09_rustoiu-berecki-thracian warriors in transylvania at the beginning of the late iron age

8/10/2019 09_Rustoiu-Berecki-Thracian Warriors in Transylvania at the Beginning of the Late Iron Age

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IRON AGE RITES AND RITUALS

IN THE CARPATHIAN BASIN

PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COLLOQUIUM

FROM TRGU MURE

79 October 2011

Edited bySndor BERECKI

Editura MEGATrgu Mure2012


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Content

Preface...................................................................................................................................................................... 7

Hrvoje POTREBICAReligious Phenomena of the Hallstatt Communities of Southern Pannonia ............................................ 9

Marcella NAGYPl SMEGIGerg PERSAITSSndor GULYSTnde TRCSIKIron Age Hoard Found at Ikervr (Vas County, Hungary) in the Western Region of theCarpathian Basin. A Study in the Reconstruction of the Cultic Life of the Hallstatt Periodin the Light of Archaeological and Scientific Analyses............................................................................... 31

Zoltn CZAJLIKGza KIRLYAttila CZVEKSndor PUSZTABalzs HOLLGbor BROLLYe Application of Remote Sensing Technology and Geophysical Methods in theTopographic Survey of Early Iron Age Burial Tumuli in Transdanubia................................................... 65

Robert SCHOLTZScythian Age Burials at Tiszalk.................................................................................................................... 77

Lszl SZATHMRYScythian Age Human Skeletal Remains from Tiszalk ............................................................................101

Florin GOGLTANJzsef-Gbor NAGYProfane or Ritual? A Discovery from the End of the Early Iron Age from VlahaPad,

Transylvania.................................................................................................................................................... 105Imola KELEMEN

e Archaeozoological Analysis of the Animal Bones Discovered in the Early Iron Age Pitat VlahaPad .................................................................................................................................................. 133

Mircea BABENicolae MIRIOIUVerlngerte, mehrstufige birituelle Bestattungen im DonauKarpaten-Raum(5. bis 3. Jh. v. Chr.) ........................................................................................................................................ 139

Aurel RUSTOIUSndor BERECKIracian Warriors in Transylvania at the Beginning of the Late Iron Age.e Grave with Chalcidian Helmet from Ocna Sibiului ..........................................................................161

Peter C. RAMSLLate Iron Age Burial Rites in Eastern Austria ............................................................................................ 183

Maciej KARWOWSKIAn Ithyphallic Celtic Figurine from Oberleiserberg ................................................................................. 189

Jan BOUZEKe North-Western Part of the Carpathian Basin in the Period of Early Celtic Princes ..................... 213

Zoltn PILLINGFerenc UJVRIIron Age Settlement and Cemetery from SzegedKiskundorozsma. Some New Data

on Iron Age Burial Rite at the Southern Part of the Great Hungarian Plain .........................................217va TANKKroly TANK

Cremation and Deposition in the Late Iron Age Cemetery at Ludas ..................................................... 249


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Gertrda BEZINOVe Biritual Cemetery at uranyNitriansky Hrdok, District of Nov Zmky, Slovakia................... 259

Martin FURMANe Interpretative Value of Annular Ornaments for the Study of Early Celtic Populationsin the Middle Danube Area .......................................................................................................................... 273

Gabriela BREZANOVReflections of the Contacts between Celtic Communities in North-West Romaniaand South-West Slovakia in the Grave Inventories ...................................................................................289

Jnos NMETIFunerary Rites and Rituals of the Celtic Cemeteries in North-Western Romaniaand a Comparison with the Funerary Discoveries in the Tisza Plain and Transylvania...................... 295

Tiberius BADERMeine Begegnungen mit den Keltenfrsten: am Beispiel der Frstengrber von Ciumetiund Hochdorf ................................................................................................................................................. 303

Paul PUPEZe Local Tradition Pottery from the Eastern Carpathian Basin Celtic Graves ...................................317

Drago MNDESCUKilling the Weapons. An Insight on Graves with Destroyed Weaponsin Late Iron Age Transylvania ......................................................................................................................343

Aurel RUSTOIUe Celts and Indigenous Populations from the Southern Carpathian Basin.Intercommunity Communication Strategies ............................................................................................. 357

Marija LJUTINAMilo SPASI

Celtic Newcomers between Traditional and Fashionable: Graves 63 and 67 from Karaburma .......... 391Ctlin Nicolae POPA

Till Death Do Us Part. A Statistical Approach to Identifying Burial Similarity and Grouping.e Case of the Late La Tne Graves from the Eastern Carpathian Basin ............................................. 401

Beatrice S. KELEMENIosif Vasile FERENCZCristian C. ROMANDelia M. ROMANOanaPONTASimon SIMION

Cremated Human Remains from HunedoaraGrdina Castelului / Platou.Additional Information Inferred by XRD, FT-IR and SEM/EDX Analyses .......................................... 413

Andreea DRGANLate Iron Age Burials in the Iron Gates Area. A Functional Approach to Funerary Expression

in the Late La Tne......................................................................................................................................... 425

Milica TAPAVIKIILIVojislav FILIPOVIA Late Iron Age Grave Find from Syrmia .................................................................................................. 453

Marcin RUDNICKIFinds and Context of imleul Silvaniei Type Bracelets North of the Carpathians and the Sudety ..... 461

Horea POPZsolt CSKe Tumuli Necropolis from imleu Silvaniei ........................................................................................... 493

Mariana EGRIA Warrior Never Dies. e Manipulation of Tradition in Early Funerary Contexts from Pannonia ... 503

Abbreviations...................................................................................................................................................... 531


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Iron Age Rites and Rituals in the Carpathian Basin, 2012, p. 161181

Thracian Warriors in Transylvania at the Beginningof the Late Iron Age.

The Grave with Chalcidian Helmet from Ocna Sibiului

Aurel RUSTOIUSndor BERECKIInstitute of Archaeology and History of Art

Cluj-Napoca, Romania

[email protected]

Mure County MuseumTrgu Mure, Romania

[email protected]

Keywords: Chalcidian helmet, grave inventory, Late Iron Age, aristocracy,warlike elite, 4 century BC

Ocna Sibiului (Sibiu County, Hungarian Vzakna, German Salzburg) is a locality in southernTransylvania, situated in an area having rich salt resources. e grave discussed in this paper was acciden-tally discovered in 1884. e context and details of the discovery are unknown, so the information regard-ing the funerary rite and ritual are missing, but some of the inventory was brought to the BrukenthalMuseum in Sibiu, and the artefacts are still in its collections (inv. no. A5731/13044; A5732/13045; A5738;A5739; A5753/13066). e recovered inventory includes several pieces of sheet bronze, namely the cheek-piece of a helmet, four simple loops, two loops having three groups of knobs each, four discs and an objectof unknown use.

ese artefacts remained unknown to the scientific community for a considerable period. Nearlya century aer their discovery they were published for the first time by Mircea R (1969, 293294,pl. 147; RB 1970, 3739, 59, pl. 18ab). When the famous grave with a helmet from Ciumeti

was published, Rusu also mentioned the group of artefacts recovered from Ocna Sibiului. He consideredthat the finds come from a Celtic grave, the cheek-piece belonged to an Etruscan helmet and the bronzediscs and the loops were harness mounts, while not excluding the use of the loops with knobs as bracelets.Chronologically the entire assemblage was dated to the LT B.

e ascribing of the grave from Ocna Sibiului to the Celtic period in Transylvania, the identificationof the helmet as an Italic or Italo-Celtic type, as well as the dating of the burial to the LT B or towards theend of the 4 century BC were accepted aerwards by other specialists, sometimes with certain variations,for example by C (1971, 152153, fig. 1; C 1973, 59, no. 41), Z (1971, 176, n. 34, 182183,fig. 3/11; Z 1975, 52, pl. 2A/12, who considered that the bracelets with knobs from Ocna Sibiului,having analogies in the Lower Danube area, attest the connections between the Celts and the indigenouspopulations), G (1991, 102), F (2007, 129), etc.

Recently, T (2008, 39, nr. 143, 240, 441, nr. 949, pl. 176/57) reopened the discussion regard-

ing the funerary inventory from Ocna Sibiului and especially about the cheek-piece. He considered, simi-larly to Rusu, that the cheek-piece and the pointed bronze object belong to an Italo-Celtic helmet whichshould be dated to around 300 BC or slightly later. e artefact would have arrived in Transylvania in


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162 | A. RS. B

the same way as other iron or bronze helmets (from Ciumeti, Siliva and Apahida), during the eastwardexpansion of the La Tne culture.

en some years ago, while writing the Ocna Sibiului entry for Lexikon zur keltischen Archologie,Aurel Rustoiu noted the following: e cheek-piece belongs to a Greek helmet of Chalcidian type, havingmobile cheek-pieces (type V of Pflug). e remaining pieces are harnessing elements. Taking into con-sideration the chronology of the helmet piece, the grave of Ocna Sibiului can be dated to the first half ofthe 4 century BC, preceding the Celtic horizon from Transylvania. e discovery illustrates the connec-tions established between the Carpathian Basin and the northern Balkans before the arrival of the Celtsin Transylvania (R 2012a). Recently S (2005, 649) also noted that the cheek-piece fromOcna Sibiului belonged to a Chalcidian helmet.

e recent accumulation of valuable information regarding the Chalcidian helmets from the north-ern Balkans, as well as the observations of Sndor Berecki concerning the inventory from BrukenthalMuseum in Sibiu, allow a re-evaluation of the discovery from Ocna Sibiului and a wider discussionregarding the importance of this burial site. Starting from these primary data, the first aim of this articleis to re-analyse the entire assemblage to determine the precise chronology of the grave. e second aimis to identify the cultural milieu to which this funerary assemblage is belonging, in the wider contexts ofsouthern Transylvania and northern Balkans.

e funerary inventoryAll artefacts from the grave of Ocna Sibiului were made of a bronze alloy and aer discovery were

mechanically cleaned. Due to this fact their surface is heavily scratched, the actual colour being lightbrown, whereas the un-cleaned areas are brownish-grey to greenish. Aside from that the artefacts areremarkably preserved, the alloy being of excellent quality.1. e cheek-piece(Pl. 1/11; 2/11)e right cheek-piece of a helmet, made of bronze sheet, is partially damaged on the upper side. It has a semicircularcurved edge towards the back and serrated edge towards the front. A small perforation (of about 0.2 cm) on the lowerside allowed the helmet to be tied under the chin. Other two perforations having nearly similar dimensions (of theinitial three, one being on the damaged area) are on the upper side. eir role was to hold the hinges which allowedthe fitting of the cheek-piece on the helmet. e edges were slightly curved inward, and on the inside is an incision

surrounding the edge, at 0.5 cm from the rim. e height of the piece is of 13.5 cm while the width is of 8.5 cm.2. e simple loops (Pl. 1/710; 2/710)e inventory also contains four simple loops having morphologically different shapes, but similar dimensions andfunctionality:a. Bronze loop, mould-made, having a semicircular cross-section. Diameter: 6.5 cm (Pl. 1/7, 2/7).b. Bronze loop similar to the first one, but having a diameter of 7.5 cm (Pl. 1/6, 2/8).c. Bronze loop having a U-shaped cross-section. Diameter: 7 cm (Pl. 1/9, 2/9).d. Bronze loop similar to the previous one, but having the diameter of 7.5 cm (Pl. 1/10, 2/10).3. e loops with knobs (Pl. 1/12; 2/12)e two bronze loops with knobs were also differently made, as the simple ones:a. Bronze loop, mould-made, having a semicircular cross-section. ree groups of three knobs each are symmetri-cally placed on the external side. Diameter: 6.5 cm (Pl. 1/1; 2/1).b. Bronze loop having a U-shaped cross-section and three groups of four knobs each are symmetrically placed on theexternal side. Diameter: 7.5 cm (Pl. 1/2; 2/2).4. e bronze discs(Pl. 1/36; 2/36)Four bronze discs forming two pairs were also found:a. Disc made of a cast bronze plaque, having a convex shape and the edge decorated with oblique, parallel incisions,in relief. is decorated edge is separated from the convex body of the disc by a circular groove. e fitting systemconsists of a semicircular loop. Diameter of the disc: 5.2 cm (Pl. 1/3; 2/3).b. Disc nearly similar to the first one but having the diameter of 5.1 cm (Pl. 1/4; 2/4).c. Disc nearly similar to the first one but having the diameter of 6.5 cm (Pl. 1/5; 2/5).d. Disc nearly similar to the first one but having the diameter of 6.5 cm (Pl. 1/6; 2/6).5. Piece having uncertain functionality(Pl. 1/12; 2/12)Bronze piece consisting of three morphologically distinct parts: an upper elongated, pointed part, having a hexagonalcross-section; a central part having a globular shape with a central perforation, perpendicular to the axis of the piece

(diameter of 0.8 cm); a tubular lower part having a groove towards the lower end. Dimensions: length: 8.5 cm; width of thebase: 2.3 cm; length of the fitting perforation: 3.1 cm; diameter of the fitting perforation: 0.6 cm. e functionality of thispiece is difficult to identify so far, but a series of analogies may suggest some interpretations which will be detailed below.


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racian Warriors in Transylvania at the Beginning of the Late Iron Age | 163163

e most important item for determining the chronology of the entire funerary inventory is thecheek-piece. e object has no analogies amongst the types of north Italic helmets, nor in temperateEurope, but it is similar to some cheek-pieces belonging to Chalcidian helmets.

e name of this type was established at the beginning of the 19 century by Furtwngler, who stud-ied a series of finds from Olympia and noted that they are different from the Corinthian and Attic helmets,being represented on Chalcidian black-figure pottery dated to the 6 century BC. is is the origin of thename chose by the German scholar for this type of helmets. He cited as an example an amphora from thePergamon Museum in Berlin on which one such helmet is depicted (F 1890, 170; D1986, pl. 63/6; P 1988, 137, fig. 1). e Chalcidian helmets were widely distributed from the 6 tothe 3 century BC. ey are present in Greece, southern Italy and the north-eastern part of the BalkanPeninsula, and in regions around the Black Sea. However, despite this wide area of distribution, they havenever been comprehensively analysed.

Emil Kunze created a general typology based on the finds from Olympia, dividing them into seventypological groups (Gr. IVII), from which two (Gr. VVI) comprise forms which could not be ascribedto the first four groups or were hybrids (K 1967, 137). Later, this typology was refined by P(1988, 138, fig. 2), who retained the first four groups and the seventh one defined by Kunze, the resultbeing a series of five types, from which the last one consists of helmets having hinged cheek-pieces.

Contemporaneously, D (1986, 136141) proposed a typology based mainly on the shape of thecheek-pieces. However, as previously noted, in comparison with the typology proposed by Dintsis, theone created by Pflug also allows the identification and further addition of other new variants of the basicseries (O-MS 2005, 521).

During the last two decades a series of studies have been published concerning the typology, chronol-ogy and distribution of Chalcidian helmets in the eastern and northern parts of the Balkan Peninsula andin the Black Sea region, offering a clearer perspective on the role and frequency of use of these artefactsin the afore-mentioned areas (G 1991, 93100; T 1995, 8589, fig. 10; O-MS 2005; S 2005; 2006, 86; T 2008, 235239; L 2009).

Returning to the cheek-piece from Ocna Sibiului, the artefact belongs to a helmet which can beascribed to the Pflug type V. is type includes the helmets having hinged cheek-pieces. In general theshape of the cheek-pieces differs from one item to another, but a tendency to adapt some forms alreadyused for other types of Chalcidian helmets can be observed.

e piece from Ocna Sibiului (Pl. 3/1) has close analogies amongst the cheek-pieces discovered inthe sanctuaries from Olympia (Pl. 3/2) and Dodona (Pl. 3/3) (K 1994, 7374, fig. 71; pl. 26/2a), aswell as the relief-decorated piece from Tithorea (Pl. 3/4), in central Greece (A 1976). Atthe same time the shape of this cheek-piece is similar to some helmets belonging to the Pflug type II, forexample the finds from ShipkaGolyama Kosmatka tumulus (Pl. 3/5) or from Dolna Koznitsa, both inBulgaria (O-MS 2005, 527, no. 1213, pl. 3/24; T 2008, 237238,no. 29, 46/b) or the miniature golden helmet represented on the handle of a sword from the so-calledGrave of Philip II from Vergina (A 1984, 142145, fig. 99101).

e Chalcidian helmets were very popular in the northern and north-eastern Balkans. e examplesbelonging to type V are mostly concentrated in the region between the Balkan and Rodopi Mountains, as

well as in north-eastern Bulgaria, a series of finds being documented northward of the Danube (Fig. 1).e Chalcidian helmets of type II are also numerous. As Pflug, amongst others mentioned, asidefrom the standard type (Pl. 4/1) another local variant of the basic type was created in the eastern Balkansdated later than the Greek finds (P 1988, 141142). e inner edge of the cheek-pieces belongingto this variant is straight and serrated (Pl. 4/2). ese pieces are the predecessors of the richly decoratedsilver and golden helmets from the Lower Danube basin (Pl. 4/45), for example those from Agighiol,Cucuteni-Biceni, Peretu, Coofeneti and the Iron Gates region (G 1991, 99; O-MS 2005, 519521). e helmets of type II are concentrated between the Balkans and the RodopiMountains, but are to be found mostly in north-eastern Bulgaria (Fig. 2).

As concerns the provenance of the helmets from the Balkans, probably some of them were made byworkshops from Greece or from the colonies on the Black Sea coast. Others were produced in the localmilieu by crasmen trained in Greek workshops. e ethnic origin of these crasmen is irrelevant. ey

possessed outstanding knowledge regarding the technology of precious metals and bronze alloys, and hadclose connections or were subordinated to the lites and leaders of the northern Balkans communities.e latter were the main consumers of luxury products, and thus they imposed various trends, symbolic


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significances or functional characteristics of various adornments or utilitarian objects, or of the structureof the military equipment and panoply of weapons and so forth. On the other hand the crasmen werecharacterised by a high degree of mobility in time and space. ey transmitted specific knowledge andtechnologies from one generation to another within the same families or groups of crasmen, whichexplains the perpetuation of some types of artefacts or of techniques of producing them. At the same timethe spatial mobility of the crasmen was determined by the necessity to find clients able to provide rawmaterials and to place orders, and, in some cases, also to provide protection (concerning the status andmobility of the crasmen see R 1996a; 2002, 6370). As a consequence it might be possible that aseries of helmets were made, alongside other metalwork and jewellery, by Greek crasmen or by otherstrained in the Greek milieu working for local rulers. is not uncommon connection is illustrated, forexample, by an inscription on a silver vessel from the Rogozen hoard. is inscription names the cras-man Disloias who made the vessel for a local ruler named Kotios of Beos Kotios eg Beo(s)/Disloias epoiese(R1989, 80, cat. no. 29; A 1987, 242).

At least one such workshop making helmets probably functioned in north-eastern Bulgaria, as issuggested by the large number of finds concentrated in the region.. Some of the pieces from this region,

Fig. 1. Distribution map of Chalcidian helmets Pflug type V in the northern Balkans(see the list of discoveries in S 2005 and T 2008).


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and also from other areas, as well as the silver and gold helmets derived from the bronze Chalcidian ones,illustrate the existence of excellent technological knowledge regarding metal processing in the region. Ahelmet recently discovered in the Golyamata Mogilatumulus, near Malomirovo and Zlatinitsa villages inJambol region, eastern Bulgaria, was decorated on the top with a snake having three heads (A 2011,8490, fig. III/2124), a symbolic motif which is also present, for example, on a decorated plaque fromthe Letnica hoard (K 1997, fig. 4/10), which is probably showing mythological scenes. is exampleagain demonstrates the practice of adapting certain Greek material representations to the practical andideological needs of the local elites.

On the other hand, a series of helmets from the northern Balkans bears signs of ancient repairs.is is the case of some helmets from Judelnik or Budeti (Pl. 4/3), in which the hinged cheek-pieces werereplaced by fixed ones (see T 2008, 235236, 436438, with detailed illustrations of the repairs).ese repairs are of lower quality in comparison with the higher technology involved in the manufactur-ing of the helmets, which suggest that some of the local leaders lacked access to the services of top classartisans, like those who made similar products for the prestigious aristocratic courts from race.

Fig. 2. Distribution map of Chalcidian helmets Pflug type II, the racian variant(black squares) and the silver and gold parade helmets (white squares) (see the list of

discoveries in T 1995; O-MS 2005; T 2008).


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Chronologically the earliest examples from the north-eastern Balkans, belonging to the standardtype II, come from Bulgaria (Ruec, Obretenik, Sadovec, Branievo, Razgrad), being dated to the 5 cen-tury BC (T 2008, 235, 435436). e majority of these pieces, and mostly the racian variantof the Chalcidian helmets, were used during the 4 century BC, whereas from the middle of this centurythe so-called parade helmets, made of silver or gold, also appeared (T 2008, 235237, 436438).As for the chronology of the helmets with mobile cheek-pieces, they appeared in Greece as early as thebeginning of the 5 century BC, to judge from their presence on contemporary painted pottery (P1988, 143, fig. 10). e helmet from Tithorea, with cheek-pieces having a similar shape to that of theexample from Ocna Sibiului, was dated to the beginning of the 4 century BC (A 1976, 199),whereas the finds of the same type from Olympia belong to the first half of this century (K 1994,7374). E. Teleag has given the same dating to other helmets of type V discovered in funerary contextsfrom Bulgaria and Romania, for example those from Zavet, Mortogonovo, Klnovo, Fcu and Zimnicea.(T 2008, 236, 438440), but some might have also been used slightly later according to the chro-nology recently proposed by M (2010, 158159).

erefore the dating of the helmet from the grave at Ocna Sibiului can be narrowed down to the firsthalf of the 4 century BC and as late as the beginning of the second half of this century. is chronologicaldelimitation corresponds to the ethnic and historical evolution from Transylvania and northern Balkans,

an aspect which will be discussed below.e remaining pieces of the Ocna Sibiului funerary inventory are harness mounts. According totheir dimensions, the simple loops and the discs can be paired, while the loops with knobs have differentsizes. e mentioned discs have analogies made of silver or bronze in a series of funerary inventories orhoards, being associated with other elements of harness fittings. For example similar objects are present inthe hoard containing harness mounts discovered at Craiova (Pl. 5/2) (B 1969, 133, fig. 102; B1974, 150151, fig. 69; K 1997, 214, fig. 7/18), or in the graves from Peretu (Pl. 5/1) (K 1997, 215,fig. 8/1113) and Agighiol (Pl. 5/3) (B 1969, 6768, fig. 41/16; 47/13, 5; B 1974, 7678,fig. 32/7, 911; K 1997, 246, fig. 24/4043). ree silver discs are associated with a simple loop andwith other decorative harness elements in the recently discovered tumulus from Malomirovo-Zlatinitsa(A 2011, 116118, fig. III.IV-15/ab 16).

Loops with knobs are frequently associated with other harness mounts, for example in the gravefrom Gvani (Pl. 6/1) (K 1997, 283, fig. 39/18; SH 2000, 140, fig. 37) or in the onefrom Panagjurite (Pl. 6/2), dated to the 4 century BC (K 1997, 296297, fig. 49/20). e presenceof such loops in the inventories of some graves lacking weaponry or harness equipment (for example inthe grave from EnisalaMovila 6-B, m. 5, S 1971, 118, fig. 31/g; S 2003, 279, 314, fig. 14/5),sometimes linked in groups of two or three as in the case of a grave from Ciucurova (Pl. 6/3), or anotherfrom Zimnicea (S 1976, 159163, fig. 10/3; S 2003, 155, fig. 1/4; A 1980, 22,fig. 50/8) indicates that the functionality of these objects was diverse. ey could have also been used asgarment accessories. e manner in which they were used as connecting elements for belts and straps isalso indicated by a series of loops discovered at Magdalenska gora (Pl. 6/4) (H .2004, pl. 35/36; 45/812; 71/25; 159/113; etc.). Loops with knobs were in use during an extended period in the areanorth of the Danube, up to the late La Tne and even later, and having various functionalities (see R

1996b, 106107).e bronze piece having a tubular lower half and a pointed upper half, previously discussed by thepresent authors (RB 2011), was considered the fitting element of a crest or plume of a hel-met (R 1969, 293; RB 1970, 3738; T 2008, 441, no. 949). e images on Greekpainted pottery indicate that these Chalcidian helmets had ornamental crests on their top (D 1986,pl. 63/2, 4, 6; 64/1, 5; P 1988, 143144, fig. 10). In certain cases traces of soldering have been observedat the point which these decorative elements, probably made of organic materials, were fitted (S2005, 648). In other situations the helmets were decorated on the top with other types of ornaments, alsosoldered (probably with tin). is is the case of the snake with three heads fitted on the helmet from theGolyamata Mogilatumulus at Malomirovo-Zlatinitsa, previously mentioned, or of the spiral ornamentson other helmets (D 1986, pl. 67/12). Still, the object from the grave at Ocna Sibiului is not anornament of this kind. e piece is lacking any trace of soldering, whereas the tubular base does not per-

mit its fitting on the top of the helmet.A series of artefacts having a close similarity are later documented in the early Roman imperial period.

ey consist of bronze fittings belonging to the type of musical instruments used in military contexts,


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called cornu(F 2002, 5759, fig. 5763). A fragment of this kind discovered at Murrhardt, inBaden-Wrttenberg (N 1988, 110, fig. 80), is a good example. ese musical instruments appearedin the Etruscan world and, much earlier, in Greece. Still, the dimensions of the piece from Ocna Sibiuluiare much smaller than those of these potential analogies, so this functional identification is less convinc-ing. In conclusion the bronze object is not a fitting element of a crest, as previously suggested. Today itsfunctionality is difficult to establish, but the present hypotheses are pointing more likely to military equip-ment or harnessing.

Summarising all these observations, in the light of the chronology of the cheek-piece and of theremaining pieces of the funerary inventory, the grave from Ocna Sibiului can be dated to the first half ofthe 4 century BC and the beginning of the second half of the century. Other arguments for this datingcan be offered by the general interpretation of the ethno-historical evolution of the Transylvanian regionin this period as will be presented below.

e grave from Ocna Sibiului in the ethno-historical context of the inner Carpathian and northernBalkan region at the beginning of the Late Iron Age

A number of details regarding the chronological identification of the grave from Ocna Sibiului areprovided by the analysis of the ethno-historical context in the study area. is period corresponds to the

horizon preceding the Celtic colonization in Transylvania. e first Celtic groups arrived in the easternpart of the Carpathian Basin and in Transylvania at the end of the LT B1 and the beginning of the LT B2,according to a series of funerary discoveries. Aerwards, in LT B2, new groups occupied territories in theregion (Fig. 3). e amalgamation of colonists and indigenous communities determined the appearanceof some new communal identities expressed by a mixed or hybrid material culture, different from thatidentified in other Central European areas. Chronologically this period corresponds to the last three orfour decades of the 4 century BC (see further on this subject in R 2008, 6590; R 2012b).

Ocna Sibiului

0 100 km25

Fig. 3. Celtic cemeteries dating to LT B1/B2 (circles) and LT B2 (black dots); fortified settlements in Maramure(triangles); indigenous cremation graves from Olteni and Ocna Sibiului (black squares).

1 We are grateful to our colleague Silvia Musta (Cluj-Napoca) for suggesting these analogies and interpretative possibility.


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168 | A. RS. B

e Celts did not occupy the entire territory of Transylvania. e fortified settlements fromMaramure, as well as the burials and the settlements from eastern Transylvania (amongst which thosefrom Olteni are significant), illustrate the existence of some local communities which continued to evolvewithout being significantly influenced by elements of La Tne culture (Fig. 3). At the same time the natureof the settlements, the funerary rites and rituals and their assemblages seem to suggest that these commu-nities were more likely oriented toward the cultural environment outside the Carpathians (R 2008,6590; R 2012b, both with further bibliography).

In contrast, in southern Transylvania a series of early funerary discoveries have been documented for example the sites of Vurpr and Toarcla (H 1944) illustrating the Celtic colonization of theregion (Fig. 3). Similar to other colonized areas, an amalgamation of elements of La Tne and indigenouscultures has been documented. However, despite this ethnic and cultural mixture the Celtic warlike litesmaintained and expressed a particular identity through the use of certain specific symbolic elements.From this point of view the panoply of weapons, consisting of a long sword, a spear and a shield, playedan important role. ese weapons were sometimes accompanied by helmets, for example the Italic bronzehelmet discovered in the surroundings of Haeg (for the type and distribution see S 1974, 188189,n. 20, fig. 31/2 and fig. 32), or chariots for example that from Toarcla. Although some of the Celtic war-riors managed to reach Greece and the northern Balkans, more likely as mercenaries, the La Tne suite of

arms remained the main symbolic element of personal and group identity.A cremation grave with the remains placed in a cist, discovered in a tumulus at Plovdiv, is relevantfrom this point of view. e funerary inventory contains the usual range of arms, including a rituallybent La Tne sword and several spears, together with a La Tne brooch. e funerary offerings consists ofnumerous Greek and local vessels, including lamps. e burial probably belonged to a Celtic warrior whodied around the middle of the 3 century BC in race and who can be recognized due to the presenceof the range of arms and of some garment accessories. Details of the funerary rite and ritual point morelikely to the practices and beliefs of the local community in which the warrior met his end (for the funer-ary inventory and its interpretation from various perspectives see further in B 2005, 9799, fig. 79;E 2010, 8082, fig. 47). A (2011, 235) also considers that this grave can be related tothe mercenary activity of some Celtic groups hired by various rulers of the Hellenistic period. A similarsituation can be also noted in the case of some graves recently discovered at Ohrid (G .2011),in which the funerary ritual and the suite of arms are of La Tne type, whereas other elements of the inven-tory point to a certain cultural hybridity.

Taking into consideration the previously mentioned arguments, the grave from Ocna Sibiului has tobe dated before the Celtic colonization in Transylvania (especially in southern Transylvania), more pre-cisely before the last quarter of the 4 century BC. is dating is also supported by the general chronologyof the artefacts from the funerary inventory, in particular with regard to the helmet. e funerary inven-tory demonstrates a different manner of expressing the warrior identity, different from that characterisingthe Celtic milieu, but related to the environment of the military and aristocratic lites of the northernBalkans. us in order to discuss the cultural significance of this grave, the analysis has to be orientedtowards the situation from the study area and to the events which characterised the period preceding theCeltic colonization.

e grave from Ocna Sibiului is not an isolated example (Fig. 4). e cremation grave (probablyfrom a tumulus, see MB 1987, 102, 125126; G 1991, 95) from CuptoareSfogea(Pl. 7/12), in the region of Banat, containing a Chalcidian helmet (O 1987; for important cor-rections regarding its context, chronology and cultural identification see G 1991, 93102), as wellas the similar helmet (Pl. 7/3) from Mercina (Vrdia commune, Cara-Severin County), discoveredsometimes between 1910 and 1915 in the area of the village at the find-spot named Vraki Breg, andtoday preserved in the Museum of Vrac (B .1974, 547548, fig. 255256; M mss,

2 A series of confusions still persists in archaeological literature regarding the actual location of this discovery. For example,the place of discovery is recorded as Nerina (Mercina), near Vrac, Vojvodina (L 2009, 16, no. 13), a confusion intro-duced by B .1974, 547, the caption to fig. 256 also indicates the Vrac Hills (Vraki Breg). e same place ofdiscovery was located at Vrac (Urac?) by P 1988, 142, n. 30) or even at Zsidovina, an evident confusion with Jidovin

(now Berzovia, Cara-Severin County), from which a Greek-Illyrian helmet has been found (for this confusion of location seeL 2009, 16). Florin Medeles research led him to identify of the place of discovery on the area of the southern or westernslopes of the Vrac Hills, which at the beginning of the 20 century were within the territory of the village of Mercina, nowpart of Romania, in Vrdia commune, Cara-Severin County (M mss.)


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170 | A. RS. B

observations, it might be significant that the cremated remains of the deceased from CuptoareSfogeawere placed in the helmet before being laid in grave. A similar practice has been encountered in other situ-ations belonging to different historical and cultural environments. For example in a grave from Svrin(probably dated to the 43 centuries BC) the cremated human remains were placed in an iron helmetcovered with a bowl, the reuse of the headgear as urn being very clear in this case (BH 1999,109; F 2007, 44, no. 19). In a tumulus burial from Popeti (tumulus no. 4; 21 century BC) it wasnoted that some of the cremated human remains had been placed in a bronze helmet (V 1976, 203).ese practices illustrate the symbolic role played by helmets, which was maintained in funerary contexts.F. Medele already suggested that a connection might have existed between these ritual practices and a cultof the head that was attested among populations from the Balkans (M mss., s.v. Cuptoare).

Returning to northern Balkans society in the 53 centuries BC, it has to be also noted that othermaterial expressions, visible in the archaeological record were also used to display a particular status.Amongst such evidence can be mentioned the large fortified settlements sometimes having defensiveworks inspired by Greek models, for example the brick walls from Coofenii din Dos and Bzdna (B1997) the rich hoards containing numerous gold and silver objects, the burials with funerary chamberand lavish inventories, but also the smaller fortified settlements and funerary structures, all of which arepointing to a hierarchy of the communities and of their elites.

Although it was discovered over a century ago, the funerary inventory from Ocna Sibiului providesa series of important details concerning its composition and chronology, but mostly about the generalethno-historical contexts in northern Balkans at the beginning of the Late Iron Age.

e grave is dated to a period covering the first half and the beginning of the second half of the 4century BC. is dating is supported by the chronology of the fragment of Chalcidian helmet and its asso-ciation with harness mounts specific to the same period. As a result, the grave from Ocna Sibiului is notCeltic, while the cheek-piece does not belong to an Etruscan or Italic-Celtic helmet as it was previouslysuggested. e burial precedes the Celtic horizon in Transylvania. Its composition illustrates the culturalconnections between southern Transylvania (and Banat) and northern Balkans in the period which bothantedates and continues during the reigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great.

Northern Balkans society was characterized by influence from both the Greek and Macedonianmodels, by an interpretation of these models in a particular manner and also by a pronounced symbolicand functional hierarchy. e racian aristocracy the upper social layers of the Odrysians, Getae orTriballi expressed their social position and privileged status through the use of well-defined materialsymbols. Amongst them the tumulus burials with funerary chamber and lavish inventories eloquentlysupport this idea. e internal social hierarchy of these lites can be observed in the differentiation of theinventories and personal military equipment within the funerary ceremonies (Pl. 8). From this perspectivethe grave from Ocna Sibiului, as well as the discoveries from the Banat, at CuptoareSfogeaand Mercina,illustrate the practice of simplified copying of the northern and north-eastern Balkan model, defining theperiphery of this phenomenon. e funerary inventory of the grave from Ocna Sibiului, especially the hel-met and the harness equipment, functionally imitates the equipment of the warlike lites from the south

of the Carpathians, even if the latter is far from the ostentatiousness displayed in the northern Balkansregion. e Celtic lites had imposed, many years aer the interment of the deceased from Ocna Sibiului,another cultural model and new ways of expressing identities, defined by other functional and typologicalstructures of military equipment.

As mentioned above, the helmets had multiple functional and symbolic meanings. is fact mayalso explain the well-delimited distribution areas of certain helmets which otherwise had different typo-logical and manufacturing origins. T (1995, 8586, fig. 5) noted nearly two decades ago that theso-called Greek-Illyrian helmets are mainly encountered in the Illyrian communities from the westernand north-western Balkans, whereas the Chalcidian ones were mainly used in the north-eastern Balkans.G (1991, 100102) also identified a chronological and typological succession of the helmets from thenorth of the Danube, relevant for the study of inter-cultural connections. For the end of the Early IronAge, Gum noted the presence of some Greco-Illyrian helmets in the western part of nowadays Romania.

e group includes the helmets from Gostav in Oltenia, Ocna Mure in Transylvania, Berzovia (for-mer Jidovin) in Banat, and the beautifully decorated helmet recently recovered from the Timi River, atGvojdia (MC 2003). ese pieces illustrate the relations established by local or immigrant


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military lites with regions from the western and north-western Balkans in the 5 century BC, and definethe limit of the distribution area of such artefacts. e Chalcidian helmets from Transylvania and Banat(Fig. 4) underline a similar mechanism, albeit that they draw attention to the social models which charac-terize the racian environment in the 4 century BC.

Finally, it has to be also mentioned that for the chronological interval between the end of the Scythianhorizon in Transylvania (around 450 BC) and the beginning of the Celtic horizon (350330/320 BC), ofroughly a century, archaeological evidence is limited. e funerary contexts or their contemporaneoussettlements are missing. Still, the main cause is more likely the actual state of research. e grave fromOcna Sibiului may suggest a possible direction for future investigations, at least for the areas covering thelimits of the Transylvanian plateau.

References

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A Alexandrescu, A. D., La ncropole Gte de Zimnicea, Dacia N. S., 24, 19126.

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A Anastassov, J., e Celtic presence in race during the 3 century BC in light of newarchaeological data, IN: Gutin, M.Jevti, M. (eds.), e Eastern Celts. e communitiesbetween the Alps and the Black Sea, KoperBeograd, 227239.

A Andriomenou, A., Ein chalkidischer Helm aus Tithorea,Mitteilungen des DAI AthenischeAbteilung, 91, 189202.

A Andronicos, M., Vergina. e royal tombs and the ancient city, Athens.B Babe, M., Despre fortificaiile Cetii Jidovilor de la Coofenii din Dos, SCIVA, 48, 3,

199236.B Babi, S.,Headgear of the Early Iron Age tribal chieains. Social and symbolic aspects,

SNMB, XVII-1, 8393.

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B Berciu, D.,Arta traco-getic, Bucureti.B Berciu, D., Contribution ltude de lart raco-Gte, Bucureti.B Blei, M., Status, symbols, sacrifices, offerings. e diverse meanings of Illyrian helmets,

VAMZ, 40, 73116.B Bouzek, J., Celtic campaigns in southern race and the Tylis kingdom: e Duchov fibula

in Bulgaria and the destruction of Pistiros in 279/8 BC, IN: Dobrzaska, H.Megaw, V.Poleska, P. (eds.), Celts on the margin. Studies in European Cultural Interaction (7 CenturyBC1 Century AD) Dedicated to Zenon Woniak, Krakow, 93101.

B . Brukner, B.Jovanovi, B.Tasi, N., Praistorija Vojvodine, Novi Sad. ernenko, E. V., Die Schutzwaffen der Skythen, PBF, III.2, Stuttgart.

C Crian, I. H., Contribuii la problema celilor din Transilvania, SCIV, 22, 2, 149164.C Crian, I. H., Aa-numitul mormnt celtic de la Siliva i problema celui mai vechi grup

celtic din Transilvania, Sargetia, 10, 4578.D Dintsis, P., Hellenistische Helme, Roma.E Emilov, J., Ancient texts on the Galatian royal residence of Tylis and the context of La

Tne finds in Southern race. A reappraisal, IN: Vagalinski, L. F. (ed.), In Search ofCeltic Tylis in race (III C BC). Proceedings of the Interdisciplinary Colloquium Arrangedby the National Archaeological Institute and Museum at Sofia and the Welsh Department,

Aberystwyth University held at the National Archaeological Institute and Museum, Sofia, 8May 2010, Sofia, 6787.

F Ferencz, I. V., Celii pe Mureul mijlociu. La Tne-ul timpuriu i mijlociu n bazinul mijlociual Mureului (sec. IVII .Chr.), Sibiu.

3 e authors are grateful to S. Musta (Cluj-Napoca) and J. Emilov (Sofia) for drawing attention to some relevant bibliography,as well as to M. Gutin for the permission to read in advance the study regarding the graves from Ohrid, which is in press.


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F Feugre, M., Weapons of the Romans, Stroud-Charleston.F Furtwngler, A., Olympia IV: Die Bronzen und die brigen kleineren Funde von Olympia,

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Die alten Zivilisationen Bulgariens. Das Gold der raker, Basel.

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G . Gutin, M.Kuzman, P.Malenko, V., Ein keltischer Krieger in Lichnidos/Ohrid,Mazedonien (forthcoming).

H Horedt, K., Zwei keltische Grabfunde aus Siebenbrgen, Dacia, 910, 19411944, 189200.H . Hvala, S. T.Dular, J.Kocuvan, E., Eisenzeitliche Grabhgel auf der Magdalenska gora,

Ljubljana.K Kull, B., Tod und Apotheose. Zur Ikonographie in Grab und Kunst der jngeren Eisenzeit

an der unteren Donau und ihrer Bedeutung fr die Interpretation von Prunkgrbern,BerRGK, 78, 197466.

K Kunze, E., Helme, Bericht ber die Ausgrabungen in Olympia, 8, 111183.K Kunze, E., Chalkidische Helme IVVII mit Nachtrgen zu I und II, Bericht ber die

Ausgrabungen in Olympia, 9, 27100.L Lazr, S., Helmets of the Chalcidian shape found in the Lower Danube area, Dacia N. S.,

53, 1326.M Mndescu, D., Cronologia perioadei timpurii a celei de-a doua epoci a fierului (sec. VIII a.

Chr.) ntre Carpai, Nistru i Balcani, Brila.M Medele, F., Epoca Latne n Banat, manuscript.MB Medele, F.Bugilan, I., Contribuii la problema i la repertoriul movilelor de pmnt din

Banat, Banatica, 9, 87198.MC Medele, F.Cedic, V., Coiful greco-ilir de la Gvojdia (jud. Timi),Analele Banatului,

1011, 1, 20022003, 97100.N Nuber, H. U.,Antike Bronzen aus Baden-Wrttenberg, SuttgartAalen.

O-MS Ognenova-Marinova, L.Stoyanov, T., e chalkidian helmets and the origin of the Northracian ceremonial armour, IN: Stephanos Archaeologicos in honorem Professoris LiudmiliGetov, Sofia, 693700.

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R a Rustoiu, A., Ateliere de orfevrrie i artizani de prestigiu n Dacia preroman, IN: Mitu,S.Gogltan, Fl. (eds.), Via privat, mentaliti colective i imaginar social n Transilvania,OradeaCluj, 7682.

R b Rustoiu, A., Metalurgia bronzului la daci (sec. II . Chr.sec. I d. Chr.). Tehnici, ateliere iproduse de bronz, BT, 15, Bucureti.R Rustoiu, A., Rzboinici i artizani de prestigiu n Dacia preroman, Cluj-Napoca.R Rustoiu, A., Rzboinici i societate n aria celtic transilvnean. Studii pe marginea

mormntului cu coif de la Ciumeti, Cluj-Napoca.R a Rustoiu, A., Ocna Sibiului, IN: Sievers, S.Urban, O. H.Ramsl, P. C. (eds.), Lexikon zur

keltischen Archologie, Wien, forthcoming.R b Rustoiu, A., Indigenous and colonist communities in the Eastern Carpathian Basin at

the beginning of the Late Iron Age. e genesis of an Eastern Celtic World, IN: Popa, C.N.Stoddart, S. (eds.), Fingerprinting the Iron Age. Approaches to identity in the EuropeanIron Age. Integrating South-Eastern Europe into the debate, Oxford, forthcoming.

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half of the 4 century BC), Instrumentum, 34, 10.R Rusu, M., Das keltische Frstengrab von Ciumeti in Rumnien, BerRGK, 50, 267300.RB Rusu, M.Bandula, O.,Mormntul unei cpetenii celtice de la Ciumeti , Baia Mare.


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S Schaaff, U., Keltische Eisenhelme aus vorrmischer Zeit,Jahrbuch RGZM,21, 1, 149204.S Simion, G., Despre cultura geto-dacic din nordul Dobrogei n lumina descoperirilor de

la Enisala, Peuce, 2, 63129.S Simion, G., Les Gtes de la Dobroudja septentrionale du VI au I sicle av.n.., raco-

Dacica, 1, 143163.S Simion, G., Culturi antice n zona gurilor Dunrii, Cluj-Napoca.S Srbu, V.,Man and gods in the Geto-Dacian world, Braov.SH Srbu, V.Haruche, N., Remarques sur le tumulus aristocratique de Gvani, IN: Lungu,

V. (ed.),Pratiques funeraires dans lEurope des XIII-IV s. av. J.-C. Actes du III ColloqueInternational dArchologie Funraire, Tulcea 1997, Tulcea, 139153.

S Stoyanov, T., A bronze helmet of chalkidian type from Golyamo Shivachevo, Sliven District.Notes on the chalkidian helmet in race, IN: Stephanos Archaeologicos in honoremProfessoris Liudmili Getov, Sofia, 646653.

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IN: Fitz, J. (ed.), e Celts in Central Europe, Szkesfehrvr, 4764.

List of figures

Fig. 1. Distribution map of Chalcidian helmets Pflug type V in the northern Balkans (see the list of discoveries inS 2005 and T 2008).

Fig. 2. Distribution map of Chalcidian helmets Pflug type II, the racian variant (black squares) and the silver

and gold parade helmets (white squares) (see the list of discoveries in T 1995; O-MS 2005; T 2008).Fig. 3. Celtic cemeteries dating to LT B1/B2 (circles) and LT B2 (black dots); fortified settlements in Maramure

(triangles); indigenous cremation graves from Olteni and Ocna Sibiului (black squares).Fig. 4. Distribution map of the graves from the northern Balkans, Transylvania and Banat (black dots) and the Greek

colonies on the Black Sea coast (black squares).

List of plates

Pl. 12. Funerary inventory from Ocna Sibiului.Pl. 3. Chalcidian cheek-pieces. 1. Ocna Sibiului; 2. Olympia; 3. Dodona (aer K 1994); 4. Tithorea (aer

A 1976); 5.ShipkaGolyama Kosmatka(aer G T2007). 13, 5. without scale.Pl. 4. Chalcidian helmets. 1. Standard type II from Ruec; 2. racian type from Bal; 3. Repaired helmet fromBudeti; 4. Silver helmet from Agighiol; 5. Silver helmet from Peretu (13. aer L 2009; 4. aer K1997; 5. aer S 2006; 13, 5. without scale).

Pl. 5. Assemblages of harness elements containing silver discs. 1. Peretu; 2. Craiova; 3. Agighiol (aer K 1997,without scale).

Pl. 6. Assemblages of harness elements discovered in graves and containing loops with knobs (12) and differentforms using loops with knobs. 1. Gvani; 2. Panagjurite (aer K 1997); 3. Ciucurova (aer S 1976);4. Magdalenska gora (aer H .2004).

Pl. 7. 1. Inventory of the grave from CuptoareSfogea(aer G 1991); 2. Helmet from MercinaVracki breg(aerB .1974, without scale).

Pl. 8. Different levels of hierarchization (according to the structure of the funerary inventories) of the aristocracyand the warlike lites in the northern Balkans and on its periphery (see also Fig. 4). Legend: A. Agighiol; B.Peretu; C. Gvani (aer K 1997); D. Zimnicea, grave C1D (aer A 1980; S 2006); E.Ocna Sibiului; F. CuptoareSfogea(aer G 1991).


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174 | A. RS. B

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Plate 1. Funerary inventory from Ocna Sibiului.


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7

8

9

10

3

4

5

6

1

2

11

12

Plate 2. Funerary inventory from Ocna Sibiului.


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176 | A. RS. B

1

2

3

45

Plate 3. Chalcidian cheek-pieces. 1. Ocna Sibiului; 2. Olympia; 3. Dodona (aer K 1994); 4. Tithorea (aerA 1976); 5.ShipkaGolyama Kosmatka(aer G T2007). 13, 5. without scale.


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1

2 3

4

5

Plate 4. Chalcidian helmets. 1. Standard type II from Ruec; 2. racian type from Bal; 3. Repaired helmet fromBudeti; 4. Silver helmet from Agighiol; 5. Silver helmet from Peretu (13. aer L 2009; 4. aer K 1997;

5. aer S 2006; 13, 5. without scale).


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178 | A. RS. B

12

3

Plate 5. Assemblages of harness elements containing silver discs. 1. Peretu; 2. Craiova;3. Agighiol (aer K 1997, without scale).


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34

1

2

Plate 6. Assemblages of harness elements discovered in graves and containing loops with knobs (12) and differentforms using loops with knobs. 1. Gvani; 2. Panagjurite (aer K 1997); 3. Ciucurova (aer S 1976);

4. Magdalenska gora (aer H .2004).


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180 | A. RS. B

1

2

Plate 7. 1. Inventory of the grave from CuptoareSfogea(aer G 1991); 2. Helmet from MercinaVracki breg(aer B .1974, without scale).


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AB

C

D

E

F

Plate 8. Different levels of hierarchization (according to the structure of the funerary inventories) of the aristocracyand the warlike lites in the northern Balkans and on its periphery (see also Fig. 4).

Legend: A. Agighiol; B. Peretu; C. Gvani (aer K 1997); D. Zimnicea, grave C1D (aer A 1980;S 2006); E. Ocna Sibiului; F. CuptoareSfogea(aer G 1991).


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ABBREVIATIONS

ActaAA Acta Antiqua et Achaeologica, SzegedActaArchHung Acta Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, BudapestActaArch Carpatica Acta Archaeologica Carpathica, Academia Scientiarum Polona Collegium Cracoviense,

KrakwActaArch Kbenhavn Acta Archeologica, KbenhavnActaB Acta Bernensia, BernActaMN Acta Musei Napocensis, Cluj-NapocaActaMP Acta Musei Porolissensis, ZaluActaTS Acta Terrae Septemcastrensis, SibiuActaUL Acta Universitatis Lodziensis, Folia ArchaeologicaAFN Archologische Forschungen in NiedersterreichAgria Agria, Annales Musei Agriensis / Az Egri Mzeum vknyve (1982), EgerAIH Rgszeti Kutatsok Magyarorszgon / Archaeological Investigation in Hungary, BudapestAJB Das archologische Jahr in BayernAlba Regia Alba Regia, Annales Musei Stephani Regis, SzkesfehrvrAnalele Banatului Analele Banatului, Muzeul Banatului, TimioaraAnnalenWien Annalen des Naturhistorischen Museums in WienAngustia Angustia, Muzeul Carpailor Rsriteni, Sfntu GheorgheAnthrKzl Anthropolgiai Kzlemnyek, A Magyar Biolgiai Trsasg Embertani Szakosztlynak

folyirata, BudapestApulum Apulum, Acta Musei Apulensis, Alba Iulia

ArchAustr Archaeologia Austriaca, WienArchBaltica Archaeologia Baltica, VilniusArchBulg Archaeologia Bulgarica, SofiaArchechch Archeologie ve stednch echchArchE Archologie in Eurasien, Mainz am RheinArchrt Archaeologiai rtest, BudapestArchHung Archaeologia Hungarica, BudapestArchIug Archaeologia IugoslavicaArchKorr Archologisches Korrespondenzblatt, Rmisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseum in MainzArchKzl Archeologiai KzlemnyekArchPol Archeologia PolonaArchRoz Archeologick Rozhledy, Prague

ArchS Archologie in SalzburgArhMold Arheologia Moldovei, IaiArhPregl Arheoloki Pregled, Arheoloko drutovo JugoslavijeArhRR Arheoloki radovi i rasprave, ZagrebArhVest Arheoloki vestnik (Acta Archaeologica), Intitut za arheologijo, LubljanaArrabona Arrabona, a Gyri Mzeum vknyveASF Archaeologia Slovaca Fontes, BratislavaASM Archaeologica Slovaca MonographiaeAuF Ausgrabungen und Funde, Nachrichtenblatt der LandesarchologieBalcanica Balcanica, BeogradBanatica Banatica, Muzeul de istorie al judeului Cara-Severin, ReiaBAR British Archaeological Reports, International Series, OxfordBAW Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaen, MnchenBCS Buletinul Cercurilor tiinifice Studeneti, Alba Iulia


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532 | Abbreviations

Beitrge UFM Beitrge zur Ur- und Frhgeschichte Mitteleuropas, WeissbachBerRGK Bericht der Rmisch-Germanischen KommissionBHAUT Bibliotheca Historica et Archaeologica Universitatis TimisiensisBMA Biblioteca Mvsei Apvlensis, Alba IuliaBMAK Biblioteka Muzeum Archeologicznego w KrakwieBMBistria Biblioteca Muzeului BistriaBMM Bibliotheca Mvsei Marisiensis, Seria Archaeologica, Trgu Mure / Cluj NapocaBMMK Bks Megyei Mzeumok Kzlemnye, BkscsabaBMP Bibliotheca Mvsei Porolissensis, ZaluBT Bibliotheca racologica, BucuretiCA Cercetri ArheologiceCAJ Cambridge Archaeological JournalCarpica Carpica,Muzeul Judeean de Istorie i Art Iulian Antonescu, BacuCCA Cronica Cercetrilor Arheologice din RomniaComArchHung Communicationes Archaeologicae Hungariae, BudapestCorviniana Corviniana, Acta Musei Corviniensis, HunedoaraCrisia Crisia, Muzeul rii Criurilor, Oradea

CurrA Current AnthropologyUs asopis Uen Spolenosti afkovy, BratislavaDacia (N. S.) Dacia, Recherches et dcuvertes archologiques en Roumanie, IXII (19241948),

Bucureti; Nouvelle srie (N. S.), Dacia. Revue darchologie et dhistoire anciene,Bucureti

DissPann Dissertationes Pannonicae, ex Instituto Numismatico et Archaeologico Universitatis dePetro Pzmny nominatae Budapestinensis provenientes, Budapest

DMB Dissertationes et Monographiae BeogradDolgKolozsvr(. S.) Dolgozatok az Erdlyi Nemzeti Mzeum rem- s Rgisgtrbl, (j sorozat, 2006),

KolozsvrDolgSzeged Dolgozatok, SzegedEA Eurasia Antiqua, Deutsches Archologisches Institut

Ea-online European archaeology online (www.archaeology.ro)C tudes Celtiques, ParisEM Az Egri Mzeum vknyveEphemNap Ephemeris Napocensis, ClujNapocaET Etudes Touloises, ToulFAP Fontes Archaeologici PragensesFAPos Fontes Archaelogici PosnaniensesFHA Fontes Historiae Antiquae, , PoznaFolArch Folia Archeologica, a Magyar Nemzeti Mzeum vknyve, BudapestF Fundberichte aus sterreich, WienFS Fundberichte aus Schwaben, StuttgartGermania Germania, Frankfurt am MainGlasnik SAD Glasnik Srpskog Arheolokog Drutva, BeogradGlasnik ZM Glasnik Zemaljskog MuzejaBosne i Hercegovine u SarajevuHierasus Hierasus, Muzeul Judeean BotoaniHOM A Herman Ott Mzeum vknyve, MiskolcHOMO HOMO, Journal of Comparative Human BiologyIA Internationale Archologie, Buch am Erlbach, Espelkamp, Rahden/Westf.IPH Inventaria Praehistorica Hungariae, BudapestISPRS International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing International Archives

of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information SciencesIstros Istros, Buletinul Muzeului Brilei, BrilaJAA Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, Amsterdam

Jahrbuch Liechtenstein Jahrbuch des Historischen Vereins fr das Frstentum Liechtenstein, VaduzJahrbuch Mecklenburg Jahrbuch fr Bodendenkmalpflege in MecklenburgJahrbuch RGZM Jahrbuch des Rmisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz


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Abbreviations | 533| 533533

JahrOM Jahrbuch des Obersterreichischen Musealvereines, LinzJAM A Nyregyhzi Jsa Andrs Mzeum vknyve, NyregyhzaJAS Journal of Archaeological Science, LondonJBAA Journal of the British Archaeological AssociationJEA Journal of European Archaeology, Durham, UKJPM A Janus Pannonius Mzeum vknyve, PcsJRA Journal of Roman ArchaeologyJSP Journal of Sedimentary PetrologyKK Kulturlis rksgvdelmi Kismonogrfik, BudapestKzlemnyek Kolozsvr Kzlemnyek az Erdlyi Nemzeti Mzeum rem- s Rgisgtrbl, ClujLitua Litua, Muzeul GorjuluiMAB Monumenta Archaeologica Barbarica, KrakwMarisia Marisia (V), Studii i Materiale, Trgu MureMarmatia Marmatia, Anuarul Muzeului Judeean MaramureMatArch Materiay Archeologiczne, KrakwMatStar Materiay Staroytne (i Wczesnoredniowieczne)MAZ Mainzer Archologische Zeitschri

MBVF Mnchner Beitrge zur Vor- und Frhgeschichte, MnchenMCA Materiale i Cercetri Arheologice, BucuretiMFM A Mra Ferenc Mzeum vknyve, SzegedMittAGW Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellscha WienMittAIUAW Mitteilungen des Archologischen Instituts der Ungarisches Akademie der Wissenschaf-

ten, BudapestMKCSM Mzeumi kutatsok Csongrd megybenMMO MMO, skoros Kutatk sszejvetelnek konferenciakteteMPK Mitteilungen der Prhistorischen Kommision, VienaMSVF Marbuger Studien zur Vor- und Frhgeschichte, MarburgNMM Ngrd Megyei Mzeum vknyveOIAS Opera Instituti Archaeologici Sloveniae

OJA Oxford Journal of ArchaeologyOpArch Opuscula Archaeologica, Arheoloki zavod, Filozofski fakultet u ZagrebuAW sterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaen, Wiensrgszeti levelek srgszeti levelek / Prehistoric newsletter, BudapestPA Patrimonium Apulense, Alba IuliaPamArch Pamtky Archeologick, PrahaPAS Prhistorische Archologie in Sdosteuropa, Berlin, Kiel, MnchenPB Patrimonium Banaticum, TimioaraPBF Prhistorische Bronzefunde, Mnchen /StuttgartPeuce Peuce, Studii i cercetri de istorie i arheologie, Institutul de Cercetari Eco-Muzeale

Tulcea, Institutul de Istorie si Arheologie, TulceaPrace odz NK Prace i Materiay Muzeum Archeologicznego i Etnograficznego w odzi. Seria Numiz-

matyczna i KonserwatorskaPrace odz Arch Prace i Materiay Muzeum Archeologicznego i Etnograficznego w odzi. Seria Numiz-

matyczna i KonserwatorskaPontica Pontica, Anuarul Muzeului de Istorie Naional i Arheologie ConstanaPPP Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, PalaeoecologyPPS Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, LondonPrilozi IAZ Prilozi Instituta za arheologiju iz ZagrebaPrzArch Przegld Archeologiczny, Instytut Archeologii i Etnologii Polskiej Akademii NaukPZ Praehistorische Zeitschri, BerlinPUD Publications de lUniversit de Dijon, ParisRadMV Rad Muzeja Vojvodine

RAO Revue archologique de louest, RennesRAP Revue archologique de Picardie, AmiensRBPA Regensburger Beitrge zur Prhistorischen Archologie


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534 | Abbreviations

RgFz Rgszeti Fzetek, BudapestRevBis Revista Bistriei, Complexul Judeean Muzeal Bistria-NsudRevMuz Revista Muzeelor, BucuretiRGF Rmisch-Germanische Forschungen, Mainz / BerlinRGZM Rmisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Monographien, Bonn / MainzRoczK Rocznik KaliskiSargetia Sargeia, Buletinul Muzeului judeului Hunedoara, Acta Musei Devensis, DevaSavaria Savaria, a Vas Megyei Mzeumok rtestje, SzombathelySBA Saarbrcker Beitrge zur Altertumskunde, BonnSBHM Schrien des Bernischen Historischen Museums, BernSCIV(A) Studii i Cercetri de Istorie Veche (i Arheologie 1974), BucuretiSHN Studia Historica NitriensiaSMA Studies in Mediterranean ArchaeologySlovArch Slovensk Archeolgia, NitraSMMK Somogy Megyei Mzeumok Kzlemnyei, KaposvrSNMB Sbornik Narodnog Muzeija BeogradSNMP Sbornk Nrodnho muzea v Praze, ada A Historie / Acta Musei Nationalis Pragae,

Series A Historia, PrahaSpecNova Specimina Nova Dissertationum ex Institutom Historico Universitatis Quinqueecclesien-sis de Jano Pannonio nominatae, Pcs

SprArch Sprawozdania Archeologiczne, KrakwSSUUB Schrien des Seminars fr Urgeschichte der Universitt BernStarinar Starinar, Arheoloki institute, BeogradStCom Satu Mare Studii i Comunicri Satu MareStCom Sibiu Studii i Comunicri, Muzeul Brukenthal, SibiuStudiaUBB Studia Universitatis BabeBolyai, series Historia, Cluj-NapocaStudii Studii. Revist de tiin i filosofietudijn zvesti tudijn zvesti, Archeologickho stavu Slovenskej Akadmie Vied, NitraSwiatowit Swiatowit, Rocznik katedry archeologii pierwotnej i wczesnosredniowiecznej Universytetu

WarszawskiegoSymrac Symposia racologica, Institutul Romn de Tracologie, BucuretiTAT Tbinger Archologische Taschenbcherraco-Dacica raco-Dacica, Institutul de Tracologie, BucuretiUPA Universittsforschungen zur prhistorischen Archologie, BonnVAMZ Vjesnik Arheolokog muzeja u ZagrebuVDBMB Verffentlichungen aus dem Deutschen Bergbau-Museum BochumVMMK A Veszprm Megyei Mzeumok KzlemnyeiVKGLBW Verffentlichungen der Kommission fr geschichtliche Landeskunde in

Baden-WrttembergVMUFP Verffentlichungen des Museums fr Ur- und Frhgeschichte PotsdamVNMW Verffentlichungen aus dem Naturhistorischen Museum, WienVSADS Verffentlichungen des Staatlichen Amtes fr Denkmalpflege StuttgartVsP Vchodoslovensk pravek, Archeologick stav Slovenskej Akadmie Vied, NitraVTLF Verffentlichungen des Tiroler Landesmuseum Ferdinandeum, InnsbruckVVSM Verffentlichungen des Vorgeschichtlichen Seminars Marburg, MarburgEspelkampWA Wiadomoci Archeologiczne, Pastwowe MuzeumArcheologiczne, WarsawWArch World Archaeology, Oxford, OxbowWFA Wiener Forschungen zur Archologie, WienWissSchrN Wissenschaliche Schrienreihe NiedersterreichWMBH Wissenschaliche Mitteilungen aus Bosnien und der Herzegowina, WienWPZ Wiener prhistorische Zeitschri, WienWZGK Westdeutsche Zeitschri fr Geschichte und Kunst

Zalai Mzeum Zalai Mzeum, Kzlemnyek Zala megye mzeumaibl, ZalaegerszegZbornk SNM Zbornk Slovenskho Nrodnho Mzea, BratislavaZiridava Ziridava, Muzeul Arad

09_rustoiu-berecki-thracian warriors in transylvania at the beginning of the late iron age

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