observation & questionnaire- ii session

8/2/2019 Observation & Questionnaire- II Session

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Observation andQuestionnaire construction


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Observation Techniques

Observation methods: techniques in which theresearcher relies on his or her powers of

observation rather than communicating with aperson in order to obtain information

Types of observation (will explain later):

Direct versus indirect

Disguised versus undisguised

Structured versus unstructured

Human versus mechanical

Natural versus Contrived


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Observation Techniquescont.Direct versus Indirect

Direct observation: observing behavior as itoccurs

Indirect observation: observing the effects orresults of the behavior rather than the behavioritself

Archives (written records)

Physical traces (erosion or

accumulation/accretion)


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Observation Techniquescont.Disguised versus Undisguised

D

isguised observation: subject is unaware thathe or she is being observed

Undisguised observation: respondent is aware ofobservation


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Observation Techniquescont.Structured versus Unstructured

Structured observation: researcher identifiesbeforehand which behaviors are to observed andrecorded. The researcher specifies in detail what is

to be observed and how the measurements are to berecorded, e.g., an auditor performing inventoryanalysis in a store.

Unstructured observation: No restriction isplaced on what the observer would note: allbehavior in the episode under study is monitorede.g., observing children playing with new toys.


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Observation Techniquescont.Human versus Mechanical

Human observation: person or persons observe

behavior (person hired by the researcher, clients,or perhaps the observer is the researcher)

Mechanical observation: human observer isreplaced with some form of static observingdevice(audio and or visual recording)


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Observation Techniquescont.Natural versus Contrived

Natural observation: Observing behavior as it

takes place in the environment. Contrived observation: The behavior is observed

in an artificial environment.


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A Classification of Observation Methods on

basis of mode of administration

Observation Methods

Personal

Observation

Mechanical

ObservationTrace

Analysis

Content

AnalysisAudit

Fig. 6.3

Classifying

Observation

Methods


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Observation Methods

Personal Observation

A researcher observes actual behavior as it

occurs.

The observer does not attempt to manipulatethe phenomenon being observed but merely

records what takes place.

For example, a researcher might record traffic

counts and observe traffic flows in a

department store.


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Observation Methods

Mechanical Observation

Do not require respondents' direct participation.

the AC Nielsen audimeter

turnstiles that record the number of people entering orleaving a building.

On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video)

Optical scanners in supermarkets

Do require respondent involvement.

eye-tracking monitors

pupilometers

psychogalvanometers

voice pitch analyzers

devices measuring response latency


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Observation Methods

Audit

The researcher collects data by examining physical

records or performing inventory analysis.

Data are collected personally by the researcher.

The data are based upon counts, usually of physical

objects.

Most common at the retail and wholesale level.


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Observation Methods

Content Analysis

The objective, systematic, and quantitative

description of the manifest content of a

communication.

The unit of analysis may be words, characters

(individuals or objects), themes (propositions), space

and time measures (length or duration of the

message), or topics (subject of the message).

Analytical categories for classifying the units are

developed and the communication is broken down

according to prescribed rules.


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Observation Methods

Trace Analysis

Data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of past

behavior.

The selective erosion of tiles in a museum indexed by the replacement rate

was used to determine the relative popularity of exhibits. The number of different fingerprints on a page was used to gauge the

readership of various advertisements in a magazine.

The position of the radio dials in cars brought in for service was used toestimate share of listening audience of various radio stations.

The age and condition of cars in a parking lot were used to assess theaffluence of customers.

The magazines people donated to charity were used to determine people'sfavorite magazines.

Internet visitors leave traces which can be analyzed to examine browsingand usage behavior by using cookies.


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A Comparative Evaluation of Observation Methods

Table 6.3

Criteria Personal Mechanical Audit Content Trace

Observation Observation Analysis Analysis Analysis

Degree of structure Low Low to high High High Medium

Degree of disguise Medium Low to high Low High High

Ability to observe High Low to high High Medium Lowin natural setting

Observation bias High Low Low Medium Medium

Analysis Bias High Low to Low Low Medium

Medium

General remarks Most Can be Expensive Limited to Method of

flexible intrusive commu- last resort

nications


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Relative Advantages of

Observation They permit measurement of actual behavior ratherthan reports of intended or preferred behavior.

There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused

by the interviewer and the interviewing process iseliminated or reduced.

Certain types of data can be collected only byobservation.

If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or isof short duration, observational methods may becheaper and faster than survey methods.


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Relative Disadvantages of Observation

The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determinedsince little is known about the underlying motives, beliefs,attitudes, and preferences.

Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can

bias the data.

Observational data are often time-consuming and expensive,and it is difficult to observe certain forms of behavior.

In some cases, the use of observational methods may be

unethical, as in observing people without their knowledge orconsent.

It is best to view observation as a complement to surveymethods, rather than as being in competition with them.


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QUESTIONNAIRECONSTRUCTION


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DEFINITION

A structured technique for data collection that

consists of a series of questions, written orverbal, that a respondent answers.


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OBJECTIVESOF A QUESTIONNAIRE

Translating the information needed into a set

of specific questions that the respondents can

and will answer.

Uplift, motivate and encourage the respondent

to become involved in the interview to

complete it.

It should minimize response error.


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Important characteristics of

good questionnaires Plan a user-friendly format Gather demographic data age, gender, etc.,

when necessary.

Guarantee anonymity

Ensure ease of tabulation Scantron forms

Ask well-phrased and unambiguous

questions that can be answered

Develop for completeness get all the data

Pilot test the instrument


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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE

Structured and Non- disguised

S

tructured and Disguised Non structured and Disguised

Non structured and Non disguised


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Constructing the Questionnaire

Select the correct types of questions: open ended harder to score but get

richer information

closed ended, dichotomous offer two

either/or responses (true/false; yes/no;for/against

multiple choice select one or more than

one scaled response gather range of

values (strongly disagree, somewhatdisagree, neutral, somewhat agree, strongly

agree


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1. Have you had any of the following

medical preventive tests/exams?

_____ mammogram (if a women)

_____ prostate exam (if a man)

_____ lung x-ray

_____ electrocardiogram

_____ stress test


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2. Do you currently smoke?

_____ YES

_____ NO


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3. Please evaluate the following statement:

I understand the Universitys code ofconduct as it relates to plagiarism.

____absolutely agree

____somewhat agree

____neutral

____somewhat disagree

____absolutely disagree


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THANK YOU

observation & questionnaire- ii session

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