1 copyright © 2011 by saunders, an imprint of elsevier inc. chapter 2 introduction to the...
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1Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Chapter 2
Introduction to the Quantitative Research Process
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2Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Formal, objective, rigorous, systematic process for generating information
Describes new situations, events, or concepts
Examines relationships among variables Determines the effectiveness of treatments
Quantitative Research
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3Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Increased control
with type of study
Quantitative Research (cont’d)
Descriptive Correlational Quasi-experimental Experimental
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4Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Descriptive Research
Exploration and description of phenomena in real-life situations
New meaning is discovered and the description of concepts is accomplished
Helps to identify relationships
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5Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Correlational Research
Looks at the relationship between two or more variables
Determines the strength and type of relationships
Explains what is seen No cause and effect
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Quasi-experimental Research
Examines cause-and-effect relationships Less control by researcher than true
experimental designs Samples are not randomly selected. All variables in the study cannot be controlled
by the researcher.
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7Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Experimental Research
Looks at cause-and-effect relationships Highly controlled, objective, systematic
studies Involves the measurement of independent
and dependent variables
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Experimental Research (cont’d)
Main characteristics: Controlled manipulation of at least one
independent variable Uses experimental and control groups Random assignment of the sample to the
experimental and control groups
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9Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Concepts Relevant to Quantitative Research
Basic research Applied research Rigor Control Extraneous variables Sampling
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10Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Basic Research
Research for the sake of research Research to find out the truth Investigating “what is”
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11Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Applied Research
Attempts to solve real problems in clinical practice
Concerns what effects the intervention may have on patients
Applies findings in the real world on real patients
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Rigor in Quantitative Research
Striving for excellence in research and adherence to detail
Precise measurement tools, a representative sample, and a tightly controlled study design
Logical reasoning is essential. Precision, accuracy, detail, and order
required
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13Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Control in Quantitative Research
Rules are followed to decrease the possibility of error, and are the design of the study.
Different levels of control depending on study Quasi-experimental studies partially controlled
regarding selection of subjects Experimental studies highly controlled because of
precision of sample selection
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14Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Extraneous Variables inQuantitative Research
These occur in all research studies. They may interfere with the hypothesized
relationships between variables. The influence of extraneous variables can be
decreased through sample selection and the use of defined research settings.
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Sampling in Quantitative Research
Process of selecting subjects who are representative of the population
Random sampling Each member has an equal chance of being
selected. Has the most control
Convenience sampling Whoever is available
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Settings in Quantitative Research
The location where studies take place Must be defined in advance Involved in the rigor and control of the study Types of research settings:
Natural or field settings Partially controlled settings Highly controlled or laboratory settings
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Control in Quantitative Research
Type of Quantitative
Research
ResearcherControl
ResearchSetting
Descriptive Uncontrolled Natural or partially controlled
Correlational Uncontrolled or partially controlled
Natural or partially controlled
Quasi-experimental Partially controlled Partially controlled
Experimental Highly controlled Laboratory
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Problem-Solving Process
Data collection Problem definition Plan
Setting goals Identifying solutions
Implementation Evaluation and revision
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19Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Steps of the Quantitative Research Process
Research problem and purpose Literature review Study framework Objectives, questions, or hypotheses Study variables
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Steps of the Quantitative Research Process (cont’d)
Assumptions Limitations
Methodological Theoretical
Research design Population and sample Methods of measurement
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21Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Steps of the Quantitative Research Process (cont’d)
Data collection and analysis Research outcomes Communication of findings
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22Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Research Problem and Purpose
Research problem is an area of concern needing research for nursing practice. The problem identifies, describes, or predicts the
research situation. Research purpose comes from the problem
and identifies the specific goal or aim of the study. The purpose includes variables, population, and
setting for the study.
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23Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Literature Review
Collecting pertinent literature to give in-depth knowledge about the problem
Understanding what knowledge exists to make changes in practice
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24Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Study Framework
Framework is the abstract, theoretical basis for a study that enables the researcher to link the findings to nursing’s body of knowledge.
Theory is an integrated set of defined concepts and relational statements that present a view of a phenomenon and can be used to describe, explain, predict, or control phenomena.
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25Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Research Objectives, Questions, and Hypotheses
All identify relationship between variables and indicate population to be studied
Narrower in focus than the purpose and often specify only one or two research variables
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26Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Study Variables
Variables are concepts that are measured, manipulated, or controlled in a study. Concrete variables: temperature, weight Abstract variables: creativity, empathy
Conceptual definition: gives meaning to a concept
Operational definition: variable can be measured using this description
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27Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Example of Definitions: Physical Symptoms
Conceptual definition Physical symptoms are “behavioral manifestations
that result directly from the traumagenic dynamics of child sexual abuse.” (Hulme & Grove, 1994, p. 522)
Operational definition ASI questionnaire was used to measure physical
symptoms
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28Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Assumptions
Statements are taken for granted or are considered true.
Assumptions are often unrecognized in thinking and behavior.
Sources of assumptions are universally accepted truths.
They are often embedded in the philosophical base of the study’s framework.
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29Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Limitations
Restrictions in a study that may decrease the credibility and generalizability of the findings
Theoretical limitations Restrict the generalization of the findings Reflected in the framework and definitions
Methodological limitations Restrict the population to which the findings can
be generalized May result from an unrepresentative sample or
weak design
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30Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Research Design
Blueprint for conducting the study Maximizes control over factors that could
interfere with the study’s desired outcome Directs the selection of the population,
sampling, methods of measure, plans for data collection, and analysis
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31Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Population and Sample
Population All elements that meet
certain criteria for inclusion in study
Example: all women students in higher education
Sample A subset of the
population that is selected for study
Example: women students in three state universities in the Southwest
(Hulme & Grove, 1994)
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32Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Methods of Measurement
Assigning numbers to objects Application of rules to development of a
measurement device or instrument Data are gathered at the nominal, ordinal,
interval, or ratio level of measurement. Must examine reliability and validity of
measurement tool Reliability: consistency of the tool Validity: does it measure what it is supposed to
measure?
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33Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Data Collection
Precise, systematic gathering of information for the study
Consent must be obtained from the sample. Researchers use observation, interviews,
questionnaires, or scales to gather information.
Described under the “procedures” section of a research article
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Data Analysis
Reduce, organize, and give meaning to data Descriptive and inferential analysis of data
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35Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Results
Descriptions of findings after data were analyzed
Usually organized by research objectives, questions, or hypotheses
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36Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Research Outcomes
Interprets data findings in meaningful manner Involves forming conclusions and considering
implications for nursing Suggests future studies Generalizes the findings
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37Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Research Reports and Communication of Findings
Summarizes major elements of a study and identifies contributions of study to nursing knowledge
Presented at professional meetings and conferences and published in journals and books
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38Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Content of Research Reports
Abstract—summary of study in 100 to 250 words
Introduction—problem, purpose, literature, framework, and hypothesis
Methods—design, sample, setting, tool Results—data analysis procedures Discussion—findings, conclusions,
implications Reference list—all sources cited
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39Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Skimming a Research Report
Quickly review source for broad overview. Read title, author’s name, abstract,
introduction, and discussion. Examine conclusions and implications. Give preliminary judgment of study.
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40Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Comprehending a Research Report
Type of study conducted—highlight key points
Knowledge available on topic Expertise of researcher
Replication versus original research Funding resources of researcher
Amount of funding Sources of funding
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41Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Analyzing a Research Report
Examine parts of report in depth for accuracy, completeness, uniqueness of information, and organization.
Was research process logically presented? Examine discussion section for critical
arguments.
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Initial Research Report Critique
What type of study was conducted? What was the setting for the study? Were steps for the research process clearly
identified? Were any of steps missing? Did the steps logically link together?