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LECTURE 10

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OUTLINE

Data Collection Methods In Information

Gathering

Observation Interview Questionnaire

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DATA COLLECTION

Gathering information about a situation, problem or phenomenon.

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METHODS IN INFORMATION GATHERING:

1. Secondary Data Information required is already available &

need only be extracted.

2. Primary Data Information must be collected.

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SECONDARY SOURCES

DocumentsGovernment publicationsEarlier researchCensusPersonal records

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PRIMARY SOURCES

1. Observation Participant Non-participant

2. Interviewing Structured Unstructured

3. Questionnaire Mailed questionnaire Collective questionnaire

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OBSERVATION

Is a purposeful, systematic, and selective way of watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place.

Appropriate in situations where full and/or accurate information cannot be elicited by questioning.

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TYPES OF OBSERVATION

1. Participant observation2. Non-participant observation

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PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

Researcher participates in the activities of the group being observed in the same manner as its members, with or without knowing that they are being observed.

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NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

Researcher does not get involved in the activities of the group but remains a passive observer, watching, & listening to its activities and drawing conclusions from this.

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PROBLEMS WITH USING OBSERVATION: Respondent may be aware & change

behavior. Observer bias. Interpretation btw observer inconsistent. Possibility of incomplete observation

and/or recording.

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SITUATIONS FOR OBSERVATION

1. Natural Does not intervene.

2. Controlled Introduce stimulus to observe reactions.

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METHODS OF RECORDING OBSERVATIONS:

Narrative Scales Categorical recording Recording on mechanical devices

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NARRATIVE Take brief notes first Soon after makes detailed notes Adv: provides deep insight into the

interaction. Disadv: observer bias & incomplete

recording.

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SCALES Develop scale to rate interactions or

phenomenon. Adv: quick, easy to record. Disadv: does not provide in-depth

information about interaction.

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CATEGORICAL RECORDING Depend on classification develop by

researcher; e.g. passive/active, etc. Adv: quick, easy to record. Disadv: does not provide in-depth

information about interaction.

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RECORDING ON MECHANICAL DEVICES: Observation recorded on a video tape

and then analyzed. Adv: can watched it many times b4

making conclusion; can invite expert to view to make right conclusion.

Disadv: respondent uncomfortable, or behave differently.

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INTERVIEW Person-to-person interaction

with specific purpose. Most common method. 2 types:

1. STRUCTURED 2. UNSTRUCTURED

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UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW Known as in-depth interview. Use interview guide/framework; no

specific set questions. + spontaneous questions. Can be conducted in …….

1. One-to-one2. Group interview (focused group)

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Use for in-depth information. Or when lack of information. Flexibility on what to ask of a

respondent; elicit rich information. Thus, sometimes used to contruct

structured instrument.

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Disadv.: No specific set question, comparability

difficult.Questions may keep changing; info at

beginning may be different from later.Freedom may lead to interviewer bias.More skill needed to use interview guide

than structured interview.

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STRUCTURED INTERVIEW Pre-determined set questions in

interview schedule:Same wordingSame order of questions

Interview schedule/research instrument: Written list of questionsOpen-ended/ closedFor use by interviewer In person-to-person interaction (face-to-

face, by telephone, or by other electronic means)

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Adv: provides uniform info, which ensures comparability of data.

Required fewer interviewing skills than unstructured interviewing.

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QUESTIONNAIRE

Is a written list of questions; answer recorded by respondents.

Respondent read the questions, interpret & write down answers him/herself.

Different from interview, where interviewer asks qn & write respondents replies on interview schedule.

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Rules for questionnaire:

Questions must be clear & easy to understand.

Layout is easy to read, pleasant to the eye, sequence of qn easy to follow.

Interactive style – as if someone talking to respondent.

Sensitive qn – prefaced with statement of explanation (use different font for preface to distinguish them from acual question).

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CHOOSE INTERVIEW SCHEDULE OR QUESTIONNAIRE?

Depends on: Nature of investigation

Sensitive questions, questionnaire better. Geographical distribution of study

populationRespondents scattered, use questionnaire –

cheaper. Type of study

Illiterate, very young or very old, or handicapped – use interview schedule.

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WAYS OF ADMINISTERING A QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Mailed questionnaire• Send out to prospective rspdnt• Must have addresses• Prepaid self-address envelope• With covering letter (brief explanation of

study, indicate confidentiality & participation is voluntary, + other impt qn).

• A Major problem --- low response rate.

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2. Collective questionnaire• Captive audience (e.g., students in lecture

hall)• High response rate coz few will refuse.• Can explain purpose & importance of study

face-to-face + can clarify qn.• Quickest was of collecting data• Save money

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3. Administration in public place

•Approach & request participation of potential rspdnt

•More time consuming•Adv same as collective qnn.

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QUESTIONNAIRE OR INTERVIEW?

Adv & Disadv of Questionnaire Adv & Disadv of Interview

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ADV & DISADV OF QUESTIONNAIRE Adv:

Less expensiveGreater anonymity

Disadv:Limited application (only for those who

can read & write)Low response rate if mailed.Self-selecting bias (only those with good

attitudes or motivations will response; may not be representative of study population).

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Spontaneous response not allowed for.Response to a question may be influenced

by response to other questions.Possible to consult others.A response cannot be supplemented with

other information.

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ADV & DISADV OF INTERVIEWAdv: More appropriate for complex

situations. Useful for collecting in-depth

information. Information can be supplemented

(from observations of non-verbal reactions).

Questions can be explained. Interviewing has a wider application.

Any type of population – children, illiterate, young & old.

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Disadv:

Time-consuming & expensive. Quality of interaction can influence

quality of data. Quality of interviewer can influence

quality of data. Quality of data vary when many

interviewers are used. Researcher may introduce his/her bias

(e.g., in framing the question). Interviewer may be biased (e.g., in the

way of questioning).

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FORMS OF QUESTIONS Form & wording of questions may affect

type & quality of information obtained. Types of question:

Open-endedClose-ender

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OPEN-ENDED QUESTION

Possible responses are not given. Respondent writes the answer (for

questionnaire) Interviewer record the respondents’

answers (verbatim or summary) Useful for seeking opinions, attitudes or

perceptions.

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CLOSED-ENDED QUESTION

Possible answers given. Respondent or interviewer tick the answer. Useful for eliciting factual information

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ADV & DISADV OF OPEN-ENDED QUESTION

Adv: Provide in-depth & wealth of info. Provide opportunity for respondent to

express their opinion, resulting in more variety of info.

Allow respondents to express themselves freely; eliminate the possibility of investigator bias.

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Disadv: Analysis more difficult (must do content

analysis in order to classify the data). Some respondents may not be able to

express themselves, so information may be lost.

Greater chance of interviewer bias.

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ADV & DISADV OF CLOSED-ENDED QUESTIONAdv: Ready-made categories; help ensure

info needed is obtained. Easy to analyse.Disadv: Info lacks depth & variety. Investigator bias – may list answer

he/she is interested in.

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Given response could condition thinking of respondents

May create tendency among respondents and interviewers to tick a category/ries without thinking through the issue.

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CONSIDERATIONS IN FORMULATING QUESTIONS:

Always use simple & everyday language.

Do not use ambiguous questions. Do not ask double-barrelled questions. Do not ask leading questions. Do not ask questions that are based on

presumptions.

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FORMULATING QUESTIONS Is anyone in your family having

‘HN1N1? Is difficult for you to be a student and a

wife? Are you happy with your university? How often and how much time do you

spend visiting your lecturer? In your opinion, eating lemang with

rendang or peanut sauce is nice?

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Smoking is bad, isn’t it? ‘Ponteng kuliah’ is bad, isn’t it? How many cigarettes do you smoke in a

day? What handphone do you use?

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COLLECTING DATA USING SECONDARY SOURCESSources of Data: Government or semi-government

publications Earlier research Personal records Mass-media

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PROBLEMS USING SECONDARY DATA Validity & reliability Personal bias Availability of data Format

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SUMMARY: LECTURE 10

Students will state what they have learned in Lecture 10.