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GEOG 433GEOG 433

Introduction to Environmental Introduction to Environmental Problems: Past and PresentProblems: Past and Present

Slides for November 19, 2013Slides for November 19, 2013

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Institutional factors in environmental quality problems & Institutional factors in environmental quality problems & management: Theoretical Advantages of Socialismmanagement: Theoretical Advantages of Socialism

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Institutional factors in environmental quality

problems & management

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Table 6.1 Annual water supply to Russia’s economic regions

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Table 6.2 Rank ordering of 19 Soviet economic Table 6.2 Rank ordering of 19 Soviet economic regions by degree of pollution and environmental regions by degree of pollution and environmental

degradation at beginning of 1980sdegradation at beginning of 1980s

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Fig. 6.1 Environmental Problems in economic region of former USSR, late 1980s

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Major Environmental problemsMajor Environmental problems

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Fig 6.2 Fig 6.2 Acute & Acute & Critical Critical

Ecological Ecological Zones at Zones at

end of end of Soviet EraSoviet Era

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Lake Onega SpillLake Onega oil spill July 2001

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10

0.3

0.6

1.3

2.5

2.8

2.8

3.1

3.1

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15.8

22.5

26.8

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Light

Atomic Power

Food

Wood Processing

Building Materials

Machine Building

Natural Gas

Coal

Oil Refining

Ferrous Metallurgy

Non-ferrous Metallurgy

Thermal Electric

Fig. 1. Discharge of Polluting Substances into the Atmosphere of the Russian

Federation by Branch of Industry in 1999 (in %).

Atmospheric DischargesAtmospheric Discharges

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Urban Air P0llution Levels

Table 1 Cities with the Highest Lev els of Polluted A ir in 1999.

City Substances, determining the high level o f pol luted air

Balakovo hydrocarbons, formaldehyde, NO 2

Biisk formaldehyde, su spended particulates, NO 2

Bratsk NO 2, formaldehyde, hydrog en fluoride, hydrocarbons

Ekaterinburg formaldehyde, benzpy rene, acrolein

Irkutsk formaldehyde, su spended particulates, NO 2

Kemerov o hydrocarbons, ammayak, fo rmaldehyde, soot

Krasnoiarsk benzpyrene, suspended particulates, ch lorine

Krasnodar phenol, formaldehyde, su spended par ticulates

Lipetsk phenol, ammonia, formaldehyde, NO 2

Magadan phenol, formaldehyde, NO 2

Magnitogorsk benzpyrene, phenol, suspended particulates

Moscow ( region) ammonia, NO 2, formald eh yde

Novokuznetsk formaldehyde, su spended particulates, hyd rogen fluoride, NO 2

Novorossi isk NO 2, benzpyrene, suspended particulates

Omsk formaldehyde, ace taldehyde, soo t

Rostov-na-Donu NO 2, formaldehyde, su spended particulates

Selenginsk formaldehyde, pheno l, hydrocarbons, methylmercaptan

Tiumen suspended pa rticulates, formaldehyde, lead

Ulan-Ude suspended pa rticulates, formaldehyde, NO 2

Khabarovsk benzpyre ne, form aldehyde, SO2 , NO 2, formaldehyde, a mmonia

Chita benzpyrene, formaldehyde, suspended pa rticulates, NO 2

Iuzhno-S akhalinsk soot, suspended particulates, NO 2

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A Market-Based ApproachA Market-Based Approach

Polluter Pays PrinciplePolluter Pays Principle

Pollution charges for polluting industriesPollution charges for polluting industries

Establishment of an ear-marked ecological fundEstablishment of an ear-marked ecological fund

Drawbacks in the Russian caseDrawbacks in the Russian case

Uneven enforcement, absence of 3rd party oversightUneven enforcement, absence of 3rd party oversight

Economic crisis, inflationEconomic crisis, inflation

Organizational structureOrganizational structure

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Will RussiaWill Russia’’s Environment Survives Environment Survive

RSFSR law "On the Protection of the Natural Environment"RSFSR law "On the Protection of the Natural Environment"signed by Yeltsin 12/19/91 published 3/3/1992 in signed by Yeltsin 12/19/91 published 3/3/1992 in Rossiyskaya gazetaRossiyskaya gazeta

15 major sections, 94 separate articles15 major sections, 94 separate articlesGoskompriroda (short time was Ministry in 1991-joint union-republican Goskompriroda (short time was Ministry in 1991-joint union-republican body)body)weak CIS body - Interstate Ecological Council (made of environmental weak CIS body - Interstate Ecological Council (made of environmental misters minus Ukraine) Council function to mediate inter-republican misters minus Ukraine) Council function to mediate inter-republican disputes & address environmental obligations of former USSR within disputes & address environmental obligations of former USSR within Russia Goskopriroda superseded by Ministry of Ecology and Natural Russia Goskopriroda superseded by Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources & interdepartmental Coordinating Council on Ecological Policy Resources & interdepartmental Coordinating Council on Ecological Policy (first chaired by A. V. Yablokov-portfolio of Presidential Adviser on Ecology (first chaired by A. V. Yablokov-portfolio of Presidential Adviser on Ecology and Healthand Health

Council= Ministers of Ecology & Natural Resources, Public Health, Agric, Council= Ministers of Ecology & Natural Resources, Public Health, Agric, Fuel and Electric Power, Science, Higher Education, Technical Policy and Fuel and Electric Power, Science, Higher Education, Technical Policy and heads of state committees in Russian Governmentheads of state committees in Russian Government

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The RSFSR law was product of Russian Fed Supreme Soviet's Committee on Ecological The RSFSR law was product of Russian Fed Supreme Soviet's Committee on Ecological Issues and Rational Use of Natural Resource & MGU's (Moscow State UniversityIssues and Rational Use of Natural Resource & MGU's (Moscow State University’’s) s) faculty of Environmental Lawfaculty of Environmental Law

Vladimir Vorfolomeyev (Chair of Committee) and Vladislav Petrov (MGU faculty) say law Vladimir Vorfolomeyev (Chair of Committee) and Vladislav Petrov (MGU faculty) say law is "Russia's ecological code," i.e., guide to subsequent laws, a response to Soviet is "Russia's ecological code," i.e., guide to subsequent laws, a response to Soviet environmental damage, framework for working within market economyenvironmental damage, framework for working within market economymarket conditions and plurality of interestsmarket conditions and plurality of interests

1) focus on delineating jurisdictions of governments at all levels Federal to local Soviets1) focus on delineating jurisdictions of governments at all levels Federal to local Soviets2) recognition of and targeting of measures to different stages of econ development 2) recognition of and targeting of measures to different stages of econ development (e.g., siting, design, construction, start-up, operation of specific plants)(e.g., siting, design, construction, start-up, operation of specific plants)3) tailoring of environmental protection strategies to specific economic sectors (agric., 3) tailoring of environmental protection strategies to specific economic sectors (agric., chemistry industry, power generation, urban construction)chemistry industry, power generation, urban construction)4) strengthen legal guarantees of environmental activities of citizens and public groups 4) strengthen legal guarantees of environmental activities of citizens and public groups (i.e., citizens and groups rights to:(i.e., citizens and groups rights to: a) distribution of of environmental information,a) distribution of of environmental information, b) participate in environmental inspection process,b) participate in environmental inspection process, c) hold meetings and demonstrationsc) hold meetings and demonstrations d) initiate proceedings for termination or suspension of plant operations & sites d) initiate proceedings for termination or suspension of plant operations & sites deemed environmentally hazardousdeemed environmentally hazardous e) file suits for compensation for damages, injury, and death, legislative intent versus e) file suits for compensation for damages, injury, and death, legislative intent versus implementation/enforcement pressure to scale back regulation as economy faltersimplementation/enforcement pressure to scale back regulation as economy falters

The RSFSR law

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BASIC PRINCIPLES AND JURISDICTIONS:BASIC PRINCIPLES AND JURISDICTIONS:

Section I General Principles: 10 articles focus on basic Section I General Principles: 10 articles focus on basic objectives, features to be protected, jurisdictions- - focus on objectives, features to be protected, jurisdictions- - focus on preserving or stablizing quality of human environment, preserving or stablizing quality of human environment, preventing damage, natural hazards, rational resource use, preventing damage, natural hazards, rational resource use, balancing of economy vs. ecology, promote openness and balancing of economy vs. ecology, promote openness and interstate cooperation.interstate cooperation.

Russian Federation Supreme Soviet charged with legislative Russian Federation Supreme Soviet charged with legislative and oversight functions; enact and repeal legislation; review and oversight functions; enact and repeal legislation; review policies and implementation; establish "legal regime for zones policies and implementation; establish "legal regime for zones of extreme ecological situation".of extreme ecological situation".

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Executive BranchExecutive Branch

implement state policy via host of bodies; coordinate implement state policy via host of bodies; coordinate activities of different ministries formation and use of extra-activities of different ministries formation and use of extra-budgetary budgetary FEDERATION ECOLOGICAL FUNDFEDERATION ECOLOGICAL FUND; prepare ; prepare annual report on state of the environment, establish annual report on state of the environment, establish agencies and procedures for:agencies and procedures for:

a) determination of air, water and other environmental a) determination of air, water and other environmental quality standards and resource consumption normsquality standards and resource consumption normsb) fining pollutersb) fining pollutersc) environmental monitoringc) environmental monitoringd) state "ecological inspection" & permittingd) state "ecological inspection" & permittinge) expansion and/or maintenance of nature reserve systeme) expansion and/or maintenance of nature reserve systemf) termination or suspension of polluting activities and f) termination or suspension of polluting activities and seeking of compensation for environmental damageseeking of compensation for environmental damageg) provision of environmental information to publicg) provision of environmental information to publich) conduct resource inventoriesh) conduct resource inventories

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Problems with two classes of governmental unitsProblems with two classes of governmental units

1) nationality-based units (republics, autonomous 1) nationality-based units (republics, autonomous oblastsoblasts, autonomous , autonomous okrugsokrugs

2) 2) krayskrays and and oblastsoblasts -jurisdiction over "planning of environmental -jurisdiction over "planning of environmental protection protection and resource use,and resource use, and financing and material-technical and financing and material-technical support for ecological programs"support for ecological programs"

alsoalso

OblastsOblasts and and krayskrays not authorized "to set differentiated rates of payment not authorized "to set differentiated rates of payment (user-fees) for use of natural resources and for emissions of pollutants," (user-fees) for use of natural resources and for emissions of pollutants," but can "make decisions on use of the environment and its resources,"but can "make decisions on use of the environment and its resources,"LOCAL GOVERNMENTS granted in principle the same rights as LOCAL GOVERNMENTS granted in principle the same rights as oblastsoblasts and and krayskrays (i.e, jurisdictional conflicts likely) (i.e, jurisdictional conflicts likely)

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RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITES OF CITIZENSRIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITES OF CITIZENS

SECTION II: "Right of Citizens to a Healthy Environment" 4 articles SECTION II: "Right of Citizens to a Healthy Environment" 4 articles guarantee environmental norms - MPCs (maximum permitted guarantee environmental norms - MPCs (maximum permitted concentration) and state monitoringconcentration) and state monitoring(20% of population lived in 103 cities with at least one pollutant >10X (20% of population lived in 103 cities with at least one pollutant >10X MPC)MPC)

MPC problems-#, synergistic effects, quantity versus persistence, fines MPC problems-#, synergistic effects, quantity versus persistence, fines versus capital investment in equipmentversus capital investment in equipment

FINANCING OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTIONFINANCING OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

SECTION III: "The Economic Mechanism of Environmental Protection" SECTION III: "The Economic Mechanism of Environmental Protection" carrot–economic incentives for pollution control & resource conserving carrot–economic incentives for pollution control & resource conserving technology strict–fines and administrative measures technology strict–fines and administrative measures (nothing specified)(nothing specified)

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Key Articles of the LawKey Articles of the Law

Article 16 – qualitative and quantitative accounting and inventory of resources and secondary raw materials

Article 17 – sources of fundinga) Federal budget and other territorial governmental budgetsb) resources of enterprises, organizations and institutions (voluntary, licensing, permit fees, fines)c) Federal through okrug ecological fundsd) environmental insurance (strakhovaniye) fines (enterprise for accident mitigation costse) credit banksf) voluntary contributions

Article 18 – permitting procedure for all major users worked out by enterprise officials and government officials (graft)

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Key Articles of the Law continued:Key Articles of the Law continued:

Article 20–system of resource use payment & payment for natural resources, for pollution, right to use natural resources within acceptable limits, for above-limit and irrational use, and for regeneration and conservation (fees proportional to quantities used and volumes discharged (90% to go to extra-budgetary "ECOLOGICAL FUND" & 10% to Federal budget) procedure not set up

Article 21–unitary, multi-level system of extra-budgetary ecological funds (60% to city and rayon levels; 30% to federation, republic, oblast, kray levels; 10% all-Federation level)

Article 24–economic incentives, tax breaks, right to transfer monies from eco fund to enterprises for environmental protection, credits to firms for achievement of Environmental Protection goals

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ENVIRONMENTAL NORMS, REQUIREMENTS, AND QUALITY INSPECTION SECTION IV:

"Environmental Quality Norms" based on latest level of technology and prevailing international standards.

Articles 24-34: MPCs for ambient air quality, pollutant emissions, noise and vibration levels, radiation, chemical use in agric, residual concentration in food, ecological requirements for various products, human pressure on the environment, EQ (environmental quality) in sanitary-protection zones (green belts etc.)

biological pathogens as EQ indicators to be monitored, dosimeters to public, geography spatial variations, MAJOR extension of past MPCs.

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SECTION V:SECTION V:

"State Ecological Inspection" by state (partly by Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources, scientific community, and public) verify new plants during construction and operation, obligatory for planned plants, to be passed before financing and construction can begin really IES, teams responsible for accuracy, reports can be overturned by courts

Provision for "public ecological inspections" requested by public for operating firms, legally binding if approved by "appropriate state bodies"

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SECTION VI:

"Ecological Requirements for the Siting, Planning, Construction, Reconstruction and Start-Up of Enterprises and Other Structures" - applies to industry, transport, power generation, water , pipeline and power lines, irrigation canals,

Article 41–siting (locating)Article 42–scientific principles in planning and designArticle 43–construction and reconstruction/renovationArticle 44– start-up public involvement in facility siting, even allows for referendums and court rulings

start-ups subject to "acceptance team" (priyemniki) inspections, stiff penalties for spurious approvals

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SECTION VII:SECTION VII:

"ECOLOGICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR THE OPERATION OF "ECOLOGICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR THE OPERATION OF ENTERPRISES, FACILITIES, AND OTHER OBJECTS" - deals with daily ENTERPRISES, FACILITIES, AND OTHER OBJECTS" - deals with daily operation stuff (procedures)operation stuff (procedures)

Article 48, point 3Article 48, point 3: "the siting, design, and construction of atomic power : "the siting, design, and construction of atomic power stations is forbidden in areas with large population concentration, resort stations is forbidden in areas with large population concentration, resort and recreation qualities, medicinal/thermal waters,... in seismically and recreation qualities, medicinal/thermal waters,... in seismically hazardous zones, near large reservoirs of republican significance, and hazardous zones, near large reservoirs of republican significance, and traditional places of mass recreation..."traditional places of mass recreation..."

Article 50, point 3Article 50, point 3: prohibits entrance into Russia of radioactive material : prohibits entrance into Russia of radioactive material "from other states" for storage or burial (example, in Jan. 1992 "from other states" for storage or burial (example, in Jan. 1992 IzvestiyaIzvestiya of of Krasnoyarsk refuses(ed) to accept Ukrainian nuclear wastes)Krasnoyarsk refuses(ed) to accept Ukrainian nuclear wastes)

Article 55Article 55: "Ecological Requirements for Military and Defense : "Ecological Requirements for Military and Defense Installations and Military Activity"Installations and Military Activity"

Article 56Article 56: "preservation of the Earth's Ozone Layer" international : "preservation of the Earth's Ozone Layer" international compliancecompliance

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SECTION VIII:SECTION VIII:

on "EXTREME ECOLOGICAL SITUATIONS":on "EXTREME ECOLOGICAL SITUATIONS":

a)a) zones with extreme ecological situation: (heavy industrial zones with extreme ecological situation: (heavy industrial emissionsemissions

areasareas

b) ecological disaster zones: true disaster areas, no new enterprises, b) ecological disaster zones: true disaster areas, no new enterprises, reconstruction strongly restricted, only essential activities to reconstruction strongly restricted, only essential activities to continuecontinue

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SECTION IX:SECTION IX:

"Specially Protected Natural Areas and Features" "Specially Protected Natural Areas and Features" zapovednikizapovedniki–nature –nature reserves, reserves, zakaznikizakazniki–nature preserves, biosphere reserves, national –nature preserves, biosphere reserves, national parks, national monuments, rare and endangered species as in parks, national monuments, rare and endangered species as in Russian Federation Russian Federation REDBOOKREDBOOK

zapovednikizapovedniki––nature reserves: all economic activity prohibitednature reserves: all economic activity prohibited

zakaznikizakazniki–nature preserves: habitat preservation with contradictory –nature preserves: habitat preservation with contradictory activities bannedactivities banned

some some zapovednikizapovedniki in UNESCO international biosphere reserve system in UNESCO international biosphere reserve system monitored to detect global changemonitored to detect global change

others can, but others can, but oblastsoblasts and and krays krays cannot petition or establish such cannot petition or establish such protected areasprotected areas

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Environmental Monitoring & EducationEnvironmental Monitoring & Education

SECTION X:SECTION X: legal basis for monitoring, pooling of personnel and legal basis for monitoring, pooling of personnel and resources, inspectors have right to enter military and KGB and all resources, inspectors have right to enter military and KGB and all other facilities, inspect documents, data, can call for state ecological other facilities, inspect documents, data, can call for state ecological inspection or suspension of operations.inspection or suspension of operations.

SECTION XISECTION XI: "Ecological Education and Research" requires classes : "Ecological Education and Research" requires classes on environmental protection and resource conservation in special on environmental protection and resource conservation in special middle schools and high schools in Russia, RAN (Russian Academy of middle schools and high schools in Russia, RAN (Russian Academy of Sciences) to elaborate and ratify complex research programs on Sciences) to elaborate and ratify complex research programs on environmental protection and rational resource useenvironmental protection and rational resource use