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Linking Science Education to Labour Markets: Issues and

Strategies

Keith M Lewin

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Outline Science education, and labour market

linkages: The case for and against.

Changes in labour markets and knowledge generation

A labour market metaphor for science education

Strategies for linkages to labour markets

Concluding remarks

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Observations

Economic development is widely associated with advances in technology. Technology benefits from, but is not always led by, scientific insights

Early industrializing countries generated comparative advantages based on the application of knowledge and skill to design and production (technology), and the transformation of infrastructure and the environment

Science education, labour markets and economic growth

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• Rapidly developing East Asian countries invested heavily in skill based human resource development early in their development cycles which led to rapid growth

• Leading countries in the information and communication revolution all have quality science and technology education systems

Science education, labour markets and economic growth (cont.)

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Investment in education and training in science and technology are necessary but not sufficient for economic development.

Economic analysis supports the view that education and training are a major factor in economic development. Labour market signals often indicate shortages of S+T human resources in developing countries.

Globalisation and patenting of technologies increase the importance of national S+T capability

Arguments for linking science education to labour markets

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Most governments stress the importance of S + T capability in development plans. Parents and students value employable skills from schooling; . These include S+T

Externalities from science education are beneficial to development ( e.g. improved health and nutrition)

Science education is expensive; its outcomes should have utility

Arguments for linking science education to labour markets (cont.)

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Science Students per 10000 1990 and 1970

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Sci. Stu./10000 1990

Sci. Stu./10000 1970

Growth in the Numbers of Science Students in Higher Education

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Patents Filed 1996

Residents Non ResidentsGhana 0 33Botswana 5 56Zambia 6 93Pakistan 16 782Bolivia 17 106Indonesia 40 3957Peru 52 565Bangladesh 70 156Colombia 87 1172Philippines 163 2634Venezuela 182 1822Chile 189 1771Thailand 203 4355Singapore 215 38403Mexico 389 30305Brazil 2655 29451France 17090 81418UK 25269 104084Germany 56757 98338Korea 68446 45548US 111883 111536Japan 340861 60390

Internet Hosts per 10000 Population 1999

Ghana 0.1Kenya 0.2Pakistan 0.2Sri Lanka 0.3Bolivia 0.8Indonesia 0.8Philippines 1.2Peru 1.9Thailand 3.4Venezuala 3.4Colombia 3.9Mexico 11.6Brazil 12.9Chile 20.2Malaysia 21.3Korea 40.0France 82.9South Africa 89.9Japan 133.0Germany 160.0Singapore 210.0UK 241.0US 1131.0

Patent and Internet Host

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GDP (PPP) 1992 by Secondary Gross Enrolment Rate in 1980

0

5 000

10 000

15 000

20 000

25 000

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Secondary GER

GD

P (

pp

p)

Investment in Secondary Education and GDP 12 Years Later

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Strategic technologyconsumption

Science and Technology Policy

Science Education Policy

Process Innovations

Access toTechnologies

Product innovation

First mover advantages

Curriculum Aims and Outcomes

Labour Market HRD DemandFormal and Informal Sectors

Social Needs and Living skills

Ownership of of S and T

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The conceptual logic of science curricula is undermined by a emphasis on application and job related skills. Science is best developed within conventional disciplines

Modes of knowledge generation and use are changing; most real world problems are cross disciplinary. Science concepts logic can be developed using many kinds of content.

Arguments against linking science education to labour markets 1

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Predicting labour market demand for skills is notoriously unreliable

A problem for specific rather than generic S+ T related outcomes. Science thinking skills will remain in demand; specific technologies and jobs change

Arguments against linking science education to labour markets 1 (cont.)

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Many developing country labour markets are not S+T based. S+T is most relevant to industrial country labour markets and encourages brain drain

National capacity will not grow without investment; technological dependence is unhelpful

Some Arguments against linking science education to labour markets 2

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Curiosity and imagination are stifled by a focus on utility. Applications are not interesting

Application depends on curiosity and imagination

Arguments against linking science education to labour markets 2( cont.)

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Most science students will not become professional scientists. Their science education should not be linked to the profession of science

Science education should meet broader needs which run across a range of employment

Arguments against linking science education to labour markets 1(cont.)

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Schooling is about the whole individual; it should not anticipate life futures by linking outcomes to occupations and livelihoods

Strategic links to the labour market do not preclude the development of other valued outcomes. Choices have to be made where resources are scarce

Arguments against linking science education to labour markets 2( cont.)

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Proportion if Employment in Different Sectors 1992

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Services

Industry

Agriculture

Trends in Employment with Development

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Mode 1

Knowledge generation in physically located in hierarchically organised institutions

Validation of knowledge by restricted communities of professionals

Problem definition grounded in academic disciplines and specialisms

New Modes of Knowledge Generation

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Mode 2

Task focused open structures not located in the same physical institution

Validation of knowledge with reference to broadly based groups of stakeholders

New Modes of Knowledge Generation(cont.)

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Mode 2 (cont.)

Knowledge production located close to application and driven by problems arising in the economic and social world

Flexible patterns of collaboration, specialisation

and transdisciplinarity

New Modes of Knowledge Generation(cont.)

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A Metaphor for Science Education from the Labour Market

A “Fordist” Model

standardised products

production “pushed”

“just in case” supply

minimise labour costs

individual and intermittent innovation

quality control at output

A “Post-Fordist” Model

differentiated products

demand led production

“just in time” supply

maximise workforce potentials

collective and continuous improvement

quality control at input

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Differentiated Products?

Does science education policy recognise different outcomes for different groups with different needs?

Science for all, science for future professionals, science for informal livelihoods, science for marginalised groups with special needs?

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Production pushed or demand led?

Is science policy supply led or does it respond to effective demand?

Is curriculum reform pushed or pulled?

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Minimise labour costs or maximise potentials?

Does science education policy focus on use of teacher time or use of student learning time?

How can more use be made of student potential to contribute to their own learning?

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Continuous Improvement - “Kaizen”

Does science education promote opportunities to develop skills for continuous improvement?

Does science education promote co-operative rather than competitive problem solving?

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Quality Control and Self Regulation

Do science students evaluate the quality of their own work and that of peers?

Is most quality control (assessment of learning outcomes) external or internal?

Does science education encourage conformity or creativity?

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Identify learning outcomes related to generic and transferable skills

Audit curriculum and encourage content which is more rather than less relevant to occupations and livelihoods

Favour technologising rather than academicising science curricula and relate concepts to application

Strategies for linking scienceeducation to the labour market

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Increase awareness amongst science teachers of applications of science in the formal labour market, of “street science” in the informal sector, and of pro poor rural science

Encourage employers to support curriculum enrichment

Strategies for linking science education to the labour market (cont.)

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Arrange work exposure and experience for older science students (and science teachers)

Develop assessment strategies that reward conceptualization, analysis and and application in science and technology

Strategies for linking science education to the labour market (cont.)

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Concluding Remarks

The case for making links between science curricula and labour markets is convincing

Links need not undermine the conceptual integrity of science education; they can increase relevance.

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Concluding Remarks (cont.)Linking outcomes to labour market needs can be both pro-poor and pro- growth. It does not preclude retaining other valued outcomes.

Curricula outcomes can be specified in terms of competencies which are generic and transferable (science thinking skills, analytic techniques, empirical tests). Content can be selected which is relevant to context.

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Concluding Remarks (cont.)

Changing labour market needs and new modes of knowledge generation encourages rethinking of traditional models of providing science education

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Fin

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Questions

Should the map of science education be redrawn to enrich links with labour markets?

Which competencies are valued by different labour markets and how can they be reflected in the content and organization of learning?

Which strategies are most feasible and effective in which contexts?