172

1 City Chronicles

1. Raymond Williams, ‘The Metropolis and the Emergence of Modernism’, Unreal City: Urban Experience in Modern European Literature and Art, eds, Edward Timms and David Kelley (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1985) 20.

2. Malcolm Bradbury, ‘The Cities of Modernism’, Modernism: 1890– 1930, eds, Malcolm Bradbury and James McFarlane (Sussex: Harvester Press, 1978) 98. Bradbury is of course referring to Modernist cities here, but his observation holds true for Postmodern cities and literature as well.

3. I must clarify at the outset that I use the terminology of Modern and Postmodern not so as to schematically ‘fit’ Joyce and Rushdie respectively into it but to signal the two major strands of artistic and theoretical produc-tion in which the city figures centrally. Joyce and Rushdie importantly par-ticipate in this production. At the same time, I have constantly sought to be alert to the slippage and disarticulation between the two: Joyce’s Modernism is inextricably tied to the fact that he writes of a city that is by no means Modern, and Rushdie’s Postmodernism is inseparable from the pullulating Third World metropolis that figures so crucially in his writing and is most definitely not a Jamesonian ‘hyperspace’. The two categories then stand not for an invariable and finite set of attributes but as useful points of entry into two distinct but closely related historical periods.

4. Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space, trans. Donald Nicholson- Smith (1974; Oxford: Blackwell, 1991) 39. Emphasis in original.

5. Rashmi Varma, The Postcolonial City and Its Subjects: London, Nairobi, Bombay (New York and London: Routledge, 2012).

6. Charles Dickens, Bleak House (1853; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) 220.

7. Jacques Derrida, ‘On Cosmopolitanism’, trans. Mark Dooley, On Cosmopolitanism and Forgiveness (1997; London: Routledge, 2001). I discuss Derrida’s intervention at greater length in Chapter 8.

8. In this book I consistently refer to the city as Bombay and not Mumbai, its official name since 1995. ‘Bombay’ stands for a sense of inclusiveness and plurality that I wish to invoke and that ‘Mumbai’ negates. Many people, including Rushdie, continue to refer to the city by its older name.

9. Salman Rushdie, interview, Conversations with Salman Rushdie, ed. Michael Reder (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2000) 139.

10. In the case of Joyce, these are the European cities of Trieste, Zurich and Paris in the first quarter of the twentieth century; in Rushdie’s case, London through the 1960s– 1980s and currently New York.

11. In Rushdie’s words, ‘Joyce is always in my mind, I carry him everywhere with me’. ‘The Crucial Book of Salman Rushdie’, 2001, 17 May 2012, http://web.archive.org/web/20050213095709/http://www.wsu.edu:8001/~brians/anglophone/satanic_verses/joyce.html. Elsewhere, Rushdie acknowledges

Notes

Notes 173

that Joyce has been an important influence on him, ‘because Joyce shows you that you can do anything if you do it properly’. Interview, ‘Imaginative Maps’, 1990, 23 May 2012, http://www.subir.com/rushdie/uc_maps.html.

12. This is not to discount the fact that Joyce and Rushdie are also ‘ world- authors’, highly regarded and enthusiastically read all over the world; my point is, however, that even as they are accessible and accessed across national and linguistic boundaries, they are consumed equally as conveyors of an Irish or Indian ‘reality’.

13. See James Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist As a Young Man (1916; London: Jonathan Cape, 1968) 207.

14. James Joyce, ‘To T.S. Eliot’, 1 January 1932, Selected Letters of James Joyce, ed. Richard Ellmann (London: Faber, 1975) 360.

15. Joyce, ‘To Stanislaus Joyce’, 25 September 1906, Ellmann, Selected Letters, 109.16. Joyce, ‘To Nora Barnacle Joyce’, 22 August 1909, Ellmann, Selected Letters, 163.17. Joyce, ‘To Stanislaus Joyce’, 6 November 1906, Ellmann, Selected Letters, 124.18. A fact that came across clearly in my interviews with Adil Jussawalla, Sudhir

Patwardhan and Jairus Banaji in July– August 2010.19. I quote from an audio interview with Salman Rushdie conducted by the BBC

in January 1990.20. Salman Rushdie, interview, ‘Salman Rushdie on Bombay, Rock N’ Roll, and The

Satanic Verses’, Whole Earth, Fall 1999, 23 May 2012, http://web.archive.org/web/20070707234320/http://www.wholeearthmag.com/ArticleBin/267.html.

21. Salman Rushdie, The Ground Beneath Her Feet (1999; London: Vintage, 2000) 252, 331.

22. Salman Rushdie, Shalimar the Clown (London: Jonathan Cape, 2005) 333.23. These took place when a mostly white jury acquitted four police officers

accused in the videotaped beating of black motorist Rodney King, after he committed felony evasion. Thousands of people in Los Angeles, mainly young black and Latino males, joined in what has been characterized as a race riot, involving mass law- breaking. In all about sixty people were killed during the riots.

24. Raymond Williams, The Country and the City (1973; London: Hogarth Press, 1985) 154.

25. Bradbury, ‘Cities of Modernism’, 96– 7.26. Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space: 1880– 1918 (London: Weidenfeld

and Nicolson, 1983) 2.27. David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of

Cultural Change (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989) 240, 263.28. Christopher Butler, Early Modernism: Literature, Music, and Painting in Europe

1900– 1916 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994) 134, 137, 144, 147, 164, 195.29. Harvey, Condition of Postmodernity, 264.30. This would, arguably, apply even more to a postcolonial cityscape like

Bombay, where examples of British and Portuguese architecture stand as striking set- pieces in illogical juxtaposition with their surroundings. ‘When taken together, as the city forces one to do in its synchronicity, they consti-tute a medley of accretions accidentally thrown together in a form of tropi-cal Surrealism’. Rajeev S. Patke, ‘Benjamin in Bombay? An Extrapolation’, Postmodern Culture 12.3 (2002), Project Muse, 31 May 2012, http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/pmc/v012/12.3patke.html.

174 Notes

31. James Donald, ‘The City, the Cinema: Modern Spaces’, Visual Culture, ed. Chris Jenks (London: Routledge, 1995) 85.

32. Joseph Frank, ‘Spatial Form in Modern Literature’, Essentials of the Theory of Fiction, eds, Michael J. Hoffman and Patrick D. Murphy (1945; Durham: Duke University Press, 1988) 87– 90.

33. Richard Ellmann, James Joyce, rev. ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983) 300– 3, 310– 11.

34. Timms and Kelley, Introduction, Unreal City, 3.35. Gyan Prakash, ‘The Urban Turn’, Sarai Reader 2002: The Cities of Everyday Life,

p. 6, 10 June 2007, http://www.sarai.net/publications/readers/ 02- the- cities- of- everyday- life/02urban_turn.pdf.

36. Christopher Butler, Postmodernism: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) 3– 5.

37. The descriptive tag is Suketu Mehta’s Maximum City: Bombay Lost and Found (London: Review, 2004) 43.

38. The city has continued to be an intrinsic concern of cinema, especially in the Third World. Be it a film like ‘Tsotsi’ (2005), based on Athol Fugard’s 1980 novel of the same name, set in a slum near Johannesburg, or ‘City of God’ (2002), based on Paulo Lins’s 1997 novel of the same name, set in a notorious favela (shantytown) of Rio de Janeiro, or ‘Salaam Bombay’ (1988), and more famously, ‘Slumdog Millionaire’ (2008), offering a vignette of the lives of street- children in Bombay, it is by way of some of the most difficult, squalid and harrowing facets of city- life that contemporary artists have sought to envision possibilities of friendship, hope and change.

39. I use the term ‘underworld’ here to suggest both the mafia that unofficially rules Bombay and the under- class embodied by the ayahs, gatekeepers, wan-dering minstrels and of course the crowds that appear in Rushdie’s novels.

40. The excess that I am pointing to does not contradict the appalling shortage of actual physical space in Bombay; the former is indeed exacerbated by the latter.

41. Rushdie, Ground, 80.42. See the description of Bombay in Midnight’s Children (1981; London: Vintage,

1995) 92– 4, and the activities of Vivvy, the ‘Digger of Bombay’, in Ground, 60– 1.

43. I do not mean to suggest that Ulysses is, by any standards, a naturalistic novel, but simply to refer to the precise, careful, naturalistic reconstruction of the layout of Dublin in the novel, that is famously known to serve as a reliable map of the city.

44. In an important essay, Barthes discusses the ‘scandalous’, ‘profligate’ prolifera-tion of gratuitous detail, the ‘narrative luxury’ in Flaubert’s (and most other) fiction, which is what underlies the ‘referential illusion’, ‘for at the very moment when these details are supposed to denote reality directly, all that they do, tacitly, is signify it’. This creates the all- important ‘l’effet du reel’ or the ‘reality effect’ – the only justification needed to signify the real is that it exists – so that ‘the having- been- there of things is a sufficient reason for speaking of them’. Roland Barthes, ‘The Reality Effect’, French Literary Theory Today: A Reader, ed. Tzvetan Todorov (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982) 11, 15– 6.

45. Georg Simmel, ‘The Metropolis and Mental Life’, The Sociology of Georg Simmel, trans. and ed. Kurt H. Wolff (1903; Illinois: The Free Press, 1950) 409, 411, 414. Emphasis in original.

Notes 175

46. Walter Benjamin, The Arcades Project, trans. Howard Eiland and Kevin McLaughlin (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press, 1999) 458, 460. Emphasis in original.

47. As Patke points out, ‘[Benjamin’s] method came to resemble his object of study; the fortuitous correspondence reinforces the self- reflexive relation between modern cities and the discourse they generate’, as he ‘accumulates textual details about the city but resists absorbing them into a system-atic theory or model’. Rajeev S. Patke, ‘Benjamin’s Arcades Project and the Postcolonial City’, Diacritics 30.4 (2000): 3– 4.

48. Lewis Mumford, The City in History: Its Origins, Its Transformations, and Its Prospects (London: Secker and Warburg, 1961) 544– 5.

49. Richard Sennett, The Uses of Disorder: Personal Identity and City Life (1970; London: Faber, 1996) viii, 143– 6, 151.

50. Edward W. Soja, Thirdspace: Journeys to Los Angeles and Other Real- and- Imagined Places (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 1996) 46. Emphasis in original.

51. Lefebvre, Production of Space, 4, 6– 7, 14, 38– 9. Emphasis in original.52. Soja, Thirdspace, 22, 35, 68. Emphasis in original.53. Edward W. Soja, Postmetropolis: Critical Studies of Cities and Regions (Oxford:

Blackwell, 2000) xvii.54. Michael Dear, ‘In the City, Time Becomes Visible: Intentionality and

Urbanism in Los Angeles, 1781– 1991’, The City: Los Angeles and Urban Theory at the End of the Twentieth Century, eds, Allen J. Scott and Edward W. Soja (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996) 98.

55. To put it in the words of Rajeev Patke, ‘the cities of contemporary Asia are the sites for a partial and uneven overlap between the postmodern and the post-colonial’. This formulation would apply to any contemporary city in the developing world which ‘approximates’ to the postcolonial condition when ‘its role in the network of power relations negotiates a relation between the local and the global from a position of historically accumulated disadvan-tage’. Patke, ‘Benjamin’s Arcades Project’, 4. Emphasis mine.

56. David Harvey, Consciousness and the Urban Experience (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1985) xiv, 35.

57. Saskia Sassen, ‘Spatialities and Temporalities of the Global: Elements for a Theorization’, Public Culture 12.1 (2000): 219, 225.

58. Saskia Sassen, ‘From Globalization and Its Discontents’,1998, The Blackwell City Reader, eds, Gary Bridge and Sophie Watson (Oxford: Blackwell, 2002) 162, 169.

59. Manuel Castells, ‘The Space of Flows’ (1996) and ‘The Culture of Cities in the Information Age’ (1999), The Castells Reader on Cities and Social Theory, ed. Ida Susser (Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 2002) 315, 359, 367, 372. Emphasis in original.

2 Cities of Conflict

1. Joyce in conversation with Arthur Power. Arthur Power, Conversations with James Joyce (1974; Dublin: Lilliput Press, 1999) 113.

2. Widely regarded as Synge’s masterpiece, the play did not go down well with audiences that, egged on by Arthur Griffith (founder of the Sinn Féin in 1905) and his supporters, found it offensive in its depiction of the Irish

176 Notes

peasantry (one of whom is depicted as a parricide) and therefore ‘a slander on Ireland’. (Padraic Colum, qtd. in Ellmann, James Joyce, 239.) A furore had also greeted Yeats’ 1899 play, The Countess Cathleen, for its depiction of the saintly countess selling her soul to the devil to save the Irish peasantry from starvation, and would, nineteen years later, greet Sean O’Casey’s 1926 play on the Easter rebellion, The Plough and the Stars, also at the Abbey Theatre. This acrimony symptomized a long- standing suspicion that the Gaelic- Irish nationalist bloc had for the nationalist pretensions of Anglo- Irish playwrights largely belonging to the Ascendency class, although O’Casey famously belonged to the Dublin slums.

3. I refer here to works such as Joseph V. O’Brien, ‘Dear Dirty Dublin’: A City in Distress, 1899– 1916 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982); Mary E. Daly, Dublin: The Deposed Capital: A Social and Economic History 1860– 1914 (Cork: Cork University Press, 1984) and Jacinta Prunty, Dublin Slums, 1800– 1925: A Study in Urban Geography (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1998).

4. George N. Wright, An Historical Guide to Ancient and Modern Dublin (London, 1821) 9.

5. Emmet Larkin notes that the population of Dublin increased from about 175,000 in 1813 to some 250,000 in 1850 or by 43 per cent. Larkin, foreword, Dublin Slums, by Prunty, ix.

6. O’Brien, ‘Dear Dirty Dublin’, 24. 7. Larkin, foreword, Dublin Slums, by Prunty, x. 8. James Joyce, Dubliners (1914; London: Jonathan Cape, 1971) 77. 9. Enacted in 1695, the Penal Code placed great restrictions on the civil liber-

ties of Catholics in Ireland. Catholics were denied education, land ownership and medical practice and treatment. They were not allowed to enter the legal profession, nor could they hold government offices.

10. O’Connell ( 1775– 1847), also known as ‘The Liberator’, campaigned for Catholic Emancipation and the Repeal of the Act of Union. Parnell ( 1846– 91), perhaps the most charismatic leader Ireland has known, was an active cam-paigner for Home Rule.

11. Just off the base of the spire runs the North Earl Street, at the junction of which is a statue of Joyce, complete with ‘ashplant’. It is fondly referred to by the Dublin populace as the ‘Prick with the Stick’.

12. Advertisement for Clerys ‘Magnificent Modern Store’, in A Book of Dublin: Official Handbook Published by the Corporation of Dublin (Dublin, 1929) vii.

13. A Book of Dublin, 5.14. Andrew Kincaid, ‘Memory and the City: Urban Renewal and Literary

Memoirs in Contemporary Dublin’, College Literature 32.2 (2005): 16– 18.15. Power, Conversations, 108.16. In fact, Joyce believed that no one had yet ‘presented Dublin to the world’,

and that he was the first to do so. Joyce, ‘To Grant Richards’, 15 October 1905, Ellmann, Selected Letters, 78.

17. Ellmann, James Joyce, 98. While at university, Joyce firmly distanced himself from the Gaelic language movement; his ‘scabrous broadside, “The Holy Office”’, announced his resolve to break away from the ‘fraud’ of the Literary Revival. Ellmann, James Joyce, 165– 7. Note also the quiet irony underpin-ning the presentation of the ambitious Mrs. Kearney, cannily aware of the benefit to her daughter’s singing career from an association with the Gaelic

Notes 177

movement, in the short story ‘A Mother’ in Dubliners: ‘When the Irish Revival began to be appreciable Mrs. Kearney determined to take advantage of her daughter’s name [Kathleen, a name synonymous with Irishness] and brought an Irish teacher to the house. Kathleen and her sister sent Irish pic-ture postcards to their friends and these friends sent back other Irish picture postcards. On special Sundays […] a little crowd of people would assemble after mass at the corner of Cathedral Street […] and, when they had played every little counter of gossip, they shook hands […] and said good- bye to one another in Irish’. Note also the empty tokenism marking the espousal of the Gaelic language. Dubliners, 154– 5.

18. Although of course the limitations of this purportedly objective and ‘scien-tific’ style are easy to see.

19. J.C., ‘Experimentalists’, Post (4 March 1930). Reprinted as ‘A Later Opinion of Dubliners’ in Robert H. Deming ed. James Joyce: The Critical Heritage, Volume 1, 1902– 1927 (London: Routledge, 1970) 75– 6.

20. George Moore, preface, The Untilled Field (1903; London: William Heinemann, 1936) ix.

21. The figures are startling: 7 million Irish emigrated to the United States between 1740 and 1922, of which 1.5 million emigrated in the disastrous decade of the famine, 1841– 51.

22. George Moore in A Communication to my Friends, 1933. Qtd. in Seamus Deane, A Short History of Irish Literature (London: Hutchinson, 1986) 168.

23. Joyce, ‘To Grant Richards’, 5 May 1906, Ellmann, Selected Letters, 83.24. I refer in particular to the stories ‘A Play- house in the Waste’, ‘A Letter to

Rome’, ‘Home Sickness’ and ‘The Wild Goose’, all in Untilled Field.25. To give an example, here are the closing lines of the story ‘Home Sickness’:

‘There is an unchanging, silent life within every man that none knows but himself, and his unchanging silent life was his memory of Margaret Dirkin [a girl he once loved and left, back in his native village of Duncannon]. The bar- room was forgotten and all that concerned it, and the things he saw most clearly were the green hillside, and the bog lake and the rushes about it, and the greater lake in the distance, and behind it the blue line of wander-ing hills’. Moore, Untilled Field, 39.

26. Ezra Pound, ‘“Dubliners” and Mr. James Joyce’, Egoist (15 July 1914). Reprinted in Deming, Joyce: Critical Heritage, 66– 8.

27. Fittingly, perhaps, as the story is loosely based upon Moore’s own 1895 book Vain Fortune. Ellmann, James Joyce, 250.

28. Ellmann, James Joyce, 405, 529.29. Although, like Synge’s Playboy, The Plough and the Stars enraged a section of

the Dublin population on its first few performances who believed the play to be anti- nationalist, because anti- violence. It has, however, survived to become O’Casey’s most popular play.

30. Sean O’Casey, Juno and the Paycock, Collected Plays Volume I (London: Macmillan, 1971) 31– 2.

31. Oona Frawley, ed., New Dubliners (Dublin: New Island, 2005).32. Power, Conversations, 57.33. Reder, Conversations, 104.34. Mehta, Maximum City, 91.35. Reder, Conversations, 72.

178 Notes

36. Bombay’s famous cotton mills suffered an irreversible blow during the long- standing workers strike in 1982– 3. Most of the inner- city mills now lie vacant, or converted into art- galleries, offices and shopping malls.

37. Meera Kosambi, Bombay in Transition: The Growth and Social Ecology of a Colonial City, 1880– 1980 (Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiskell, 1986) 15.

38. See, for this information, Sujata Patel, ‘Bombay and Mumbai: Identities, Politics, and Populism’, Bombay and Mumbai: The City in Transition, eds, Sujata Patel and Jim Masselos (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003) 6– 8.

39. Gillian Tindall, City of Gold: The Biography of Bombay (1982; London: Penguin, 1992) 3.

40. Although reclamation attempts had been successfully undertaken since the arrival of the British, the major Backbay reclamation schemes as well as the Bombay Port Trust have been in place since the early 1860s, creating land for, among other things, the Victoria Terminus, Ballard Estate, Marine Drive, as well as, most recently and controversially, Nariman Point and Cuffe Parade. Since the 1970s, a series of Supreme Court injunctions protecting the shoreline and access to it for fishermen have slowed such work. In the late 1990s the Supreme Court further restricted reclamations by setting up Coastal Regulatory Zones. The latest project to create land has been the (not wholly successful) development of New Bombay or Navi Mumbai as a satel-lite twin of Bombay, lying to its north- east and almost as large in size.

41. Mehta, Maximum City, 15.42. In Rushdie’s words, ‘One strategy that was deliberately adopted in [Midnight]

was deliberately to tell, as it were, too many stories, so that there was a jostle of stories in the novel and that your main narration… had to kind of force its way through the crowd, as if you were outside Churchgate station trying to catch a train … There are simply so many stories going on that it would be absurd, I thought, to tell just one’. Rushdie, interview, ‘Salman Rushdie talks to Alastair Niven’, Wasafiri 26 (1997): 54.

43. An important literary predecessor for Mehta would be the Urdu writer Saadat Hasan Manto. Many of Manto’s stories are set in pre- independence Bombay, a grim Bombay of riots, slums, brothels, poverty, gangsters, murderers, prosti-tutes and pimps. The stories are largely written in a journalistic mode, the nar-rator being very much like Mehta, who gains access to these forbidden aspects of the city by virtue of his profession as a writer. I discuss Manto at fuller length in Chapter 7 below. See Saadat Hasan Manto, Kingdom’s End and Other Stories, trans. Khalid Hasan (London: Verso, 1987), and more recently, Bombay Stories, trans. Matt Reeck and Aftab Ahmad (Noida: Random House India, 2012).

44. Kiran Nagarkar, Ravan and Eddie (New Delhi: Penguin, 1995) 27. As Jim Masselos informs us, ‘the extent of overcrowding can be gauged by the fact that during the peak hour in the early 1990s trains designed to carry 1750 people were loaded with around 4000 passengers’. Jim Masselos, ‘Defining Moments/Defining Events: Commonalities of Urban Life’, Patel and Masselos, Bombay and Mumbai, 32.

45. Mehta, Maximum City, 413.46. Patel, ‘Bombay and Mumbai’, 4.47. Rohinton Mistry, Such a Long Journey (London: Faber, 1991) 74.48. Salman Rushdie, interview, ‘Salman Rushdie talks to Alastair Niven’, Wasafiri

26 (1997): 56.

Notes 179

49. See Amrit Gangar, ‘Tinseltown: From Studios to Industry’, Patel and Masselos, Bombay and Mumbai, 267.

50. Ahmad Ali, Twilight in Delhi, 2nd ed. (Bombay: Oxford University Press, 1966) vii.

51. Anita Desai, In Custody (London: Heinemann, 1984) 204.52. An observation that demands further exploration, but is outside the scope of

this book.53. Reder, Conversations, 7.54. Salman Rushdie, ‘Cronenberg meets Rushdie’, Shift 3.4, June– July 1995,

23 May 2012 <http://www.davidcronenberg.de/cr_rushd.htm>.55. This is discussed in much greater detail in Chapter 3 below.56. Thomas Blom Hansen and Oskar Verkaaik, ‘Urban Charisma: On Everyday

Mythologies in the City’, Critique of Anthropology 29.5 (2009): 5.57. Thomas Blom Hansen, ‘Reflections on Salman Rushdie’s Bombay’, Midnight’s

Diaspora: Encounters with Salman Rushdie, eds, Daniel Herwitz and Ashutosh Varshney (New Delhi: Penguin, 2009) 93.

58. Partha Chatterjee draws an important distinction between civil society and ‘political society’. Given the vast numbers of urban poor who could not be treated as legitimate citizens ‘because their habitation and livelihood were so often premised on a violation of the law’, an entire ‘substructure of para- legal arrangements’ was recognized and accepted by the govern-mental authorities. In addition to the classic relationship between the state and a civil society comprised of ‘proper citizens’, new kinds of strategic negotiations had to be continuously made between the state and different ‘population groups’, particularly in the 1970s and 80s in India, creating a contingent and unique form of ‘political society’. The growth of the post- industrial, globalized metropolis in India since the 1990s has weakened the claims of ‘political society’, as cities and governments seek to emulate the model of the technocratic global city. Chatterjee, ‘Are Indian Cities Becoming Bourgeois At Last?’, Chandrasekhar and Seel, 175– 6.

3 City, Nation and the Politics of the Possible

1. The title of this chapter draws upon Kumkum Sangari’s excellent discussion of the coexistence of premodern and modernist strands in Midnight in her essay ‘The Politics of the Possible, or the Perils of Reclassification’, Politics of the Possible: Essays on Gender, History, Narratives, Colonial English (London: Anthem, 2002).

2. Power, Conversations, 27. 3. See Ravi Kalia, Chandigarh: The Making of an Indian City (Delhi: Oxford

University Press, 1988) and James Holston, The Modernist City: An Anthropological Critique of Brasília (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989). The architect and planner Le Corbusier (delightfully parodied in Rushdie’s Moor) who designed Chandigarh in the early 1950s was also the guiding hand of the Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne or CIAM, according to the manifestoes of which Brasília was designed in the late 1950s. Both cities were built to signify a break with the colonial past and embody the new nation’s future; both stand, however, as architectural set- pieces

180 Notes

representing ‘merely [their] own monumental disconnection’ from their surroundings (Holston, Modernist City, 57). As Gyan Prakash puts it, ‘in the clean and orderly urbanism proposed for the nation, there was no place for the heterogeneous and conflict- ridden urban life, no room for chawls as spaces of community and memory, and no provision for the rich and varied lives on the streets [… projecting] the ideal of an urbanism without urbanity’. Mumbai Fables, 285.

4. Tim Beasley- Murray, ‘The Historically Imponderable City of Wilsonovo: Bratislava, Pozsony, Pressburg and the Politics of Memory’, Workshop on Cities Across Time, School of Oriental and African Studies, London, 7 November 2003.

5. Saree Makdisi, ‘Laying Claim to Beirut: Urban Narrative and Spatial Identity in the Age of Solidere’, Critical Inquiry 23.3 (1997): 664.

6. Hanif Kureishi, interview, In the Vernacular: Interviews at Yale with Sculptors of Culture, ed. Melissa E. Biggs (London: McFarland, 1991) 108.

7. Salman Rushdie, interview, ‘A New York State of Mind’, Salon.com, October 2002, 15 May 2012 <http://www.salon.com/books/int/2002/10/01/rushdie/print.html>.

8. It is noteworthy that while the nation in Midnight has a traumatic recent ‘birth’, the city in Rushdie is by contrast always talked about in terms of a longer history. It is described as a palimpsest, highlighting the gradual accu-mulation of layers of civilization, each imparting something of significance to the city and contributing to its rich plurality.

9. To quote Fredric Jameson’s highly influential argument: ‘the story of the private individual destiny is always an allegory of the embattled situation of the public third- world culture and society’. Fredric Jameson, ‘ Third- World Literature in the Era of Multinational Capitalism’, Social Text 15 (1986): 69. Emphasis in original.

10. The description of Bombay is the poet Nissim Ezekiel’s ‘A Morning Walk’, Collected Poems, ed. Leela Gandhi, 2nd ed. (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2005) 119.

11. Homi K. Bhabha, ‘Introduction: Narrating the Nation’, Nation and Narration, ed. Homi K. Bhabha (London: Routledge, 1990) 3.

12. Homi K. Bhabha, ‘DissemiNation: Time, Narrative and the Margins of the Modern Nation’, The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 1994) 157, 169– 70.

13. Joyce, ‘To Stanislaus Joyce’, 6 November 1906, Ellmann, Selected Letters, 125.14. In response to Stanislaus’s misgivings regarding Italian fascism in 1936,

Joyce is supposed to have shot back: ‘For God’s sake don’t talk politics. I’m not interested in politics. The only thing that interests me is style’. Qtd. in Ellmann, James Joyce, 697.

15. One of the first important book- length studies that demonstrates how Joyce’s writings are not only shaped by contemporary politics but argue a radical socialist ideology is Dominic Manganiello’s Joyce’s Politics (London: Routledge, 1980). Other significant contributions on the subject are Enda Duffy, The Subaltern Ulysses (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994), Emer Nolan, James Joyce and Nationalism (London: Routledge, 1995), Vincent J. Cheng, Joyce, Race and Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995) and Derek Attridge and Marjorie Howes, eds, Semicolonial Joyce (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).

Notes 181

16. Attridge and Howes, introduction, Semicolonial Joyce, 3. Emphasis mine. By contrast, I find assertions such as ‘[Ulysses is] the text of Ireland’s independ-ence’, ‘a novel preoccupied […] with both the means by which oppressed communities fight their way out of abjection and the potential pitfalls of anti- colonial struggles’, rather blunt and didactic. Duffy, Subaltern Ulysses, 1. Emphasis in original.

17. Founder of the Gaelic League in 1893, one of the leading institutions pro-moting the Gaelic Revival. Hyde was also the first President of Ireland from 1938 to 1945.

18. Also called Patrick or Pádraig Pearse, he was one of the leaders of the doomed Easter Rising. Pearse was also a member of the Gaelic League, a writer and teacher (in Irish), as well as the founder of one of the first bilingual schools in Ireland.

19. Founder of the Gaelic Athletic Association in 1884.20. Celebrated Irish poet and dramatist, Yeats was the primary diving force

behind the Irish Literary Revival and co- founder of the Abbey Theatre in 1904.

21. Lewis P. Curtis, Apes and Angels: The Irishman in Victorian Literature, rev. ed. (Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1996), documents how Victorian cartoons and illustrations transformed peasant Paddy into an ape- man or simianized Caliban.

22. Cheng, Joyce, Race and Empire, 28.23. Such ‘othering’ could also become the basis for a romanticized view of

the colonized in the colonizer’s eyes. Seamus Deane importantly notes that, in the twentieth century, the conviction grew that the English national character was in decline and needed some transfusion of energy from an ‘unspoilt’” source. ‘The Irish seemed to qualify for English pur-poses. They were white, rural, and neither decadent nor intellectual. In fact, they were not Irish; they were Celts’. Seamus Deane, introduction, Nationalism, Colonialism, and Literature, by Terry Eagleton, Fredric Jameson and Edward W. Said (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990) 12. Emphasis mine.

24. Declan Kiberd, Inventing Ireland (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1995) 32.

25. Little Chandler in ‘A Little Cloud’, displays precisely such a contradiction in his aspirations to be a writer. Seeking escape from the ‘dull inelegance’ and ‘sober inartistic life’ of Dublin, he dreams of being hailed by the English critics in London as a great writer, by virtue of the ‘Celtic note’ that pervades his ‘wistful’, ‘melancholy’ poems. He regrets that his name is not ‘more Irish- looking’. Celticism, in this case, becomes a commodified marker of authenticity. Dubliners, 79– 80. Emphasis in original.

26. It must be mentioned that this notion of an essentialized and timeless rural culture could not be more at odds with the actual historical reality of mass emigration, particularly after the Great Famine of 1845– 49, when approxi-mately 200,000 Irish, mostly peasants, emigrated to America, enabling the setting up of newer transnational bonds and loyalties instead of narrowly defined nationalist ones.

27. See Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. ed. (London: Verso, 1991) 144– 5.

182 Notes

28. Seamus Deane, ‘National Character and National Audience: Races, Crowds and Readers’, Critical Approaches to Anglo- Irish Literature, eds, Michael Allen and Angela Wilcox (Gerrards Cross: Colin Smythe, 1989) 41.

29. Chief organizer and poet of the Young Ireland movement. In 1842, Thomas Davis, along with Charles Gavan Duffy and John Dillon, founded the journal ‘The Nation’. It published several political ballads, some his own, which were re- published as The Spirit of the Nation, in 1843. His concept of nationality was secular, and sought to put an Irish identity over and above Protestant, Catholic or Dissenting ones.

30. Thomas Davis, ‘Celts and Saxons’, Thomas Davis: Selections from His Prose and Poetry, ed. Thomas W. Rolleston (Dublin: Talbot Press, 1920) 354– 5.

31. David Lloyd, Anomalous States: Irish Writing and the Postcolonial Moment (Durham: Duke University Press, 1993) 92– 9.

32. To name just a few, Thomas Davis’s The Spirit of the Nation (1843), Charles Gavan Duffy’s edition of The Ballad Poetry of Ireland (1869), Denis Florence MacCarthy’s 1869 Book of Irish Ballads and Douglas Hyde’s Love Songs of Connacht (1893). Interestingly, the Oxonian Haines makes a point of buying a copy of Hyde’s Love Songs, highlighting the shared predisposition of impe-rialist and nationalist alike for stereotyped, fossilized images of Irishness. James Joyce, Ulysses (1922; London: Penguin, 1992) 254.

33. Qtd. in Lloyd, Anomalous States, 92.34. Lloyd, Anomalous States, 93.35. David Cairns and Shaun Richards, Writing Ireland: Colonialism, Nationalism

and Culture (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988) 49.36. Ulysses, 410. Tennis, supposedly an English (‘shoneen’) game, is derided

for not being vigorous and masculine like the Irish hurley, a game similar to hockey. This offers an interesting point of comparison with the Hindu nationalist party based in Bombay, the Shiv Sena, which similarly trains young recruits in special ‘shakas’ or schools where wrestling and body- building are especially encouraged.

37. Vincent Cheng, ‘Authenticity and Identity: Catching the Irish Spirit’, Attridge and Howes, Semicolonial Joyce, 248.

38. Joyce, ‘To Grant Richards’, 5 May 1906, Ellmann, Selected Letters, 83; ‘To Grant Richards’, 20 May 1906, James Joyce, Letters of James Joyce, ed. Stuart Gilbert (London: Faber, 1957) 62– 3.

39. An exception to this is ‘The Dead’, in which the self- destructive passion of Michael Furey, Gretta’s lover who ‘died for her’, is somehow seen as linked to the fact that he belongs to Galway on the west coast, a part of the rus-tic, wild and ‘real’ Ireland that the cosmopolitan Gabriel has never visited, choosing to go to ‘France or Belgium or perhaps Germany’ instead. It is however significant that although Furey and all that he symbolizes appear in a story in which ‘the dead’ refuse to die, he is visualized as a ‘delicate’, sickly, consumptive youth who does not outlive his seventeenth year. Dubliners, 215, 250– 2.

40. James Joyce, Stephen Hero, ed. Theodore Spencer, rev. ed. (1944; London: Jonathan Cape, 1975) 59. Emphasis mine.

41. Joyce, Portrait, 256; Ulysses, 13. In a 1907 lecture delivered in Trieste, Joyce sums up the contradictions of the language situation admirably: ‘In the streets [of Dublin], you often see groups of young people pass by speaking

Notes 183

Irish, perhaps a little more emphatically than is necessary. The members of the [Gaelic] League write to each other in Irish, and often the poor postman, unable to read the address, must turn to his superior to untie the knot’. James Joyce, ‘Ireland, Island of Saints and Sages’, The Critical Writings of James Joyce, eds, Ellsworth Mason and Richard Ellmann (New York: Viking, 1959) 156.

42. Portrait, 257.43. Stephen Hero, 108.44. Portrait, 254.45. Cheng, Joyce, Race, and Empire, 74.46. Foucault discusses the concept of the heterotopia in his lecture notes of

1967, later published as ‘Of Other Spaces’, trans. Jay Miskowiec, Diacritics 16.1(1986), and as ‘Different Spaces’, trans. Robert Hurley, Aesthetics, Method, and Epistemology: Essential Works of Foucault 1954– 1984: Volume 2, ed. James Faubion (London: Penguin, 2000). Heterotopia is, unlike a Utopia, a ‘real place’ in which ‘all the other real sites that can be found within the culture, are simultaneously represented, contested, and inverted’. While I do not wish to systematically study the city as a heterotopia, given that Foucault’s elaboration of the concept involves smaller and more contained sites like museums, cemeteries, railway- trains and fairgrounds (although he does make a cryptic reference to the colony as a heterotopia of ‘compensation’), I find it productive to see the city as a site that simultaneously mirrors and undercuts the nation, as well as is ‘capable of juxtaposing in a single real place several spaces, several sites that are in themselves incompatible’. Foucault, ‘Of Other Spaces’, 24– 5, 27.

47. Joyce, ‘To Ferdinand Prior’, 29 May 1938, Ellmann, Selected Letters, 392. Translated by Jens Nyholm.

48. Lloyd, Anomalous States, 106.49. Ulysses, 382– 3, 430– 1.50. See Marjorie Howes, ‘“Goodbye Ireland I’m going to Gort”: Geography,

Scale, and Narrating the Nation’, Attridge and Howes, Semicolonial Joyce, 59.51. Ulysses, 425.52. Duffy, ‘Disappearing Dublin’, 40.53. Joyce, ‘To Stephen Joyce’, 10 August 1936, Ellmann, Selected Letters, 384.54. Ulysses, 69.55. Jameson importantly discusses the ‘essential linguisticality’ of Ulysses as

being a result of imperialism, ‘which condemns Ireland to an older rhe-torical past and to the survivals of oratory (in the absence of action), and which freezes Dublin into an underdeveloped village […]’. Fredric Jameson, ‘Modernism and Imperialism’, Nationalism, Colonialism, and Literature, by Terry Eagleton, Fredric Jameson and Edward W. Said (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990) 63.

56. Ben Davis, The Traditional English Pub: A Way of Drinking (London: Architectural Press, 1981) 9, 11.

57. Describing the stairwell as a ‘liminal space’, Bhabha says, ‘The hither and thither of the stairwell, the temporal movement and passage that it allows, prevents identities at either end of it from settling into primordial polarities’. Homi K. Bhabha, ‘Introduction: Locations of Culture’, Location of Culture, 4.

184 Notes

58. Nolan, James Joyce and Nationalism, 99.59. The day’s newspaper, being read by Alf in the pub, significantly includes a

picture of a ‘butting match, […] one chap going for the other with his head down like a bull at a gate’. Ulysses, 426.

60. The name of the corresponding one- eyed giant in the Odyssey, Polyphemus, literally translates into ‘ many- voiced’. I suggest that this multi- voicedness, instead of a debate between two participants, is the overwhelming sense that the ‘Cyclops’ episode leaves us with.

61. Ulysses, 426.62. Ulysses, 444.63. ‘— And I belong to a race too, says Bloom, that is hated and persecuted. Also

now. This very moment. This very instant’. Ulysses, 431– 2.64. Ulysses, 434.65. Nolan, James Joyce and Nationalism, 103. Emphasis in original.66. Ulysses, 436, 438– 9.67. Ulysses, 423. Compare Joyce’s assertion, ‘Ireland is poor because English laws

ruined the country’s industries, especially the wool industry […]’. ‘Ireland, Island of Saints and Sages’, Mason and Ellmann, Critical Writings, 167.

68. Ulysses, 424.69. Ulysses, 395– 6, 439.70. Ulysses, 444– 5.71. Ulysses, ed. Jeri Johnson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) 897.72. Ulysses, 394, 430, 432– 33. It is worth noting that at least two film versions of

the novel, Joseph Strick’s ‘Ulysses’ (1967) and Sean Walsh’s ‘Bloom’ (2004), accord Bloom an especial visual dignity when he responds to the Citizen with the word ‘Love’. There can be no equivalent cinematic depiction of the parodies that qualify Bloom’s heroism here.

73. Cheng, Joyce, Race and Empire, 191– 218.74. In Cheng’s words, ‘[…] the men in the pub have limited vision and only

see the binary poles, see everything in stark categories of black and white, English or Irish […]’. Cheng, Joyce, Race and Empire, 207– 8.

75. Salman Rushdie, The Moor’s Last Sigh (London: Jonathan Cape, 1995) 55– 6.76. Mohandas K. Gandhi, Hind Swaraj and Other Writings, 1909, ed. Anthony J.

Parel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997) 69.77. ‘Gandhi to Nehru’, 13 November 1945, Hind Swaraj, ed. Parel, 155.78. Gandhi, ‘Independence’. Qtd. in Partha Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought

and the Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse (London: Zed Books, 1986) 121. Chatterjee reads Hind Swaraj as a text in which Gandhi’s relation to nationalism rests on a crucial and fundamental critique of the idea of civil society.

79. See Partha Chatterjee’s useful discussion of the inability of nationalist thinking to envisage with any degree of rigour the desired Indian city of the future. He writes, ‘The paradox is indeed very curious because the place of colonial modernity in India in the nineteenth and twentieth cen-turies was obviously the city, and that is where India’s nationalist elite was produced. Yet, two or three generations of social and political thinkers, scholars and artists, poets and novelists, living and working in the era of nationalism, devoted most of their imaginative energies to the task of pro-ducing an idea not of the future Indian city but of a rural India fit for the

Notes 185

modern age’. At the time of independence, there existed no new models of India’s industrial metropolis. When Nehru invited Le Corbusier to build Chandigarh, a ‘modern’ city ‘untrammelled by Indian history and tradi-tion, it was probably not so much a utopian dream as a sign of desperation, because no organic idea of the Indian city of the future was available to him’. Partha Chatterjee, ‘Are Indian Cities Becoming Bourgeois At Last?’, Body.City: Siting Contemporary Culture in India, eds, Indira Chandrasekhar and Peter C. Seel (Berlin and Delhi: House of World Cultures and Tulika, 2003) 178– 80.

80. ‘Nehru’s reply to Gandhi’, 9 October 1945, Hind Swaraj, ed. Parel, 152.81. Jawaharlal Nehru, The Discovery of India (London: Meridian Books Limited,

1946) 38– 9.82. ‘Nehru’s reply to Gandhi’, 9 October 1945, Hind Swaraj, ed. Parel, 153.83. Jawaharlal Nehru, An Autobiography, with Musings on Recent Events in India

(1936; London: The Bodley Head, 1958) 253.84. Nehru, Discovery, 38.85. Nehru, Autobiography, 255.86. See, in regard to this, Aamir Mufti’s argument that the conflict between

Nehruvian and Gandhian theory and politics at the level of content ‘actu-ally conceals their functional interdependence. For it is the unequivocally religious symbolism and density of Gandhism that allows the simultaneous representation of Indian modernity as the emergence of a “secular” polity, while the securing of a leadership role for the “secular” national elite makes possible the gesture of inclusion towards the culture and morality of rural subaltern life’. Aamir R. Mufti, ‘Secularism and Minority: Elements of a Critique’, Social Text 45 (1995): 83– 4.

87. Gyan Prakash discusses how the Gandhian vision of a rural India, while no doubt different from that of Nehru’s, was just as much ‘a product of the “dreamwork” of modernity’, so that ‘the establishment of the nation- state cannot be understood as the victory of one domain over another but as a his-torical development fashioned on the site of the intersection of the “inner” and “outer”’. See Prakash, ‘The Urban Turn’, 4.

88. Midnight, 49.89. Nalini Natarajan, ‘Woman, Nation, and Narration in Midnight’s Children’,

Scattered Hegemonies: Postmodernity and Transnational Feminist Practices, eds, Inderpal Grewal and Caren Kaplan (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994) 77– 8.

90. It needs mentioning that it is especially Hindi, or more accurately Hindustani (a combination of Hindi and Urdu), films that address a pan- Indian viewership. The so- called regional films are, generally speaking, poorer cousins of the flourishing Bombay- based industry, both in terms of their budget and their reach. Having said that, it must be noted that in the mid- 1990s the output of films in Bombay actually declined as more films were produced in Madras and Hyderabad. See Gangar, ‘Tinseltown’, Patel and Masselos, 289.

91. Thomas Blom Hansen, Wages of Violence: Naming and Identity in Postcolonial Bombay (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001) 39.

92. Varma, Rashmi, ‘Provincializing the Global City: From Bombay to Mumbai’, Global Cities of the South, Spec. issue of Social Text, 18 (2004): 73– 4.

186 Notes

93. Sumita S. Chakravarty, National Identity in Indian Popular Cinema 1947– 1987 (1993; Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998) 103, 105.

94. Even Satyajit Ray’s ‘Apu’ trilogy, a magnificent evocation of village- life, shows the movement of the protagonist Apu first from village to small city (Benaras) and then from village to big city (Calcutta). In ‘Apur Sansar’, the final part of the trilogy, Apu takes his son Kajal from the village with him to Calcutta, to start a new life.

95. Varma, ‘Provincializing the Global City’, 71. 96. Ashis Nandy, An Ambiguous Journey to the City: The Village and Other Odd

Ruins of the Self in the Indian Imagination (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001) 20, 26. Prakash problematizes this formulation by seeing these ‘villages’ as very much an urban construct, an inevitable aspect of having to negotiate difficult living conditions in the city to which migrants flocked in search of a livelihood. In his words, ‘if mud shanties were born as the mill’s inseparable twin, then the village also emerged as an aspect of the city’s formation’. Mumbai Fables, p. 67.

97. Rushdie, ‘Imaginary Homelands’, Imaginary Homelands, 11. 98. A notorious initiative by Sanjay Gandhi in 1976 to ‘cleanse’ Delhi of its

slums by, quite simply, bulldozing them. 99. Arjun Appadurai posits ‘neighbourhoods’ or ‘ life- worlds constituted by

relatively stable associations, by relatively known and shared histories, and by collectively traversed and legible spaces and places’ as being at odds with the projects of the nation- state, because the ‘commitments and attachments’ that characterize local subjectivities are ‘more pressing, more continuous, and sometimes more distracting than the nation- state can afford’. While Midnight does depict the formation of communities that pose a threat to the nation under Emergency, they are shown to be fragile, easily dispersed, and lacking any real or lasting power. Arjun Appadurai, ‘The Production of Locality’, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996) 191.

100. Midnight, 301.101. ‘“All the time”, Padma wails angrily, “you tricked me. Your mother, you

called her; your father, your grandfather, your aunts. What thing are you that you don’t even care to tell the truth about who your parents were?”’. Midnight, 118. Emphasis mine.

102. Moor, 371– 2.103. See Rachel Trousdale, who argues that both Shiva in Midnight and the

Mumbai Axis in Moor, as also the eventual destruction of Bombay in the latter, are outcomes of a failed cosmopolitanism. Rachel Trousdale, ‘“City of Mongrel Joy”: Bombay and the Shiv Sena in Midnight’s Children and The Moor’s Last Sigh’, Journal of Commonwealth Literature 39.2 (2004): 108.

104. The Babri Masjid, a sixteenth- century mosque in Ayodhya allegedly built on the site of a Ram temple, was destroyed by Hindu fundamentalists on 6 December 1992. This was soon followed by widespread rioting in Bombay in December and January and a series of coordinated and highly destruc-tive bomb blasts in March 1993.

105. Jim Masselos, ‘Postmodern Bombay: Fractured Discourses’, Postmodern Cities and Spaces, eds, Sophie Watson and Katherine Gibson (Oxford: Blackwell, 1995) 204. Emphasis mine.

Notes 187

106. Saleem claims he is an ‘ active- literal’ participant in these riots by virtue of having crashed into the SMS procession and provided it with its battle- cry. Midnight, 191.

107. Dipankar Gupta, Nativism in a Metropolis: The Shiv Sena in Bombay (New Delhi: Manohar, 1982) 45.

108. Gupta, Nativism in a Metropolis, 61.109. Jayant Lele, ‘Saffronization of the Shiv Sena: The Political Economy of City,

State and Nation’, Bombay: Metaphor for Modern India, eds, Sujata Patel and Alice Thorner (Bombay: Oxford University Press, 1995) 201.

110. Blom Hansen, Wages of Violence, 46, 48.111. Blom Hansen, Wages of Violence, 65.112. I borrow the term from Arjun Appadurai, who defines predatory identities

as ‘ large- scale group identities that seem to require – as a rigid requirement of their mobilization and force – the restriction, degradation or outright elimination of other identities, usually numerically, culturally and consti-tutionally “minor” ones’. Arjun Appadurai, ‘The Grounds of the Nation- State: Identity, Violence and Territory’, Nationalism and Internationalism in the Post- Cold War Era, eds, Kjell Goldmann, Ulf Hannerz and Charles Westin (London: Routledge, 2000) 132.

113. Thackeray’s speech given in Nagpur, 19 August 1989. Qtd. in Blom Hansen, Wages of Violence, 91.

114. Moor, 299.115. Moraes reflects how ‘in Bombay, as the old, founding myth of the nation

faded, the new god- and- mammon India was being born’. Moor, 351.116. Appadurai, ‘Grounds of the Nation- State’, 130, 133, 136. In a similar vein,

Partha Chatterjee argues for the ‘incurable contamination’ of national-ism with ethnic politics in newly decolonized countries, in a rebuttal of Benedict Anderson’s claim that nationalism and ethnicity arise on com-pletely different sites and are mobilized upon different sentiments. Partha Chatterjee, ‘Anderson’s Utopia’, Diacritics, 29.4 (1999): 130. Related to this is Stanley Tambiah’s discussion of the concepts of ‘nationalization’ and ‘parochialization’ with specific reference to the Ayodhya temple issue; he suggests that the Bombay riots ‘are a prime example of how a “national” cause and a “national” event worked themselves out in terms of local causes, networks, and interests, and thus became parochial-ized’. Stanley J. Tambiah, Leveling Crowds: Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996) 257– 8.

117. Moor, 104.118. Masselos, ‘Postmodern Bombay’, 201– 2.119. Arjun Appadurai, ‘Spectral Housing and Urban Cleansing: Notes on

Millennial Mumbai’, Public Culture 12.3 (2000): 644.120. Patel, ‘Bombay and Mumbai’, 5– 6.121. Geeta Kapur and Ashish Rajadhyakska, ‘Bombay/Mumbai 1992– 2001’,

Century City: Art and Culture in the Modern Metropolis, ed. Iwona Blazwick (London: Tate, 2001) 30.

122. Rajeev Patke, ‘Benjamin in Bombay?’, <http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/pmc/v012/12.3patke.html>.

123. Varma, ‘Provincializing the Global City’, 75.

188 Notes

124. Moor, 372.125. Ground, 248– 9.126. Midnight, 452.127. ‘To fall in love with one’s father after the long angry decades was a serene

and beautiful feeling; a renewing, life- giving thing, […] Saladin felt hourly closer to many old, rejected selves, many alternative Saladins – or rather Salahuddins – which had split off from himself as he made his various life choices […]’. Salman Rushdie, The Satanic Verses (1988; London: Vintage, 1998) 523.

128. As Rai says in his farewell to India: ‘It may be that I am not worthy of you, for I have been imperfect, I confess. I may not comprehend what you are becoming, what perhaps you already are, but I am old enough to say that this new self of yours is an entity I no longer want, or need, to understand’. Ground, 249.

129. The sense of possibility and adventure that movement to a new place offered changes significantly to an enhanced sense of loss at moving away from the old. Notice the distinct change in tone in the following two quota-tions, the first from Shame and the second from Ground. ‘I, too, am a trans-lated man. I have been borne across. It is generally believed that something is always lost in translation; I cling to the notion […] that something can also be gained’. Shame (London: Jonathan Cape, 1983) 29. ‘Yet I myself am a discontinuous being, not what I was meant to be, no longer what I was. So I must believe – and in this I have truly become an American, inventing myself anew to make a new world in the company of other altered lives – that there is thrilling gain in this metamorphic destiny, as well as aching loss’. Ground, 441. Emphasis mine.

130. Moor, 376.131. Moor, 433.132. James Holston and Arjun Appadurai, ‘Cities and Citizenship’, Cities and

Citizenship, ed. James Holston (Durham: Duke University Press, 1999) 3.133. Ulysses, 438.134. The result means that the automatic right to citizenship by birth, which had

existed in the state in law since 1922, has been revoked. Ireland had been the last country in the European Union to offer citizenship automatically to all children born on its soil. The government feels that this clause in the constitution led to an exploitative ‘immigration tourism’, encouraging people from the Third World to come to Ireland whilst heavily pregnant, simply in order to give birth to children who would automatically acquire Irish citizenship. A poll carried out in the city of Dublin in 2004 found the majority of voters there in favour of the referendum.

4 The Lettered City

1. Angel Rama, The Lettered City, ed. and trans. John C. Chasteen (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996).

2. Rama, Lettered City, 17, 28– 9. 3. See Roland Barthes, ‘Semiology and Urbanism’, The Semiotic Challenge, trans.

Richard Howard (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), and Michel

Notes 189

de Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life, trans. Steven Rendall (California: University of California Press, 1988), esp. Ch 7, ‘Walking in the City’.

4. Barthes, ‘Semiology and Urbanism’, 199. 5. De Certeau, Practice of Everyday Life, 93. 6. Stephen Heath, ‘Ambiviolences: Notes for Reading Joyce’, Post- Structuralist

Joyce: Essays from the French, eds, Derek Attridge and Daniel Ferrer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 32. Emphasis in original.

7. Italo Calvino, Invisible Cities, trans. William Weaver (London: Vintage, 1997) 14. 8. Hélène Cixous, ‘Joyce: The (R)use of Writing’, Attridge and Ferrer, Post-

Structuralist Joyce, 19. 9. I use the term ‘minor’ here specifically as theorized by Gilles Deleuze

and Félix Guattari in Kafka: Toward a Minor Literature, trans. Dana Polan (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986). The concluding section of this chapter will discuss the concept at greater length.

10. See Cheryl Herr, Joyce’s Anatomy of Culture (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986), and Richard B. Kershner, Joyce, Bakhtin, and Popular Literature: Chronicles of Disorder (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989).

11. Herr, Joyce’s Anatomy, 4.12. Kershner, Joyce, Bakhtin, and Popular Culture, 20.13. Franco Moretti, ‘The Long Goodbye: Ulysses and the End of Liberal

Capitalism’, Signs Taken for Wonders: Essays in the Sociology of Literary Forms, trans. Susan Fischer, David Forgacs and David Miller, rev. ed. (London: Verso, 1988) 188– 9, 195.

14. Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (New York: Routledge, 1995) 209.

15. Jennifer Wicke, Advertising Fictions: Literature, Advertisement, and Social Reading (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 126, 130, 134.

16. Jennifer Wicke, ‘Modernity Must Advertise: Aura, Desire, and Decolonization in Joyce’, Joyce and Advertising, spec. issue of James Joyce Quarterly 30.4 and 31.1 (1993): 604– 5.

17. Thomas Richards, The Commodity Culture of Victorian England: Advertising and Spectacle, 1851– 1914 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990) 237.

18. Garry Leonard, Advertising and Commodity Culture in Joyce (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1998) 12, 14.

19. See Mark Osteen, ‘Seeking Renewal: Bloom, Advertising, and the Domestic Economy’, Joyce and Advertising, spec. issue of James Joyce Quarterly 30.4 and 31.1 (1993): 734, and Daniel P. Gunn, ‘Beware of Imitations: Advertisement as Reflexive Commentary in Ulysses’, Twentieth Century Literature 42.4 (1996): 491.

20. It is worth pointing out here that the advertisement for ‘Cantrell and Cochrane’s Mineral Waters and Ginger Ale “Aromatic”’, which makes at least three appearances in Ulysses, complete with the descriptive tag ‘Aromatic’, also appeared just below Joyce’s first short story to be published (under the name Stephen Daedalus), ‘The Sisters’, in the Irish Homestead of August 13, 1904. See James Joyce’s Dubliners: An Annotated Edition, eds, John Wyse Jackson and Bernard McGinley (London: Sinclair- Stevenson, 1993) 10.

21. See, for instance, the advertisement for Epps’s Cocoa, which depicts a ruddy John Bull sitting astride the globe while drinking a cup of cocoa. The British Empire, 29 May 2012 <http://www.britishempire.co.uk/media/advertising/eppsscocoapack.htm>

190 Notes

22. ‘The Sisters’, Dubliners, 11.23. Ulysses, 419.24. Udaya Kumar, The Joycean Labyrinth: Repetition, Time, and Tradition in Ulysses

(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991) 7– 8.25. It is worth pointing out that the stories in Dubliners abound with instances

of ‘naked repetition’. As with the pervert’s conversation with the two boys in ‘An Encounter’, repeated words circle ‘round and round in the same orbit’, both cause and symptom of the sense of paralysis that irredeemably marks the lives of the Dubliners in the book. Dubliners, 26.

26. Qtd. in Eloise Knowlton, Joyce, Joyceans, and the Rhetoric of Citation (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1998) 2.

27. See Hugh Kenner, Joyce’s Voices (1978; Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979) 15– 38. Briefly put, ‘The Uncle Charles Principle entails writ-ing about someone much as that someone would choose to be written about’ (21).

28. Ulysses, 86– 7.29. André Topia, ‘The Matrix and the Echo: Intertextuality in Ulysses’, Attridge

and Ferrer, Post- Structuralist Joyce, 108– 9.30. Deleuze and Guattari, Kafka, 18. Emphasis in original.31. Ulysses, 492.32. Wicke, Advertising Fictions, 163.33. Walter Benjamin, ‘ One- Way Street’, One- Way Street and Other Writings, trans.

Edmund Jephcott and Kingsley Shorter (London: NLB, 1979) 62. Written between 1925– 6, ‘ One- Way Street’ is composed of a mosaic of aphoristic passages, headed by captions that instantly evoke urban scenery; some examples are ‘Caution: Steps’, ‘This Space for Rent’, ‘To the Public: Please Protect and Preserve These New Plantings’, ‘Post No Bills’, ‘Filling Station’ and so on. It inaugurates Benjamin’s prolonged study of Paris.

34. I hesitate to borrow Benjamin’s concept of the flâneur as a descriptive label for Bloom. Wanderer through the city as he is, Bloom no doubt shares some features with Baudelaire, the quintessential Benjaminian flâneur: the compulsive strolling and observing, the leisurely ‘botanizing on the asphalt’, the perennial sense of unbelonging and isolation. Having said that, it must not be overlooked that Benjamin’s flâneur is very much a self- conscious, self- fashioned creation, a ‘gentleman of leisure’ (his protest against indus-triousness is to take a turtle for a walk), who is inseparably associated with the Paris arcades, ‘a cross between a street and an intérieur’, that enable an entirely unique experience of ‘wandering’ – aspects of flânerie not applicable to Bloom. Walter Benjamin, ‘The Flâneur’, Charles Baudelaire: A Lyric Poet in the Era of High Capitalism, trans. Harry Zohn (London: Verso, 1983) 36– 7, 54.

35. Wicke, Advertising Fictions, 127.36. Deleuze and Guattari, Kafka, 26.37. Ulysses, 91.38. Ulysses, 800. This is a brilliant instance of a deterritorialization of language

that joyously refuses to be reterritorialized in sense. See Deleuze and Guattari, Kafka, 20.

39. Ulysses, 218, 862– 3.40. Deleuze and Guattari, Kafka, 19.41. Ulysses, 863.

Notes 191

42. Ulysses, 789.43. Ulysses, 106.44. Gillian Beer, ‘The Island and the Aeroplane: The Case of Virginia Woolf’,

Bhabha, Nation and Narration, 274.45. Virginia Woolf, Mrs Dalloway (1925; London: Hogarth Press, 1968) 24– 5.46. Ulysses, 194– 5.47. Ulysses, 711.48. Fredric Jameson, ‘Ulysses in History’, James Joyce and Modern Literature, eds,

W.J. McCormack and Alistair Stead (London: Routledge, 1982) 135– 6.49. Ulysses, 240.50. Walter Benjamin, ‘Paris, the Capital of the Nineteenth Century: Exposé of

1939’, Arcades Project, 15.51. Benjamin, ‘Arcades, Magasins de Nouveautés, Sales Clerks’, Arcades Project, 31.52. Benjamin, ‘First Sketches: Paris Arcades I’, Arcades Project, 827.53. Of the seductions of which Benjamin writes: ‘For someone entering the

Passage des Panoramas in 1817, the sirens of gaslight would be singing to him on one side, while oil- lamp odalisques offered enticements from the other’. ‘The Arcades of Paris: Paris Arcades II’, Arcades Project, 874.

54. Emile Zola, Nana, trans. George Holden (1880; Middlesex: Penguin, 1981) 210– 11.

55. Ulysses, 193.56. Jameson, ‘Ulysses in History’, 132– 4.57. Satanic, 281.58. See, for instance, Philip Engblom, ‘A Multitude of Voices: Carnivalization

and Dialogicality in the Novels of Salman Rushdie’, and Jacqueline Bardolph, ‘Language is Courage: The Satanic Verses’, both in Reading Rushdie: Perspectives on the Fiction of Salman Rushdie, ed. M.D. Fletcher (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1994). See also Nicole Fugmann, ‘Situating Postmodern Aesthetics: Salman Rushdie’s Spatial Historiography’, REAL: Yearbook of Research in English and American Literature: Volume 13, Literature and Philosophy, ed. Herbert Grabes (Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, 1997).

59. For this standpoint, see Aijaz Ahmad, ‘Salman Rushdie’s Shame: Postmodern Migrancy and the Representation of Women’, In Theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures (London: Verso, 1992); Timothy Brennan, Salman Rushdie and the Third World: Myths of the Nation (London: Macmillan, 1989); Tabish Khair, Babu Fictions: Alienation in Contemporary Indian English Novels (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001) and Harish Trivedi, ‘Salman the Funtoosh: Magic Bilingualism in Midnight’s Children’, Midnight’s Children: A Book of Readings, ed. Meenakshi Mukherjee (Delhi: Pencraft, 1999).

60. Midnight, 94.61. His ‘writerly’ skill, of course, lies in making his version of Bombay resonate

with his readers, most of whom would have no first- hand knowledge of the city he describes.

62. The huge significance of brand- names in constituting one’s childhood world, and within the terms of the novel, one’s identity, cannot be overestimated. In a similar mode, Cyrus, the narrator of the autobiographical novel Beach Boy, evokes his childhood in Bombay through memories of brand- names like ‘Milan supari’ and ‘Double Bubble chewing gum’. Ardashir Vakil, Beach Boy (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1997) 124.

192 Notes

63. William Mazzarella, Shoveling Smoke: Advertising and Globalization in Contemporary India (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003) 260.

64. All literary renditions of places are inevitably, to a lesser or greater extent, per-sonal; Dickens’s London is no less inflected by Dickens’s own interpretation of it than is Rushdie’s Bombay. I am not trying to suggest that an objective rendering of the ‘ city- as- it- is’ is possible. I am however proposing that while Dickens’s rendition of London opens it up to a trenchant critical re- reading, Rushdie’s portrayal of Bombay in Midnight seals it within an inert nostalgia for a past long gone. This is not the case with Rushdie’s later novels.

65. As with most chants, it is not the words in themselves that are significant but the process of their incantation.

66. I use the word ‘paranoid’ advisedly, to describe a ‘creative’ enterprise that is fully aware of its own precariousness.

67. Midnight, 452. In a sense, the posters of the Air India maharajah and the Kolynos kid are tantamount to the ‘icon builders’ in the streetscape of the city that R. Srivatsan theorizes with reference to cinema- hoardings. R. Srivatsan, ‘Looking at Film Hoardings: Labour, Gender, Subjectivity and Everyday Life in India’, Public Culture 4.1 (1991): 1. It is also worth noting how the posters in Midnight are denuded of any socio- cultural context or relevance and remembered as mere recitations of words. In sharp contrast, note how K.A. Abbas remembers the same Air India poster at Kemp’s Corner. In his memoir, Abbas recalls a particularly controver-sial Air India hoarding in 1962 at the time of the elections in Bombay (around the same time that Saleem Sinai was growing up at Methwold’s Estate). Acharya J.B. Kriplani, one of the main contenders, was depicted in the poster as wearing red shorts with the insignia of the Soviet Union, hammer and sickle, emblazoned on them. ‘It had political – even inter-national – implications which could not be allowed to go unchallenged. There was a storm in parliament […]. And after forty- eight hours, the hoarding was removed from Kemp’s Corner and all the other sites’. Khwaja Ahmad Abbas, Bombay, My Bombay! The Love Story of the City (Delhi: Ajanta Publications, 1987) 58– 9.

68. Binaca toothpaste was inextricably associated with the highly popular radio countdown show ‘Binaca Geetmala’, launched towards the end of 1952 on what was then called Radio Ceylon and very soon the most popu-lar radio programme in India. Its highly popular anchor, Ameen Sayani, was instrumental in making the phrase ‘Binaca smile’ a household one. As corporate brands changed hands and names, it later came to be called the ‘Cibaca Geetmala’, and ran for an astounding total of 39 years. It was recently revived again in 2001, this time with the name Colgate- Cibaca Geetmala.

69. Satanic, 53.70. Mazzarella, Shoveling Smoke, 106, 261.71. Vakil, Beach Boy, 84.72. Jonathan Raban, Soft City (1974; London: Harvill Press, 1998) 59.73. G.V. Desani, All about H. Hatterr (1949; New Delhi: Penguin, 1998) 46.74. Midnight, 24. It is worth mentioning that a significant feature of the let-

tered city, graffiti, does not make an appearance in Rushdie’s Bombay. ‘Three Simple Statements’, a short story by Manto, pivots upon the

Notes 193

explosive and liberating potential of this uniquely urban form of writ-ing. Set in the time of Indian independence, when nationalist sentiments ran high, the narrator visits a ‘mootri’ or urinal in Bombay, close to the Congress House and Jinnah Hall. As he says, ‘Both Congress House and Jinnah Hall were under the control of the government, but the mootri was free, free to spread its stink far and wide, free to receive the garbage of the local community as its doorstep’. On three successive visits, there are three comments scribbled in charcoal on the wall among crude figures of human genitalia; they constitute a savage, devastating critique of the entire nationalist project. To quote from Manto again: ‘The words “ram Pakistan up the you- know- what of the Muslims” and “ram Akhand Bharat up the you- know- what of the Hindus” were now somewhat faded. When [the narrator] left, a new line had appeared under the two declarations: “ram Mother India up the you- know- what of both Muslims and Hindus”. For a moment, these words seemed to dispel the stink of the mootri like a light fragrance dancing in the wind – but only for a moment’. Manto, Kingdom’s End, 131– 2.

75. Midnight, 215.76. Moor, 204– 5.77. Midnight, 84.78. A word that, as far as I am aware, has been coined by Rushdie, since no

dictionary, including Hobson- Jobson, recognizes it. It does, however, convey quite wonderfully the ramshackle, run- down state of Pioneer café.

79. The wonderfully understated notice regarding ‘spitting during visit’ being ‘quite’ a bad habit is perhaps the best case in point.

80. Frank F. Conlon, ‘Dining Out in Bombay’, Consuming Modernity: Public Culture in Contemporary India, ed. Carol C. Breckenridge (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996) 99– 100.

81. Braj B. Kachru, preface, Aspects of Sociolinguistics in South Asia, spec. issue of International Journal of the Sociology of Language 16 (1978): 7.

82. Nagarkar, Ravan and Eddie, 180.83. Nagarkar, Ravan and Eddie, 329.84. Ground, 7.85. Midnight, 215.86. In this regard, see Mira Nair’s justly celebrated Hindi film, ‘Salaam Bombay’

(1988), an unsentimental portrayal of the difficult, wretched and exploita-tive conditions in which the street- children of Bombay live. At the same time, the film conveys the hope and the determination to survive that keeps the children going.

87. Midnight, 189.88. Midnight, 238.89. And yet again: ‘It was the year of divisions, 1960. The year the state

of Bombay was cut in half, and while new Gujarat was left to its own devices, we Bombayites were informed that our city was now the capital of Maharashtra. Many of us found this hard to take. Collectively, we began to live in a private Bombay that floated a little way out to sea and held itself apart from the rest of the country; while, individually, each of us became our own Bombay’. Ground, 163– 4.

90. Moor, 179.

194 Notes

91. Braj Kachru in 1996 puts South Asia among the three largest English- using regions in the world, the other two being the United States and the United Kingdom. According to him, ‘If just 6 percent of the current population of South Asia has some competence in English (in my view a very conserva-tive figure), then there are 60 million such individuals in this area’. Braj B. Kachru, preface, South Asian English: Structure, Use, and Users, ed. Robert J. Baumgardner (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996) xiii. However, the degree of competence in English would vary dramatically, ranging from fluency in the language to an informally acquired knowledge of scraps and fragments that may be wholly oral.

92. A good example of this is the perplexing term ‘powertoni’, held in great awe by everyone in Bombay. After much confusion, Suketu Mehta discov-ers that it is a contraction of the term ‘power of attorney’, ‘the awesome ability to act on someone else’s behalf or to have others do your bidding’. Mehta, Maximum City, 55.

93. Ground, 7. Paradoxically, this impure agglomerate of scraps of many lan-guages is seen to mark an authentic Bombayite identity. Satanic suggests that Saladin’s ‘real’ identity as a Bombayite lies unchanged underneath the carefully constructed mask of Englishness that he has created for himself. On the plane to Bombay, ‘Saladin, emerging from the dream, found his speech unaccountably metamorphosed into the Bombay lilt he had so diligently (and so long ago!) unmade. “Achha, means what?” he mumbled. “Alcoholic beverage or what?” And, when the stewardess reassured him, whatever you wish, sir, all beverages are gratis, he heard, once again, his traitor voice: “So, okay, bibi. Give one whiskysoda only”’. Satanic, 34.

94. I am not interested here in re- opening the tired debate about the aesthetic and political compromises an Indian writer willy- nilly makes when s/he chooses to write in English. For all practical purposes, I treat English as another Indian language, albeit one that, even within India, occupies a position of much greater social, economic and political power than all the other so- called regional languages.

95. It must at the same time be mentioned that a ‘real’ Padma would be unlikely to speak in English, however broken. Her speech, as of other characters like Ramram Seth or Lambajan, to mention just a few, is most likely intended to be understood as a translation from the Indian language (Hindustani, Marathi) they would speak in. The fact that Rushdie does not signal this in the narrative is significant.

96. Satanic, 333. 97. As for instance college- going students in the metropolitan cities of India, as

a casual, ‘cool’ and smart- alec slang to communicate with their friends. 98. Khair, Babu Fictions, 109. 99. Khair, Babu Fictions, 102– 3.100. Nissim Ezekiel, ‘Irani Restaurant Instructions’, Latter- Day Psalms (Delhi:

Oxford University Press, 1982) 24– 5.101. Neelam Srivastava asserts that Rushdie’s use of language is ‘expressionistic’

in the sense that ‘he does not aim for a “realistic” representation, but rather strives to recreate an English that conveys the emotional and cultural impact of the source language’. Neelam Srivastava, ‘Secularism in Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children and Vikram Seth’s A Suitable Boy: History, Nation, Language’,

Notes 195

Diss. Oxford University, 2004, 11. See also Neelam Srivastava, Secularism in the Postcolonial Indian Novel: National and Cosmopolitan Narratives in English (Oxford: Routledge, 2008).

102. Braj Kachru, ‘Toward Structuring Code- Mixing: An Indian Perspective’, Aspects of Sociolinguistics in South Asia, spec. issue of International Journal of the Sociology of Language 16 (1978): 28– 9.

103. Srivastava argues for the political valence of Rushdie’s heteroglossia; she reads Midnight’s ‘structural digressions and linguistic excess’ as ‘a metaphor of the democratic forces rising up against the authoritarianism of the Emergency’. The fragmented language of the novel is ‘the linguistic coun-terpart of Saleem’s endorsement of a pluralistic idea of the nation whose multiple voices cannot be channeled into an overarching state discourse like that of the Emergency’. Srivastava, ‘Secularism’, 25, 312– 3. I have sought to locate this heteroglossia in the locus of Bombay city.

104. Desani, All about H. Hatterr, 299.105. Portrait, 194.106. Ulysses, 16.107. Dana Polan, translator’s introduction, Kafka: Toward a Minor Literature, by

Deleuze and Guattari, xxvii.108. David Lloyd, Nationalism and Minor Literature: James Clarence Mangan and

the Emergence of Irish Cultural Nationalism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987) 23. So for instance, the work of modernists such as T.S. Eliot, W.B. Yeats or Ezra Pound can hardly be called ‘minor’.

109. See Lloyd, Nationalism, 25, and Lloyd, ‘Genet’s Genealogy: European Minorities and the Ends of the Canon’, The Nature and Context of Minority Discourse, spec. issue of Cultural Critique 6 (1987):162.

110. Deleuze and Guattari, Kafka, 18. Emphasis mine.111. Deleuze and Guattari, Kafka, 16– 7.112. Deleuze and Guattari, Kafka, 27.113. Rushdie, ‘In Good Faith’, Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism 1981– 91,

1991 (London: Granta) 394.

5 Divided Cities

1. William Blake, ‘London’, The Poems of William Blake, ed. W.H. Stevenson (London: Longman, 1971) 213.

2. Although this sense of the term is recorded by the OED only from 1806, it is likely to have been in use earlier.

3. Judith R. Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight: Narratives of Sexual Danger in Late- Victorian London (London: Virago, 1992) 29– 30.

4. Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, trans. Constance Farrington (1961; London: Penguin, 2001) 29– 30.

5. Chris Jenks, ‘Watching Your Step: The History and Practice of the Flâneur’, Jenks, Visual Culture, 144.

6. Setha M. Low, ‘The Edge and the Center: Gated Communities and the Discourse of Urban Fear’, The Anthropology of Space and Place: Locating Culture, eds, Setha M. Low and Denise Lawrence- Zuniga (London: Blackwell, 2003) 391.

196 Notes

7. Rory Carroll, ‘Brutal Divide: Fortified Town Plays on Middle Class Fear of Crime’, The Guardian 11 February 2006: 23.

8. Raban, Soft City, 12– 3. 9. Mehta, Maximum City, 13.10. Nagarkar, Ravan and Eddie, 15, 69.11. To give an example, K.A. Abbas recalls how, one night in Bombay, he had to

sleep on the pavement, the ‘bed of stones’ when his flatmate did not return with the house- key, an experience so profound that it became his ‘theme’ in his short stories and the film ‘Shehar aur Sapna’ (The City and the Dream, 1963). For that privilege, Abbas had to pay ‘a couple of annas’ to the ‘local Dada who commanded that pavement for “floor space”’. That night, he became aware of the ‘class (or caste) system among pavement- sleepers’: there were those who slept on ‘clean sheets and embroidered pillows’, choosing to sleep on the pavement, where they could enjoy the ‘cool sea- breeze’, instead of their stifling chawls; after them, ‘and a little away from them, came the humbler chatai- sleepers’, followed by ‘those who slept on gunny sacks’, fol-lowed by the very lowest class, ‘those who had nothing to spread on the “bed of stones”’. Abbas, Bombay, My Bombay!, 3– 4.

12. Carroll, ‘Brutal Divide’, 23.13. Carroll, ‘Brutal Divide’, 23.14. Dipesh Chakrabarty, ‘Of Garbage, Modernity, and the Citizen’s Gaze’,

Habitations of Modernity: Essays in the Wake of Subaltern Studies (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002) 72– 4.

15. See Sennett’s brilliant and polemical Uses of Disorder, 57, 80.16. Foucault defines both museums and libraries as ‘heterotopias of indefinitely

accumulating time’, representing ‘a sort of perpetual and indefinite accumu-lation of time in an immobile place’, an idea that ‘belongs to our modernity’ and is ‘proper to western culture of the nineteenth century’. Foucault, ‘Of Other Spaces’, 26.

17. Tony Bennett, Culture: A Reformer’s Science (London: Sage Publications, 1998) 108– 9, 207– 8.

18. Portrait, 161.19. Stuart Gilbert’s schema for the chapter titled ‘Lestrygonians’. Ulysses, xxiii.20. Ulysses, 224– 5, 257. ‘Kallipyge’ is Greek for ‘beautiful buttocks’.21. For instance, the taken- for- granted injunction to silence inside a museum

does not even need to be explicitly stated; the (supposed) awe inspired by the sheer range and scope of the collection as well as the almost- always majestic building that houses it are preconditions for the visitor’s presence.

22. Nandy, Ambiguous Journey to the City, 3, 6.23. It is worth noting that most museums tend to be called ‘national’ museums

and are generally located in the capital city.24. The website of the National Museum of Ireland at Dublin proudly proclaims

that its collection contains ‘artefacts and masterpieces dating from 2000 B.C. to the 20th century’, ranging from ‘prehistoric Ireland’ to ‘Egyptian Archaeology’. Its ‘National Treasury’ includes, among other things, the ‘Ardagh Chalice’, the ‘Tara Brooch’ and the ‘Cross of Cong’. Note how these objects add up to a national treasury. See <http://www. tourist- information- dublin.co.uk/ national- museum- dublin/ national- museum.htm>

25. Qtd. in Bennett, Culture, 113.

Notes 197

26. As Unwins puts it, ‘Scarcely a day passes that I do not visit the Gallery myself, and I have observed a great many things that show that many persons who come, do not come really to see the pictures […] a man and a woman had got their child, teaching it its first steps; they were making it run from one place to another […] it seemed to be just the place that was sought for such an amusement’. Qtd. in Bennett, Culture, 110. In another context, Richard Pierce discusses his experience of a Chagall exhibit, a cubist painting called ‘The Garden of Eden’, displayed in the Philadelphia Art Museum. A group of children swarmed around it, and when asked by their teacher what they saw in the painting, they responded ‘Everything’. Then the teacher asked who could find Adam and Eve. In Pierce’s words, ‘the painting changed before my eyes. Suddenly, the figures of Adam and Eve were dominant, their heads on top, the allegorical motifs all in place. […] The children not only turned the museum into a carnival by their playfulness, noise, and covert rebellion; they insisted on the heteroglossia of Chagall’s paintings. But the teachers and parents had the power to authorize one among the many voices in the painting, silence others, and turn the carnival back into a museum’. Richard Pierce, ‘Voices, Stories, (W)holes: The Politics of Narration’, New Alliances in Joyce Studies: ‘When it’s Aped to Foul a Delfian’, ed. Bonnie Kime Scott (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1988) 81.

27. Bakhtin makes particular mention of the importance of orifices – parts of the body that facilitate interaction between the inside and the outside, thereby destroying the illusion of the self- sufficient purity of the self – in the grotesque, carnivalesque imagination. To quote Peter Stallybrass and Allon White, the ‘carnival body’ is ‘an image of impure corporeal bulk with its ori-fices (mouth, flared nostrils, anus) yawning wide and its lower regions (belly, legs, feet, buttocks and genitals) given priority over its upper regions (head, “spirit”, reason)’. Peter Stallybrass and Allon White, The Politics and Poetics of Transgression (London: Methuen, 1986) 9.

28. Stallybrass and White, Politics and Poetics, 22.29. Joyce reportedly said in conversation with Arthur Power that ‘[Portrait] was

the book of my youth, but Ulysses is the book of my maturity, and I prefer my maturity to my youth. Ulysses is more satisfying and better resolved […] in Ulysses I have tried to see life clearly, I think, and as a whole […]’. Power, Conversations, 45.

30. Portrait, 158.31. The National Library in Dublin is open only to those with undefined ‘genu-

ine research needs’. It also, tellingly, incorporates the Genealogical Office and the Heraldic Museum.

32. In Portrait. Ulysses has a whole section, ‘Scylla and Charybdis’, dedicated to Stephen waxing eloquent on Shakespeare in the National Library, which will be discussed below.

33. ‘A fine rain began to fall from the high veiled sky and they turned into the duke’s lawn, to reach the national library before the shower came’, and, again, ‘When they passed through the passage beside the royal Irish acad-emy they found many students sheltering under the arcade of the library’. Portrait, 219– 20.

34. ‘This evening Cranly was in the porch of the library, proposing a problem to Dixon and her brother’. Portrait, 254.

198 Notes

35. ‘Bah! he had done well […] not to salute her on the steps of the library! He had done well to leave her to flirt with her priest, […]’. Portrait, 224.

36. Joyce, Portrait, 253.37. The episode’s ‘technic’, according to the Gilbert schema, is ‘dialectic’.

Ulysses, xxiii.38. Ulysses, 247– 8. Emphasis mine.39. Blake, ‘London’, 213.40. So called from Montgomery Street, Monto was largely closed down in 1925,

and Montgomery Street was renamed Foley Street.41. He goes on to say that the job of modern literature (as against classical litera-

ture, which concerned itself with the ‘daylight of human personality’) is to explore the ‘twilight’ world, or ‘those hidden tides which govern everything’. Power, Conversations, 64, 85.

42. Portrait, 103.43. Power, Conversations, 86.44. See Martin Barry, ‘Madams and Murder’, Chapters of Dublin History, 1 May

2012. <http://web.archive.org/web/20070205124813/http://www.eiretek.org/chapters/books/General/monto.htm>.

45. Philip Hubbard, Sex and the City: Geographies of Prostitution in the Urban West (Hants: Ashgate, 1999) 62.

46. Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight, 21– 2.47. Steve Pile, The Body and the City: Psychoanalysis, Space and Subjectivity

(London: Routledge, 1996) 180.48. William Acton, Prostitution Considered in its Moral, Social and Sanitary Aspects,

in London and Other Large Cities (London, 1870) 24. Emphasis mine. Note the careful inclusion of the reader within ‘our’ space, thereby othering the invasive presence of vice that persistently follows and seeks out hapless victims.

49. Pile, Body and the City, 180.50. Charles Bernheimer, Figures of Ill Repute: Representing Prostitution in Nineteenth-

Century France (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1989) 2.51. Hubbard, Sex and the City, 4.52. Ulysses, 561.53. The transformation- motif ties in with Homer’s Circe, who turned men into

pigs. Joyce writes, in a letter to Frank Budgen, that he wanted to ‘make Circe a costume episode also. Bloom for instance appears in five or six different suits’. Joyce, ‘To Frank Budgen’, Michelmas 1920, Ellmann, Selected Letters, 272.

54. Johnson ed. Ulysses, 922.55. As Stallybrass and White say in another context, ‘the top includes that low

symbolically, as a primary eroticized constituent of its own fantasy life. The result is a mobile, conflictual fusion of power, fear and desire in the constitu-tion of subjectivity: a psychological dependence upon precisely those Others which are being rigorously opposed and excluded at the social level. It is for this reason that what is socially peripheral is so frequently symbolically central’. Stallybrass and White, Politics and Poetics, 5.

56. Daniel Ferrer, ‘Circe, Regret and Regression’, Attridge and Ferrer, Post- Structuralist Joyce, 132.

57. Johnson ed. Ulysses, 921.58. Ulysses, 562– 3, 571– 2, 651.59. Ellmann, James Joyce, 367.

Notes 199

60. Indra Sinha, The Death of Mr. Love (London: Scribner, 2002) 511– 2.61. Midnight, 307– 8.62. Midnight, 94– 5.63. Moor, 88.64. Satanic, 11, 13.65. Midnight, 386.66. At the end of the novel, however, owing to the dramatic fall in his fortunes,

Saleem finds himself lodging in a pickle- factory ‘not at all far’ from the erstwhile- unfamiliar ‘northern zones’. Midnight, 215.

67. Satanic, 38.68. Moor, 184, 287, 304.69. Moor, 126, 226, 304.70. It is worth noting that bourgeois social practices like the ‘adda’, ‘the practice

of friends getting together for long, informal, and unrigorous conversations’ that was seen to be an intrinsic part of the fashioning of a modern urban Bengali identity in the early twentieth century, do not figure anywhere in Rushdie’s writing. The closest we get to an ‘adda’ is the brief but animated debate about the violent political upheavals in Assam among Zeeny and her friends, to which Saladin is a detached, uncomfortable party. Dipesh Chakrabarty, ‘Adda: A History of Sociality’, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000) 181; Rushdie, Satanic, 56– 8.

71. Midnight, 319.72. See Rajendar Menen, ‘The Ironies of Kamathipura’, Hindu Online Edition

3 June 2001, 9 May 2012 <http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/06/03/stories/1303128f.htm>.

73. See Farah Baria, ‘A Pile of Dirt Worth its Weight in Gold’, Sunday Express 24 September 2006: 15.

74. Moor, 237, 251.75. O’Brien, Dear Dirty Dublin, 28.76. Ulysses, 86, 109, 198– 9, 289.77. In an important essay, Sudipta Kaviraj discusses the gesture of ‘detournement’

by which the Calcutta poor were able to inhabit the ‘pablik’ space of parks in middle- class colonies; another instance of the negotiations constantly tak-ing place between urban spatial divisions. See ‘Filth and the Public Sphere: Concepts and Practices about Space in Calcutta’, Public Culture 10.1 (1997): 108.

78. What Rajeev Patke says with reference to Walter Benjamin could apply equally to Mehta: ‘Through Benjamin, we see the city of modernity not as the habitation of the bourgeoisie, but as a threshold experience foregrounded by marginal types such as the collector, gambler, prostitute and flâneur. They share one feature. They resist the notion of the city as home to the burgher’. Patke, ‘Benjamin’s Arcades Project’, 12. Rushdie’s narratives, in contrast, con-cern themselves almost solely with the upper- class bourgeoisie, although his protagonists can be said to be (or become in the course of the novel), argu-ably and to varying degrees, non- mainstream, marginal and dispossessed.

79. The Prime Minister’s Grant Project (PMGP) housing was one of the first concerted governmental attempts to redevelop parts of Dharavi. See Kalpana Sharma, Rediscovering Dharavi: Stories from Asia’s Largest Slum (New Delhi: Penguin, 2000) xxi.

200 Notes

80. Paromita Vohra, ‘The One Billion Rupee Home’, Bombay Meri Jaan: Writings on Mumbai, eds, Jerry Pinto and Naresh Fernandes (New Delhi: Penguin, 2003) 40, 44.

81. De Certeau uses ‘proper’ to mean the official and legitimized use to which a place or activity belongs.

82. De Certeau, Practice of Everyday Life, 97.83. Bhabha, Location of Culture, 9.84. Ulysses, 74, 862– 4, 866– 7.85. Geeta Kapur, ‘subTerrain: Artists Dig the Contemporary’, Body.City: Siting

Contemporary Culture in India, eds, Indira Chandrasekhar and Peter C. Seel (Berlin and Delhi: House of World Cultures and Tulika, 2003) 76.

86. Moor, 372.

6 Artist’s City, City’s Artist

1. An analysis of Joyce’s other artist- figure, Shem the Penman in Finnegans Wake, is outside the scope of this book.

2. Ulysses, 45, 238. 3. Johnson ed. Ulysses, 782. 4. Chipkali is the Hindi word for lizard. In her ‘chipkali’ phase of documentary,

social- realist painting, Aurora strives to be an invisible onlooker to the sub-jects of her paintings just like ‘a lizard on the wall’.

5. Midnight, 128– 9. 6. Joyce, ‘To Grant Richards’, 15 October 1905, Ellmann, Selected Letters, 78– 9. 7. The term gestures towards the not- insignificant slide between Stephen’s

Catholicism and his views on art, inasmuch as, for him, the latter comes to stand in for the former.

8. In Stephen’s words, ‘First we recognize that the object is one integral thing, then we recognize that it is an organized composite structure, a thing in fact: finally, when the relation of the parts is exquisite, when the parts are adjusted to the special point, we recognize that it is that thing which it is. Its soul, its whatness, leaps to us from the vestment of its appearance. The soul of the commonest object, the structure of which is so adjusted, seems to us radiant. The object achieves its epiphany’. Stephen Hero, 218.

9. Portrait, 211. Emphasis mine.10. Stephen Hero, 216.11. Stephen Hero, 33; Portrait, 192.12. Stephen Hero, 35– 6.13. Portrait, 72.14. Charles Baudelaire, ‘The Painter of Modern Life’, 1863, The Painter of Modern

Life and Other Essays, trans. Jonathan Mayne (London: Phaidon Press, 1964) 4– 5, 12.

15. Peter Brooker argues that Modernism’s break with established techniques of realism was owing to the fact that the ‘meanwhile’ of ‘dual, parallel movements, along a common time- line’ that realism based itself upon was unavailable in the fragmented ‘metropolitan time’ of the modern city. In his words, ‘For if realism was the representational mode of the earlier type of community and experience of synchronous time, new modes were

Notes 201

required to capture the experience of the anonymous crowd and multiple times of the metropolitan scene. Hence the use of montage and collage […]’. Peter Brooker, Modernity and Metropolis: Writing, Film and Urban Formations (Hampshire: Palgrave, 2002) 18.

16. Williams, ‘Metropolis and the Emergence of Modernism’, 18– 20.17. Stephen remembers his attempt at ‘exile’ with uncharacteristic self- irony:

‘Fabulous artificer, the hawklike man. You flew. Whereto? Newhaven- Dieppe, steerage passenger. Paris and back. Lapwing’. Ulysses, 270.

18. Bradbury, ‘Cities of Modernism’, 100.19. Ulysses, 21, 24.20. I refer, of course, to Stephen’s much- quoted discussion with the dean, during

which Stephen reflects: ‘The language in which we are speaking is his before it is mine. How different are the words home, Christ, ale, master, on his lips and on mine! I cannot speak or write these words without unrest of spirit. His language, so familiar and so foreign, will always be for me an acquired speech. I have not made or accepted its words. My voice holds them at bay. My soul frets in the shadow of his language’. Portrait, 194.

21. Jameson, ‘Modernism and Imperialism’, 63.22. Dubliners, 71.23. Dubliners, 79, 83, 85. Again, in the story, ‘After the Race’, a reference to the

Gordon Bennett Race held on 2 July 1903 on a circuit to the west of Dublin, the race- cars, as they come ‘careering’ and ‘scudding in’ to a Dublin that is a ‘channel of poverty and inaction’ and only wears the ‘mask of a capital’, bring with them a sense of European modernity that is wholly at odds with the backwardness of Dublin. Dubliners, 44, 49.

24. Portrait, 68.25. Jameson, ‘Modernism and Imperialism’, 51; Rushdie, Satanic, 343.26. Jameson, ‘Modernism and Imperialism’, 60– 1. Emphasis mine.27. Cf. Kersi, Rohinton Mistry’s young Parsi narrator in the short story ‘Lend Me Your

Light’, who informs us that ‘In the particular version of reality we inherited, ghatis were always flooding places, they never just went there. Ghatis were flooding the banks, desecrating the sanctity of institutions, and taking up all the coveted jobs. […] With much shame I remember this word ghati […] oozing the stench of big-otry. It consigned a whole race to the mute roles of coolies and menials, forever unredeemable’. Rohinton Mistry, Tales From Firozsha Baag (London: Faber, 1992) 176. His inherited anxiety originates in the standpoint of a small and rapidly dwindling community’s sense of being under siege by the large Hindu, right- leaning, lower- middle- class segment of Bombay’s population. In Rushdie’s case, however, I propose that the anxiety of his protagonists is rooted in class more than anything else: the upper class’s fear of the vast under- class population it is surrounded by and dependent upon.

28. Midnight, 48.29. Midnight, 87.30. Midnight, 242, 244.31. Midnight, 48.32. Saleem wonders, ‘is this an Indian disease, the urge to encapsulate the whole

of reality? Worse: am I infected, too?’ Midnight, 75.33. As Saleem puts it, ‘the crowd, the dense crowd, the crowd without bounda-

ries, growing until it fills the world, […]’. Midnight, 462. Emphasis mine.

202 Notes

34. Midnight, 9, 37, 297.35. Echoing Saleem, as it were, Rushdie says in an interview: ‘One strategy that

was deliberately adopted in [Midnight] was deliberately to tell, as it were, too many stories, so that there was a jostle of stories in the novel and that your main narration … had to kind of force its way through the crowd, as if you were outside Churchgate station trying to catch a train … There are simply so many stories going on that it would be absurd, I thought, to tell just one’. Rushdie, interview, ‘Salman Rushdie talks to Alastair Niven’, Wasafiri 26 (1997): 54. Note how the experience of the city actually defines the narrative form of Midnight’s Children.

36. Midnight, 67. The image recurs like a leit- motif all through the novel, until finally Saleem is the one begging the ‘maharaj’ and ‘maharajin’ to be let in. (442)

37. Midnight, 81, 115.38. Midnight, 71. Ravana is the ten- headed monster that Rama slays in the epic

Ramayana, symbolizing the victory of good over evil. Note the uncannily similar terms in which both Kemal and Saleem speak of ‘the people’.

39. Midnight, 147, 462– 3.40. Imaginary Homelands, 16.41. Midnight, 460– 1.42. German- American art historian and essayist ( 1892– 1968), whose famous

books include Studies in Iconology (1939), The Life and Art of Albrecht Dürer (1943) and Meaning in the Visual Arts (1955), all running into several edi-tions.

43. Ground, 386.44. Ground, 60– 1, 63. Emphasis mine.45. Ground, 80. Emphasis mine.46. Rai wonders, ‘Can it be that [V.V’s] preoccupations blinded him to the

momentous nature of those years, to the Navy Strike and Partition and all that followed?’ Ground, 62.

47. Ground, 61, 80.48. Ground, 211.49. Many photograph studios, especially in small- town India, use props and

techniques of splicing in order to create glamorous backdrops to set off the photographs of their clients. These include anything from a cardboard cut- out of a motorcycle, on which the client is shown to be seated, to pictures of the Manhattan skyline or the Taj Mahal, against which background the cli-ent is artfully shown to be posing. Such pictures do not aim at verisimilitude and do not achieve it. Rather, the props and backdrops are used for symbolic purposes; the Taj Mahal is usually used in photographs of newly married couples, symbolizing eternal love, while the motorcycle and skyscrapers impart the attributes of ambition, glamour and success to the person posing against them.

50. Christopher Pinney, ‘Notes from the Surface of the Image: Photography, Postcolonialism, and Vernacular Modernism’, Photography’s Other Histories, eds, Christopher Pinney and Nicolas Peterson (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003) 202– 3.

51. I borrow the term from Homi Bhabha, who discusses in his essay ‘Sly Civility’ how ‘both colonizer and colonized are in a process of misrecognition where

Notes 203

each point of identification is always a partial and double repetition of the otherness of the self […]’. Bhabha, Location of Culture, 97. Emphasis in original.

52. Ground, 211– 3.53. Moor, 128.54. It is difficult to pinpoint exactly when the Indian nation began to be con-

ceptualized as a mother (and as a nation), but it is without doubt closely tied to pre- independence (Hindu) nationalist imagining. Its most influential invocation was by Bankim Chandra Chatterji in the song ‘Vande Mataram’ (‘Mother, I bow to thee!’), first published in 1882 in his novel Anandamath and crucial in shaping the ideology of early nationalism. In 1950, it was adopted as the official ‘national song’ of India, its references to Hindu god-desses rendering it unsuitable as the national anthem for a country with a sizable Muslim population. An early visual portrayal of ‘Mother India’ was Abanindranath Tagore’s 1905 water- colour, ‘Bharat Mata’; in painting it, Abanindranath was conscious of creating, for the first time, an icon for the Indian nation. He rendered her as an idealized combination of Lakshmi and Saraswati, goddesses of prosperity and wisdom, clad in the apparel of a Vaishnava nun, radiating a divine calm. To his contemporary, Sister Nivedita, the painting was the supreme example of the way ‘the abstract ideal of nationalism could be metamorphosed into form, and cast into an image that was both human and divine’. Qtd. in Tapati Guha- Thakurta, The Making of a New ‘Indian’ Art: Artists, Aesthetics and Nationalism in Bengal, c. 1850– 1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992) 255. This image was subsequently adapted and popularized by poster and kitsch art all over the country.

55. Moor, 137– 9.56. Imaginary Homelands, 109.57. Moor, 87, 204, 234.58. Moor, 59– 60, 203– 4, 226– 7, 301– 2.59. Moor, 102.60. It is worth mentioning here that Aurora’s inaugural Cabral Island mural,

painted on the walls and ceiling of her room, may be a reference to Raja Ravi Varma ( 1848– 1906). An early part of the legend recounted by his biog-raphers retells how ‘he filled the walls of his home with pictures of animals and vignettes of everyday life’. Christopher Pinney, ‘Indian Magical Realism: Notes on Popular Visual Culture’, Subaltern Studies X: Writings on South Asian History and Society, eds, Gautam Bhadra, Gyan Prakash and Susie Tharu (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999) 204.

61. Only a few letters survive from Sher- Gil’s correspondence with Nehru, which was largely destroyed by her father in 1938– 9.

62. Quoted in R. de L. Furtado, Three Painters, New Delhi: Dhoomimal Ramchand, 1960, 13. Emphasis mine.

63. Moor, 60.64. Vivan Sundaram, ‘Amrita Sher- Gil – Life and Work’, Amrita Sher- Gil: Essays by

Vivan Sundaram, Geeta Kapur, Gulam Mohammad Sheikh, K.G. Subramanyam (Bombay: Marg Publications, 1972(?)) 21.

65. Gulam Mohammad Sheikh, ‘Among Several Cultures and Times’, Contemporary Indian Tradition: Voices on Culture, Nature, and the Challenge

204 Notes

of Change, ed. Carla M. Borden (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989) 107, and ‘In Many Worlds’, Artists Today: East- West Visual Arts Encounter, eds, Ursula Bickelmann and Nissim Ezekiel (Bombay: Marg Publications, 1987) 96. Many of Sheikh’s paintings of the eighties like the companion pieces ‘About Waiting and Wandering’ (1981) and ‘Revolving Routes’ (1981), as well as ‘City for Sale’ ( 1981– 84) are based on the ideas of ‘impurity’ and admixture that is such an important theme in Aurora’s art, and may well have inspired Rushdie.

66. Geeta Kapur, ‘SubTerrain’, Chandrasekhar and Seel, 53.67. Rushdie was personally acquainted with many members of the Bombay-

Baroda art- scenario, and had frequent interactions with them in the course of writing Moor. The Parsi gallery- owner Kekoo Mody in the novel is a thinly disguised reference to the octogenarian Kekoo Gandhy, owner of the Chemould Gallery in Bombay. Vasco Miranda seems to refer to the Goan cartoonist Mario Miranda; Vasco starts his career as a painter of cartoons on the Moor’s nursery walls, but moves on to other art- forms. The ‘Radiologist’ is Sudhir Patwardhan ( 1949–), known for his careful, empathetic portrayals of everyday life in Bombay; the ‘Doctor’ is Gieve Patel ( 1940–), also Bombay based and a writer as well as artist, and the ‘Professor’ is Gulam Mohammad Sheikh, who taught art at the MS University at Baroda for over thirty years. The ‘Accountant’ is Bhupen Khakhar ( 1934– 2003), a controversial (because homosexual) Baroda- based artist whose famous painting, ‘You can’t please them all’(1982) appears in Moor as ‘You Can’t Always Get Your Wish’ (Moor, 202). Khakhar has been recognized, in his paintings, to ‘mould the spaces of the city, to make us feel the possibility of moving about’; this may to some extent have inspired Rushdie’s imagining of Aurora’s art. See Timothy Hyman, Bhupen Khakhar (Bombay: Chemould Publications and Arts, 1998) 61. Khakhar also painted a portrait of Rushdie titled ‘Salman Rushdie: The Moor’(1995), which includes narrative scenes from the novel and is on display at the National Portrait Gallery, London. The Moor’s final quest in the novel is to find a lost portrait of his mother that has been painted over by Vasco Miranda. This can be traced to a biographical anecdote: a portrait of Rushdie’s mother had been painted around the time of Indian independence by the then young artist, Krishen Khanna. Rushdie’s father was displeased with the picture and refused to buy it. Some years later, the rejected canvas was re- used by another impoverished painter, M.F. Husain. Khanna and Husain have both gone on to become leading figures in the Indian art establishment. Khakhar, Patwardhan and Patel have, since the 1960s, persistently sought to explore the nature of big- city- life in its various dimensions, whether through an engagement with the working classes in a changing industrial landscape in the work of Patwardhan (who remarked, in a personal interview in August 2004, that the primary project of his paintings was to try and understand the ‘mainstream’), or the examination of social and sexual marginalization in Khakhar’s portraits of ‘mofussil loneliness’. See Abhay Sardesai, ‘Imaging the City’, Art India: The Art News Magazine of India 8.2 (2003): 39.

68. Moor, 352.69. Moor, 133– 4. In early 1946, there were mass demonstrations in major cit-

ies all over India to protest against the British colonial government’s arrest and imprisonment of the Indian National Army, who were charged with

Notes 205

‘war crimes’. When Royal Indian Navy sailors in Bombay, made up of Indian troops under British command, tried to join public demonstrations on February 17, the British ordered them confined to barracks and posted armed guards. The sailors struck and tried to force their way out. During the standoff the seamen organized a Central Naval Strike Committee repre-senting several thousand sailors and issued appeals to the Indian Congress and the Communist Party to come to their aid. However, disappointingly for them, Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian Congress leaders pressed the seamen to call off their strike.

70. Moor, 131, 133– 4.71. Literal Hindi translation of ‘Long John Silverfellow’.72. Moor, 293. It is worth mentioning that Borkar turns out to be two- timing the

Zogoibys, secretly working as a spy for Abraham’s rival Mainduck. Aurora’s reification of him as a literary character fails to reduce and dehumanize him completely; he retains, within limits, his autonomy and freedom of choice. As does his parrot, introduced in order to give the finishing touches of Borkar’s transformation into Lambajan Chandiwala, who turns out to be a recalcitrant, ‘stubborn old Bombay bird’ (126). After staunchly resisting the pirate- speak that Aurora tries to teach it – ‘Pieces of eight! Me hearties!’ – the parrot eventually gives in and agrees to utter an Indianized version of the same – ‘Peesay – safed – haathi!’ Or, ‘mashed white elephants’, which is said to be the oath on the dying Aurora’s lips as she falls down from her terrace (127).

73. Moor, 107.74. Moor, 123– 4. Emphasis mine. The annual festival in honor of Ganesh or

Ganapati, the elephant- headed deity who is worshipped as the god of aus-piciousness, involves ten days of collective, high- spirited celebration, con-cluding with massive processions that accompany the often- gigantic idol for immersion. It was first given a distinctly public, political, nationalist slant by Bal Gangadhar Tilak in the late nineteenth century, involving a glorification of the martial traditions associated with the Marathas. It has subsequently been taken over by right- wing Hindu fundamentalist groups in Maharashtra, and particularly in Bombay, as a boisterous assertion of both Maratha and Hindu group- pride.

75. At least one group of artists actively seeking to make art more widely acces-sible and relevant is the Open Circle initiative in Bombay, started in 1999 by the young artists Tushar Joag, Sharmila Samant, Shilpa Gupta and Archana Hande. See http://www.opencirclearts.org/.

76. Moor, 131.77. W.H. Auden, ‘In memory of William Butler Yeats’, although the poem as

a whole qualifies this statement. Collected Poems, ed. Edward Mendelson (London: Faber, 1976) 248.

78. T.S. Eliot, The Waste Land and Other Poems (1922; London: Faber, 1999) 25.79. T.S. Eliot, ‘Tradition and the Individual Talent’, 1919, Selected Essays

(London: Faber, 1999) 18.80. This is the project that Suketu Mehta dedicates himself to in Maximum City,

by attempting to draw out the unique stories of individual people who are rarely seen in contemporary Bombay fiction outside of a generic, faceless cumulative.

206 Notes

81. Edgar Allen Poe, ‘The Man of the Crowd’, 1850. Selected Tales (London: Oxford University Press, 1967) 161.

82. Stephen’s anxieties are of course of a different order from those of Rushdie’s protagonists; while their higher socio- economic status keeps them at a remove from the murkiness of the ordinary existence that they seek to map, Stephen’s declining class- position suffocatingly mires him within the ineffectuality of a lower- middle- class existence that he yearns to escape from.

83. Vakil, Beach Boy, 52.84. Cyrus Mistry, The Radiance of Ashes, London: Picador, 2005.85. See, for the most extended treatment of this argument, Brennan’s Salman

Rushdie and the Third World (1989). Brennan groups together ‘postcolonial’ writers like Mario Vargas Llosa, Derek Walcott, Isabel Allende, Bharati Mukherjee and of course Salman Rushdie under the category of ‘cosmo-politans’, by which he means ‘those writers Western reviewers seem to be choosing as the interpreters and authentic public voices of the Third World – writers who […] allowed a flirtation with change that assured continuity, a familiar strangeness […]. Alien to the public that read them because they were black, spoke with accents or were not citizens, they were also like that public in tastes, training, repertoire of anecdotes, current habitation’ (vii).

7 Some Other City Chronicles

1. Amit Chaudhuri, ‘My new perspective on Calcutta’, The Guardian 2 February 2013, 11 April 2013 <http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2013/feb/02/ amit- chaudhuri- new- perspective- calcutta>.

2. Manto, Bombay Stories. See in particular the stories titled ‘Ten Rupees’, ‘Barren’ and ‘Mammad Bhai’.

3. Manto, Bombay Stories, 12.4. Prakash, Mumbai Fables, 124.5. I refer of course to Suketu Mehta’s Maximum City, but also to Gregory David

Roberts, Shantaram (London: Abacus, 2004); Vikram Chandra, Sacred Games (New Delhi: Penguin, 2007); Sonia Faleiro, Beautiful Thing: Inside the Secret World of Bombay’s Dance Bars (New Delhi: Penguin, 2010); Kiran Nagarkar, The Extras (New Delhi: Fourth Estate, 2012); Jeet Thayil, Narcopolis (London; Faber and Faber, 2012); Katherine Boo, Behind the Beautiful Forevers: Life, Death and Hope in a Mumbai Undercity (New Delhi: Hamish Hamilton, 2012) and Piyush Jha, Mumbaistan: Three Explosive Crime Thrillers (New Delhi: Rupa, 2012).

6. See, for instance, Aravind Adiga, Last Man in Tower (New Delhi: Fourth Estate, 2011); Jerry Pinto, Em and the Big Hoom (New Delhi: Aleph, 2012) and of course all of Rohinton Mistry’s oeuvre.

7. That this is, once again, very much a ‘male’ story is without doubt. Although Nagarkar’s novel has a number of strongly etched, independent- minded women, they by no means have the opportunity to venture out, bumble, flounder and yet bounce back like Ravan and Eddie frequently do. They depart from the straight and narrow with disastrous consequences and rarely any second chances – see for instance Pieta’s horrific and near- fatal abortion, Mrs. Fernandes’ suicide and the frequent beatings Aasman’s brother subjects her to.

Notes 207

8. Nagarkar, Extras, 200– 1. 9. Nagarkar, Extras, 31.10. ‘Sure, she wanted Marathi- speaking people to have jobs. […] But she wanted

everybody to have a job. Her customers paid her only if they had work and earned money. Maharashtrians accounted for a little over half her clients but the rest were from Uttar Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and, of late, four from Bihar. She was a businesswoman, granted a small- time entrepreneur, but she was never in two minds about her fiscal policy: the more the merrier. Besides, the colour of money, wherever it came from and whoever parted with it, was the same’. Nagarkar, Extras, 32. Note the very different, pragmatic and far more grounded sentiments that motivate Parvatibai’s ‘ open- mindedness’ in contrast to the easier attitudinizing, com-plete with theatrical flounce, of Aurora in Moor (‘[…] neither Marathi nor Gujarati would be spoken within her walls; the language of her kingdom was English and nothing but. “All these different lingos cuttofy us off from one another”, […]. “Only English brings us together”’). Rushdie, Moor, 179.

11. Nagarkar, Extras, 32.12. Prakash, Mumbai Fables, 23.13. See Stanley Pinto, ‘Bombay and the swinging sixties’, Upper Crust 16 March

2013 <http://www.uppercrustindia.com/oldsite/10crust/ten/mumbai6.htm.14. Gyan Prakash has written at length about the case, with particular focus on

the role played by the tabloid Blitz and its flamboyant editor Russi Karanjia in packaging what is ultimately a banal event as a sensational urban drama of passion, honour, morality and patriotism. More generally, it was the case’s amenability to being cast in the form of a spectacular, visually and emotion-ally charged morality tale, that played a big role in creating the mass hysteria around it. See Gyan Prakash, ‘Blitz’s Bombay’, Seminar, August 2003, 16 March 2013 <http://www. india- seminar.com/2003/528/528%20gyan%20prakash.htm> and the more recent Mumbai Fables.

15. Sinha, Death of Mr. Love, 277.16. Prakash, Mumbai Fables, 206.17. Faleiro, Beautiful Thing, 34.18. Faleiro, Beautiful Thing, 6.19. Boo, Behind the Beautiful Forevers, 36– 7.20. Boo, Behind the Beautiful Forevers, xii.21. Boo, Behind the Beautiful Forevers, 190.22. Thayil, Narcopolis, 211.23. Thayil, Narcopolis, 135– 6.24. Thayil, Narcopolis, 152.25. Adiga, Last Man in Tower, 231.26. Adiga, Last Man in Tower, 38.27. Thayil, Narcopolis, 2.28. Boo, Behind the Beautiful Forevers, 169.

8 Conclusion

1. Dubliners, 52.2. As could, arguably, be said to be the case in Dubliners and Portrait.

208 Notes

3. I borrow the term from Sarah Nuttall who describes ‘citiness’, with specific reference to Johannesburg, as something different from ‘urbanization;; refer-ring to ‘modes of being and acting in the city as city; it encompasses histories of violence, loss and xenophobia as well as those of experimentation and desegregation’. Sarah Nuttall, ‘A Politics of the Emergent: Cultural Studies in South Africa’, Theory, Culture and Society 23. 7– 8 (2006): 269.

4. So far it is only Rushdie’s Shalimar the Clown that has made a foray into village- life, part of it being set in the fictional Kashmiri village of Pachigam. Rushdie’s grandparents hail from Kashmir, as do Saleem’s in Midnight.

5. Midnight, 308. 6. Patke, ‘Benjamin’s Arcades Project’, 3. 7. Patke, ‘Benjamin in Bombay?’, <http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/pmc/

v012/12.3patke.html>. 8. Kapur, ‘subTerrain’, Chandrasekhar and Seel, 51. 9. See Patel and Masselos, preface, Bombay and Mumbai, ix.10. ‘Urbanization: A Majority in Cities’. UNFPA. May 2007. 2 June 2012 <http://

www.unfpa.org/pds/urbanization.htm>.11. Mike Davis, ‘Planet of Slums: Urban Involution and the Informal Proletariat’,

New Left Review 26 (2004): 5– 6, 12, 14, 19, 28, 30. Emphasis in original. It is worth noting that Davis draws a link between most contemporary cities of the underdeveloped South and Victorian Dublin; in both, the extensive slums are not by- products of the industrial revolution but of precisely the opposite phenomenon of de- industrialization (10).

12. Derrida, ‘On Cosmopolitanism’, 4, 6, 9, 22– 3. Emphasis in original.13. Ashley Dawson and Brent Hayes Edwards, ‘Introduction: Global Cities of the

South’, Global Cities of the South, spec. issue of Social Text 18 (2004): 6.14. I refer, of course, to Rushdie’s savagely ironic account of the flurry of illegal

building activity on reclaimed land in Bombay, for which Abraham Zogoiby hires an ‘“invisible” work- force constituted of impoverished immigrants who, in the eyes of the city authorities, were deemed not to exist. These masses of people ‘continued to be classified as phantoms, to move through the city like wraiths, except that these were the wraiths that kept the city going, building its houses, hauling its goods, cleaning up its droppings, and then simply and terribly dying, each in their turn, unseen, as their spectral blood poured out of their ghostly mouths in the middle of the bitch- city’s all- too- real, uncaring streets’. Moor, 212.

209

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220

Index

100,000 Million Poems (Queneau), 70

AAbbey Theatre, Dublin, 23, 24, 29,

176n2Achebe, Chinua, 40Acton, William, 112, 114–115, 198n48Adiga, Aravind, 21, 162, 206n6Advertisements, 72–73, 75

American Dental Association, 86capitalist meta-text embodied in, 76‘the Churchgate Set’, 86in contemporary India, 84in Dublin, 73, 81forms of, 76Kolynos toothpaste, 86letters of Woolf’s, 80linguistic codes, 87modus operandi, 76ontology of, 77Plumtree’s Potted Meat, 77–78repetition of, 76in Rushdie’s novels, 84–87in The Satanic Verses (Salman

Rushdie), 84, 85–86structure of repetition within, 78as ‘tactics of consumption’, 73–75in Ulysses (James Joyce), 72–76,

82, 85William Mazzarella’s study of, 84

Aestheticsculture, 99materialist, 125Stephen’s theory of, 125visual, 138

Alexandria Quartet (Lawrence Durrell), 13

Ali, Ahmad, 36, 179n50All About H. Hatterr (G. V. Desani), 21,

97, 192n73American Dental Association, 86Anderson, Benedict, 56, 181n27,

187n116

Anglo-Irish Protestant society, 25Anomalous States: Irish Writing

and the Postcolonial Moment (David Lloyd), 44

‘Anxiety of influence’ paradigm, 5Apsara, Vina, 8Arabian Nights, 134Arcades Project, The (Walter Benjamin),

17, 80, 175n46, 199n78Attridge, Derek, 42, 181n16Austen, Jane, 121Authenticity, notion of, 66–67, 96Awara (film, 1951), 36, 57, 58

BBabri Masjid, demolition of, 7, 14, 60,

122, 186n104Ballads, street, 42, 44, 51Bambaiya dialect, 83, 90, 92–93, 96–97Band Baja Baraat (film, 2010), 36Barthes, Roland, 15, 70, 174n44Baudelairean artist-flâneur, 129Beach Boy (Ardashir Vakil), 21, 33, 86,

148, 191n62Beautiful Thing (Sonia Faleiro), 159Beer, Gillian, 79Behind the Beautiful Forevers (Katherine

Boo), 159–160, 164, 206n5Benjamin, Walter, 3, 17, 76, 80–81,

168, 175n46, 190n34, 199n78One-Way Street and Other Writings

(1979), 190n33Bernheimer, Charles, 112, 198n50Bhabha, Homi, 41, 49, 180n11,

183n57, 202n51‘unhomeliness’, concept of, 121

Bharat Mata, 55, 203n54Bhartiya Janata Party, 61Blake, William, 101, 112, 114Bleak House (Charles Dickens),

4, 172n6

Index 221

Blitz (tabloid), 157–158, 207n14Bombay, 4, 5, 153–154

city-space in, 116, 118colonial history, 34difference from Joyce’s Dublin,

119–120ethnicities, languages and cultures,

mix of, 62film-industry, 12, 35–37, 56‘Gateway of India’, 32ghettoization, 120as ‘global’ city, 36, 63, 104lettered city of, 70metropolitan status of, 95models of sociability in, 89of modernist dreams, 38Nanavati case (1959), 155–158nostalgia for, 84–85people per square kilometre, 32postcolonial and postmodern, 12postcolonial metropolis of, 126, 150rags-to-riches tales, 33, 154in relation to other Indian cities, 31religious fundamentalism, 168representation of, 12scarcity of space, 32of the sixties, 86socio-linguistic world of, 98splitting along linguistic lines, 37as symbol of India’s urban

modernity, 57as a trading centre, 31

Bombay Meri Jaan (Paromita Vohra), 36, 200n80

Bombay, My Bombay! The Love Story of the City (Khwaja Ahmad Abbas), 36, 192n67

Bombay Stories (Saadat Hasan Manto), 151, 178n43

Bombay tetralogy See Ground Beneath Her Feet, The (Salman Rushdie); Midnight’s Children (Salman Rushdie); Moor’s Last Sigh, The (Salman Rushdie); Satanic Verses, The (Salman Rushdie)

Bombay: The City of Dreams (1995), 36Boo, Katherine, 159–160, 163Bradbury, Malcolm, 2, 130, 172n2British Empire, 32, 131

Brooke, Charlotte, 24Buck, Pearl S., 40Butler, Christopher, 10, 12

Early Modernism (1994), 10

CCairo Trilogy (Naguib Mahfouz), 13Canonical literature, 99Castells, Manuel, 4, 19–20, 175n59Catholic Emancipation, 26, 176n10Catholicism, 42, 200n7Celtic Renaissance, 23Celtic revivalism, 24‘Celtic Tiger’ economy, 27Celtic Twilight (William Butler

Yeats), 24Chakrabarty, Dipesh, 105, 199n70Chandra, Vikram, 13, 21, 151, 164Chatterjee, Partha, 38, 96, 179n58,

184n79, 187n116Cheng, Vincent, 42, 45, 52Cities

artistic and theoretical endeavour, 3artistic credos and personae,

development of, 124conditions for ‘newness’, 3cosmopolitan spaces, 3ghetto-city, 8, 27layout of, 16–21modernist, 3, 12narratives of, 12–14‘nervous stimulation’, 16postmodern, 3, 12relationship with nation, 39–40shrinking space, effect of, 10See also Bombay; Delhi; Dublin; Los

Angeles; Paris‘Cities of refuge’, 4, 170Citizenship, 65, 67, 170, 188n134City in History, The (Lewis

Mumford), 17City of Gold (Gillian Tindall), 36Cityspace, theory of, 19Cixous, Hélène, 71Colonial urbanism, 102Commodity culture, 72–73, 81Condition of the Working Class in

England in 1844 (Friedrich Engels), 102

222 Index

Conlon, Frank F., 89Contemporary photography in

India, 138Cosmopolitanism, concept of, 3–4,

34, 37, 46, 157–158, 170Cosmo-politics, 170Cultural singularity, notion of, 139Cunningham, Martin, 50Cusack, Michael, 42, 44‘Czechification’ of Prague, 39

DDandiya raas programmes, 63Davis, Ben, 48Davis, Mike, 169–170Davis, Thomas, 24, 43, 48, 169–170,

182n30Death of Mr. Love, The (Indra Sinha),

21, 156–157De Certeau, Michel, 70, 73Dedalus, Stephen, 107, 149, 167Deleuze, Gilles, 74–75, 78, 98–99Delhi

In Custody (Anita Desai), 36Dilli 6 (film, 2009), 36Old Delhi, 31, 36, 117–118, 135significance in mainstream

culture, 36Twilight in Delhi (Ahmad Ali), 36

Derrida, Jacques, 4, 170Desai, Anita, 21, 36, 93Desani, G. V., 21, 97Dickens, Charles, 4, 130, 192n64Discovery of India, The (Jawaharlal

Nehru), 54, 185n81Dublin, 4, 5, 6–7, 12, 16, 40, 80, 104,

115, 119Abbey Theatre, 23, 29Act of Union, impact of, 25advertising and commodity-culture,

73, 81–82Catholic Irish majority vs Anglo-

Irish Protestant minority, 26Celtic Renaissance and, 23–24‘Celtic Tiger’ economy, 27city-space, 106colonial underdevelopment,

82, 131creative activity, early years, 23–24

difference from Rushdie’s Bombay, 119–120

Gaelic spirit, 42–43, 45–46Irish Literary Movement, 23Joyce’s portrayal of, 14, 23lettered city of, 70, 71in literary context, 12–13, 40living conditions, nineteenth

century, 25migration of elites to England, 25monuments in, 25National Museum, 106, 109Nelson’s Pillar, 26O’Connell Street, 26Official Handbook (1929), 26–27plays on slums (Dublin trilogy),

29–30postcolonial metropolis of, 150public libraries, 109red-light district, 106socio-linguistic worlds of, 71–82,

98–100underdevelopment compared to

Paris, 80writing of, in Ulysses (James Joyce),

125, 149–150Dubliners (James Joyce), 6–7, 21, 24,

27, 74, 150Anglo-Irish literature, 28creative ‘lines of escape’, 77description of an August evening in

Dublin, 166difference from Ulysses (James

Joyce), 167Ezra Pound’s review of, 29French influence upon, 28

Duffy, Enda, 44, 48, 180n15Durrell, Lawrence, 13Dutt, Nargis, 140–142

EEarly Modernism (Christopher

Butler), 10Easter Rising (1916), 26, 48,

181n18East India Company, 31Economic neoliberalization, 63Eliot, T. S., 3, 6, 9, 146–149, 173n14Ellmann, Richard, 28

Index 223

Émigré artists, transnational groupings of, 130

Engels, Friedrich, 102English colonialism, 98

See also British EmpireEnglish language, 92, 98

bambaiya version of, 83, 90, 92–93, 96–97

‘chutnification’ of, 93, 100in contemporary Indian novels, 93Indian-English, 92–97Indian literature in, 6Irish literature in, 6Queen’s English, 93significance of, 91of upper-class cosmopolites, 94

‘English-medium’ schools, 90‘Epiphany’, Stephen’s concept of, 125Extras, The (Kiran Nagarkar), 21,

153–154

FFaleiro, Sonia, 151, 158–160Farishta, Gibreel, 58, 92, 117Ferguson, Samuel, 24Ferrer, Daniel, 114Films

‘Apu’-films by Satyajit Ray, 141as art form of Modernism, 11Awara (1951), 36, 57, 58Band Baja Baraat (2010), 36Dilli 6 (2009), 36Khosla ka Ghosla (2006), 36Mother India (1957), 140–141Raj Kapoor films, 56–58Shri 420 (1955), 57, 58Yeh Rastey Hain Pyar Ke (1963),

156–157Fingal (James Macpherson), 24Finnegans Wake (Stephen Heath), 70Flâneur, 81, 129–131, 190n34Folk-songs, 43–44, 51Folk-subaltern life, 54Frank, Joseph, 11, 174n32Fury (Salman Rushdie), 8, 67, 168

GGaelic Athletic Association, 44, 181n19Gaelic folklore and myth, 23

Gaelic language, 42–43, 176n17Gaelic League (1893), 24, 181n17Gaelic nationalism, 131Gandhi, Mohandas, 53–55

vision of village-India, 140Gandhi, Sanjay, 58Gated communities, phenomena of,

17, 27, 102Ghetto-city, 8Ghosh, Amitav, 93Gilbert schema, 105, 110, 198n37Global city, 19–20, 27, 36, 102, 130Godwin, George, 107–108Good Earth, The (Pearl S. Buck), 40Ground Beneath Her Feet, The (Salman

Rushdie), 8, 14, 21, 67, 168photographs, surfaces, and depths

in, 136–140Rai’s narratives, 126, 136–139, 149

HHansen, Thomas Blom, 37–38, 61,

179n56, 185n91Heath, Stephen, 70, 189n6Herzog, Moses, 49Hindu-Muslim riots, 60Hindutva, issue of, 61–62History of Ireland (Standish

O’Grady), 24Hobson, Bulmer, 27Hollywood films, 155Home and not-home, inter-relation

between, 121Hospitality, unconditional and

conditional, 170Howes, Marjorie, 42, 181n16Hubbard, Philip, 111‘Hug-Me’ dialect, 91–92Hyde, Douglas

Literary History of Ireland, A (1899), 24Love Songs of Connacht (1893), 24

IIdentity, 8, 20, 57–59, 61, 64

cosmopolitan, 7, 86ethnic and religious, 34, 62Gaelic, 44national, 5, 39, 42, 45, 50, 55, 140self-identity, 46

224 Index

In Custody (Anita Desai), 21, 36, 179n51

Indian literature, in English language, 6

Indian nationalism, 53Industrial Revolution in England, 4,

101–102Inferno (Dante), 147, 149‘Ireland, Isle of Saints and Sages’

( James Joyce), 49Irish

Literary Movement, 23–24, 28Literary Society of London, 24Literary Theatre, 24literature, in English language, 6myth and folktale, 125National Theatre Society, 24Republican Brotherhood, 27Volunteers, 27

Irish Melodies (Thomas Moore), 24

JJack the Ripper, 164Jaipur Literary Festival (2012), 8Jameson, Fredric, 12, 40, 48, 80, 82,

131–132, 183n55Jenks, Chris, 102, 195n5Johnson, Jeri, 52, 114, 125Joyce, James, 1, 5–6, 11, 23, 41–42,

66, 104, 119, 149artist-figure in novels of, 124, 126–

133, 146–150artistic projects of, 107city as redemptive space, 48Critical Writings of James Joyce

(1959), 183n41depiction of prostitute and brothel

in ‘Circe’, 113–115difference from novels of Rushdie,

119–120, 122Dubliners (1914) See Dubliners

( James Joyce)French influence, 28home versuss not-home, 121–123‘Ireland, Isle of Saints and Sages’

(1907), 49Letters of James Joyce (1957), 182n38letter to T. S. Eliot, 6–7‘A Little Cloud’, 25

nationalism, 47–48Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man,

A (1914) See Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, A ( James Joyce)

portrayal of Dublin, 14prose style, 28–29Richard Ellmann’s biography of, 28Selected Letters of James Joyce (1957),

173n14self-imposed exile, 67sentiments about Dublin, 30Stephen Hero (1944) See Stephen Hero

( James Joyce)Ulysses See Ulysses ( James Joyce)

Juno and the Paycock (Sean O’Casey), 29–30, 177n30

KKanthapura (Raja Rao), 40Kantian ethic of ‘hospitality’, 4Kapur, Geeta, 63, 143, 200n85Karanjia, Russi, 157–158Kern, Stephen, 9, 173n26Kershner, Richard, 71–72Khair, Tabish, 93–97Khosla ka Ghosla (film, 2006), 36Kumar, Udaya, 74, 190n24

LLambert, Ned, 50, 67Language

acquisition of, 90bambaiya dialect, 83, 90, 92–93,

96–97English See English language‘Hug-Me’ dialect, 91–92linguistic

codes, 87, 96repetition, effects of, 75

regional, 92riots, 60, 91–92‘spoken language of the streets’ in

India, 94, 95urban English, 90

Last Man in Tower (Aravind Adiga), 21, 162–163, 206n6

Lays of the Western Gael (Samuel Ferguson), 24

Lefebvre, Henri, 2, 18–19, 172n4

Index 225

Leonard, Garry, 72, 73, 189n18Lettered cities, 69

of Dublin and Bombay, 70–71, 99parallels between the acts of

reading/writing, 70Literary History of Ireland, A (Douglas

Hyde), 24Literary Renaissance, 28Literature of collectivity, 99Lived space, notion of, 2Lloyd, David, 44, 47, 51, 99,

195n108Anomalous States: Irish Writing

and the Postcolonial Moment (1993), 44

Nationalism and Minor Literature: James Clarence Mangan and the Emergence of Irish Cultural Nationalism (1987), 195n108

Nature and Context of Minority Discourse, The (1987), 195n109

London, 101East End of, 102, 164West End of, 102

London Labour and London Poor (Henry Mayhew), 102

Los Angeles, 3–4, 8–9, 12, 19, 103, 167–168

MMcClintock, Anne, 72, 189n14Macpherson, James, 23

Fingal (1760s), 24Ossian (1750s), 24

Magna Carta, 101Maha Gujarat, 60Maha Gujarat Parishad, 91Mahfouz, Naguib, 13Maiboli Sangh, 154Malani, Nalini, 143Mangan, James Clarence, 99Mansfield Park (Jane Austen), 121Manto, Saadat Hasan

Bombay Stories (2012), 151, 178n43Kingdom’s End and Other Stories

(1987), 178n43Marx, Karl, 52Masselos, Jim, 60, 62, 178n38,

178n44, 186n105

Maximum City (Suketu Mehta), 13, 33, 120

Mayhew, Henry, 102Mazzarella, William, 84, 86,

192n63Mehta, Suketu, 13, 32–34, 103,

120, 151‘Mera joota hai Japani’ (song from film

‘Shri 420’), 58‘The Metropolis and Mental Life’

(Georg Simmel), 16Midnight’s Children (Salman

Rushdie), 5–6, 8, 21, 33, 38, 40, 59–60, 149

advertisements, 84Mary Pereira in, 92Bombay of, 85, 157character and career of Uncle

Hanif in, 134re-organization of states, backdrop

of, 91Saleem’s narrative, 85, 91, 126

defeat and annihilation, 134‘falling apart’, 135metaphor of pickling, 139voice, 97

self-reflexivity in narrative of, 134tension between form and content

in, 135women characters’ speech, 93

Minor literaturecharacteristics of, 98–99Deleuze and Guattari’s

concept of, 98risk of redundancy, 99

Mistry, Cyrus, 21, 148Mistry, Rohinton

Such a Long Journey (1991), 21, 33–34

Tales From Firozsha Baag (1992), 21Modernist art, 130Moore, George, 24, 28Moore, Thomas, 24Moor’s Last Sigh, The (Salman

Rushdie), 4, 7, 21, 33, 40, 60, 97, 168

advertisements, 84Aurora’s distaste for Sher-Gil’s

paintings, 143

226 Index

Moor’s Last Sigh, The (Salman Rushdie) – continued

Aurora’s narrative, 126–127, 140–145, 149

‘chipkali’, a lizard on the wall, 140–146

distance between the artist and the crowd, 145

divisive potential of language, 92form and content in Aurora’s

paintings, 141Ganapati festival, 145idea of division, 117linguistic/regionalistic bonds, 64Nargis and the role of ‘Mother

India’, 141-142state-repression and ethnic

chauvinism, 64Moretti, Franco, 72, 189n13Mother India (Sher-Gil’s painting),

140–141, 143, 203n54Mrs Dalloway (Virginia Woolf), 79Mumbai See BombayMumbai Fables (Gyan Prakash), 155Mumford, Lewis, 17

NNagarkar, Kiran

Extras, The (2012), 21, 153–154Ravan and Eddie (1995), 21, 33, 90

‘Naked’ and ‘clothed’ repetition, Deleuze’s concept of, 74

Nana (Emile Zola), 28Nanavati case (1959), 155–158Nandy, Ashis, 58, 107, 186n96Narcopolis (Jeet Thayil), 160–162, 163Nargis See Dutt, NargisNatarajan, Nalini, 56, 185n89Nation

Bhabha’s theorizing of, 41Bombay cinema and, 56city as symbol of, 41colonial culture of Ireland, 43–45Gandhian and Nehruvian

conceptualization of, 53–55national character, idea of, 42–43notion of sovereignty, 42‘them’ and ‘us’, distinction

between, 43–44

National allegories, 40Nationalism and Minor Literature:

James Clarence Mangan and the Emergence of Irish Cultural Nationalism (David Lloyd), 195n108

National Library, Dublin, 109, 197n31National Literary Society, Dublin, 24National Museum, Dublin, 106,

108–109, 196n24Nature and Context of Minority

Discourse, The (David Lloyd), 195n109

Nayyar, R. K., 156Nehru, Jawaharlal, 53–54

differences with Gandhi, 55Discovery of India, The (1946), 54‘progressive’ nationalist vision of

India, 140urbanization, concept of, 55

‘Nervous stimulation’, 16Newness, conditions for, 2–3, 94, 155Nolan, Emer, 49–50, 109

OO’Brien, Joseph, 119, 176n3O’Casey, Sean, 29–30

Juno and the Paycock (1924), 29Plough and the Stars (1926), 29Shadow of a Gunman (1923), 29

O’Grady, Standish, 24Origin and authenticity, notions of,

66–67Ossian ( James Macpherson), 24Overworld and underworld, 13, 127

PParis, 17

shopping arcades of, 80Zola’s depiction (1880), 28

Passos, Jon Dos, 13Patel, Sujata, 34, 63Patke, Rajeev, 63, 168, 199n78Pile, Steve, 112, 198n47Pinney, Christopher, 138–139,

202n50, 203n60‘Planet of slums’, 4, 170Playboy of the Western World,

The ( J. M. Synge), 23

Index 227

Playboy riots (1907), 23Plough and the Stars, The (Sean

O’Casey), 29, 176n2, 177n29Portrait of the Artist as a Young

Man, A ( James Joyce), 21, 74, 125, 149, 167

link with Ulysses ( James Joyce), 106–109

references in, 109sexual instinct, 110Stephen, narrative of, 110,

127–132Postcolonial City and Its Subjects,

The (Rashmi Varma), 2, 172n5Postcolonial metropolis, 22, 82–83,

93, 97, 100, 126, 128, 139, 141, 148, 150, 168

Postcolonial ‘vernacular modernism’, 139

Postmodern metropolis, 19Pound, Ezra, 11, 29, 177n26Poverty, 19, 25, 27–28, 32, 111,

119–120, 127, 138, 146, 152, 155, 164, 169, 171, 178n43

Prakash, Gyan, 152, 155–156, 158, 174n35, 180n3, 185n87, 207n14

Prohibition of Alcohol Act (1949), 154Prostitution, 111–112

depiction in Ulysses (James Joyce), 113

‘family values’ and, 112moral degradation and, 112phenomenon of Modernism, 113

Pub as a free space, Utopian notion of, 53

RRaban, Jonathan, 87, 103Racism, 49, 167Radiance of Ashes, The (Cyrus Mistry),

21, 33, 148Rama, Angel, 69, 188n1Ramarajya, 54Rao, Raja, 40, 94Ravan and Eddie (Kiran Nagarkar), 21,

33, 90, 103ethnic chauvinism, depiction of, 155Parvatibai, story of, 154–155

Ray, Satyajit, 141Religious fundamentalism, 168Reliques of Irish Poetry (Charlotte

Brooke), 24Richards, Shaun, 44, 182n35Richards, Thomas, 73Ritualized violence, 61Rodney King riots in Los Angeles

(1992), 9Roman Church, 131Rushdie, Salman, 1, 4–7, 12, 14–15,

41–42, 66, 83, 104advertisements in the novels of,

84–87artist-figure in novels of, 124,

126–133, 146–150aspects of city-life, narrative on,

120–121bambaiya language, use of, 83, 96and Bombay cinema, 58‘chutnified’ English, 93, 100, 136city-spaces, 118–119difference from novels of Joyce,

119–120, 122forms of ‘writing-shiting’ in novels,

87–88Fury (2001), 8, 67, 168Ground Beneath Her Feet, The (1999)

See Ground Beneath Her Feet, The (Salman Rushdie)

home vs not-home, 121–123Imaginary Homelands: Essays and

Criticism 1981–91 (1991), 195n113

‘Irani Restaurant Instructions’, 95language problem, 82–83language use in novels, 83, 93–96Midnight’s Children (1981) See

Midnight’s Children (Salman Rushdie)

Moor’s Last Sigh, The (1995) See Moor’s Last Sigh, The (Salman Rushdie)

notions of origin and authenticity, 66–67

novel about the birth of the Indian nation, 54

quality of writing, 149repetition in novels, 85

228 Index

Rushdie, Salman – continuedSatanic Verses, The (1988) See Satanic

Verses, The (Salman Rushdie)script-writing, 83Shalimar the Clown (2005), 8, 68,

168, 173n22, 208n4Shame (1983), 188n129, 191n59slogans and instructions in

novels of, 87use of humour, 88–89

SSacred Games (Vikram Chandra), 13,

21, 33, 164Samyukta Maharashtra, 60Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti, 91Sassen, Saskia, 4, 19–20, 175n57Satanic Verses, The (Salman Rushdie),

4, 7, 21, 117advertisements, 84, 85–86‘Ellowen Deeowen’ of, 8red-light area, depiction of, 118Saladin Chamcha, story of, 64,

86, 117Tai Bibi, story of, 118

Script-writing, 83Select Committee on the National

Gallery in London (1850), 108Self-conscious engagements, 124Sennett, Richard, 17Shadow of a Gunman, The (Sean

O’Casey), 29Shakas, 61Shalimar the Clown (Salman Rushdie),

8, 68, 168, 173n22, 208n4Sheikh, Gulam Mohammad, 143Sher-Gil, Amrita, paintings of, 142

‘The Ancient Story-Teller’, 143Aurora’s distaste for, 143‘Elephant’s Promenade’, 143‘Mother India’, 143

Shiv Sena, 7, 34, 61, 158attacks on Muslims, 62ethnic and regionalist politics of, 37Hindutva, 61regional chauvinism of, 63‘sons of the soil’ movement, 31

Shri 420 (film, 1955), 57, 58

Simmel, Georg, 3, 16–17, 151, 165Sinha, Indra, 21, 156Sinn Fein movement, 41, 51Slogans and instructions, in novels,

87, 90‘Slovakization’ of a Bratislava, 39Slums, growth of, 169Soja, Edward, 18–19Sovereignty, political notions of, 42Space and time, perceptions of, 9Spirit of the Nation, The (Thomas

Davis), 24, 182n29Stephen Hero (James Joyce), 21, 45,

125, 128, 149, 167city-bred sophistication, 45Corley’s disillusionment, 80Gaelic spirit, 45–46journal-entry in Portrait ( James

Joyce), 45Museum idea, 106–108sexual instincts, 110–111socio-linguistic worlds, 98views on art, 128–130

Storytelling and pickling, 133–136Studio photography, in mofussil

India, 138Suburbanization, phenomenon

of, 102Such a Long Journey (Rohinton Mistry),

21, 33–34, 178n47Sundaram, Vivan, 143, 203

TTales From Firozsha Baag (Rohinton

Mistry), 21, 201n27Thackeray, Bal, 60–61, 120, 158,

187n113Things Fall Apart (Chinua Achebe), 40Third World, 3, 5, 102, 127,

150, 168cityscape, 144emergence of, 99metropolis, 4, 16, 139

Thomson, James, 130Time-space compression,

concept of, 9Tindall, Gillian, 32Twilight in Delhi (Ahmad Ali), 36

Index 229

UUlysses (James Joyce), 5–6, 11, 13, 21,

29, 40, 98, 150adventures of Leopold Bloom, 30,

76, 122, 149advertisements in, 75, 82, 85aspect of urban culture, 72Bloom as ‘wandering Jew’ of, 126brothel scene in ‘Circe’, analysis of,

106, 110–111, 113–114city-spaces in, 119concept of ‘naked’ and ‘clothed’

repetition in, 74corporeality of the goddesses, 107cultural dynamics, 72‘Cyclops’ episode of, 44, 46–49,

52–53as ‘cynical portrait’ of decadent

consumerism, 72difference from Dubliners (James

Joyce), 167form of the advertisement, 78Franco Moretti’s views on, 72Gilbert schema, 105, 110idea of repetition in, 74ideology of the free individual, 72irrelevance of Stephen in, 133linguistic repetition, effects of, 75link with Portrait (James Joyce),

106–109as ‘minor’ novel in a ‘major’

language, 99Museum idea, 106–108‘Nausicaa’ section of, 73‘Nighttown’, 106, 110, 111,

113–114notions of origin and authenticity,

66–67prostitute, depiction of, 113‘Proteus’ episode in, 125recasting of colonial hegemonies, 73rudimentary capitalism, 71‘Scylla and Charybdis’ episode

in, 109sexual fantasy and phantasmagoria,

110–111statue of Venus, 106–108

‘structural economy’ of, 73‘tactics of consumption’, instances

of, 73‘Telemachus’ section of, 46urban enclaves, depiction of, 106Venus of Praxiteles, discussion on,

106–108writing of Dublin in, 125, 150

Uncle Charles principle, 74, 190n27Unhomeliness, concept of, 121–123United Irishman (newspaper in

Ireland), 50Untilled Field (George Moore), 24, 28,

177n20Unwins, Thomas, 108, 197n26Urban

English, 90landscape, 4, 87, 111, 114modernity, 12, 57, 63, 76, 155

USA Trilogy, The (Jon Dos Passos), 13Uses of Disorder, The (Richard

Sennett), 17

VVakil, Ardashir, 21, 148Varma, Rashmi, 2, 56–57Venus of Praxiteles, 106–108Vohra, Paromita, 120

WWalkowitz, Judith, 111Waste Land, The (T. S. Eliot), 11,

146–147Wicke, Jennifer, 72–73, 76–77Williams, Raymond, 130, 172n1Woolf, Virginia, 3, 9, 79–80Wordsworth, William, 130

YYeats, William Butler, 23–24, 42Yeh Rastey Hain Pyar Ke (film, 1963),

156–157

ZZola, Emile, 28, 81Zones of simultaneous inclusion and

exclusion, 89