1 chapter 12 leadership copyright © the mcgraw-hill companies, inc
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Chapter 12
Leadership
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Module 1: The Concept of Leadership
• Conceptual Distinctions
– Leadership effectiveness
– Leader emergence
• Emotional stability, extraversion, openness, & conscientiousness “+” correlated with leader emergence
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Problem of Defining Leadership Outcomes
• Leadership has been variously credited with many different achievements
– Problem in choosing which outcome to examine & which time frame to consider
– “Lag time” between action & result
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Leader vs. Manager or Supervisor
• Leader– Individual in group given task of
directing task-relevant group activities or, in absence of designated leader, carries primary responsibility for performing these functions
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Leader vs. Manager or Supervisor (cont’d)
• Attempts at leadership– Attempted leadership– Successful leadership– Effective leadership
• Manager or supervisor deals with what is to be done
• Leadership deals with how it is to be done
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Blending of Managerial & Leadership Roles
• Leadership previously seen as “icing on the cake” in managers
• Modern approaches blend many managerial duties with expectations of what represents effective leadership
• Borman & Brush’s taxonomy of managerial performance requirements– Connection b/w leadership & mgmt. very clear
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Leader Development vs.Leadership Development
• Leader development– Develops, maintains, & enhances individual
leader attributes
• Leadership development– Concentrates on leader-follower development– Leadership as social exchange– Interpersonal competence
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Motivation to Lead
• Power motive• Exercise of control over others or environment is
pleasing
• Activity inhibition• Describes person who is not impulsive
• Affiliation need• Need for approval or connections with others
• Those with leadership aspirations tend to have high power motive + high activity inhibition + low affiliation needs
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Motivation to Lead (cont’d)
• Motives to lead– Affective-identity → Desire for control– Instrumental → Personal benefits– Social-normative → Duty to lead
• Bottom line: There are multiple motivations to lead besides the need for power & control
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Module 2: Traditional Theories of Leadership
• “Great man/great woman” theories– Life of respected leader examined for clues
leading to his/her greatness– Often focused on a galvanizing experience or
admirable trait– Of little value from perspective of I-O
psychology
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Trait Approach
• Prevalent in 1920s & 1930s
• Attempted to show that leaders possess certain characteristics that non-leaders do not
• No consistent relationships between traits & leader effectiveness were found
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“Power” Approach
• Examines types of power wielded by leaders
• Reward power• Coercive power• Legitimate power• Referent power• Expert power
• Very practical in orientation
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Behavioral Approach Ohio State University studies
• Behavioral approach• Focused on kinds of behavior engaged in by people
in leadership roles
• 2 major types of behavior• Consideration
• Initiating structure
– Represented a leap forward
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Behavioral Approach University of Michigan studies
• Focused more on dynamics of how leaders & groups interacted
• Task-oriented behavior– Similar to initiating structure
• Relations-oriented behavior– Similar to consideration
• Participative behavior
• Represented another step forward in leadership research
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Contingency Approach
• Proposed to take into account role of situation in exercise of leadership
• Hersey & Blanchard’s situational theory– Proposed leadership depended in part on
maturity of subordinate• Job maturity
• Psychological maturity
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Contingency Approach (cont’d) House’s Path-Goal Theory
• Includes both characteristics of subordinate & characteristics of situation
• Assumes that leader’s responsibility is to show subordinate path to valued goals
• 4 leadership styles• Supportive leadership
• Directive leadership
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• Participative leadership• Achievement-oriented leadership
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Contingency Approach (cont’d)
• Case of social undermining: What about the “fickle” leader?– Social undermining vs. social support
• May both be used by a leader on the same subordinate: Effect is damaging & stressful
• Subordinates have need for consistency in their interactions with a leader
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Consequences of Participation: Vroom-Yetton Model
• Decision rules regarding participation– Assumes that one of most important
duties of leader is to make decisions
– Suggests way to choose a decision-making strategy
– Implication that group decision-making is not always appropriate
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Module 3:New Approaches to Leadership
• Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory– Leaders adopt different behaviors with
individual subordinates– In-group members vs. out-group members– Recent revisions describe “life-cycle” of a
leader-follower relationship
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Transformational Leadership (Burns)
• Behavior of inspirational political leaders who transform followers by appealing to nobler motives (MLK Jr. & Gandhi)
• 4 general strategies– Inspirational motivation
– Idealized influence
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– Intellectual stimulation
– Individualized consideration
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Transformational Leadership (Bass)
• Bass perceived transformational leadership as building upon transactional leadership in a hierarchy reflecting effectiveness– “Full-range” theory of leadership
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Hierarchy of Transformational Leadership
Figure 12.6 Hierarchical Nature of Transformational Leadership Source: Based on Bass (1997).
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Transformational Leadership:Guidelines
– Articulate clear & appealing vision– Explain how vision can be attained– Act confident & optimistic– Express confidence in followers– Provide opportunities for early successes– Celebrate success– Use dramatic, symbolic actions to emphasize key values– Lead by example– Empower people to achieve vision
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Charismatic Leader
• Followers are emotionally attached to leader, never question leader’s beliefs or actions, & see themselves as integral to accomplishment of leader’s goal
• Acquire some power from situation
• Charismatic style may work to keep followers weak
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Module 4: Emerging Topics & Challenges in Leadership Research
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• Leadership in a changing workplace– Teams/groups
– Telecommuting
– Temporary workers
– Fuzzy boundaries of jobs
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Male & Female Leaders: Are They Different?
• Considerable disagreement among researchers
• Women tend to prefer democratic & participative styles; men favor autocratic styles
• Men tend to be more assertive; women more extraverted
• Women substantially more tender-minded
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Male & Female Leaders (cont’d)
• Effect of male- or female-dominated industries on leadership styles– Women in male-dominated industries
– Men in female-dominated industries
• More research is necessary on gender & leadership
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Personality & Leadership
• 1 or more Big Five factors appear directly or indirectly in all leadership theories
• Big 5 factors emphasize “bright side” of leadership: Effectiveness
• Predictors for leader failure more likely to be found in measures of psychopathology
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Personality & Leadership (cont’d)
• Meta-analysis on relationship between personality & leader effectiveness in 3 settings– Characteristics positively associated with leader
effectiveness in 3 different environments:
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Industry Government/Military Student
Emotional stability Emotional stability Emotional stability
Extraversion Extraversion Extraversion
Openness to experience Conscientiousness Openness to experience
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
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Cross-Cultural Leadership Studies
• Global leadership & organizational behavior effectiveness (GLOBE)– Large-scale cross-cultural study of
leadership by 170 social scientists & management researchers in over 60 countries
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Universal & Culture-Specific Aspects of Leadership
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Universally AcceptedUniversally
RejectedCulture Specific
Integrity – trustworthy, just, honest
Charismatic, visionary, inspirational – encouraging, positive, motivational, confidence builder, dynamic
Team oriented – team building, communicating, coordinating
Excellence oriented, decisive, intelligent, win-win problem solver
Loner
Non-cooperative
Ruthless
Non-explicit
Irritable
Dictatorial
Cunning
Sensitive
Ambitious
Status conscious
Table 12.7Source: Adapted from Brodbeck et al. (2000).
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Leadership in a Diverse Environment
• Workplace is becoming less white, less native born, less male, & less young– Implications for leader behavior
• Appears that transformational & charismatic leadership are universally valued– Lead to positive performance results & positive
attitude reactions
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Permissions
Slide 12: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, Emma Lee/Life File/Getty Images, Source Image ID: TR001379, Filename: 22100.JPG
Slide 17, 18, & 19: Figures 12.2, 12.3, 12.4 from Yukl, G. (1998). Leadership in organizations, 4th ed., p. 197, 271, 267, 268. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. © 1998. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Slide 22: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, C Squared Studios/Getty Images, Source Image ID: AA001474, Filename: 69091.JPG
Slide 27: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, Morley/PhotoLink/Getty Images, Source Image ID: TR001894, Filename: 16065.JPG
Slide 29: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, Ryan McVay/Getty Images, Source Image ID: AA041286, Filename: 109055.JPG
Slide 34: Table 12.7 adapted from Brodbeck, F. C., Frese, M., et al. (2000). Cultural variation of leadership prototypes across 22 European countries. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 73, pp. 1-29; tables p. 15. © The British Psychology Society. Reproduced with permission.