German Unification – BismarckQuestions to consider Historiography How many of the key barriers were already overcome before 1862? Could Bismarck have achieved unification by 1871 without the social, economic and political developments of the

preceding decades? How far did Bismarck’s successes depend upon the weaknesses of his opponents? Was unification the result of luck or of planning?

AJP Taylor – Bismarck responded to circumstances, with an end result for which he had not planned.Edgar Feuchtwanger – Bismarck made use of the circumstances and pressure of his time: Prussian power, the Zollverein, the national liberal movement, industrialisation and other historical figures.HAL Fisher – Bismarck infinitely flexible in detail but his overall plans were clear from the outset.John Maynard Keynes – The German Empire was achieved ‘more truly (by) coal and iron than (by) blood and iron’

Theme Arguments Explanations – arguments for planning? Personalities, institutions, treaties Key events

Bismarck: catalyst of unification

Bismarck broke the last remaining barriers to unification by dealing with the obstacles of bourgeois and conservative opposition, first within Prussia and then across Germany as a whole.

Within Prussia he overcame a constitutional crisis by exploiting a constitutional loophole (lucktheorie) to ignore the liberals; and used victory over Denmark and Austria to make peace with the liberals in 1866.

Bismarck courted liberal support across Germany by creating opportunities for nationalist means of liberal reforms within the North German confederation from 1867;

Bismarck overcome conservative opposition by threat of revolution and constitutional compromise.

Beyond Germany, Bismarck’s key role was to create the diplomatic context in which war could be waged without interference from others (which had thwarted Prussian ambitions in 1849 and 1850).

Barriers within Prussia Von Roon alerted to weakness of the Prussian military weakness by his inability to exploit the war between

Austria and France in 1859. He demanded reforms in the army but was unable to overcome Liberal opposition in the Landtag because of the tax demands and the relegation of the Landswehr (or citizens’ army) that the reforms would involve.

Bismarck brought in to overcome constitutional crisis over army reforms. Makes ‘Blood and Iron’ speech in which he tells the Budget committee of the Prussian Landtag that ‘The great questions of the day were not settled by speeches and parliamentary majoriites – that was the mistake of 1848 – but by blood and iron.’

Though not well received by the Liberals, Bismarck proved the point by collecting the taxes in the teeth of parliamentary opposition (appealing to a loophole in the constitution) and by defeating Denmark (1864) and Austria (1866) with the reformed army.

Yet Bismarck resisted pressure from Conservatives to abolish the parliament and instead sought to reconcile with the Liberals whose nationalist sentiments had been enflamed by the victories, by means of an Indemnity Law in which in return for admission of guilt, the government would not be prosecuted.

Bismarck made concessions to the liberals over future army budgets.

Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck-Shonhausen, b. 1815-d. 1898; 1849 served in Prussian landtag; 1851 appointed Prussian ambassador to the Bund of the German Confederation based in Frankfurt; made a point of offending Austrian envoys and undermining Austrian interests.

Wilhelm I (1797-1888; ruler of Prussia from 2nd Jan. 1861 until 1888; and Kaiser of Germany (1871-1888)); 2nd son of Federick Wilhelm III, brother of Frederick Wilhelm IV who, having suffered a stroke in 1857 was left incapacitated until his death; more liberal than his brother, he replaced conservatives with liberals and sent Bismarck to the embassy in St Petersbrug; threatened to abdicate over the constitutional crisis of 1862.

Albrecht von Roon (1803-1879), Minister of War (1859-73) determined to reform the army and reduce importance of Landwehr (reason for liberal opposition) and increases number of NCOs allowing greater flexibility in the field. Supported by Mantueffel and Moltke. Albrecht von Roon persuaded Wilhelm I to bring Bismarck ‘out of cold storage’ to resolve the crisis.

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleon III, President of the French Second Republic, 1848-52; and Emperor (1852-70) of the Second Empire and France’s last monarch).

Gustav von Alvensleben (1803-81) was the Prussian king’s adjutant (military officer). He was chosen by Bismarck to agree a plan with Russia to defeat the Polish rebels. However, the agreement was renounced after opposition from the other European powers.

Christian IX of Denmark (1818-1906), King of Denmark (1863-1906) succeeded Frederick VII to the throne through his mother and his marriage to Louise of Hesse-Kassel. Salic law, however, did not recognise matrilineal inheritance. Frederick of Augustenburg proclaimed himself duke of Schleswig-Holstein. Under pressure, Christian IX signed the November Constitution which would make Schleswig part of Denmark. It was this that led to the Second Schleswig War (Danish Prussian War of 1864).

Treaty of Gastein - following the war with Denmark, Prussia and Austria resolved differences over how the territories would be ruled by giving responsibility for Schleswig in the north to Prussia and Holstein in the South (sandwiched between Prussian territories) in the south to Austria.

Treaty of Prague, 1866 incorporates Holstein into Prussia and grants Venetia to France who in turn conceded to Italy. The Habsburgs were permanently excluded from German affairs.

Hohenzollern candidature – 1868 – Bismarck persuaded a Hohenzollern to accept Spanish throne in June 1870 which led to French protests. Wilhelm I backed down (much to Bismarck’s disgust) but Bismarck edited Wilhelm’s reply in the Ems Telegram to make it appear much more abrupt and rude, and this turned out to be enough to provoke France into declaring war.

1862 –‘Blood and iron’ speech - 1863 – Election sees Liberal

opposition grow.1863 – Congress of Princes1863 – Alvensleben convention1864 - Austrian-Prussian Danish War1865 – Treaty of Gastein1865 – Meets Napoleon III at Biarritz;1866- Secret alliance with Italy. 1866 - Austro-Prussian war1867 North German Confederation1867 - Luxembourg crisis1870 – Hohenzollern candidature1870- Ems Telegram1870-71 Franco-Prussian War.1871 Proclamation of the Reich

Barriers in other German states Undermined the German Confederation by persuading Wilhelm I not to attend the Congress of Princes in 1863. Nationalist sentiment was enflamed by victory over Denmark in 1864; Treaty of Gastein proviced a temporary Bismarck used victory over Austria to appeal to liberals elsewhere in Germany. The German Confederation is

abolished and replaced by a North German Confederation in 1867 which embodies some of the principles of the 1849 Frankfurt Constitution – including both democratically elected legislative assembly and Federalism.

A number of liberal reforms were passed by the assembly: free movement of citizens within the territory of the Confederation (1867), a common postal system (1867–1868)common passports (1867), equal rights for the different religious denominations (1869)unified measures and weights (with the obligatory introduction of the metric system)penal code (1870).

Following the war with Austria in 1866, Prussian strategic strength was increased by removing the states that divided East Prussia from its Rhineland territories: Hannover, Hesse Cassel and Nassau were simply incorporated into Prussia. Other states, such as Saxony, preserve their identity by means of the federal principle.

Bismarck then used patriotic war with France in 1870-71 to overcome the continued opposition of Southern States, Baden Wurttemberg and Bavaria; first by getting them to join the war and then by giving them the choice of revolution or constitutional compromise in the context of the patriotic euphoria that followed.

Weakness of Bismarck’s opponents – arguments for luck? Liberals unable to prevent

Bismarck’s dictatorship 1862; meekly accepted Indemnity Law in 1866;

Austria weakened by debt from Metternich era, exclusion from Zollverein, war with Italy; taxation problems; diplomatic isolation following its failure to support Russia in 1853; signing of Concordat with Rome in 1855 ruined any remaining credibility with liberals. Austria should not have accepted offer of alliance against Denmark in 1864 but hoped to restore its flagging credibility.

Russia weakened by Crimea, needed ally against Austria for influence over Balkans – including vital strategic and trade interests in the Dardanelles;

Christian IX made grave error with the November Constitution and then to fight war with Prussia.

Napoleon III allowed France to be suckered into proclaiming a war on Prussia over essentially nothing in 1870.

Bismarck had no way of knowing whether the Ems Telegram would have provoked France into War; but when it did Prussia was ready…

Barriers beyond German states; Bismarck goals were to isolate enemies, ensure neutrality of outside states avoid appearing as the aggressor

and prevent escalation of conflict thereby not giving excuse for outside intervention. Bismarck: Isolated enemies: e.g. Austria isolated from Russia (1863 Alvensleben convention) and from France (Bismarck’s

meeting with Napoleon III at Biarritz in 1865) and from Italy (secret treaty in 1866); Ensure neutrality of outside states: e.g. Russia through the Alvensleben convention of 1863; Austria by means

of an alliance in 1864; France by means of an unwritten promise at Biarritz in 1865, and Italy by means of an alliance in 1866. Lenient treaty in 1866 helped ensure Austrian acquiescence in war with France in 1870.

Avoided being seen as the aggressor: e.g.o Took advantage of Christian IX’s misjudgement (standing up for Germans in Schleswig-Holstein); o Uses problems arising from control of Schleswig Holstein to create local dispute with Austria;o Bismarck provoked Napoleon III into proclaiming war (Hohenzollern candidature; Ems Telegram).

Prevented escalation of conflicts against Denmark, Austria and France, thereby preventing intervention from other powers. Prevents Moltke’s invasion of Denmark and then of Austria; Imposes moderate treaty with Austria (Treaty of Prague, 1866) to help ensure Austrian neutrality in future.