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Personality“Personality is the relatively stable combo of beliefs, attitudes, values,

motives, temperament, and behavior patterns arising from underlying, internal inclinations that an individual exhibits in many situations and

serve to distinguish us from another.

Each dwarf has a distinct personality.

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The Trait Perspective: Structure of Personality

Focus on identifying and describing people’s traits (dispositions and behavior patterns); not why people

have the traits they do. Interest in surface (readily evident, observable personality characteristics) and source (basic

personality characteristics that underlie surface traits) traits

Examples of Traits

HonestDependable

MoodyImpulsive

Allport & Odbert (1936), identified 18,000 words representing traits.

Possess traits to varying degrees. No 2 people are alike

Assessing Traits: Questionnaires and Factor Analysis

FACTOR ANALYSISStatistical method that finds relationships among many different or diverse items and allows them to be grouped together

FACTOR ANALYSIS EXAMPLES

Myers-Briggs Type IndicatorEX: Keirsey Temperament Sorter

Cattell’s 16 Personality Factor Inventory

Excitement

Imp

ati

en

t

Irritable

Boiste

rou

s

Basictrait

Superficialtraits

Impulsive

Sympathetic

AppreciativeTactful

Feeling Type

Personality

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Keirsey Temperament Sorter Pair and Share

1. Pair up with one other person in class that knows you relatively well2. Each person should review the results from their Keirsey Temperament Sorter. (Just explain the traits the sorter

identified you as possessing. You do not have to explain whether you agreed or disagreed.)3. Give your write-up to your partner and on the back of the write-up, your partner should answer the following

questions:– Do you think the results from the sorter are an accurate representation of your partner’s personality? Why or why

not? What other traits would you add that you think might better describe him/her? Why?– For the traits you did think were accurate, do they always display those traits or have there been times when they

acted differently? Explain. – How useful is the Trait Theory in explaining the development of personality? What are the strengths of this

theory? What are some limitations of this theory?

Are You More of an Introvert or Extrovert?In the book “Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World that Can’t Stop Talking”, Susan Cain suggests that as a society we increasingly treat shyness as a disorder rather than seeing the value of that temperament.

•Do you think your school, work, and/or social life rewards extroversion and unwittingly penalizes the shy in some way? How so?

•How is our culture losing out by celebrating extraverts and undervaluing introverts?

http://www.npr.org/2012/01/30/145930229/quiet-please-unleashing-the-power-of-introverts http://www.ted.com/talks/susan_cain_the_power_of_introverts.html

Are You More of an Introvert or Extrovert?Quiet Quiz: Are You an Introvert or an Extrovert?Excerpted from: Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World That Can't Stop Talking by Susan Cain •To find out where you fall on the introvert-extrovert spectrum, answer each question True or False, choosing the one that applies to you more often than not.1. ______ I prefer one-on-one conversations to group activities.2. ______ I often prefer to express myself in writing.3. ______ I enjoy solitude.4. ______ I seem to care about wealth, fame, and status less than my peers.5. ______ I dislike small talk, but I enjoy talking in depth about topics that matter to me.6. ______ People tell me that I'm a good listener.7. ______ I'm not a big risk-taker.8. ______ I enjoy work that allows me to "dive in" with few interruptions.9. ______ I like to celebrate birthdays on a small scale, with only one or two close friends or family members.10. ______ People describe me as "soft-spoken" or "mellow."11. ______ I prefer not to show or discuss my work with others until it's finished.12. ______ I dislike conflict.13. ______ I do my best work on my own.14. ______I tend to think before I speak.15.______ I feel drained after being out and about, even if I've enjoyed myself.16. ______I often let calls go through to voice mail.17. ______If you had to choose, I'd prefer a weekend with absolutely nothing to do to one with too many things scheduled.18. ______ I don't enjoy multitasking.19. ______ I can concentrate easily20. ______ In classroom situations, I prefer lectures to seminars.•The more often you answered True, the more introverted you are. This is an informal quiz, not a scientifically validated personality test. The questions were formulated based on characteristics of introversion often accepted by contemporary researchers

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

SAMPLE QUESTIONS:• I like mechanics magazines.• I have a good appetite.• I wake up fresh & rested most mornings.• I think I would like the work of a librarian.• I am easily awakened by noise.• I like to read newspaper articles on crime.• My hands & feet are usually warm enough.• My daily life is full of things that keep me interested.• I am about as able to work as I ever was.• There seems to be a lump in my throat most of the time.

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Used a technique called Empirical Construction - lots of true/false questions were given to normal people, & those with different

psychological disorders. Those questions (550) capable of distinguishing between the different disorders were retained

Assessing Traits: Objective Personality Tests

Strengths• Structure – use very specific

questions and require specific answers – so info can be compared with others who have taken the same test

• Easily administered

• Scoring is straightforward

• High reliability (consistent scores at different times or similar scores by different raters)

Weaknesses• Provide answers that are most

socially desirable or acceptable and thus bias the test results

• Barnum Effect – method of listing many general traits so that almost everyone who reads the results thinks that these traits apply specifically to him or her. Our tendency to accept as valid descriptions of our personality that are generally true of everyone.

Inventories or questionnaires (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) that require individuals to indicate whether the feelings/behaviors do or do not apply to them.

Evaluating the Trait TheoryStrengths

• Traits provide a shorthand method for describing someone’s personality; summarize traits that make people unique

• By placing people on several trait dimensions simultaneously, psychologists can describe countless individual personality variations

• While behaviors from a situation may be different, the average behavior remains the same – average behavior across situations.

Weaknesses

• Paints too simplistic a picture of human personality and may not reflect its depth and complexity

• Does not explain how these traits develop across one’s lifetime

• Person-Situation Controversy (Walter Mischel) – traits are not good predictors of behavior. While traits may be enduring, the resulting behavior in various situations is different (traits interact with the situation’s cues.) EX: Even if you were an extravert, you would behave differently at a wedding than at a funeral.

Psychoanalytic PerspectivePersonality = dealing with and transforming incompatible

wishes, impulses, and urges within one’s own mind

(1856-1939)

University of Vienna 1873; after medical school he set up a private practice and specialized in

nervous disorders.

Encountered patients suffering from nervous disorders with no physical causes, so he wondered if some disorders might have

psychological causes (EX: unexplained blindness or deafness might be caused by not wanting to

see or hear something that arouses intense anxiety)

Emphasized unconscious Emphasized unconscious motivation motivation the main the main causes of behavior lie causes of behavior lie

buried in the buried in the unconscious mindunconscious mind

Structure of Personality“the mind is like an iceberg… mostly hidden”

Preconscious (subconscious) = part that we can access if prompted, but is not in our active conscious (i.e. telephone number, the name of your best childhood friend)

Conscious = whatever one is aware of at a particular point in time.

Unconscious = inaccessible warehouse of anxiety-producing thoughts and drives.

At any given time, we are only aware of a very small part of what makes up our personality; however, our unacknowledged impulses have a strong influence on us (i.e. the work we choose, the beliefs we hold, our daily habits, our troubling symptoms, etc)

Structure of Personality3 parts of personality at various levels of consciousness

are in conflict with one another

Ego = seeks to gratify the Id in realistic ways and not offend the

moralistic character of the superegoReality Principle

Id = strives to satisfy biological, instinctual drives

Pleasure Principle.

Super Ego = voice of conscience that focuses on how we ought to

behave; sets unrealistic high standards

Everything we do is motivated by two drives:1.Sex (Eros) – drive to live, prosper, and produce offspring2.Aggression (Thanatos) - drive to stay alive and stave off threats to our existence, our power, and our prosperity.

*If the id gets too strong, impulses and self gratification take over the person’s life. If the superego gets too strong, the person is driven by rigid morals and is unbending in

his/her interactions with the world

Defense MechanismsId

SuperEgo

Ego

When the inner wargets out of hand, theresult is Anxiety

Ego protects itself viaDefense Mechanisms

Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms reduce/redirectanxiety by distorting reality

Repression - banishes certain thoughts/feelings from consciousness (underlies all other defense mechanisms) EX: An adult who, as a child, was beaten by her father, is not consciously aware of her hostility toward him. A child rescued from a fire that kills his parents does not remember the incident.Regression - retreating to earlier stage of fixated development. EX: An adult has a temper tantrum when he doesn’t get his way. Child may suck their thumb on first day of school. Reaction Formation - ego makes unacceptable impulses appear as their opposites. EX: A person’s bravado may mask hidden fear; excessive concern for a child may mask a mother’s repressed hostility for that child; a man who is homophobic might be gay himself Projection - attributes threatening impulses to others. EX: A woman who dislikes her boss thinks she likes her boss but feels that the boss doesn’t like her. A girl accuses boyfriend of cheating because she is thinking about cheating.Rationalization - generate self-justifying explanations to hide the real reasons for our actions. EX: A shoplifter who cannot accept herself as a thief justifies her theft of a bracelet by maintaining that the jewelry store’s hiked-up prices cover losses due to theft, so taking a little something is OK. A student who postpones working on a term paper until the last minute excuses the delay by convincing himself that he works better under pressure.Displacement - divert impulses toward a more acceptable object. EX: Boss gives you a hard time at work and you come home and scream at your spouse.Sublimation - transform unacceptable impulse into something socially valued. EX: Physical exercise, participating in sports, and even viewing sports as healthy are socially acceptable ways of gratifying aggressive urges Denial – deny an unpleasant piece of external reality or an unwanted internal emotion. EX: A man whose doctor tells him he has cancer reacts by saying that there is obviously some mistake

Defense Mechanisms

Table 13.1 (continued) The Psychological Defense

Mechanisms

Handout 13-4 Answers

1. E2. A3. C4. G5. F6. D7. E8. F9. B10.A

11. C12. E13. G14. D15. B16. F17. A18. C19. D20. B

21. E22. A23. F24. G25. D26. C27. G28. F29. C30. B

31. D32. G33. B34. E35. A

Personality Development“Personality forms during the first few years of life, rooted in unresolved conflicts

of early childhood”

“Personality forms during the first few years of life, rooted in unresolved conflicts of early childhood”

Stage Ages Focus of Libido (sexual energy or drive)

Major Development Adult Fixation Example (unresolved conflict locks individual at stage; frustration – needs are not met and overindulgence – ample meeting of needs so child is reluctant to preogress to next stage)

Oral 0 to 18 months

Mouth, Tongue, Lips (Sucking)

Weaning of breast feeding or formula

Oral receptive personality = preoccupation with oral activities, such as smoking, drinking alcohol, overeating, biting his nails. Overly dependent, gullible, and overly sensitive to rejectionOral aggressive personality = hostile, verbally abusive, pessimistic, and sarcastic

Anal 18 months to 3

Anus (eliminating and retaining feces)

Toilet Training Anal retentive personality = stingy, with a compulsive need for cleanliness, perfection, and control. Stubborn, passive-aggressive, and perfectionistAnal expulsive personality – lack of self-control, messy, disorganized, careless

Phallic 3 to 6 Genitals Resolving Oedipus/Electra Complex ; learn gender roles through identification with same-sex parent

Reckless, self-assured, narcissistic and excessively vain; sexual dysfunction and incapable or fearful of close love

Latency 6 to 12 None Sexuality is dormant; direct repressed libidal energy into asexual pursuits such as school, athletics, and same-sex friendship

None

Genital 12+ Genitals Reaching full sexual maturity If all stages were successfully completed then the person should be sexually matured and mentally healthy

Personality Development• Oedipus Complex = boy develops unconscious sexual desire for his

mother and sees father as competition for the mother’s affection, so becomes rivals with him. Boy also develops a fear that his father will punish him for these feelings, such as by castrating them (castration anxiety). Due to this fear, boy suppresses desire and decides to identify with father rather than fight him; thereby, developing masculine characteristics

• Girls suffer Electra Complex and a penis envy, where the daughter is initially attached to her mother, but then a shift of attachment occurs when she realizes she lacks a penis. She desires her father whom she sees as a means to obtain a penis substitute (a child). She then represses her desire for her father and incorporates the values of her mother and accepts her inherent 'inferiority' in society.

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Accessing the Unconscious• Freudian Slips • http://personalitypedagogy.arcadia.edu/pmwiki/pmwiki.php?

n=Examples.FreudianSlips– I don’t think we’ve been properly seduced, um introduced– What do you think of Fraudian theory?– I hope you are well and unhappy– Pleased to beat you

• Psychoanalysis – Many psychological problems are fueled by childhood’s

residue of repressed impulses and conflicts. – Free Association = method of exploring the unconscious in

which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing. Follow the chain of thought leading into the patient’s unconscious.

• Dreams– Glimpses of unconscious drives and wishes

• Latent content – underlying meaning; analyst can suggest meaning and the unconscious wishes the dreamer suppressed

• Manifest content – remembered content of dreams (basic storyline) that is a censored expression of the dreamer’s unconscious wishes.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BEIslG2McpA (start at 1:23 Examples of Freudian slips)

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Projective Test: Thematic Apperception Test(TAT)

Designed by Henry Murray, examiners present individuals with a subset (typically 5 to 12 of 31 cards displaying pictures of ambiguous situations, mostly featuring people and then

respondents construct a story about each picture, describing the events that are occurring, what led up to them, what the characters are thinking and feeling, and what will happen

later.

http://www.utpsyc.org/TATintro/http://www.haverford.edu/psych/ddavis/psych212h/tat.umich.htmlhttp://www.haverford.edu/psych/ddavis/psych212h/p212.95.tat.html

Projective Test: Rorschach Inkblot Test

Designed by Hermann Rorschach; an examiner hands 10 symmetrical inkblots one at a time in a set order to a viewer, who

says what each blot resembles. . It seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.

Evaluating Projective Tests

Strengths

• Difficult to fake or bias, since there are no correct or socially desirable answers

• Clients project their hidden feelings, thoughts, or emotions onto these ambiguous stimuli, so able to assess thoughts and desires of client in which he/she is normally unaware.

• Useful in eliciting unique information about the person

Weaknesses• Scoring is based on analyzing and making

judgments about so many different variables (content, theme, color and detail) that disagreements often arise over interpretations and classifications.

• Low reliability

– When evaluating the same patient, even trained raters come up with different interpretations (reliability).

• Low validity (measure what it claims/supposed to measure)

– Projective tests may misdiagnose a normal individual as pathological; poorly equipped to identify most psychiatric conditions

Require individuals to look at some meaningless object or ambiguous photo and describe what they see (EX: Rorschach or TAT).

The Neo-FreudiansAccepted Freud’s basic ideas: personality structures of id, ego, and superego; the importance of unconscious; the shaping of personality in childhood; and the dynamics of anxiety and the defense mechanisms. However, they placed more emphasis on the conscious mind and doubted that sex and aggression were all-consuming motivations•Jung: Personal unconscious vs collective unconscious (archetypes) = psychological health is dependent on integrating opposing parts of personality including archetypes•Horney: Interpersonal relationships and dependence on other people, especially parents. Anxiety is caused by sense of helplessness•Adler: Inferiority complex and compensation. Also stressed importance of birth order

Carl Jung (1875-1961)

Alfred Adler (1870-1937)

Karen Horney (1885-1952) The “Hero” archetype is a universal notion of the individual who embodies good and strength.

Evaluating the Psychoanalytic TheoryStrengths

• Iceberg view of mind is still accepted – most actions are carried out automatically or by subconscious mechanisms (unconscious is just not filled with sex and aggression)– Implicit Memory– Classical Conditioning– Quick fear responses

• Id and Pleasure Principle– Damage to inhibitory brain structures, such as

the frontal lob, releases wishful, irrational modes of mental functioning

– Think of some of our athletes (Tiger Woods) and corrupt politicians

• Use defense mechanisms to defend ourselves against anxiety– Terror management theory (ie, death anxiety

increases prejudice)• One of the first to study meaning of dreams

Weaknesses

• Freud’s theories based on his recollections & interpretations of patients’ free associations, dreams & slips o’ the tongue; few objective observations

• Repression is not widely validated• Slips of the tongue are likely

competing areas in memory network or intrusion of a strong habit; not hidden motives or desires

• Personality development does not stop in childhood

• Dreams may not be glimpses of unconscious drives and wishes but random burst of neural activity or consolidation of learning

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By the 1960s, psychologists became discontent with Freud’s negativity and the mechanistic

psychology of the behaviorists.

Humanistic Perspective

Humanism = emphasized our capacity for personal growth, development of our potential, and freedom to choose our destiny. Our sense of self and self-esteem are at the center of our personality and outlook.

Self = how we see or describe ourselves (self-perceptions, abilities, personality characteristics, and behaviors). All the thoughts and feelings we have in response to the question, “Who am I?”

Self Esteem – a feeling of self worth.

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Humanistic Perspective

Directions: Answer the following questions in your notebook:

1.According to this perspective, how is the self constructed?

2.What is the difference between self-concept and self-esteem?

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By the 1960s, psychologists became discontent with Freud’s negativity and the mechanistic psychology of the

behaviorists.

Humanistic Perspective

Humanism = emphasized our capacity for personal growth, development of our potential, and freedom to choose our destiny. Our sense of self and self-esteem are at the center of our personality and outlook.

Self = how we see or describe ourselves (self-perceptions, abilities, personality characteristics, and behaviors). All the thoughts and feelings we have in response to the question, “Who am I?”

Self Esteem – a feeling of self worth, which involves a sense of personal responsibility for one’s actions and a readiness to perceive ourselves favorably (self-serving bias)

How is the self constructed?We are motivated by a hierarchy of needs – need to satisfy our deficiency needs before having the time and energy to satisfy our growth needs and move toward self-actualization (the process of fulfilling our potential) and self-transcendence (meaning, purpose, and communion beyond the self)

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Abraham Maslow(1908-1970)

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How is the self constructed?Personality is guided by each person’s unique self-actualization tendency – inborn tendency for us to develop all of our capacities in ways that best maintain and benefit our lives. Guides us toward positive or healthful behaviors rather than negative or harmful ones.

Carl Rogers(1902-1987)

People are basically good

with actualizing tendencies.

Given the right environmentalconditions, we

will developto our full potentials

Growth Promoting Environment• Genuineness – individual

– Real Self – based on our actual experiences and represents how we really see ourselves

– Ideal Self – based on our hopes and wishes and reflects how we would like to see ourselves.

• Contradiction between two results personality problems.

• Acceptance – environment

– Each of us has a personal need for positive regard – love, sympathy, warmth, acceptance, and respect which we crave from significant others.

• unconditional positive regard – warmth, acceptance and love that others show you because you are valued as a human being

• conditional positive regard – warmth, acceptance and love that others show you because you behave in certain acceptable ways, such as living up to or meeting the standards of others.

• Empathy – environment

– One's ability to recognize, perceive and directly experientially feel the emotion of another

Dead Poet’s Society• Humanistic Perspective

– Did Neal’s parents provide a growth promoting environment? Address each component: acceptance, empathy, and genuineness.

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Reciprocal Determinism• You love being in the limelight;

you feel great when you’re the center of attention (PERSONAL FACTORS). As a result, you sign up for a drama class and start hanging out with a group of gregarious friends (BEHAVIOR). This (ENVIRONMENT) reinforces your thoughts and feelings, and soon enough your behaviors reflect increased extroversion: you audition for American Idol; you perform at a local open mike night; you start conversations with strangers while standing in line.

• Your thoughts and personalities helped you choose an environment, which in turn further shaped your thoughts, behaviors, and personality

Social-Cognitive PerspectivePersonality = External World (physical surroundings, other people, and potential for reinforcement in those

surroundings) + Internal World (personality traits and thinking processes., such as locus of control, delay of gratification, optimism-pessimism attributional style,

and self-efficacy)

Personality is shaped by…Reciprocal Determinism – interaction of personal

traits, our environment, and our behaviors (EX: Sally is often rejected by her parents (environment), so she’s

mistrustful and treats other people with hostility (personal traits and behaviors), which leads to their

rejection of her (environment))

Albert Bandura

Social-Cognitive Perspective: Reciprocal Determinism

• Personality development is shaped primarily by three forces which all interact to influence how we evaluate, interpret, organize, and apply information

1. environmental conditions (learning) – social, political, and cultural influences, as well as our particular learning experiences

2. cognitive-personal factors cognitive factors - beliefs, expectations, values, intentions, and social roles. personal factors – our emotional makeup and our biological and genetic

influences

3. behaviors – variety of personal

actions, such as the things we

do and say.

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Both products and architects of our environment

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Social-Cognitive Perspective: Reciprocal Determinism

Due to her outgoing personality and exposure to many dog owners at the dog park, Mrs. Walenga learns of “pug parties “and starts to take Liberty to them! She might even start to participate in dog show (probs not)

Our personalities help create situations to which we react/behave

Mrs. Walenga’s outgoing personality causes her to seek out and “chat-up” other dog owners at the dog park. Her responsible nature causes her to seek out information on how to provide the best quality life for her pug.

Our personalities (cognitive/personal factors) shape how we react to events.

Mrs. Walenga likes to take Liberty to dog parks and anything dog-related!

Different people choose different environments.

Specific ways in which individuals and environments interact

Social-Cognitive Perspective: Locus of Control• Social-cognitive psychologists emphasize

our sense of personal control, whether we control the environment or the environment controls us.

– Internal locus of control – believe that one’s successes and failures are determined by one’s actions and abilities; control own destiny

– External locus of control – believe that one’s successes and failures are governed by external factors such as other people, fate, luck, and chance

• Positive correlation between internal locus and mental health and psychological functioning.

• People fall on a continuum between internal and external locus of control.

• Developed by Julian Rotter

Outcomes of Personal Control: Learned Helplessness

Uncontrollablebad events

Perceivedlack of control

Generalizedhelpless behavior(passive resignationan organism learns

when unable to avoid repeated aversive

events)

Important IssueImportant Issue• Nursing Homes

• Prisons•Colleges

•Culture shock

When unable to avoid repeated adverse events an animal or human learns

helplessness.

One measure of how helpless or effective we feel is where we stand on optimism-pessimism

Social-Cognitive Perspective: Delay of Gratification

• Not taking an immediate but less desirable reward and instead waiting and pursuing an object or completing a task that promises a better reward in the future.

– Marshmallow Experiment

– Ability to delay gratification = more intelligence, greater social responsibility, strive for higher achievement.

– Inability to delay gratification = self-regulatory problems, such as impulsive violence, eating disorders, abusing drugs, having unprotected sex, and unwanted pregnancies

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Social-Cognitive Perspective: Self-Efficacy

• The confidence in your ability to organize and execute a given course of action to solve a problem or accomplish a task.

– Judge self-efficacy from four sources of information:

• Use previous experiences of success or failure on similar tasks to estimate how you will do on a new, related task.

• Compare your capabilities with those of others.

• Listen to what others say about your capabilities

• Use feedback from your body to assess your strength, vulnerability, and capability.

– Influences motivation to achieve, perform, and do well in a variety of tasks and situations.

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Growth Promoting Environment• Genuineness – individual

– Real Self – based on our actual experiences and represents how we really see ourselves EX: Neal has to follow his dad’s order that he go to military school and stop acting

– Ideal Self – based on our hopes and wishes and reflects how we would like to see ourselves. EX: Neal wants to stand up to his dad and pursue acting as a career

• Contradiction between two results personality problems. • Acceptance – environment

– Each of us has a personal need for positive regard – love, sympathy, warmth, acceptance, and respect which we crave from significant others.

• unconditional positive regard – warmth, acceptance and love that others show you because you are valued as a human being

• conditional positive regard – warmth, acceptance and love that others show you because you behave in certain acceptable ways, such as living up to or meeting the standards of others. EX: Neal’s dad only accepted and provided love to Neal if he was a good student and pursued a medical degree.

• Empathy – environment– One's ability to recognize, perceive and directly experientially feel the emotion of

another EX: Neal’s dad could not recognize the devastation he was causing to his son.

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Reciprocal Determinism

Since Neal views his father as the ultimate authority figure, his father continues to bully him and tell him what to do

Our personalities help create situations to which we react/behave

Neal’s submissive personality and respect for authority caused him to react in a helpless way to his father

Our personalities shape how we react to events.

The friends Neal surrounds himself with and the extracurricular activities (acting) he participates in are partly based on his dispositions.

Different people choose different environments.

Specific ways in which individuals and environments interact

Lives with an authoritarian dad, has a teacher that promotes self-actualization, participates in plays Neal is submissive, has an external locus of control, and is pessimistic Neal submits to his dad’s bullying and thus his dad bullies him more.

Dead Poets Society

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Social-Cognitive PerspectiveHow can you apply the idea of reciprocal determinism to NeilDid Neal’s environment promote an internal or external locus of control? How will his locus of control influence his future behavior?

Criticisms of Humanistic and Social-Cognitive Perspectives

Humanistic• Its concepts are vague and

subjective; based on theorist’s own values and ideals rather than science

– Positive Psychology – the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

• The emphasis on the self encourages selfishness in individuals

• It fails to appreciate the reality of evil in human behavior

Social-Cognitive• Critics say that social-

cognitive psychologists pay a lot of attention to the situation and pay less attention to the individual, his unconscious mind, his emotions, and his genetics.

• Fails to appreciate the person’s inner traits. While the situation does guide behavior, our unconscious motives, our emotions, and our pervasive traits also influence personality and predict behavior.

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Culture & Self-Esteem

People maintain their self-esteem even with a low status by valuing things they achieve and comparing

themselves to people with similar positions.

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Benefits of Self-Esteem

Maslow and Rogers argued that a successful life results from a healthy feeling of self-worth (self-esteem).

Involves a sense of personal responsibility for one’s actions –

responsible human being Self-serving bias – our readiness

to perceive ourselves favorably