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The Council of Trent, the Spiritual Exercises and the Catholic Reform

Robert E. McNally

Church History, Vol. 34, No. 1. (Mar., 1965), pp. 36-49.

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CHURCH HISTORY

Reform. It is representative of its spirituality in that it seeks ec-

clesiastical reform through personal reform; and, in inspiring the So-

ciety of Jesus, it created one of the principal instruments in the vast

work of Catholic restoration.

T h e

Spiritzkal Exercises

are rooted in the great mystical experi-

ences of Iiiigo L6pez de Loyola, his dramatic conversion to a holy

life an d his definitive commitment to Catholicism. Funda men tally

they represent the first fruits of his deeply moving experience in the

cave of Manresa in the months between M arch 1522 and F ebr uary

1523.' Bu t actually they ar e the studied product of mo re than twenty-

f ive years (1522-48) of pract ical ascet ic ism and m y s t i ~ is m .~ or Ig -

natius was a most keen observer of the phenomena of the spiritual

life; and the movements of the Spirit which he observed within him-

self he conscientiously recorded.'' H i s app roach wa s introspective,

analytical and psychological. I t centered on his concrete religious ex -

periences which he interpreted in light of the Christ-event.

T h e

Ex

ercises therefore, are a systematic presentation of the distilled es-

sence of what mystical encounter with God had taught him.

The f i r s t d raf t o f the

Spiritzlal Exercises

represent the ascetical

doctrine of a saintly Catholic layman, a former courtier and soldier,

who had the advantages neither of a university education nor of theo-

logical formation. Further, they were developed without the slightest

concern fo r the Pro tes tan t revolution in distant Germany. Th eir title,

Spiritual Exercises to conquer oneself and regulate one's life, and to

avoid coming to a determination through any inordinate affection,' '

sugge sts the purpose of the book. F o r they were conceived a s a method

of personal reform, but without their author having at f irst grasped

their broader relation to Church-reform.' ' Only later,

in

and

through

the development of historical circumstances, the universal significance

of this spiritual book became apparent. Initially they were regarded as

a precious, personal discovery which their author would share with

others in need of spiritual renewal.

St. Ignatius defined 'spiritual exercises' in most broad terms:13

By the term 'spiritual exercises' is meant every method of examination

of conscience, of meditation, of con templation, of vocal an d mental

prayer, and of other spiritual activities.

We

call 'spiritual exercises'

every way of pre par ing and disposing th e soul to rid itself of all inordinate

attachm ents and, af ter their rem oval, of seeking and find ing the will of od

in the disposition of o ur life for th e salvation of ou r soul.

The program, simple and direct in its statement, envisions a metho-

dical an d systematic approach to the spiritual life. Looked a t fr om

the purely human side, it embraces three elements or aspects: the posi-

tive, pious meditation; the negative, moral purgation; and, the ter-

minal, eternal salvation. As the

Exercises

unfold, all three are trans-

figu red by the grac e and truth of Christ Jesus.

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THOLIC

REFORM

Th e Spi r i tua l Exerc ises, a s a sp i ri tua l method , f ind the ir p o i ~ t

de dip ar t in the Principle a nd Found ation, structured on the economic

triad: God, man and creation, which leads the exercitant on to a theo-

cen tr ic W el ta ~z sc ha uu ~z g . ~~ the medium of c rea tures manhrough

gravitates to God.

The Four Weeks of meditations which follow are

devoted to thoughtful considerations of sin, death, judgment and hell,

and to affective contemplations on the mysteries of Christ from His

incarnation to H is resurrection . T he term inal point is the Cofztem-

platio d amorem, a contemplation to obtain selfless love of God, a

love epitomized in the arde nt petition: Give me T h y love and T h y

grace, fo r this is enough for me. D ay by day through thirt y days

meditations and contemplations are made in the silence of seclusion.

Repetitions and reflectioils are specified to clarify and solidify the

gr ea t lessons which have been learned. T he exe rcitant is saturate d

with praye r. U nd er the guidance of a skilled director, thorough ly

grounded in ascetical theology and human psychology, but especially

in Hol y S criptu re, he is led to the election of a state of life. I n light

of th e grea t, savin g tru ths of th e Gospel the will of God is to be

found; and in finding it, God's law is discovered ultimately to be the

law of love. T h e Exercise s terminate in personal reforma tion, re-

ducible to personal commitment to Christ and to his Church.

The Ignat ian meditat ion on Christ the King offers s t r ik ing in-

sight into the spirituality of the Catholic R eform. F o r here the voice

of victory and tr iumph ar e heard. Bu t this exaltation which we are

invited to share, is spiritual, proceeding in the Exercises from deep,

interio r, religious motives, fr om personal knowledge an d love of

the Saviour.

The Kingdom of Christ is presented in a clear, vivid,

convincing setting in which Christ the King is represented parallel to

a n earthly king chosen by God Ou r Lord H imse lf , to whom all Chris-

tia n princes a nd people pay homage a nd obedience. 15 W h o could ( o r

would) refu se the invitation to serve under this king so liberal an d

so kind in his w ar aga inst the unbelieving infide l? one, is the only

an sw er possible, save him who would deserve to be condemned by

th e whole world, an d looked upon as an ignoble knight. le T he a rgu -

ment is a fortiori. Ch rist is a still grea ter k ing than a ny earthly king.

H i s cause is ever so more noble. H is personal appeal is irresistible:17

It is my will to conquer the whole world and all my enemies, and thus

to enter into the glory of m y Fa the r. Therefore, whoever wishes to join

Me in this enterprise must be willing to labor with

Me,

that by follow-

ing Me in suffering H e may follow Me in glory.

The Ignatian response to this invitation is expressed in terms highly

reminiscent of medieval chivalry and regal ma jesty. B ut under his

stylized lang uag e is the doctrine of total interior commitment to the

Ete rnal Kin g and Universal Lord. A nd in terms of the spirituality

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40

CHURCH HISTORY

of the Catholic Reform this commitment to Christ is concretely a com-

mitment to His Church on earth.

While the meditations on the Kingdom imply personal affiliation

with Christ in world conquest, the meditation on the Two Standards

duae vexillae) fo rm s a personal challenge. Ch rist, the S uprem e gen-

eral Leader of all good, confro nts Sa tan , the m ortal enemy of our

hum an nature. I t is Jerusalem aga inst Babylon in the Au gustinian

sense. T h e royal triad-Christ, m an, Kingdom-is now tran sform ed

into the sacram ental triad-Christ, Ch ristia n, witness. B ut the capital

point here is not the presentation to the e xe rcita nt of a choice of 'stand-

ards,' but rather his realistic instruction in the full meaning of serv-

ice. T h e tendency of these m editations of the Second Wee k is to re-

duce high religious ideals and desires to concrete, apostolic endeavor,

namely to the spread of the Kingdom of Christ by the spread of His

sacred doctrine in this world.'' T h u s the teleology of th e Exercises

is in the direction of the real order of things, towards actual accom-

plishment and toward s meaningful service. A t the very time th at L u-

ther was elaborating his theology of the Cross, Ignatius was working

ou t his spirituality of the S tan da rd s, conceived a s symbols of serv-

ice and work on behalf of the Divine Majesty.

It is worthy of note that Ignatius in specifying God as the object

of love very shrewdly represen ts H im a s a God of toil. God on Hi s

part, he writes, works and labors fo r me in all created things on

the face of the earth. Love on my part ought to be found in deeds

rather than words. T h e unexpressed prayer is :

0

God, Who a r t

in truth a God of labor, make me in deed to be a man of work.'

The Ignatian presentation of the Kingdom of God and the Two

Standards is worthy of the grandeur of that age which produced Mi-

chelangelo. The se two themes have about them all the e xternal m a-

jesty a nd splendor of the ar t of the Ch ristian Renaissance. B ut more

than that they breathe a deep, inner religious spirit, inspired by the

gre at motifs of salvation history. T h e spiritual doctrine of the

Ex

ercises is a t once optimistic an d humanistic. I t is optimistic in the sense

that it rests on the conviction that the world is good, man is good and

God is good. I t allows precious little room fo r a n eschatology structu red

on a da rk pessimism of flight fro m the world. T he humanism ap-

pears in the consideration th at all things on the face of the eart h

were created fo r man's sake. I n fact Igna tian spirituality off ers a

mystique of all created things for in them as a point of encounter

God is to be found. Characteristic is the form ula, hallar Dios en todas

las cosas. I n a sense he is 'lord of creation,' but only in th e sense

that all things here below are at his disposal to praise, reverence and

serve God. An d closely united to this humanism is an unmistake-

able personalism (b ut not individualism). T hu s in the Incarn ation it

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4

CHURCH HISTORY

to note in these rules: a detailed eulogy of cer tain Ch ristia n prac-

tise s; a recommendation of prudence in speech a principle reg-

ula ting belief an d practice. '' T h e M ass, sacram ents, canonical ho urs,

religious orders, the state of virginity, the vows of religion, relics,

pilgrimages, the Sta tion s, indulgences, bulls, fa st a nd abstinence, vigils,

ecclesiastical art and ornamentation are to be defended and praised.

I n preaching the Catholic doctrine of predestination, fai th and w orks,

filial and servile fear, free will and grace is to be maintained with

prudence.

I n the spiritual doctrine of Ignatiu s obedience to the Church is

of prime importance. T hi s is charac teristic of the spi ritua l doctrine of

the Catholic Reform which was resisting the 'evangelical revolt' which

had broken out in all parts of N orthe rn Eu rope. T hu s the fir st rule

reads

W e must put aside all judgment

of

our own, and keep the mind ever

ready and prom pt to obey in all things the true Spouse of Ch rist our

Lord, our holy Mother, the hierarchial Church.

And the

a

prior; chara cter of this obedience is fur th er defined in the

celebrated thirteenth rule which foreshadows the so called 'blind obe-

dience' of St . Ignatius . H er e he writes:31

f we wish to proceed securely in all things, we must hold fast to the

following princ iple: W hat seems to me white, will believe black, if the

hierarchical Church so defines. F o r must be convinced that in Christ

our Lord, the Bridegroom, and in His spouse the Church only one

Spirit holds sway, which governs and rules for the salvation of souls.

For it is by the same Spirit and Lord, who gave the Ten Command-

ments, that our holy Mother the Church is ruled and governed.

The eleventh rule praises both the positive doctors (such as St. Je-

rome, S t. Augustine, S t. Gregory, etc.) an d the scholastic doctors (suc h

as St . Thomas, St . Bonaventure and Peter the Lom bard) . Th is re-

verence for the patristic and scholastic tradition implicitly affirms a

rule of faith-revelation transm itted by the Fa th er s and Do ctors but

explicated by the hierarchical

magistmiu~st

It also foreshadows the

direction in which the pos t-Triden tine Jesuit theology-positive and

specula tive- would develop.

There seems no doubt now that this set of eighteen ules f o r

Thinking with the Church

was conceived under the inspiration of the

ac ts of the C ouncil of Sens, published w ith the m anife st inten tion of

enlighten ing all Catholics of P ar is , and especially the stud ent s of the

university, on the Luth era n er ro rs and the complicity of the suspected

humanist^. ^^

The Paris of those days was rife with Erasmian cyni-

cism and was under the influence of the Lutheran revolt in nearby

Germany. I t was a time when

a

director of souls could hardly over-

look the ecclesiastical element (especially its authoritarian aspects) in

Catholic spiritual life, which must always be rooted in the Church.

W ith in the context of the

Exercises

these rules were intended to mould

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4ATHOLIC REFORM

the Catholic heart and mind according to the Church, and to lead it

aw ay fro m the dangerous, a t t imes unch ristia n certainly non-Catholic)

aspects of certain of the new humanistic and evangelical movements.33

Though not an integral part of the Exercises they are valuable evi-

dence of the orthodoxy of their author and of the significant, de-

cisive role which he assigned the mgisteriz4m of the Church in his

spirituality. Pe rha ps no one before him wa s so insistent on this point.

From the very f i rs t , the Spiritual Exercises were suspect, at least

in some circles. F o r in the eyes of many Ign ati us , the fo rm er soldier,

the unedu cated layma n, w as ineligible to preach an d teach Catholic fai th

and m orals.34 H is doctrine was suspiciously regarded as a novelty. H is

apostolic activity was resented, especially since by force of personality

and method his appeal w as popular. W here ver he was active as an

evan gelist, his preaching-based on th e Spiritual Exercises and, there-

fo re , large ly biblical-attracted a devoted coterie of disciples whose

lives his teaching soon trans form ed spiritually. Th is w as dange rous

in the tense, suspicious atmosphere which the confessional controver-

sies of tha t day had created. T h e lay Gospel-preacher w as open to

suspicion, particularly since both pulpit and Inquisition were in the

hands of the mendicant friars. But while the spirit and the method

the

Exevcises

appeared to some to be too original to be Catholic, their

author, the ardent Basque nobleman, was too Church-minded to be

any thing but Catholic. I t w as indeed a problem f o r the vigilant au-

thorities. Some suspected him of Erasmianism, others of Lutheran-

ism. H e did not f it neatly into the categories which his opponents

had assigned him.

I n

AlcalA 15 26 ) the Sp anish Inquisition threatened him w ith

capital punishment

; 5

and later at Salamanca, when confined for his

activities, he made the heroic declaration from his miserable cell:36

I

protest that there are not so many posts and manicles and chains

in Salamanca but I should desire more

o

them for the love of God.

Later , in P ar is 1529 ) , Venice 1537) and Rome 1538) he was again

an d aga in brou ght in fo r inquisitorial investigation. B ut in all re-

spects, both personal and doctrinal, he was given a clear bill of or-

thodoxy by his exa m iners . B ut these painful episodes in his early

career were a hard lesson in the obedience which his Rules

f o ~ f

Thifzk-

ing .with the Church demand.

On

September

27,

1540 the Tridentine pope P au l

I11

solemnly

approved the

Formula Instituti

of the new Company of Jesus. H er e,

in the apostolic brief, Regimini militantis ecclesiae the giving of the

Spiritual Exercises is explicitly mentioned as one of the ministerial

works for which the new Society had been founded.37 In the draft of

the C onstitutions in 1546 Ign ati us showed his fi rm conviction of the

value of his spiritual doctrine by obliging every candidate to the So-

ciety to m ake the Spiritual Exercises fo r the space of thirty days.38 I n

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44 CHURCH HISTORY

the fo ur th pa rt of the C onstitutions, which were composed abou t 1550,

he insisted that the giv ing of the

Exercises

be among its principal min-

i~tries;~'nd, in fact, they were to form its inner spirit .40

The ex-

pertness and dexterity, which he demanded on the part of the direc-

tor s of this spiritual armo ry, raised the giv ing of the

Spiritual Ex-

ercises

to a special art and technique.

But in this period the most violent attacks on the Exercises came

from Spain, from the circle of Toledo and Salamanca. The campaign,

waged by Archbishop Juan Siliceo, Cardinal of Toledo, and Fra Mel-

chior Cano, professor at Salamanca, was notorious for its virulence.41

I t is ag ain st this background of concentrated hostility and bitterness

tha t Pau l

I11

once again acted in favor of the Society which he had

approved.

A t the request of the i llustrious Duke F rancis Borgia of

Gandia, the pope issued the brief

Pastoralis officii

on July 31

1548

with a solemn approval of the

Exercises

in all respects as f ull of

piety and holiness, very useful and conducive to the spiritual edifica-

tion and advancement of the faithful, an d wo rthy to be extended to

th e use of the universal

Rome had spoken. B ut the issue in

its fullness far from being dropped came to full flowering a half cen-

tury later in the celebrated controversia de auxiliis.

T h e chief in strum ent fo r the dissemination of the new spirituality

of the

Exercises

was the Society of Jesus, which from 1540 ranked in

the Church as an approved religious O rder. H er e without realizing

the full import of his act, Ignatius had created an organization whose

fundame ntals were in m any essential respects opposed to those of Pr ot -

e ~ t a n t i s m . ~ ~hile Luther on theological grounds broke with the Holy

See, Ignatius tied his new Society tightly to it.44 It was for him the

principium stuns aut cadens of the Church and, therefore, fundamental

both to theology and ascetism.

In fact, he created certain patterns of

Ultramontane thought that were to determine the subsequent theo-

logical trad ition s of his Society. T h e whole force of its apostolic w ork

w as in fa vo r of the Church an d her interests-to restore her where

she had fallen, to implant her w here she was not known. A nd of high

significance to the Catholic Reform is the fact that for Ignatius the

Church was the hierarchical Church, that Church a t whose head stood

Peter in the person of the Roman Pontiff and about whose structure

the furious blasts of the Protestant Revolt were storming.

T h e revolution ary cast of mind, which is charac teristic of Ig

natius, is expressed in the Society's Constitutions. H er e the master

idea of the

Exercises-the

Ch ristia n a s God's perfect servant-is con-

cretely embodied. T h e whole juridical str uc tu re of his O rd er is in-

spired by the conviction that it is to produce perfect servants of God.

I t ha s been well rem arked : Service is th e operative wo rd in the

Founda t ion t ex t and in a l l I gna t i an ~p i r i tua l i ty . ~~n terms of this

apostolate of service, Ignatius broke ruthlessly with the monastic and

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  5ATHOLIC REFORM

mendicant traditio n of the medieval Chu rch. H is Society would be

unique for its mobility and agility, for its freedom from the ascetical

presuppositions of t he past. I t would be ordered to work, concretely

to the work of the Chu rch throughout the world.

I n delineating the mode of life of his Or de r, Ign atiu s acted in

light of thi s conception. T hu s, there would be no distinctive religious

garb, no special name in religion, no obligation to choir, no corporal

penances obligatory on all, no ecclesiastical titles or honors, no gen-

eral chapter, no canonical election of superiors (save the General),

no prescribed time or du ration of m editation fo r the professed. T h e

highest government of the whole Society was to rest in the hands of

those who were certainly p roven to be better t ha n mediocre theologians.

This would insure enlightened orthodoxy; and, to secure absolute obe-

dience, the government of the Society, like that of the Church, would

be monarchical in form. T h e authe ntic member of his Society was to

be well formed in the school of the Exercises,

to be a tireless worker

under obedience, the refo re under th e Church. I t was service of God

thro ug h service of the Ch urch. A nd in his planning there is scarcely

any obstacle that he would allow to impede the total commitment to

this valuable ~ervice.~ '

Within a relatively short time after his conversion, Ignatius be-

gan to preach the spiritual doctrine of the E x e r ~ i s e s , ~ ~lways with

the conviction tha t in this little book God had in sing lar way blessed

his life and work. I n the course of time it became programmatic fo r

his apostolate. Th us in his Parisian days (1528-35) he gained through

the

Spiritual Exercises his first disciples, the core and heart of the

fu tu re Society, men such as St. F rancis Xavier, the futu re Apostle of

the Indies, Diego Laynez, the second General of the Society, and Al-

fon so Salmer6n-both papal theologians a t the thi rd period of the

Council of Trent-Pierre Fa vre , the ma ster

p r

excellence

of the

E x -

e rc i s e ~ . ~ And in the subsequent years the astonishing increment of

the m embership of the Society is traceable to the

Exercises.

Within the lifetime of the Saint (d. 1556) his Order spread to

almost every part of the Western World and even far beyond it into

the Orient. W here ver Catholicism had decayed, it wa s to be re stored ;

and wherever it had perished, it was to be renewed. Both St. Charles

Borromeo (1538 -94) of Milan, an d S t. Philip N eri (1515-95) of

Rome, two of the brightest lights of the Catholic Reform in Italy,

were formed under the influence of the

Exercises.

Their active, ap-

ostolic caree rs vividly exemplified the Ig na tia n concept of service. A nd

S t. Pe ter Canisius (1521 -97), th e second Apostle of Germ any, him-

self 'reformed' th rou gh th e Exercises, was tireless in his reform of

Christian morality through the same piritual Exercises. This instru-

ment serv ed him well in th e vast revival of Catholicism which he

realized in Up per German y an d Austria. Distinguished personali-

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  6

CHURCH HISTORY

ties such as the influential Cardinal Truchsess51 of A ug sb urg and the

theologian Johanne s 1479-1552) were formed in theo c h l a e u ~ ~ ~

Exercises.

T he apostolate of the Jesuits Claude Jay and Pi erre Fa vre

throughout portions of France and Germany centered on the trans-

mission of the

E x e r c i ~ e s . ~ ~

nd m uch later the saintly reform ing bishop

Fra ncis of Sales ( d. 1622) recommended them with h igh praise.54 T he

fact tha t one of th e oldest ext ant m anuscripts of the

Spiritzcal Exercises

was written in English suggests their use in England from the sec-

ond third of the sixteenth cen tury;55 and the history of the English

Jesuits of the Catholic Reform shows how greatly their subreptitious

apostolate in the days of Elizabeth I rested on the spirituality of their

founder.

I t would not be in accord with the fa cts to say that Igna tius a nd

the Jesuits of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were ecumenical

minded in the curr ent sense of tha t expression. Bu t there was in

the early Society a ce rtain amoun t of openness, understan ding and good

will towards the Reformers. f the picture is not all light, neither is

it all da rk. B ut in the polemical controversy of those days the

Exer-

cises were not a counter-thrust agains t the Protestants. I n them-

selves they enjoyed a positive value as a source of Catholic renewal.

They were ordered to make bad Catholics good, and good ones

better. They aimed at the

Ecclesia defornzata of th at da y; and

their value remains perennial and relevant, for that

Ecclesia

is

sentper

reforwzafida. T h e history of spirituality shows tha t they succeded even

in making saints.

T h e

Spiritual Exercises

were never intended to be a popular de-

v ~ t i o n . ~ ~n the contrary, in their fulliiess they were most normally

given to a select few , t o men of special quality , influence, sanc tity,

education, and capability in following the close argument of the text

and th e rich religious psychology of i ts progra m. Th ey looked to the

tra ns for m atio n of men of talent into leaders an d saints-the two press-

ing needs of the Catholic Re form . I t w as a question here of refo rm

assisted by competent leadership. T he ultimate prog ram was renov a-

tion of the generality of the faithful through the leadership of a re-

formed klite. It was the same principle which at a later date \vould

induce Jesuits to assume the delicate but influential position of court-

chaplain, confesso rs of kings and directors of princes. I t was a n ex-

pression of the conviction that the members of his Order should be

cooperatores of divine grace in the lofty work of leading back God's

creatures to Him, their last end.'j5'

But at the same time the Fathers of the Society could not in

terms of their apostolic spirituality neglect the ordinary citizens of

the Respublica Christians Their Constitutions obliged them by vow

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47ATHOLIC REFORM

to teach catechism to the simple people, and to preach to them the Word

of God.50 T h e popular piety, which the E xe rci se s fostere d, was simple,

biblical and ecclesial in character, but perhaps tending too much to-

wards morality and imitation. A most concrete expression of this

aspect of Ign atian spirituality is to be foun d in the Catechis~ ~zzisf St .

Pe ter C anisius who wrote down f or his people an expos; of th e Ca tho-

lic faith in clear, concrete, mea ningful terms. I t was a vivid w ay of

demonstrating to the German nation that the old Church could be

articulate in formulating her faith.

The Jesuit Churches of the Baroque period epitomize and un-

derline the me aning of their spiritual apostolate. F o r these vast H ouses

of God, where light and color, height and depth wondrously blend,

suggest the new vigor, strength and spirit which the Tridentine

Ch urch possessed. T h e break with the medieval pas t is discernible in

their whole conception, but especially in the functional purpose which

inspired them. F o r two featu res of these edifices fo rm the focal center

of the Jesuit spirituality of the Catholic Re for m : the prom inent, dis-

tinguished resplendent pulpit for the transmission of the Word of

God, and the long, broad, accessible altar-rail for the administration

of the Sac ram en t of Christ."

On

December

4,

1563

the Council of Trent held its twenty-fifth

an d last session. H ere , in the closing hours of the gre at council, the

Society of Jesus w as approved as "a society of clerks regular f o r the

service of t he L o rd a nd H i s C h u r ~ h . " ~ ~h e history of this Chu rch

du ri ng the years of the Catholic R eform is like the treas ure of the

wise man, filled with

nov

e.t zretera-"the new and the old." I have

written here mostly of the

ova

"the new," the Spi~ ritunl xercises of

St. Ignatius and their relation to the spirituality of the Catholic Re-

form . B ut this whole gr ea t religious movement of resurrection and

ascension is woven through and through with fibers of many threads,

both "old an d new." T h e Catholic revival wa s the result of a va st

conspiracy of saints and scholars, of men and women, of the noble

and the ignoble, of the simple and the great, the known and the un-

known. I t w as a movement inspired by many spiritual doctrines, con-

ditioned by many intellectual forces an d helped by many hands. I t was

in the ultimate analysis part of the mystery of God, who fostered the

reformation of H is Church af te r H e had f i rs t a llowed i ts deforma-

tion, who permitted the disunion of the faithful in one century as

mysteriously a s H e had fostered their union in another.

1. Cf.

R.

E. McNally, S.J.,

The Oonncil

igungl Ephenaerides theologicae Lo-

of

Trent and the

German

Protestants, t antenses 38 ( 1 9 6 2 ) 841-55.

Theological Studies 25

(1964)

1-22 f o r 3

H. J.

Schroeder, anons and Decrees

a survey

of

t h e split between

Catholics

o f the ounci l o f Trent

(London 1941),

and

Protestants over the

Council of pp.

1-10. According t o

t h e

bull the

Trent.

Council was t o assemble on November

2. Cf. H.

Jedin,

1st

das Konzil von

1 1542.

Trient ein Hindernis

der

Wiederverein-

4. Ib id . p. 9.

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  8 CHURCH HISTORY

5. J. Jungmann, S.J., "Liturgisohes

Lebw

im

Barock," Liturgisches Erbe

und pastorale Gegenwart (Innsbruck

1960),. pp. 108-19, and

L.

Bouyer,

Lzturgzcal Piety (Notre Dame 1955),

pp. 1-9.

6. E. A. Peters, Studies of the Spanish

Mystics 1 (London 1951) 3. Cf.

L

Pastor, The History of the Popes 12

(St. Louis 1912)

1

who remarked of

St. Ignatius that he was a man ('des-

tined to contribute more powerfully

thad any other, by the force and un-

equalled range of his activity, to pur-

ify the Church m d to restore by

means of new conquests the balance of

her recent loses."

7. The editio princeps, containing 114

leaves including the title page, mea-

sures 6.25 inches in length by 4.25

inches in width. I t bears the impress,

"Romae auud Ankonium Bladum X I

Sept. MDXLVIII.

8. Ignat ius' realization of the effective

transformation of the cave-experience

is intimated in his bewildering ques-

tion:'(What new kind of life is this

upon which I am entering$" Of.

Acta Patris Ignatii 3, 21, Fontes Nar-

rativi de 8. Ignatio de Loyola 1 ed.

D.

F.

Zapico, S.J. et al., Honumenta

Ignatiana

1

ser. 4 (Rome 1943) 393.

Hereinafter cited as Acta Patris Ig-

natii.

9. Cf. on the genesis of the Exercises

H.

Pinard de la BoulIaye S.J., Les dtapes

de re'daction des Exercises de S. Ignace

(Paris 1955).

10. Acta Pa tr is Ignati i 2, 18, p. 389.

11.

Cf.

J. p rod rick

S.J., The -orig in of

the Jesui ts (London 1940), .p. 20:

'The originality of the Exercises lies

in the fac t that the book is not

so

much a book as the condensed, the

suffered experiaace of a most noble

heart that had wrestled with God and

won emancipation at tremendous cost."

12. Note the rubric in the Rules for Elect-

tion

:

( Directions for the amendment

and reformation of one's way of liv-

in

his state of life." Cf. The

:$ritual Exercbes of St. Ignat iw ,

tr., L. J. Puhl, S.J. (Westminster

1957), p. 78. Hereinafter cited

Spiritual Exercises.

13. Ibid . p.

1.

14. H. Bremond, Literary History of

Religious Thought in France 3 (Lon-

don 1936) 17, names Pierre de BBrulle

(d. 1629) the father of theocentrism.

For Bremond Ignatius was anthropo-

centric. Bu t cf. on "the modem sim-

plicist tendency to label schools of

spirituality" in these terms

F.

X.

Lawlor, S.J., ['The Doctride of Grace

in the Spiritual Exercises," Theologi-

cal Studies 3 (1942)

520.

15. Spiritual Exercises, p.

43

16.

ma.

p. 44.

17.

Ib id .

18. Ibid., p. 61: '(Consider how the Lord

of all the world chooses so many per-

sons, apostles, disciples, etc., and sends

them throughout the whole world to

spread His sacred doctrine among all

men, no matter what their state or

condition.

19. Cf. n. 14 wpra.

20. Cf. H. Bremond, op. cit., 3, 47, 60, 61,

336.

21. Gf. on the literarg antecedents of the

Exercises E. Watrigant, S.J., La Gen-

Bse des Exercises de saint Ignaoe de

Loyola ( h i e n s 1907) and

H.

Rahner,

S.J., The Spirituality of St. I g n a t b

Loyola (Westminster 1953).

22. Cf. on the mysteries of the life of

Christ in the Exercises

J.

A. Fitzmyer,

S.

J.

"The Spiritual Exercises of St .

Ignatius and Recent Gospel Study,"

Woodstock Letters 91 (1962) 246-74.

23. Cf.

J.

Jungmann, S.J., "Die Abwehr

des Germanischen Arianismus und der

Umbruch der Religiosen Kultur im

ii

h

e n Mittelalter," Liturgisches

Erbe und Pastorale Gegenwart, (Inns-

bruk 1960), pp. 1-86, esp, pp. 65-78.

As

H.

Bremond op. cit., 3, 55 conceives

it, Igna tius stresses [( th e actions" of

Christ, B6ruue ( the states."

24. Cf.

L.

L. Martz, The Poetry of

M a

tation (New Haven 1954), esp. pp.

25 et ff. , for the iwfluence of the Ig-

natian cmpositio loci on the poetic

imagery of Robert Southwell, S.J.,

John Dunne and others.

25. Spiritual Exercises, p. 52.

26. Note the judgment of P. Dudon, S.J.,

St. Ignatius of Loyola (Milwaukee

1949), p. 206: ' [ the derivation

[of the Exercises] from Cisneros is a

fable. '

27. In the preface

to

the editio princeps

(1548) p. 6 Ignatius writes that the

Spiritual Exercises are derived not so

much from books as from his own in-

ner experiences and the knbwledge

which he gained in directing souls.

28. Spiritual Exercises, pp. 157-61.

29. P.

Dudon, S.J., op. cit., p. 459.

30. Spiritual Exercises,

p.

157.

31. Ibid., p. 160.

32.

P.

Dudon, S.J.,

op.

cit., p. 458.

33. Cf. for example the Directorium 12,

3 of Ju an de Polanco, S.J., Ignat ius '

personal friend and secretary,

in

Mon-

u m n t a Ignatiana, ser. 2, Exercitk

Spiritualia (Madrid 1919) 829. Herein-

after cited as Exercitia Spiritualia.

34. Cf. Jecome Nadal, S.J., Epist.

4,

826, on

Ignatius' lack of formal education at

the time of the fir st draft s of the EX-

ercises.

Cf.

also

P.

Dudon, S.J., op. cit.,

p. 213, n. 23. At Alcalh he was for-

bidden to preach until he had finished

four more years of study. Cf. Acta

Patris Ignatii 6, 62, p. 451.

35. Acta Patris Ignatii 6, 58,

P.

443. The

inquisitors at Alcalh, thinkmg Ignatius

to be one o the Illuminati (Alum-

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  9

THOLIC REFORM

bradoe), "threatened

him

with capitd

punishment.

36. Ibi&., 7, 69, p. 461.

37. Cf. Socistatis Iesu Co ns ti tu thee et

Epitome Instituti (Rome 1949),

p

9.

Hereinafter cited as Constitutmes.

38. Constitutiones 4, 4, 10, pp. 47-8.

39. Ibid., 4, 8, 5, p. 157.

40.

L.

Pastor, op. cit., 12, 18: "The SO-

ciety of Jesus in all ages has seen in

the Exercises, and particularly in the

meditation on the 'Two Standards,

the patterd of

its

existence."

41. Cf. A. Astrain, S.J., Hi sto rk

de la

Compaiii de Jesris

1

(Madrid 1902)

366-84.

42. The pope, however, did not act until

he first had the book examined by

three competent censors.

43. Cf.

L.

von Ranke, tr. S. Austin, The

History of the Popes of E r n e 1 (Phil-

adelphia 1841) 149-50.

44. Characteristic of and essential to the

Society is a special solemn vow of obe-

dience to the Holv See. Cf. Constitutio-

nes

1 1 5,

p.

1.

45. Uf.

F. X.

Lawlor, S.J., op. cit., p.

524 where these words of Joseah de

Guibert, S.J., are cited.

46. Cf.

0.

Karrer, Der heilige Franz von

orja (Freiburg 1921) pp. 249-74.

47. Acta Patris Ignatii 6, 57, p. 441.

48. L. GonzfLlez de CBmara, Hemoriale

226, Fontes narrativi de

S.

Ignatw de

Loyola 1 ed. D.

F.

Zapico, S.J. et al.,

Monurnenta Ignatiana 66, ser. 4

(Rome 1943) 658.

49. "St. Charles Borromeo introduced

them among the clergy of the province

of Milan." Cf. L. Pastor, op. cit., 12,

18.

50. Cf. Braunsberger, S.J., Beati Petr i

Canisii Societatis Iesu Epistulae et

Acta

1 (Freiburg 1896) 76-7. Cf. J.

Brodrick, S.J., Saint Peter Cani shs

(New Pork 1935), pp. 36-7.

51. Cf. J. Brodrick, S.J., Saint Peter Can-

isius, pp. 153 et ff.

52. After making the Exercises he rejoiced

that "now, once more, a teacher had

at last arisen who could speak to the

heart." Cf.

L.

Pastor , op. cit., 12, 18.

53. Cf. on the apostolate of Claude Jay,

Chronicon Societatis Iesu by Juan

Polanco, S.J., Vita Ignatii Loiolae 2

Monumenta historica Societatis Iesu

(Madrid 1894), esp. p. 265. where

Father Jay is mentioned as the retreat

master of Cardinal Truchsess.

54. Of. L. Pastor, op. cit., 12, 18.

55. The manuscript was "copied by John

Helyar, priest and fellow of Corpus

Uhriati College, Oxford, a t some date

between May 1534 add March 1537,

probably at Paris." Cf. J. Crehm, S.

J.. "Saint Imat iu s and Cardinal

pole," ~rchivu%historicum Societatis

Iesu 25 (1956) 72-98.

56. Cf. the harsh letter of Ignatius dated

August 18, 1554 in which he outlines

for Peter Oanisius a strong program

against the Protestants. Cf. J. Brod-

rick, S.J., Saint Peter Canisius, pp. 211-

.

14

57. Cf. Constitutiones 4, 8, 5, p. 158:

"Quando omnia tradentur, rar is

homhibus, vel

qui

de vitae suae statu

deliberare veI.int, tradi oportebit."

58. Cf. Epistola 9 Ignatii ad scholasti-

cos Conimbdcenses (Rome 1926), p. 21.

59. Constitutiones 5, 3, B, p. 193; 7, 2,

E,

1963).

pp. 225-26; Examen 6, 2, p. 63. Cf. on

the vow obliging the urofessed to in-

struct

in

sacruedudoctri& Constitutiones

5, 3, 3, p. 192.

60. Cf. on Ienatius ' confceat of the a ~ o s -

tolate ofu preaching

4

59 supra, i n d

on his liberal attitude towards frequent

Holy Communion P. Dudon, S.J., op.

cit., pp. 418 et ff.

61. Cf. E. Ehses, ed. Concilii Tridentini

Aotorum Pare 6 (Freiburg 1924) 1083.