicchangeandproducelesionsonleavesofthemostsensitivespeciesat0.001ppm(1ppbv/v,or0.8MgHFm3)orlessforsimilardurationsofexposure.Onlyperoxyacetylnitrate,aconstituentofphotochemicalsmog,canrivalthisextremephytotoxicity.”

Doesfluoridehavearoleinacidrain?Weinstein,inthisreportin1982,wrote,“Evenlessisknownofeffectsoffluorideonsoilstructureandchemistry,micro-andmacroflora,andonfluorideavailabilitytotheplant.Increasedacidityinprecipitationhasheightenedinterestinthesesubjects”(p.53).Also,“Therearehugegapsinourknowledgewithrespecttoeffectsoninsectsandotheranthropods,soilmicroorganismsandaquaticfloraandfauna”(p.56).Weinstein’scommentsweremadeatanindustry-fundedconferenceoffluoridelawyers,governmentdentists,andformerbomb-programscientists,heldatUtahStateUniversityin1982.L.H.Weinstein,

“EffectsofFluoridesonPlantsandPlantCommunities:AnOverview,”inJ.L.Shupe,H.B.Peterson,andN.C.Leone,eds.,Fluorides: Effects on Vegeta-tion, Animals and Humans(SaltLakeCity,UT:ParagonPress,1983),p.54.AttendingthisconferencewereFrankSeamans,NicholasLeone,HaroldHodge,FrankSmith,DavidScott(aformerdirectoroftheNationalInsti-tuteofDentalResearch),andB.D.Dinman,thevicepresidentofhealthandsafetyforAlcoa.(HaroldHodge,NicholasLeone,andfluoridelawyers

FrankSeamansandKeithTaylororganizedthatindustry-fundedconfer-ence,thebookstates.)

46. In1966MorrisKatz,professorofatmosphericsanitation,explainedataCanadianNationalConferenceonPollutionandOurEnvironmentwhyatmosphericfluoridelevelsaremeasuredinpartsperbillion,althoughmaximumpermissiblelevelsformostatmosphericcontaminantsarecal-culatedinpartspermillion.“Prolongedexposuretoambientairwithcon-centrationsoflessthan1partperthousandmillionpartofairbyvolumemaycreateahazard....Inthisrespectfluoridesaremorethanone-hun-dredtimesmoretoxicthansulfurdioxide.”EliseJerardandJ.B.Patrick,

“TheSummingofFluorideExposures,”Intern. J. Environmental Studies,vol.4(1973),pp.141–155;citationfromp.143.Alsosee,citedinJerard,areportinEnvironmental Science and Technology(August1970)thatstatesfluoride

“comparedtootherpollutantsistoxicatmuchlowerconcentration(0.5ppb)andalsoactsasacumulativepoison....Asidefromtheinjurytovegeta-tionthereisapotentialdangertoanimalsandevenhumanbeingsfeedingonplantshighinfluoridecontent.”

47. AccordingtohistorianLynnSnyder,theU.S.militaryhaddesignedtheNationalAirSamplingNetwork.Thenetworkhad,forexample,measuredproteininairasamarkerforthepresenceofbiologicalweapons.L.P.Sny-der,The Death-Dealing Smog,p.58,n.50.AccordingtoGroth,fluoridehadbeenoneofthechemicalsinitiallyreported.AfterpressurefromNewYorkCongressmanRichardL.Ottinger,nationalmonitoringoffluoridepollutionwasreinitiatedin1968.SeeGroth,“CapitalistPlot?AirIsFluoridated.”

48. “SummaryReviewofHealthEffectsAssociatedwithHydrogenFluorideandRelatedCompounds,”U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,December1988,pp.2–9.

49. Globallythatfigurewasanestimated3.6milliontonsin1972.Ibid.,Section3,p.2.

50. “Despitethefactthatthefurtherlitigationwhichwasanticipatedwithappre-hensionsomeyearsagohasfailedtoappear,theindustriesarevulnerableinthefieldofoccupationaldiseasehazardandinthefieldofcommunityhealthrelatingtoairpollution.”RobertKehoetoReynolds’smedicaldirec-tor,JamesMacMillan,September20,1961,cc:FrankSeamans,Box63,RAKCollection.

51. SeeTaylorinFluorides: Effects on Vegetation, Animals, and Humans,p.359. 52. Thesixcriteriapollutantsweresulfurdioxide,carbonmonoxide,hydrocar-

bons,nitrogenoxides,ozone,andparticulatematter.(Leadwasaddedin1978.)AirpollutantswerelistedashazardousbyEPAaccordingtowhetherthoseemissions,“canbeexpectedtoresultinanincreaseinmortalityorirreversibleillness,”accordingtoanEPAofficial,D.F.Walters.In1977theU.S.ForestryServiceaskedEPAtofixanationalambientairqualitystan-dard(AAQS)forfluoride,tocontrolfluoridedamageinMontana.Accord-ingtoWalters,“EPA’sreevaluationconcludedthatthoughtheremaybeanumberoflocalproblemswithfluoridedamagetosensitivespeciesaround

industrialsources,theproblemwasnotofasufficientlynationalcharactertorequireaNAAQS.[NationalAmbientAirQualityStandard].”Also,for

“permissive”:“Statesmayapplylessstringentstandardstosourceswheneconomicfactorsorphysicallimitationsspecifictothosesourcesmakelessstringentstandardssignificantlymorereasonable,”Waltersadded.D.F.Walters,“Regulatory,Economic,andLegalAspectsofFluoride”inFluo-rides: Effects on Vegetation, Animals, and Humans,pp.351–358.

53. ForD.F.Walters,seeibid.Perhapsatellingillustrationofhowfluoridehasbeen“disappeared”orwhitewashedasanairpollutantcanbeseeninthediscussionsurroundingtheimportantstudybyPopeofthehealthimprove-mentinlocalcitizensfollowingthetemporaryshutteringinthe1980softheU.S.SteelmillinProvo,Utah.Althoughthatplantwassuedinthe1950sforsome$30millionforfluoridepollution,bythetimeofthePopestudythathistoryhadsofadedthattherewaslittleornodiscussionoffluoride’sroleinthepollution-relatedhealtheffectsprovedbythePopestudy.C.A.Pope,

“RespiratoryDiseaseAssociatedwithCommunityAirPollutionandaSteelMill,UtahValley,”Am. J. Public Health,vol.79(May1989),pp.623–628.

54. TheEPAconcluded,“Fluoridepollutantswerehighlylocatedinthevicin-ityofmajorpointsources,incontrasttotheothercriteriapollutantswhichweremorepervasiveandwidespread.”SeeWalters,p.351.

55. ReynoldshadjustconcludedtheMartintrialandwascommissioningfreshstudiesatKettering.ButaccordingtoEPAofficialD.F.Walters,insteadofinstitutingstrictemissioncontrols,itwasnotuntilthe1970s—afulldecadeaftertheplantwasopened—thatpressurefromCanadianofficialsandlaw-suitsfromfarmersforcedReynoldstobegintoinstallair-pollutioncontrolequipment.Ibid,Walters,p.353.

56. J.Raloff,“TheSt.RegisSyndrome,”Science News,vol.118(July19,1980),p.42.

57. B.CarnowandS.A.Conibear,“AirborneFluoridesandHumanHealth,ReporttotheSt.RegisBandontheImplicationsofAirborneFluorideCon-taminationofCornwallIslandfortheHealthofitsPeople,”January1978.

58. ThetransborderInternationalJointCommission,theU.S.DepartmentofState,theCanadianDepartmentofExternalAffairs,CanadianDepartmentoftheEnvironment,NewYorkState,andtheOntarioMinistryoftheEnviron-mentwerevariouslyinvolvedinaddressingthedispute.SeeWalters,p.353.

59. Curiously,in1980and1981theMountSinaiSchoolofMedicineandSelikoffreceivedtwoawardstotaling$446,975fromtheNationalInstituteofDen-talResearchtostudy“Long-term,low-levelexposuretoenvironmentalagents(human).”SeeNIHCRISPawards,Project#5P30ES00928-08and...928-09.

60. “Theincreasenotedincardiovascularandrespiratorymorbidity/mortalityratesintheolderpopulation(andfemalesinparticular)oftheentireBandindicatesapossibleadverseeffectfromenvironmentalexposure.”Also:“Theearlyinfantmortalityappearssignificant.Moreover,thehighernumberofhospitaladmissions...duetodiseaseofthejointsandconnectivetissue

couldberelatedtofluorineeffect.”I.J.Selikoff,E.C.Hammond,andS.M.Levin,“EnvironmentalContaminantsandtheHealthofthePeopleoftheSt.RegisReserve,”Fluoride: Medical Survey Findings(EnvironmentalSci-encesLaboratory,MountSinaiSchoolofMedicineoftheCityUniversityofNewYork),vol.1,pp.342–343.

61. “ShouldnotablecorrelationsbetweenfluorideexposureandadversehealtheffectsbefoundinSelikoff’sepidemiologicalstudyofCornwallIslandresi-dents,majorchangesinthewayEPAlooksatfluoridecouldresult,includingitsreclassificationashazardous,”Science News,vol.118(July19,1980),p.43.

Chapter 16 1. Theattorneysfortheworkers,BruceMcMathandSteveNapperofLittle

Rock,Arkansas,hadsignedupahundredoftheseclients,knownastheBeatycases,foraclaimagainstReynoldstobemountedfollowingthefirstBareistrial,whichisdescribedinthefollowingpages.Theformergroup,whichincludedAlanWilliamsandJerryJones(interviewedhere),hadbeenpartofateamthatdevelopedachemicalprocesstodisposeoftheby-prod-uctwasteofaluminumsmelting.(Thewasteiscalledtreated spent potlinerandisdescribedinthechapter.)

2. AuthorinterviewwithEPA’sSteveSilverman,June18,2002. 3. Arkansas Business,January12,1998,p.23. 4. TheoldReynoldsTroutdaleplant,whichhadinjuredtheMartins,wasdes-

ignatedaSuperfundsite,forexample. 5. InthemonthsaftertheBentontrial,AlanWilliamswouldhaveopen-heart

andbacksurgeryandlosemostofhisbodyhair. 6. Authorinterview,June24,2002. 7. AReynoldsmemoasreadindepositionstates,“Alcoaexpressedsomecon-

cernthattheactualsolublefluoridecontentinthekilndischargeisactuallymorethanrevealed—morethanrevealedbytheTCLP.Weareawareofthis,butTCLPistheprocedureused.”Plaintiffsexhibit173,inGeorge Bareis, et al.vs.Reynolds Metals,SalineCountyCourt,Case97–703–2.

8. InDecember1997theEPAfinallyreversedcourseandreclassifiedthe“treated”chemicalwasteastoxic.Itwasthefirsttimetheagencyhadtakenbackadelisting,saidPeace.Itwasfartoolate,however,forScottyandDiannePeeblesandtheseveralhundredHurricaneCreekworkerswhohadbeenbreathingandhandlingthefluoridewasteforyears.Anditwastoolateforthelocalenvironment,wherethousandsoftonsoftoxicwastehadbeenburiedintwomightylandfills.Eventuallynearly225,000tonsoftreatedpotlinerwastewouldbedumpedinunlinedpitsattheHurricaneCreeksite,accordingtotheAssociatedPress,December,21997.

9. FollowingtheredesignationinDecember1997ofthetreatedpotlinerasahazardousmaterial,newsafetyanddisposalcriteriawereinstituted.

10. Theverdict,OSHRCDocketNo.98–0057,wasvoidedonDecember14,2001onjurisdictiongrounds.

11. KehoetoJamesMacMillan,medicaldirector,ReynoldsMetals,September20,1961,Box63,RAKCollection.

12. Nevertheless,asMullenixdescribedthebeaglestudytothejuryonOctober20,2000,McMathattemptedtosneakinsomehistoryandcontext.Hadn’ttheReynoldsstudybeendoneinthe1950s,heaskedMullenix,“inconnec-tionwithsomelitigationtheyhadgoingatthattime?”Johnsonwasready.

“YourHonor,objection,”heexclaimed.“Weruledonthisinchambers,didn’twe?”McMathretreated.“I’llwithdrawthequestion,”heconceded.

13. IntheenditseemsthatMcMath’shunchaboutthejurywascorrect.Polledafterthetrial,amajoritysidedwithReynolds.TheBentonclaimantsweresimplylookingforeasymoney,accordingtojurorMarilynSchick.“Itwasasituationwhere[workers]wereexposedtoalotofdust,butasfarastheALROC[thenameReynoldshadgiventothetreatedspentpotliner]beingtoxictothem,Ijustwasn’tconvincedthatitwas,”shetoldme.

ButthereweresomejurorswhodidleaninfavoroftheworkersagainstReynolds.“Itwasabigcompanynotcaringaboutsomelow-classworkers,”saidjurorSueMagness.“Sowhatifitcostthemsomehealthproblems—theyhadtogetthejobdone.”Sheblamesthe“excellent”Reynoldslawyersforportrayingtheplaintiffsas“sorry”drunksanddrugaddicts.“Theyweren’tlookingatthemaspeople.Theywerelookingatthemasjustbringingthislawsuittogetabuck.Theydidn’tstrikemethatway,”sheadded,abouttheworkers.Magnesshadwantedachancetotalkwiththeotherjurorsandmaybeinfluencethemtoruleinfavoroftheworkers,shesaid.“Icanbeprettypersuasive.Sometimespeopledon’tpickuponthings,andwhenyoubringitupinajuryroomandtheygettothinkingaboutit,theychangetheirminds,”shesaid.

Chapter 17 1. “Nodeleterioussystemiceffectshaveoccurred,”headded.HR2341“ABill

toProtectthePublicHealthFromtheDangersofFluorinationofWater,”HearingsBeforetheCommitteeonInterstateandForeignCommerce,HouseofRepresentatives,83rdCongress,May25–27,1954,p.470.

2. PhilipR.N.Sutton,Fluoridation: Errors and Omissions in Experimental Trials(Melbourne:MelbourneUniversityPress,1959);“UnitedKingdomMissionReport(1953):TheFluoridationofPublicWaterSuppliesinNorthAmericaasaMeansofControllingDentalCaries”(London:HerMajesty’sStationaryOffice);WorldHealthOrganization(1958)ExpertCommitteeonWaterFluoridation,FirstReport,TechnicalReportSeriesNo.146(Geneva:WorldHealthOrganization);NewZealandCommissionofInquiry,“TheFluoridationofPublicWaterSupplies”(Wellington:GovernmentPrinter,1957).

3. “IacceptthewholeoftheevidencegivenbyProfessorsHodge[andothers],”JusticeKennywroteinhisrulingverdict,whichhadtheeffectofimposingfluoridationonIreland’sentirepopulation,asituationthatremainstothisday.M.Stanley,“FluoridationofPublicWaterSuppliesinIreland,”New

JerseyStateDentalSoc.,vol.37(1966),p.242,citedinFrankMcClure,Water Fluoridation: The Search and the Victory(NIDR,1970),p.275.

4. J.V.KumarandP.A.Swango,Community Dent. Oral Epidemiol.vol.27,no.3(June1999),pp.171–180,L.L.Lininger,G.S.Leske,E.L.Green,andV.B.Haley,“ChangesindentalfluorosisanddentalcariesinNewburghandKingston,NewYork,”Am. J. Public Health,vol.88,no.12(December1998),pp.1866–1870.

5. Boston Globe,November11,1999;“Cincinnati’sdentalcrisis,”Cincinnati EnquirerOctober6,2002;Washington Post,March5,2002;andJ.Kozol,Savage Inequalities(NewYork:HarperPerennial,1991).

6. J.A.LalumandierandR.G.Rozier,Pediatric Dentistry(January–February1995),pp.19–25,citedinMedical Abstracts Newsletter,July1995,p.28.Also,theUniversityofYork’sfluoridationreviewfoundthatupto48percentofchildreninfluoridatedareasintheUnitedKingdomhadsomeformoffluorosis.M.McDonagh,etal.“ASystemicReviewofPublicWaterFluo-ridation,”NHSCenterforReviewsandDissemination,2000,ExecutiveSummary,p.3.

7. M.Teotia,S.P.Teotia,andK.P.Singh,“EndemicchronicfluoridetoxicityanddietarycalciumdeficiencyinteractionsyndromesofmetabolicbonediseaseanddeformitiesinIndia:year2000,”Indian J Pediatr.,vol.65,no.3(May–June1998),pp.371–381.

8. TheAustralianscientistMarkDiesendorfwritesthat“infantswhoarebot-tlefedwithmilkformulareconstitutedwithfluoridatedwater...receive100timesthedailyfluoridedoseofbreast-fedbabiesandatleast4–6timesthatrecommendedbymedialauthoritiesforfluoridesupplementationinunfluoridatedareas.”M.DiesendorfandA.Diesendorf,“SuppressionbyMedicalJournalsofaWarningAboutOverdosingFormula-FedInfantswithFluoride,”Accountability in Research,vol.5(1997),pp.225–237.Also,thechickenininfantfoodcanreach8.38microgramspergram.J.R.Heil-manetal.,“FluorideConcentrationsinInfantFood,”JADA(July1997),p.857.(Mechanicallybonedmeatcanincludehigherfluoridecontent.Fluo-rideconcentratesinbone,thereforewhensomeofthatboneisfoundinthe

“boned”meat,thefluoridecontentcanrise.) 9. TheAmericanfluorideresearcherH.V.Smith,whocodiscoveredthefact

thatfluoridecauseddentalmottling,wrote,“Mottling,nomatterhowmild,isanexternalsignofinternaldistress,”LetterfromH.V.SmithtoGeorgeWaldbott,June1,1964,citedinWaldbott,A Struggle with Titans,p.65.

10. ChristaDanielson,MD,JosephL.Lyon,MD,etal.,“HipFracturesandFluoridationinUtah’sElderlyPopulation,”JAMA,vol.268,no.6(August12,1992),p.746.

11. Forhipfracturerate,seeU.S.NationalResearchCouncil,Diet and Health(Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress,1989),p.121.Forarthritisdata,seeNewsweek,September3,2001,pp.39–46.

12. See,forexample,YLietal.,“EffectofLong-TermExposuretoFluorideinDrinkingWateronRisksofBoneFractures,”J. Bone and Mineral Research,vol.16(2001),no.5,pp.932–939.

13. M.T.Alarcon-Herreraetal.,“WellWaterFluoride,DentalFluorosis,BoneFracturesintheGuadianaValleyofMexico,”Fluoride,vol.34,no.2(2001),pp.139–149.

14. Onepublishedaccount,quotingdatafromtheU.S.NationalCenterforHealthStatistics,reportedthatbonefracturesinmalechildrenandadoles-centsmaybeincreasing.JoelGriffiths,“Fluoride:CommiePlotorCapitalistPloy?”Covert Action Information Bulletin,no.42(fall1992),p.65.

15. Fluoridation Facts(publishedsince1956bytheAmericanDentalAssocia-tion).PaulR.Thomas,programofficerattheFoodandNutritionBoardoftheNationalAcademyofScienceswroteinaMarch18,1991,lettertoDar-leneSherrell,‘ThestatementyouquotefromtheADApamphletonwaterfluoridation—“TheAcademyfoundthatthedailyintakerequiredtoproducesymptomsofchronictoxicity...is20to80milligramsormore...’maybemisleading.”Itwasaneasylietoperpetuate,however.Forexample,eventhe“RecommendedDailyAllowancesforFluoride”publishedin1989bytheNationalAcademyofSciences,statedthat“chronictoxicity...occursafteryearsofdailyexposuresof20to80mgoffluorine,farinexcessoftheaverageintakeintheUnitedStates.”That,too,washugelydisingenu-ous,conveyingtheimpressionthattoxicitywasfoundonlyatthiselevatedthreshold.

16. H.C.Hodge,“TheSafetyofFluorideTabletsorDrops,”inContinuing Evalu-ation of the Use of Fluorides,eds.E.Johansen,D.R.Taves,andT.O.Olsen,AAASSelectedSymposium(WestviewPress,1979),p.255.

17. Review of Fluoride Benefits and Risks(PublicHealthService,DepartmentofHealthandHumanServices,1991),p.45.

18. NationalResearchCouncil,Health Effects of Ingested Fluoride(Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress,1993),p.59.

19. SouthCarolinawassuingtheEPA,objectingtothefederalrequirementtoremovefluorideinwatersuppliesthatexceededthethreshold.

20. PresentedinpartastheDavidMurray-CowieMemorialLecture,UniversityofMichigan,AnnArbor,October12,1951.PublishedinfullinS.Z.Levine,ed.,Advances in Pediatrics(NewYork:IntersciencePublishers,1955),pp.13–51.

21. SafeDrinkingWaterCommittee,Drinking Water and Health(NationalResearchCouncil,NAS,1977),p.389.

22. NationalToxicologyProgram(NTP)(1990),Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Sodium Fluoride in F344/N Rats and B6C3f1 Mice(TechnicalreportSeriesNo.393,NIHPubl.No91-2848,NationalInstituteofEnvironmentalHealthStudies,ResearchTrianglePark,NC).

23. W.Marcus,“FluorideConferencetoReviewtheNTPDraftFluorideReport,”MemorandumdatedMay1,1990,fromWm.L.Marcus,seniorscienceadviser,OfficeofDrinkingWater(ODW),U.S.EPA,toAlanB.Hais,actingdirec-

tor,Criteria&StandardsDivision,ODW,U.S.EPA.Seealso:“Suchatrendassociatedwiththeoccurrenceofararetumorinthetissueinwhichfluo-rideisknowntoaccumulatecannotbecausallydismissed,”Environmental Health Criteria,no.227(WHO2002),p.169.

24. The Lancet,vol.336,no.8717(September22,1990),U.S.DepartmentofLabor,Case#92-TSC-5,RecommendedDecisionandOrder,p.27.

25. Therehasbeenagreatdealofinformationassociatingfluoridewithcancer.Cancerhasbeenexperimentallylinkedtofluoridesincetheearly1950s,whenAlfredTaylorattheUniversityofTexasinAustinfoundthatcancer-pronemicedrinkingwatercontaining1ppmNaF,andeatingfoodwithanegligiblefractionoffluoride,developedmammarytumorsatanearlieragethansimilarmicefednonfluoridatedwater.A.Taylor,“SodiumFluorideintheDrinkingWaterofMice,”Dental Digest,vol.60(1954),pp.170–172.CitedinWaldbottetal.,Fluoridation: The Great Dilemma(Lawrence,KS:CoronadoPress,1978),p.223.

Forcancerinfluorideworkersandaroundfluorideindustrialplants,seeA.J.deVilliersandJ.P.Windish,“LungCancerinaFluorsparMiningCommunity.Radiation,Dust,andMortalityExperience,”Br. J. Ind. Med.,vol.21(1964),pp.94–109;N.N.Litvinov,M.S.Goldberg,andS.N.Kimina,

“MorbidityandMortalityinManCausedbyPulmonaryCancerandItsRela-tiontothePollutionoftheAtmosphereintheAreasofAluminumPlants,”Acta Unio Int. Contra Cancrum,vol.19(1963),pp.742–645,V.A.Celilioni,”LungCancerinaSteelCity[Hamilton,Ontario]:ItsPossibleRelationtoFluorideEmission,”Fluoride,vol.5(1972),pp.172–181,citedinWaldbottetal.,Fluoridation,p,236.

ThelateJohnYiamouyiannis—abiochemistandantifluorideactivist,andaretiredNationalCancerInstitutebiochemist,DeanBurke,reportedmorecancerinfluoridatedcommunitiesintheUnitedStates.J.Yiamouyi-annisandD.Burk,“FluoridationandCancer:Age-DependenceofCancerMortalityRelatedtoArtificialFluoridation,”Fluoride,vol.10(1977),pp.102–123.AndJ.Yiamouyiannis,“FluoridationandCancer:TheBiologyandEpidemiologyofBoneandOralCancerRelatedtoFluoridation,”Fluoride,vol.26(1993),pp.83–96.

Forbonecancerandfluoridatedwater,seeA.Takahashi,K.Akiniwa,andK.Narita,“RegressionAnalysisofCancerIncidenceRatesandWaterFluorideintheU.S.A.basedonIACR/IARC(WHO)data(1978–1992),”J. Epidemiol.,vol.11,no.4(July2001),pp.170–179,abstractedinFluoride,vol.34,no.3(May2001).Inthisstudytheresearchersfoundthat“cancersoftheoralcavityandpharynx,colonandrectum,hepato-biliaryandurinaryorganswerepositivelyassociatedwithFD[fluoridationofdrinkingwater].Thiswasalsothecaseforbonecancersinmales,inlinewithresultsofratexperiments.”

In1991theNationalCancerInstitutefoundthattheoccurrenceofosteo-sarcomainyoungmaleswas,infact,significantlyhigherinfluoridatedversusunfluoridatedcommunities.However,theresearchersconcludedthatthe

increasedwasunrelatedtowaterfluoridation.AccordingtotheU.S.PublicHealthService,“Althoughtheincreaseinratesofosteosarcomaformalesduringthisperiodwasgreaterinfluoridatedthannonfluoridatedareas,extensiveanalysesrevealedthatthesepatternswereunrelatedtoeithertheintroductionordurationoffluoridation.”R.N.Hoover,S.Devesa,K.Cantor,andJ.F.FraumeniJr.,“TimeTrendsforBoneandJointCancersandOsteosarcomasintheSurveillance,EpidemiologyandEndResults”(SEER)Program,NationalCancerInstitute,”inReview of Fluoride: Benefits and Risks, Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on Fluoride of the Committee to Coordinate Environmental Health and Related Programs(U.S.PublicHealthService,1991),pp.F1–177.Despitethoseassurances,similarincreasesinbonecancerinyoungmenwerealsofoundinNewJerseyina1992study.Inthatreport,betweentheyears1970and1989therateofosteosarcoma(amongten-tonineteen-year-oldmales)wasfoundtobe3.5to6.3timesgreaterinthefluoridatedareasversustheunfluoridatedones.P.D.Cohn,An Epidemiologic Report on Drinking Water and Fluoridation(Trenton,NJ:NewJerseyDepartmentofHealth,1992).ThelattertworeferencesarecitedontheFluorideActionNetworkwebpage.

26. InterviewwithPaulConnett,May1998.ThistapedinterviewcanbeobtainedfromGGVideo,82JudsonStreet,Canton,NY13617.

27. Theresearchersreportedthatfluoridateddrinkingwaterhelpedtocarryaluminumtothebraininexperimentalrats,producing“irregularmincingstepscharacteristicofsenileanimals.”Autopsiesrevealedbraindamage.Thedataare“thelatestofseveralstudieshintingatsomelinkbetweenalu-minumintheenvironmentandAlzheimer’s,”accordingtotheWall Street Journal,October28,1992,sectionB,p.6.

Also,J.A.Varner,C.Huie,W.Horvath,K.F.Jensen,R.L.Issacson,“ChronicAlF3Administration:II.SelectedHistologicalObservations,”Neuroscience Research Communications,vol.13,no.2(1993),pp.99–104.R.L.Isaacson,J.A.Varner,andK.F.Jensen,“Toxin-InducedBloodVesselInclusionsCausedbytheChronicAdministrationofAluminumandSodiumFluorideandTheirImplicationsforDementia,”Neuroprotective Agents. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,no.825(1997),pp.152–166,J.A.Varner,K.F.Jensen,W.Horvath,R.L.Isaacson,“ChronicAdministrationofAluminum-FluorideorSodium-FluoridetoRatsinDrinkingWater:AlterationsinNeuronalandCerebrovascularIntegrity,”Brain Research,no.784(1998),pp.284–298.

28. Fluoride, the Pineal Gland, and Melatonin: An Interview with and Presenta-tion by Dr. Jennifer Luke.Videotape,length:40minutes.AvailablefromGGVideo,82JudsonStreet,Canton,NY.GGVideo[GrassrootsandGlobalVideo](1999).

29. The Newburgh Times,January27,1954:“The283heartdeathsinNewburghintheyearwereequaltoarateof882deathsper100,000population.Thiswasmorethantherateforthenationasawhole,507per100,000.ItwasalsohigherthantheMiddleAtlanticStates,590heartdeathsper100,000.”

30. ForMichigan,seeT.L.Hagen,M.Pasternack,andG.C.Scholz,“Water-borneFluoridesandMortality,”Public Health Rep.,vol.69(1954),pp.450–454,citedinWaldbottetal.,Fluoridation,p.158;seealsop.160.Forfluoride’seffectonchickenembryohearts,seealso,J.D.Ebert,”TheFirstHeartbeats,”Scientific American,vol.56(1959),pp.4–7:“Atlowconcentrations[fluoride]primarilyaffectstheheart....Atanygivenstageofdevelopment...thelocationsofthecellsdestroyedbyfluoridecoincidewiththesitesthathavethegreatestcapacitytoformheartmuscle,andwiththeareasthathavethegreatestcapacityforthesynthesisofactinandmyosin.”

31. T.G.Reeves,Water Fluoridation: A Manual for Engineers and Technicians(U.S.PublicHealthService,CDCDivisionofOralHealth,1986)andWater Fluoridation; A Manual for Water Plant Operators(U.S.PublicHealthSer-vice,CDCDivisionofOralHealth,April1994),citedinM.CoplanandR.D.Masters,“WhyHaveU.S.HealthAgenciesRefusedtoTestSilicofluoridesforHealthSafety?”(unpublished,2001),viaauthors.

32. Forriskofcanceratthetracelevels(upto1.6partsperbillion)ofarsenicfoundinwaterthatisfluoridatedbysilicofluoride,seeArsenic in Drinking Water: 2001 Update(NationalAcademiesPress,2001).Seediscussiononp.7inSummary,oflinearnatureoftoxiceffectsatlowdoses.Forlead,seeR.D.Masters,M.J.Coplan,B.T.Hone,J.E.Dykes,“AssociationofSilicofluo-rideTreatedWaterwithElevatedBloodLead,”Neurotoxicology,vol.21,no.6(December2000),pp.1091–1100.SeealsoChairman,SubcommitteeonEnergyandEnvironment,Cong.KenCalvert(R-CA),May8,2000,lettertoCarolM.Browner,EPAadministrator.

33. Almostnofluorsparismineddomestically.Ofareported2001consump-tionof536,000tonsoffluorspar,353,000tonswereimportedfromChina.U.S.GeologicalSurvey,Minerals Yearbook(2001).

34. Onlyatinyfractionoftherecoveredsilicofluoridewasteisnowconvertedforuseasindustrialfluoride—4,700tons,forAlF3,foraluminumsmelting.U.S.GeologicalSurvey,Minerals Yearbook(2001).(Thefluosilicicacidrecov-eredfromthephosphateindustrymustfirstbeconvertedintofluorspar,oraluminumfluoride,beforebeingreusedbyindustry.)ButthepotentialoftheSunshineStateasasourceofindustrialfluorideremains.In200165,200tonsoffluosilicicacidwererecoveredfromthephosphateindustry.That’sone-fifthofthenation’spotentialindustrialfluorideneeds,accordingtheU.S.GeologicalSurvey.

35. http://www.fluoride-journal.com/ 36. UniversityofRochester,ProgressReportforOctober,1944—Abstracts,Dr.

HaroldHodge,p.478.“TheresultsindicatedthattheinhibitionofesteraseactivityproducedbyT[codeforuranium]wassmallcomparedwiththatbyC-216[codeforfluorine].Thus0.025ppmC-216[codeforfluorine]causedthesamepercentageinhibitionofesteraseactivityas100ppmT[codeforuranium](33percent).FromtheseresultsitisconcludedthatinamixtureofTandC-216inwhichtheamount(byweight)ofTisnotmorethan50-foldthatofC-216theeffectoftheTupontheactivityofliveresterasecan

beneglected.”Also:“TheusefulrangeofthiscurvefordeterminingC-216concentrationswasfrom0–0.5ppm,C-216.”Document#SO9FO1B227,ACHRE,RG220.

37. Twenty-fifthISFRConferenceAbstracts,Fluoride,vol.35,no.4(2002),p.244.

38. A Century of Public Health: From Fluoridation to Food Safety(CDC,DivisionofMediaRelations,April2,1999).

Epilogue 1. PFCsare“organic”chemicals,whichmeansthattheyarebasedoncarbon.

InaPFCchemical,thefluorineatomisjoinedtothecarbonmoleculewithamuchstronger“covalent”bond,ratherthantheweak“ionic”bondinfluorides.

2. InSeptember2000EPAofficialsmetwithalobbyinggroupknownastheFluoropolymerManufacturersGroup,composedofDuPontandDowChemical,plusthegiantEuropeanandJapanesechemicalmanufacturersElfAtofinaandAsahiGlassFluoropolymers.TheindustryrepresentativesimpressedupontheEPAtheimportanceofPFOAchemicalsinscoresofvitalcommercialproducts,uponwhichindustriesworthanestimated$25billiondepended,fromaerospacetoautomobilestomedicaldevices,accordingtorecordsofthatmeeting.Despite“repeatedattempts,”industrydeclared,therehadbeen“nosuccess”infindingalternatives.

3. T.MidgleyJr.andA.L.Henne,Ind. Eng. Chem.vol.22(1930),p.542.OnDecember31,1928,GeneralMotors’FrigidaireDivisionwasissuedthefirstpatentforCFCs:US#1,886,339.AnewcompanycalledKineticChemicals,ownedbyDuPontandGeneralMotors,wasincorporatedonAugust1,1930.By1935,8millionnewrefrigeratorshadbeensoldintheUnitedStates,filledwithDuPont’spatented“Freon”CFCgas.GlobalCFCproductioncontinuedtosoar;itincreasedfrom150,000tonsin1960to800,000tonsin1974.

4. ThesecretPFCcalled“Joe’sStuff”thatwasdeliveredtoColumbiaUniver-sityinDecember1940wasnamedafterProfessorJosephSimonsfromPennStateUniversity.Simonsinventedaprocessknownas“electro-chemicalfluorination”whichusedelectricitytoreplacethehydrogenwithfluorideinhydrogen-carbonbonds,producingfluorocarbons.Afterthewarthetechnologywouldbelicensedtothe3Mcorporation,whowoulduseittomake,amongotherthings,thefabricprotectorScotchgard.J.H.Simons,ed.,Fluorine Chemistry,vol.1(NewYork:AcademicPress,1950),p.423.T.Abe,“ElectrochemicalfluoridationasalocomotiveforthedevelopmentoffluorinechemistryatNIRIN,Nagoya,”andJohnColinTatlow,“FluorineChemistryattheUniversityofBirmingham:ACradleoftheSubjectintheUK”inFascinated by Fluorine(AmsterdamandNewYork:Elsevier,2000),pp.273and476.H.Goldwhite,J. Fluorine Chem.,vol.33,p.113.Industrial and Engineering Chem.vol.39,no.3(March1947),p.292.

5. Colbornhassincelearnedthatsomeorganofluorinesare“reallynasty”endocrinedisrupters,shetoldmeinane-mail.

6. “Itwouldbedesirable,”Col.StaffordWarrentoldDr.JohnFoulgerinaletterdatedAugust12,1944,“tohavetheworkonthetoxicityoffluorocar-bonsbeingdoneinyourlaboratoryparalleltheinvestigationsbeingmadeonsimilarcompoundselsewhere.ForthatreasonitwouldbeappreciatedifDr.HaroldHodgeoftheUniversityofRochestercouldvisityourlabora-toryinthenearfutureandanexchangeofideasbeeffected....TheMedicalSectionhasbeenchargedwiththeresponsibilityofobtainingtoxicologicaldatawhichwillinsuretheDistrict’sbeinginafavorablepositionincaselitigationdevelopsfromexposuretothematerials.”WarrentoDr.JohnFoulger,Box25,Accession#72C2386,AtlantaFRC,RG326.

7. Inadocumenttitled“ResearchPlansfortheDivisionofPharmacology1946–47,”asubsection,“IndustrialHygiene,”listsitem“k”as“Investiga-tionoftheNatureofFluorideinBlood.”Fluorideexistsinbloodin“anorganicandaninorganicstate,”while“organicfluorinecompoundsappeartobemoretoxicthanthefluorideion,”theresearchsummarynoted.TheRochesterteamnowplanned“toinvestigatethenatureofthecompoundsoffluorineexistingintheblood,devotingspecialattentiontotheso-calledorganicfraction.”Additionalquestionsthebombprogramresearcherswantedansweredwereasfollows:

• Aninvestigationofthepossiblerelationsbetweenfluorides,iodideandcalciumlevelsandthethyroidgland.

• Theeffectoffluorineuponenzymesystemsoftheblood,particu-larlybymeansofaninvivoexperiment.

• Therelationbetweenfluorineandnon-diffusable(proteinbound)bloodcalcium.

• Howhighcanthebloodfluoridelevelberaisedbeforeilleffectsareraisedinanimals.

Thedocumentconcluded:“Theseexperimentsareintendedtogivefundamentalinformationregardingthemodeofactionandmetabolismoffluorineinthesystem.Theinformationwouldappeartobeofvalueforthefollowingreasons....Exposuretofluorideisofindustrialsignificance,particularlysincetheadventofatomicenergyprograms,”andthat,“thedeterminationofbaselevelsisofimmediatepracticalvalueintheimpend-inglitigationbetweentheDuPontCo.andresidentsofNewJerseyareas.”DOE’sHREXsearchengine,foundat0712317,documentnumbers1075992,1076012,1076013.Wherearetheresultsoftheseexperiments?

7. DuPontbulletinNo.X-59a. 8. “Twotypesofreactionhavebeennotedinhumansastheresultofacciden-

talinhalationoftheproductsofheatedpolymer.1)aconditionsimilartometalfever;and2)aconditioninwhichtheremaybeanirritationofthelungsleadingtopulmonaryedema.”DuPontbulletinNo.X-59a.DuPontconductedhumanexperimentsgivingvolunteersTeflon-lacedcigarettestoinvestigatefumefever.J.W.Clayton,“FluorocarbonToxicityandBiologi-calAction,”Fluorine Chem. Reviews,vol.1,no.2(1967),pp.197–252.

9. HaroldD.FieldtotheKetteringLaboratory,January23,1958.AlbertHennetoRobertKehoe,October15,1958.“TeflonCoatedCookingUtensils,”File12,Box15,RAKCollection.Intheearly1930sHenne,aBelgianimmigrant,hadinventedamanufacturingprocessforthefirstCFCFreongas.HehadalsodonefluorideworkfortheManhattanProject.

10. Nature,vol.217(March16,1968),pp.1050–1051. 11. “Littlehasbeenpublishedaboutthemetabolichandlingandtoxicologyof

perfluorinatedfattyacidderivatives.ComputerassistedliteraturesearchesusingMedline,ToxlineandChemcondevelopednoinformationonthesesubjects.”W.S.Guy,D.R.Taves,andW.S.Brey,“OrganicFluorocompoundsinHumanPlasma,”Biochemistry Involving Carbon-Fluorine Bonds(Ameri-canChemicalSociety,1976),p.132.

Onthesubjectofcollaboration,“3Mgotconcernedapparently,”Tavestoldme.“Theywouldcomecheckwithmeperiodically—theywouldn’ttellmewhattheyweredoing,”hesaid,“buttheywantedtoknowwhatIknew.”

12. Taves’s1976observationthat“littlehasbeenpublished”onthetoxicityofPFCsdeservesscrutiny.DuringthecoldwarTaveswasaleadingarbiteroffluoridesafetyfortheNationalAcademyofSciences.(Tavesislistedonp.396ofthe1977document“DrinkingWaterandHealth”byhisinitialsasanauthor.ThisresearchwasconductedbytheNationalResearchCouncilfortheNationalAcademyofSciencesandtheEPA.)DonaldTavesmayalsohaveburiedevidenceoffluoride’sharmtohumansonbehalfofhisRochestercolleagues,suchasHaroldHodge,whoworkedforthenuclearprogram.

In1963anothercolleagueofDr.TavesatRochester,Dr.ChristineWater-house,reportedacaseinwhichapatientattheStrongMemorialHospital,afemalenurse,“convulsed,aspiratedanddiedsuddenly”followingkidneydialysis.Waterhouseandateamofscientistswatchedastheforty-one-year-oldnursesufferedacollapseofhercentralnervoussystem.“Abizarreneu-romuscularirritabilitycharacterizedbyatwitchingoftherightarmwithoccasionalgeneralizedconvulsiveseizuresdevelopedfivedaysafterthethirddialysis,”Waterhousereported.Kidneydialysiscangreatlyconcentratetheamountoffluorideinblood,scientistssuspected.ButtheWaterhouseteamnevermentionedfluorideasapossiblecauseofthewoman’ssymptomsordeath.L.H.Kretchmar,W.M.Greene,C.W.Waterhouse,andW.L.Parry,

“RepeatedHemodialysisinChronicUremia,”J. Am. Med. Assoc.,vol.184,no.41(1962),pp.1037–1044.

TwoyearslaterDr.DonaldTavesreportedthesamecaseinthemedi-calliterature.Hediscussedthehighlevelsoffluoridefoundinthepatient’sbonesandblood.Hespeculatedastoapossible“beneficial”effectfromthefluoride.But Taves failed to report that the patient had died an hour after dialysis, that she had died in agony, and that the fatality had been reported by his Rochester colleague a year earlier.(HeclaimedthathewasunawareofDr.Waterhouse’sJAMApaperinwhichshereportedthepatientdeath.However,intheacknowledgmentsinhisownworkhethankednoneotherthanhiscolleague,Dr.ChristineWaterhouse.)

“Didtheytellyouhowthepatienthadfared?”IaskedTaves.“No,Idon’tthinkIeverheard,”hesaid.“Youwereinterestedinfluorideanddialysisbutyoudidn’tfollowuporaskwhathadhappenedtothepatient?”Iasked.

“Right,”Tavesreplied.(D.R.Taves,R.Terry,F.A.Smith,andD.E.Gardner,“UseofFluoridatedWaterinLong-TermHemodialysis,”Chronic Uremia., J. Am. Med. Assoc.,vol.184[1963],pp.1030–1031.)BothRochesterpaperswerefundedbytheU.S.PublicHealthService.NeithermentionedthesecretAECkidneystudiesonhumanpatientsperformedatStrongMemorialHospitalnorthegovernment’sinterestinfluoride.

DidTavescensorhispaperatthebehestofDrs.WaterhouseandHodge?Inthe1960sDr.Waterhousewasatthecenterofcold-warhumanexperi-mentation,monitoringHaroldHodge’sRochesterpatientswhohadbeengivenplutoniuminjections.(SeeEileenWelsome,The Plutonium Files[NewYork:DialPress,1999].)“Waterhousewasuncomfortablewithmepublish-ing[the1965kidneypaper],”Tavestoldme.“Shedidn’twantmetodoany-thingthatsoundedantifluoridation.JustlikeHodgedidn’t.Theywereallbiasedthatway.Hodgehadgottenonthebandwagonofbeinginfavoroffluoridationsohisblinderswereup,”Tavesadded.

Similarly,theeffectsoffluorideonkidneyswereanothercriticalconcernofthescientistsoverseeinghealthconditionsinsidethenuclearfactories,andRochesterandKetteringresearcherseachperformedmultiplehumanexperiments.Hodge’sresearchersperformedsecrethumanexperimentsinthe1940satRochester,givingfluorideto“patientshavingkidneydiseases”todeterminehowmuchfluoridetheirdamagedkidneyscouldexcrete,accordingtodeclassifiedpapers.Extrafluoridewasstoredinthebonesofthoseinjuredpatients,thegovernmentscientistsfound.Quarterly Technical Report,AECNo.UR-38,1948.AlsocitedinKetteringLaboratoryunpub-lishedreport,“AnnualReportofObservationsonFluorides—October25,1954.”Ketteringdidsimilarexperimentsonpatientswithdamagedkidneys,accordingtotheunpublishedreport.

13. Again,thereisnotasolitaryreferencetoorganofluorinesinthebook. 14. Theremayalsobealinkbetweenaccountsofbirdsdying,injuredhumans,

andcarpetsimpregnatedwithfluorochemicals,suchasScotchgard.Intheearly1990sCNNandothermediareportedonfamilieswhoclaimedthattheyhadbeenpoisonedbynewlyinstalledcarpets.OnefamilytoldtheBBC(inaninterviewconductedbytheauthor)thattheircagedbirdshaddiedsoonafterthenewcarpetarrived.SeealsoU.S.CourtofAppealsfortheFourthCircuitNo.94-1882SandraRuffin;CatherineRuffin,byandthroughherGuardianAdLitem,C.TimothyWilliford,Plaintiffs-Appellants,vs.Shaw Industries, Incorporated;Sherwin-WilliamsCompany,Decided:July16,1998.“Withtheirmotionforsummaryjudgment,defendantssubmittedtheaffidavitofLarryD.Winter,ananalyticalchemistforMinnesotaMiningandManufacturingCompany(3M).Mr.Winterspecializesintheanalysisoffluorochemicalssuchasthoseusedinthemanufacturingof3M’sScotchguardcarpets,thetypeinvolvedinthepresentcase.”Thecasewasdismissed.

15. Scientific American,March1,2001,pp.16–17.Also,when3MannouncedthatthecompanywasphasingoutScotchgard,theEPApraised3M’sopen-nessinsharingdataaboutthetoxicityofPFCs.ButPurdyisnotsosure.Assoonastheecotoxicologistarrivedat3Min1981,hesayshegrewconcernedabouttheimpactofPFCsontheenvironment,proposingnewtesting.“Icouldseethatthiscouldbeapotentialproblematicclassofchemicals,andsodideverybodyelseintheecologicalgroup,”saysPurdy.“Wewereverysuspiciousthatwewereseeingthetipofaniceberg.Therewasaproposaltodoalotofdifferenttesting—anditwasn’tdone.”

FormerMichiganStatescientistKurunthachalamKannanisnotsureeitheraboutthe3Mannouncementin2000tophaseoutPFOSchemicals.

“Iworkcloselywith3MsoIknowwhatisreallygoingon.Butintermsofthewords‘phaseout,’whenwetrytotalktothem,theirpeoplearenotsurewhatitreallymeans[laughs].Itisonlyafractionofwhattheyreallymanu-factureintermsoforganofluorines.”Authorinterview,2002.

Alsoon3M’sinternalstudies,seethecollectionofdocumentsinposses-sionoftheEnvironmentalWorkingGroup.In1976,3Mcompanymedicaltestsshowedthatsomeemployeeshadlevelsoffluorocarbonsintheirbloodashighas30partspermillion.Althoughthoseexposurelevelsfellforawhile,in1984bloodcontamination“remainedconstantorincreased,”accordingto3Mdocuments.Thatsituationpromptedconcernabout“employeehealth”and“corporateliability,”accordingtothedocuments(thirteentestsshowedvaluesofover10ppm).Subsequently3Mworkersshowedabnormalliverfunctiontestsand“highkidneyfunctiontests,”whileotherworkershadlungabnormalities,describedas“casesofpleuralthickening.”(Internalmemofrom3MdoctorLarryZobeltoD.W.DworakdatedMarch20,1987,entitled“MedicalExaminations.”)Also,inthelate1970s,3MrantoxicitytestsforthefluorocarbonPFOSonrhesusmonkeys.Alltheanimalsdied.(J.Morris,“Did3MandDuPontIgnoreEvidenceofHealthRisks?”Mother Jones,September–October2001,onlineedition.)

16. Scientific American,March1,2001,pp.16–17. 17. “3M’sBigCleanUp,”Business Week,June5,2000viaonlineedition. 18. “3M’sBigCleanUp,”Business Week,June5,2000;Scientific American,March

1,2001,pp.16–17. 19. Kannanetal.,“PerfluorooctaneSulphonateinFishEatingWaterBirds

IncludingBaldEaglesandAlbatrosses,”Environmental Science and Tech-nology,vol.35,pp.3065–3070.

20. Scientific American,March1,2001,pp.16–17. 21. http://www.ewg.org/issues/pfcs/ 22. ItisnotthefirsttimeDuPontchemicalshavebeenlinkedtoeyedefects

inchildren.Intheearly1990saDuPontfungicidemarketedasBenlatewasdiscoveredtocontainafluorinechemicalcalledflusalizole,whichwasnotlicensedforuseintheUnitedStates.BenlateprovidedoneofthemostdisastrousandexpensiveepisodesinU.S.corporatehistory.SomeofthelawsuitsblamedBenlateforcausingchildrentobebornwithouteyes.

DuPonthassincepaid$1.3billionincostsandsettlementswithfarmerswhousedBenlateandwhosecropsweredamaged.InJuly2003theFloridaSupremeCourtalsoreinstateda$4millionjuryawardtothefamilyofaboybornwithouteyes,inwhattheAssociatedPressdescribedas“abirthdefectlinkedtotheagriculturalpesticideBenlate.”(AssociatedPress,July3,2002.)AndalthoughanotherjudgethrewoutarulingthatDuPonthadengagedin“racketeering,”byallegedlyconcealingevidenceintheBenlatesaga,asimilarcaseinAtlantawassettledwhenDuPontagreedtopay$2.5milliondollarstoeachofGeorgia’sfourlawschools.

JudgeHughLawsonexplainedthatsettlementmadeastatementabouttheimportanceoflegalethics,accordingtotheNew York Times,January2,1999,sectionA,p.12.Howmuchwaslearnedaboutlegalethicsisnotclear.DuPontwasalsoaccusedofdestroyingevidenceintheWestVirginiaPFClitigation.“InApril2003aJudgeinWestVirginiafoundthatin2002,DuPonthaddestroyedevidencerelevanttoongoinglitigationonPFOAbroughtby3000citizensofWestVirginiaandOhio.”PressRelease,EnvironmentalWorkingGroup,June6,2003.

Thebillion-dollarDuPont/Benlatedebaclemaybeanexampleofoneoffluoride’sbest-knownchemicalpropertiesgonetragicallyawry.Asearlyas1949theAtomicEnergyCommissionreportedthatfluoridehadasynergisticabilitytoboostthetoxicityofberyllium.Whenfluoridewasadded,twiceasmanyratswerekilled,accordingtoexperimentsperformedattheUniversityofRochester.(H.Stokingeretal.,“TheEnhancingEffectoftheInhalationofHydrogenFluorideVaporonBerylliumSulfatePoisoninginAnimals,”UR-68,UniversityofRochester,unclassified.)Similarly,duringWorldWarII,Hitler’schemistsdiscoveredthatfluoridecoulddramaticallyboostthetoxicityofnervegases.Sarin—thesamegasusedbySaddamHusseinontheKurdsofHalabjaandusedinthedeadlysubwayattackinTokyo—isafluorinatedchemical,namedaftertheGermanscientistswhoinventedit.(Fascinated by Fluorine,p.515).Todaydrugcompaniesknowthataddingevenasinglefluorineatomtoadrugmoleculecanboostchemicalpotency.Numerousmoderndrugsnowcontainsmallamountsoffluoride,includingtheantidepressantProzacandthepowerfulantianthraxantibioticCipro.

“Justonefluorineplacedatastrategicsiteinanorganicmoleculecanhotupitsactivity,”saystheEnglishscientistEricBanks.“Theopportunitiesforfindingsomethingusefulforsocietyaretrulymindblowing.”Unfortu-nately,addingfluorinetodrugsmayalsomakethemquiteliterally“mindblowing.”Cipro,forexamplehasnumerousreportedsideeffects,includ-ingcentral-nervous-systemproblemssuchasacuteanxiety.Andrecentlyseveralfluorine-containingdrugshavebeenwithdrawnbecauseoftheirsideeffects,including:• Baycol,acholesterol-loweringdrugtakenby700,000Americans,and

linkedto31deathsintheUnitedStates,withatleastnineotherfatalitiesworldwide;

• Cisapride(“Propulsid”),withdrawnin2000becauseitcausedseverecardiacsideeffects;

• Mibefradil(“Posicor”),withdrawnin1998afteritwasshownthatinpatientswithcongestiveheartfailurethedrugproducedatrendtohighermortality;

• Flosequinan,withdrawnin1993afteritwasshownthatthebeneficialeffectsonthesymptomsofheartfailuredidnotlastbeyondthefirstthreemonthsoftherapy.Afterthefirstthreemonthsoftherapy,patientsonthedrughadahigherrateofhospitalizationthanpatientstakingapla-cebo;

• Astemizole(allergydrug),withdrawnin1999becauseitalsobecameassociatedwithlife-threateningcardiacadverseevents;

• The“weightloss”drugsfenfluramineanddexfenfluramine,withdrawnin1997becauseofseriousadversecardiachealtheffects,generatingalmostabilliondollarsinlawsuits;

• Tolrestat(antidiabetic),withdrawnin1997aftertheappearanceofseverelivertoxicityanddeaths;

• Temafloxacin(“Omniflox”),withdrawnin1992.Theantibiotichadcauseddeathsandliverdysfunction;

• Grepafloxacin,removedfromthemarketin1999becauseofseriouscar-diacevents.(ListcourtesyofAndreasSchuldandWendySmall,ParentsofFluoride

PoisonedChildren[PFPC],Vancouver,BC,Canada.)Fluoride’spotentialroleindrugtoxicityhasnotbeenwellstudied.An

expertonthewithdrawndietdrugdexfenfluramine,Dr.KennethWeirattheUniversityofMinneapolis,saidthathehadnoinformationonwhetherfluorideplayedaroleinthatdrug’stoxicactiononthehumanheart.Central-nervous-systemproblems,suchasdepression,werealsoreportedamongthedrug’sunwantedeffects.“Itseemsanintriguingquestion,”notesDr.Weir,“ifyoubrokeitdownintoitsconstituentparts,whethertheywouldhaveatoxiceffect.”Amightyparadoxexists.Justasfluorideperformssomeoftheheaviestliftinginmodernindustry—butgetsaglancingscrutinyfromregulatorsandhealthofficials—itisalsoroutinelyaddedtodrugstoboosttheirchemicaleffectbutmostlyoverlookedforitspotentialroleintoxicity.Dr.PhyllisMullenixpointsherfingeratthenot-too-distantpast.Shebelievesthesweepingcold-war-eraassurancesonfluoridesafetyfromsuchscientistsasRobertKehoeandHaroldHodgehavelefta“blackhole”inourunderstandingoffluoride’sbiologicaleffects,andafailurebyregu-latorstoconsiderthetoxicityoffluoridecompounds.“Anydrugthathasafluoridecomponentshouldbeautomaticallyred-flagged,”Mullenixsays.

“Itsimplyisnotdone.” 23. “PFOScausedpostnataldeaths(andotherdevelopmentaleffects)inoffspring

inatwo-generationreproductive-effectsratstudy,”EPAofficialCharlesAuernotedinaMay16,2000,e-mail,referringtothePFCusedinScotchgard,“Athigherdosesinthisstudy,”thesummarycontinued,“allprogenyinthefirst

generationdiedwhile[atthelowerlevel]manyoftheprogenyfromthesec-ondgenerationdied.Itisveryunusualtoseesuchsecondgenerationeffects”(emphasisintheoriginal).Thee-mailconcluded,“PFOSaccumulatestoahighdegreeinhumansandanimals.Ithasanestimatedhalf-lifeof4yearsinhumans.ItthusappearstocombinePersistence,Bioaccumulation,andToxicitytoanextraordinarydegree....EPA’spreliminaryriskassessmentindicatedpotentiallyunacceptablemarginsofexposure(MOE’s)forwork-ersandpossiblythegeneralpopulation.”

DuPonthasconcernsaboutPFCtoxicity,too.Inthe1990s,forexample,thecompanyworriedaboutthecancerriskfromPFCs.“Wemayhaveaproductstewardshipissueifwehavea[Teflon]finishthatcontainsasuspectcarcinogen,”a1994Dupontdocumentnoted.“Theworst-casescenarioisthat[PFOA]couldbeclassifiedasalarge‘C’carcinogen,”a1996companymemoadded.Mother Jones,September-October2001,onlineedition.

That“scenario”maybescientificreality.WorkingonagrantfromtheU.S.AirForce,MichiganState’sBradUphamcollectedevidencethatthePFOSandPFOAfluorocarbonsdisruptintercellcommunication,allowingpotentiallytumor-producingcellstomultiply.“Wehaveverygoodrea-sonstothinkthattheycouldcontributetocancer,”thescientisttoldme.(Authorinterview).

24. RichardHefter,chief,HighProductionVolumeChemicalsBranch,USEPA,toA.MichaelKaplan,director,RegulatoryAffairsandOccupationalHealth,DuPontHaskellLaboratory,May22,2003.AndreaV.MalinowskitoRichardHefter,chief,HighProductionVolumeChemicalsBranch,USEPA,June20,2003.KenCook,president,EWG,toEPAAdministratorChristineToddWhitman,April11,2003.

25. DuPontworriesaboutapublic-relationscatastropheandhasshiedfrommediaattentionregardingitsblood-seekingfluorochemicals.Whenfarm-ersWilburandSandraTennantofParkersburg,WestVirginiablamedPFCpollutionfromtheDuPontfactoryforkillingtheircattleandharmingtheirhealth,DuPontaskedU.S.DistrictJudgeJosephGoodwintopreventtheTennantsfromtestifyingatanEPAhearinginMarch2000,accordingtocourtdocumentscitedbyinvestigativereporterJimMorrisatMother Jonesmagazine.(J.Morris,“Did3MandDuPontIgnoreEvidenceofHealthRisks?”Mother Jones,September-October2001,onlineedition.)

DuPont’sattorney,JohnTinney,blamedHollywoodforthecompany’swoesandforthenecessityofarestrainingorderagainstthefarmers.“Thecourtneedlooknofurtherthanthemoviesforpracticalapplication,”thelawyertoldJudgeGoodwin,citing“theenormoussuccessattheboxofficeofErin BrockovichandA Civil Action.”Thecompany,however,neednothaveworried.Althoughnorestrainingorderwasissued,mediaattentionwaslimited,accordingtoMother Jones.

DuPontalsoclaimsthatthereisnorisktoTeflonworkers.Thecompany’srecentemployeemonitoringhasfoundnoelevationofPFOA-classchemi-calsinemployeesdirectlyinvolvedinproduction,accordingtocomments

byspokespersonDaveKorzeniowskiinthejournalEnvironmental Science and Technology.DuPontseemsreassuredbythatdata.Itwas3M’sdiscov-eryofhighPFOSlevelsinitsemployees,forexample,thathelpedtoleadtothepromisedphase-outofScotchgard.“PFOSappearstobehavedifferentlyfromourproducts,”Korzeniowskistates.(R.Renner,Environmental Science and Technology,vol.35,no.7[April1,2001],pp.154A–160A.)

26. CitedinletterfromKennethCook,presidentofEnvironmentalWorkingGrouptoMr.RichardH.Hefter,chiefofHighProductionVolumeChemi-calsBranch,UnitedStatesEPA,August15,2003.Atweblocationwww.ewg.org/issues/pfcs/20030813/.

Thecompanyalsotoldworkersthat“afemalewhohasanorganicfluorinelevelabovebackgroundlevelshouldconsultwithherpersonalphysicianpriortocontemplatingpregnancy.”WashingtonWorksProposedCommu-nicationtoFemalesWhoHadWorkedinFluoropolymersArea,embeddedaslinkinaboveletter.CooktoEPA,August15,2003.

27. Q.Xiangetal.,“EffectofFluorideinDrinkingWateronChildren’sIntel-ligence,”Fluoride,May2003,J.A.Varner,K.F.Jensen,W.Horvath,andR.L.Isaacson,“ChronicAdministrationofAluminum-FluorideorSodium-FluoridetoRatsinDrinkingWater:AlterationsinNeuronalandCerebro-vascularIntegrity,”Brain Research,vol.784(1998),pp.284–298.

28. Sunday Telegraph,November24,1996. 29. L.Trupinetal.,“TheOccupationalBurdenofChronicObstructivePul-

monaryDisease,”European Respiratory Journal,vol.22,no.3(September1,2003),pp.462–469.

30. March18,2002,commentssubmittedtotheEPA,onDowAgroSciencespeti-tiontoestablishfluorideandsulfurylfluoridetolerancesforalargenumber(40)ofrawandprocessedfoods.Federal Register,February15,2002,U.S.EPADocketcontrolnumberPF-1068,submittedbyPaulConnett,professorofChemistry,St.LawrenceU.,Canton,NY,andEllenConnett,editor,Waste Not,Canton,NY.