18.chansa ngavej.par[1]

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Forecasting of Rhizobial Biofertilizer Technology Using Maturity

Mapping

Chuvej Chansa-ngavej and Suparerk Assavavipapan

School of Management, Shinawatra University, Bangkok, Thailand

Abstract

The world population and food consumption rates continue to rise dramatically over

the next 40 years. The challenging task is supplying enough food to meet increasing

population in the future, while preserving and enhancing natural environment for the

future generation. To achieve the first task, chemical fertilizers were used intensively

around the world to increase crop yield. However, they started displaying their

harmful effects to the environment. Therefore, the biofertilizers were introduced as

alternative fertilizers to the farmers for reducing usage of the chemical fertilizers and

.preserving the environment in the long run. In this study, the rhizobial biofertilizers

are the most interested because their technologies are more developed and advanced,

and their markets are larger than any other types of the biofertilizers today. Because

of their huge markets, many biofertilizer companies invest a large amount of money

in Research and Development (R&D) of rhizobial biofertilizer technology. To be

competitive in the global market, the companies must know its future technology and

make the right strategic decisions for product development. Therefore, the overall

objective of the study is to determine the current stage of rhizobial biofertilizer

technology in the world on the technological s-curve and give the recommendation to

R&D department of biofertilizer companies in the world whether optimizing the

existing rhizobial biofertilizer technology or developing the new technology

(optimization vs innovation). This study used the phase I of TRIZ technology

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forecasting (maturity mapping) to plot all four Altshuller’s descriptive curves. The

patent databases used were the US and UK Patent Office’s online database.

From the study, it may be concluded that the current stage of rhizobial

biofertilizer technology in the world is in the growth, nearly maturity stage of its

technological S-curve. As a result, it is recommended that R&D department of the

biofertilizer companies should optimize the existing rhizobial biofertilizer technology

to move it up its S-curve until the end of its technological evolution.

Keywords: Technology forecasting, Biofertilizer, Rhizobial biofertilizer, Rhizobial

inoculant, TRIZ, Maturity Mapping

1. Introduction

According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2005), total midyear world population

is estimated to increase continuously from 6 billion people in 2006 to 9 billion people

in 2050. Moreover, FAO reports that food consumption continues to rise in

developing countries over the next 30 years from 2,626 Kcal in the 1990s to nearly

3,000 Kcal in 2015. The average daily consumption rate is expected to exceed 3,000

Kcal by 2030 (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Economic

and Social Department, 2000). The challenging task is to supply enough food to meet

increasing population about 3 billion people over the next 40 years while preserving

and enhancing natural environment for the future generation. Scientists around the

world are finding the ways to increase food supply by using new technology such as

chemical fertilizer, tissue culture and genetic engineering. Since the Green

Revolution began in the 1960s (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations, Economic and Social Department, 2000), chemical fertilizers were used

intensively to increase crop yield to meet the world food demand. According to

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International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA) databank (2003), the chemical

fertilizer consumption increased significantly from 31.9 million tonnes in 1961 to 147

million tonnes in 2003, almost 5 times increase. However, the chemical fertilizers

started displaying their harmful effects such as leaching out, polluting water and soil,

destroying microorganisms and friendly insects, making the crops more susceptible to

the attack of diseases and thus causing irreparable damage to the overall agriculture

system (Stackyard, 2005). In addition, people have more environmental concerns and

realize the importance of sustainable agriculture. Therefore, the alternative fertilizer

which must replace the chemical fertilizer in the long run is a biofertilizer.

Biofertilizers, commonly known as microbial fertilizers or microbial

inoculants, are artificially multipled cultures of certain soil organisms such as

Rhizobia, Mycorrhiza, Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Trichoderma, Blue green algae and

Azolla, which can improve soil fertility and crop productivity (Ghosh, n.d.). Besides

reducing the use of chemical fertilizers, they help to preserve the environment and

increase crop yield by increasing nutrient uptake, stimulating plant growth, facilitating

composting, controlling and resisting soil borne diseases, and improving the soil

health and properties (Ghosh, n.d.). The commercial history of biofertilizers began

with the launch of ‘Nitragin’ in 1895 by two German scientists, Nobbe and Hiltner,

who demonstrated the advantage of adding pure bacteria (Rhizobia) with the seed at

planting (Nitragin, n.d.), followed by the discovery of Azotobacter and then the blue

green algae, and a host of other microorganisms. Azospirillum and Vesicular-

Arbuscular Micorrhizae are fairly recent discoveries (Ghosh, n.d.). The first patent

regarding biofertilizer was filed in 1896 (Patent no. GB 189511460) (UK Patent

Office’s database, 2006).

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Nowadays, many companies around the world in fertilizer industry develop

and commercialize biofertilizers. In India, The Andhra Pradesh Government will

soon come out with a biofertilizer policy (Businessline, 2005) and there are over 100

companies in biofertilizer industry (Ghosh, n.d.) such as Rashtriya Chemicals and

Fertilizer Ltd. (RCF), Sri Biotech, Prathista Industries Ltd. (PIL) and Cadilla

Pharmaceuticals Ltd. (CPL) (Businessline, 1998; 2000; 2002; 2004; 2006). In China,

the biofertilizer patents were filed the most in the world (UK Patent Office’s database,

2006) and there are a huge target market, China’s 900 million farmers for the big

biofertilizer companies such as Kiwa Bio-Tech and Bodisen Biotech, Inc. (Business

Wire, 2004; PR Newswire, 2005; Business Wire, 2005). In Taiwan, the biofertilizer

industry is still a new and upcoming industry and there are about 36 publicly owned

makers and sellers of biofertilizers such as Taiyen Biotech Co., Ltd., Chia Hsin Food

and Synthetic Fiber Co., Yuen Foong Yu Bio-Tech Co., Ltd. and Taiwan Fertilizer

Co., Ltd., to supply the domestic market and represent roughly 90% of total volume

used in the country with the estimated sales volume of over NT$ 200 million (Council

of Agriculture, n.d.). In Malaysia, the use of industrial scale microbial inoculants in

modern agriculture started in the late 1940s and the most accepted biofertilizer

product is the mycorrhiza inoculum (Rahim, 2002). There are proposed MINT-MAH

joint research during the year 2002-2004 (Rahim, 2002) and many biofertilizer

manufacturers such as IBG Ventures Sdn. Bhd. (BusinessWorld, 2005). Moreover,

there are also biofertilizer companies in Japan such as Sumitto Chemical and in

Philippines such as UPLB’s Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology

(BIOTECH) (Japan Chemical Week, 1999; BusinessWorld, 2000). In Thailand, the

biofertilizer industry is fairly new and not widely accepted by the farmers. The first

producer of biofertilizer from the culture of the mycorrhiza fungus under the Myco

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Star brand is Amputpong Co. in 2002 (Treerapongpichit, 2002). Overall, its sales

volume is estimated to be US$ 3 billion in the global market (Council of Agriculture,

n.d.).

The most interesting type of the biofertilizers in the world today is rhizobial

biofertilizer. It is used to inoculate legume crops such as soybean, mungbean, pea,

clover, alfalfa and vetch, and can supply them with sufficient amout of nitrogen (N)

by nitrogen (N2) fixation process. Legume nitrogen fixation plays a key role in world

crop production. About 100 million ton N, valued at US$ 50 billion, is required

annually for the production of the world’s grain and oilseed crops. Of this amount,

nitrogen fixation by the legume crops supplies about 20% (17 million ton N)

(Herridge, 2002). Under the right conditions, legume can fix at least 300 kg N ha-1

yr-1, which is more than sufficient for maximum growth (Greenwood, 1982). With

nitrogen fertilizer costing about US$ 0.50/kg, this is equivalent to a saving of US$ 8.5

billion (Herridge, 2002).

Because of its huge market, many companies invest a large amount of money

in Research and Development (R&D) of this biofertilizer technology. The rhizobial

biofertilizer technology has been more developed and advanced than any other types

of the biofertilizers in the world. Its technology can be traced back more than 100

years ago. The first patent was filed in year 1896 and after that, there have been many

rhizobial biofertilizer researchers and experts all over the world continuously filing

and registering the technology in the patents. For example, genetic engineering or

recombinant DNA technology has been used intensively to improve rhizobial strains

in the US patents during the year 1980-2006. They have attempted to optimize the

existing rhizobial biofertilizer technologies for enhancing the efficiency of the

biofertilizers. However, the major performance parameters such as yield have not

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been improved as much as their technological progress. Therefore, there is a need for

technology forecasting of the rhizobial biofertilizers to make the right decision

whether continuing to optimize these technologies or develop the new ones. In this

study, TRIZ technology forecasting was chosen as a research method because it could

give more accuracy and objective of the forecast and detection of the point in time

when development of existing technology should be stopped and new direction should

be explored (Fey and Rivin, 1999).

2. Theoretical Background

2.1 Theory of Inventive Problem Solving (TRIZ)

In the 1940’s, Russian Inventor Genrich Altshuller developed a theory to

describe how inventions are generated, based on the extensive analysis of thousands

of patents. His research led to the creation of the theoretical superstructure TRIZ.

TRIZ, the Theory of Inventive Problem Solving, is a methodology for problem

solving and idea generation. TRIZ is a system of many powerful tools for problem

identification, analysis, and solution, which can be applied to accelerate product

development. TRIZ also offers systematic guidelines for technology forecasting

(Altshuller, 1984; Fey and Rivin, 2005).

Several TRIZ tools focus on problem solving during product development,

such as the 40 Principles to solve contradictions, the concept of Ideality, or the

Substance-Field Analysis (Fey and Rivin, 2005). In addition, TRIZ offers tools to

determine the status and the future of a specific product technology. Some of the tools

used are:

• Analysis of the technological system in the past, present and future

• Analysis of the technological system at different detail levels

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• Determination of trends of evolution

• Maturity mapping (Altshuller, 1984; John, Alla and Boris, 1998)

A systematic TRIZ approach can accelerate a company’s product development

process as a whole (Fey and Rivin, 2005). A TRIZ analysis can help management to

make decisions on how to pursue a particular product development task. Should

product development focus on refining an existing technology, or should the company

assign more resources to research in alternative, new technological areas?

2.2 TRIZ Technology Forecasting

TRIZ technology forecasting was developed by Russian scientist Genrich

Altshuller in the 1940s. While working as a patent clerk, Altshuller identified

patterns and similarities of patents in different technological areas. He discovered

that problems, solutions and patterns of evolution were repeated across industries

(Altshuller, 1984). The main benefits of the TRIZ technology forecasting are that

TRIZ forecasting shows not only what will happen, but also how to achieve the

desirable results, more accuracy and objective of the forecast and detection of the

point in time when development of existing technology should be stopped and new

direction should be explored (Fey and Rivin, 1999). TRIZ technology forecasting

consists of four major phases: (1) Analysis of the past and current system’s evolution

(2) Determination of high-potential innovations (3) Concept development and (4)

Concept selection and technology plan (Fey and Rivin, 2005). In this study, the

researcher focuses on phase I of TRIZ technology forecasting.

Phase I-analysis of the past and current system’s evolution-is about the

analysis of s-curve (Maturity mapping). The evolution of any technology system

moves through four typical stages: infancy, growth, maturity and decline. Figure 1

shows the technological s-curve developed by Altshuller (1984). In order to

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determine at which stage of the technological s-curve a current technology is located,

Altshuller developed four descriptive curves, as shown in Figure 2: (A) Number of

inventions or patents over time (B) Level of inventiveness over time (C) Performance

over time and (D) Profitability over time. The dotted vertical lines in the graphs of

Figure 2 divide each of the curves into four stages of the technological s-curve. After

the analysis, it can determine the current stage of the technology of interest on its s-

curve. Moreover, it suggests the company’s decisions about technology development

of R&D department whether optimizing the existing technology to move it up its s-

curve or developing the new technology to replace the existing one (optimization vs

innovation). If the company’s core technology is in the mature or decline stage,

innovation in the core technology is recommended. If the core technology is in the

infancy or growth stage, optimization of the core technology is recommended.

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Figure 1 Technological S-curve (Altshuller, 1984; Gernot, 1999)

Figure 2 Altshuller’s four descriptive curves

(Terninko, Zusman and Zlotin, 1998)

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3. Maturity Mapping of the Rhizobial Biofertilizer

After reviewing the literatures related to rhizobial biofertilizer technology and

asking two rhizobial experts’ opinion, it could be concluded that there were five

categories of major performance parameters which would be used to determine the

performance of rhizobial biofertilizer technology described in the patents. These five

groups of major performance parameters were yield, stability, convenience of use,

adaptability and cost, which were described in detail as follows:

1. Yield The output of legume crops (kg/rai, kg/hec) after inoculating

with rhizobial biofertilizers described in the patents. It can be tested by

using greenhouse or field trial tests. Yield resulted from two sub-

performance parameters which were nitrogen-fixing ability and/or

hydrogen uptake activity and nodulation and/or competitiveness with

indigenous rhizobia. The definitions of these sub-performance parameters

were described in the followings:

1.1 Nitrogen-fixing ability: Ability of inoculated rhizobial

biofertilizers to fix atmospheric nitrogen (N2) and convert into

nitrogeneous compounds (ammonia-NH3) which can be directly

used by legume crops. The ability could be enhanced by

modifying nitrogenase enzyme activities, their cofactors and genes

(fix, nif). It can be tested by using acetylene reduction assay.

1.2 Hydrogen uptake activity: Ability of inoculated

rhizobial biofertilizers to recover hydrogen gas (H2) lost during

nitrogen fixation process by converting into proton (H+) and

supplying it into the electron transport system to produce energy

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(ATP) used for nitrogen fixation process. The ability could be

enhanced by modifying hydrogenase enzyme activities and their

genes (Hup). It can be tested by observations of differences in

rates of reduction of methylene blue.

1.3 Nodulation : Ability of inoculated rhizobial

biofertilizers to form root nodules in the legume crops. It can be

tested by using seedling agar-tube method to determine nodule

numbers or nodule occupancy per plant.

1.4 Competitiveness with indigenous rhizobia: Ability of

inoculated rhizobial biofertilizers to compete with indigenous

rhizobia already living in the soil to infect root hair and form

root nodules in the legume crops.

2. Stability Ability of rhizobial biofertilizers to be resistant to the adverse

conditions and substances, and maintain viability of rhizobia before and

after inoculation to the legume crops. Stability consisted of four sub-

performance parameters which were shelf-life, temperature-resistance, pH-

resistance and other adverse conditions-resistance. The definitions of

these sub-performance parameters were described in the followings:

2.1 Shelf-life (storage): The amount of storage time

keeping at room temperature (25 oC) since rhizobial

biofertilizer production until prior to use with legume crops.

During this storage time, the rhizobial biofertilizers still

maintain viability of rhizobia and their efficiencies.

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2.2 Temperature-resistance: Ability of rhizobial biofertilizers

to resist to the extreme temperatures such as heat and cold

temperature.

2.3 pH-resistance: Ability of rhizobial biofertilizers to resist

to the extreme pH in the soil such as acidic and basic soil.

2.4 Other adverse conditions-resistance: Ability of

rhizobial biofertilizers to resist to other adverse conditions and

substances mentioned above such as drought, herbicides,

fungicides and etc.

3. Convenience of use Ease of handling and applying rhizobial

biofertilizers to inoculate the legume crops. It might come from the form

of rhizobial biofertilizers (liquid, powder, granule) and their inoculation

methods.

4. Adaptability Versatility of rhizobial biofertilizers to use with variety

of legume crops and soil types. Adaptability consisted of two sub-

performance parameters which were the number of the legume crops (e.g.

pea, soybean, mungbean, clover, alfalfa, vetch) and soil types with which

rhizobial biofertilizers can be used.

5. Cost The cost of raw materials, substances, instruments and methods

for the production of rhizobial biofertilizers.

Then, the performance score structure of rhizobial biofertilizer technology was

created (Figure 3) according to these five groups of major performance parameters

described above. The weighted scores for each group were confirmed with two

rhizobial biofertilizer experts’ opinion. The performance score structure would be

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used in the further step as a basis for determining the performance of rhizobial

biofertilizer technology described in the patents.

Performance (100)

Yield (25) Stability (18.75) Conveniene of use Adaptability (18.75) Cost (18.75)

(18.75)

Nitrogen-fixing Nodulation Number of legume Number of soil

ability and/or and/or competitiveness crops (9.375) types (9.375)

hydrogen uptake with indigenous rhizobia (12.5)

activity (12.5)

Shelf-life Temperature-resistance pH-resistance Other adverse conditions

(4.6875) (4.6875) (4.6875) -resistance (4.6875)

Figure 3 Performance Score Structure of Rhizobial Biofertilizer Technology

As a basis for the technology forecasting of rhizobial biofertilizers, a

comprehensive patent search was conducted. The researcher conducted a patent

search from the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) and UK Patent

Office’s online patent database to collect the patents which were related to rhizobial

biofertilizer technology and associated with the identified performance parameters in

the previous step available in the world. Various combinations of four groups of the

keywords were used to search the patents during the time frame of 1896 to present

(2006). These four groups of keywords are listed as follows:

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1) Broad keywords related to biofertilizers (e.g. “biofertilizer”, “microbial

fertilizer”, “microbial inoculant”, “microorganism fertilizer”, “bacterial

fertilizer”, “biological fertilizer”)

2) Specific keywords related to rhizobial biofertilizers (e.g. “rhizobium”,

“rhizobia”, “rhizobial”, all twelve genera names of rhizobia family

(Wikipedia, 2006) such as “Bradyrhizobium”, “Burkholderia”,

“Sinorhizobium”, “Ensifer”, “Mesorhizobium”, “Azorhizobium” and etc.)

3) Performance parameters identified in the previous step (e.g. “nitrogen

fixing”, “nodulation”, “yield”, “shelf life”, “stable”, “storage”,

“temperature”, “resistant”, “pH”, “condition”, “soil”, “cost”)

4) Other keywords such as “fertilizer”, “inoculant”, “biological nitrogen

fixation”, “nitrogen fixing bacteria”, “lyophilized”, “soybean”, trehalose”,

“skim milk”, “productivity”)

The titles and abstracts of the searched patents were evaluated to determine

whether the collected patents were related to rhizobial biofertilizer technology and

identified performance parameters in the previous step. The comprehensive patent

search as described above assured that every patent containing an invention relating to

the rhizobial biofertilizer technology was included in the patent database. The

resulting number of 107 patents would be used in the next step to determine the level

of inventiveness and performance described in the patents.

To determine the level of inventiveness described in the patents, the patents

were assessed quantitatively based on Altshuller’s Five Levels of Inventiveness

(Appendix A). Each patent was analysed in terms of five different criteria:

1) Field of inventions vs. field of problem

2) Solution mechanism

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3) Characteristics of the system

4) Effects or principles leading to the invention

5) Existence of contradictions

Each criterion is categorized at a level between one and five, five being the

most inventive. The final rating of the level of inventiveness described in the patents

was shown in Appendix B.

To determine the performance described in the patents, the patents were

assessed based on the performance score structure. The performance score ranged

from 0-100. The final rating of performance score described in the patents was shown

in Appendix B.

To determine the current stage of the rhizobial biofertilizer technology in the

world on its s-curve, all Altshuller’s four descriptive curves were plotted: (A) Number

of inventions or patents over time (B) Level of inventiveness over time (C)

Performance over time and (D) Profitability over time. The first graph according to

Altshuller’s descriptive curves for maturity mapping was Number of patents over time

(Figure 4). The second polynomial fit was used to show the trend line of the graph.

Number of Patents over time

0

5

10

15

1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 2015Year

Num

ber

of P

aten

ts

Figure 4 Number of Patents over Time Graph

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The second graph according to Altshuller’s descriptive curves for maturity mapping

was Level of inventiveness over time (Figure 5). The second polynomial fit was used

to show the trend line of the graph.

Level of Inventiveness over time

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 2015Year

Lev

el o

f inv

entiv

enes

s

Figure 5 Level of Inventiveness over Time Graph

The third graph according to Altshuller’s descriptive curves was Performance over

time (Figure 6). The exponential fit was used to show the trend line of the graph.

Performance over time

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 2015

Year

Per

form

ance

Figure 6 Performance over Time Graph

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The fourth graph according to Altshuller’s descriptive curves was Profitability

over time. However, data for profitability of the rhizobial biofertilizers were

unavailable because they were accessible only at a high price from many commercial

rhizobial biofertilizer companies in the world. Therefore, Performance over time

graph could not be plotted.

After that, these three plotted descriptive curves were compared with

corresponding theoretical Altshuller’s descriptive curves to determine the current

stage of the rhizobial biofertilizer technology in the world on its s-curve by following

the methods of Lovel, Seastrunk and Clapp (2006). Figure 7 showed the alignment of

all three descriptive curves according to the evolutionary stages defined by Altshuller.

The red boxes marked the part of the curves corresponding to the current stage of the

technology in the world, from year 1896 to 2006. Analysis of all three descriptive

curves’ comparison indicated that the current stage of rhizobial biofertilizer

technology in the world is in the growth, nearly mature stage of its technological s-

curve, as shown in Figure 8. Since the current stage of the technology was identified

to be in the growth, nearly mature stage of its s-curve, it recommended that R&D

department of the biofertilizer companies in the world should optimize the existing

rhizobial biofertilizer technology to move it up its s-curve until the end of its

technological evolution.

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Number of Patents over time

0

5

10

15

1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 2015Year

Num

ber

of P

aten

ts

Figure 7a The Alignment of All Three Plotted Descriptive Curves with

Their Corresponding Altshuller’s Curves

(Figure above from Terninko, Zusman and Zlotin, 1998;

graph below from current data in this research)

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Level of Inventiveness over time

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 2015Year

Lev

el o

f inv

entiv

enes

s

Figure 7b The Alignment of All Three Plotted Descriptive Curves with




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Performance over time

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 2015

Year

Per

form

ance

Figure 7c The Alignment of All Three Plotted Descriptive Curves with




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Figure 8 Technological S-curve of Rhizobial Biofertilizer Technology

4. Conclusions

From the study, it may be concluded that the current stage of rhizobial

biofertilizer technology in the world is in the growth, nearly maturity stage of its

technological S-curve. As a result, it is recommended that R&D department of the

biofertilizer companies in the world should optimize the existing rhizobial

biofertilizer technology to move it up its s-curve until the end of its technological

evolution.

This study would be useful for four groups of people: the researchers who

conduct the researches concerning rhizobial biofertilizer technology, research and

development (R&D) departments of biofertilizer companies in the world, TRIZ

researchers and researchers who use this study in general. For the first two groups, it

can help them make better decisions in the biofertilizer technology investment and

R&D direction. For the TRIZ researchers, it will be an another practical example of

using TRIZ technology forecasting to determine the current stage of the technology

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on the technological s-curve. For the researchers in general, it can show a new

research methodology for new product development study and provide the idea for

using the biofertilizers in Thailand in the future, according to “Sufficiency Economy”

philosophy developed by His majesty the King of Thailand.

Acknowledgment

The authors are indebted to Shinawatra University for providing research support.

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26. Salamatov, Y. (1999). TRIZ: The right solution at the right time. Insytec B.V.

27. Stackyard. (2005). What is biofertilizer?

http://www.stackyard.com/news/2005/04/Crop/biofertilizers.html

28. Terninko, J., Zusman, A., & Zlotin, B. (1998). Systemetic innovation: An

introduction to TRIZ. St. Lucie Press.

29. Terninko, J., Zusman, A., & Zlotin, B. (1996). STEP-by-STEP TRIZ: Creative

innovative solution concepts. Responsible Management Inc.

30. Treerapongpichit, B. (2002). Thai fertiliser company relies on fungus. Knight

Ridder Tribune Business News


6&RQT=309&VName=PQD

31. UK Patent Office’s database. (2006). Advanced search

http://gb.espacenet.com/search97cgi/s97_cgi.exe?Action=FormGen&Template=g

b/en/advanced.hts

32. United States Patent and Trademark Office. (2006). USPTO patent full-text and

image database http://patft.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

26

33. U.S. Census Bureau. (2005). Total midyear polulation for the world: 1950-2050

http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/worldpop.html

34. Wikipedia. (2006). Rhizobia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizobia

27

Appendix A: Altshuller’s “Five Levels of Inventiveness”

(Terninko, Zusman and Zlotin, 1996; Salamatov, 1999)

Level of Inventiveness 1 2 3 4 5

Apparent/Conventional Solution

(usual non-inventive invention)

Small Invention Inside Paradigm

(common invention)

Substantial Invention Inside

Technology

(average, solid invention)

Invention Outside

Technology

(macro invention)

Discovery

(major invention and new

science)

Field of Solution

Problem and solution methods within one professional field Problem and solution methods

belonging to same technology

Other science field, outside

technology involving

completely different

principles

Outside contemporary

scientific knowledge

Solution Mechanism

Obvious (undisguised) solutions from

a few clear options

Solution not obvious to untrained

person-possible give-up

Technology of other industries

beyond accepted ideas and

principles-paradigm shift in

industry

New generation of design

using science not technology

New phenomenon discovered

and applied to inventive

problem

Characteristics of System Existing system not substantially

changed

Existing system slightly changed Existing system essentially

improved

Synthesis of a new technical

system

New technical systems,

industries and design products

Effects/Principles leading

to solution

Existing features-good engineering New features-improvements, but

obvious compromise

Combination of several physical

effects, “tricky” methods,

ingenious use of well-known

physical phenomena

Physical effects and

phenomena previously little

known

Solution methods beyond the

scope of modern science

Existence of

Contradictions

Contradictions not identified and

resolved

System inherent contradiction

reduced, but not eliminated

Contradictions resolved within

existing system, often through

introduction of entirely new

element

Contradictions eliminated

since non-existent in new

system

No contradictions

28

Appendix B: Patent Database for "Rhizobial Biofertilizer Technology"

Year Patent no. Title Level of inventiveness

Performance

1968 GB1107240 Improvements relating to rhizobium cultures and inoculations 2 4.6875

1971 US3616236 PRODUCTION OF RHIZOBIUM STRAINS RESISTANT TO DRYING

2 4.6875

1978 US4094097 Method for preparing a pesticidally resistant rhizobium and agronomic composition thereof

2 4.6875

1979 US4136486 Method and compositions for inoculating {i leguminosae {b with bacteria

1 17.1875

1981 US4306027 Pesticidally resistant rhizobium and agronomic use thereof 2 4.6875

1981 JP56008682 COMPOSITION OF ACTIVE RHIZOBIA 1 4.6875

1985 CA1192509 SYNTHETIC PLASMID AND BACTERIA CONTAINING IT 2 12.5

1985 US4517008 Compositions containing and methods of use of an infectivity-cured Hr plasmid-bearing microorganism

2 12.5

1985 CA1183361 COMPOSITIONS CONTAINING AND METHODS OF USE OF AN INFECTIVITY-CURED HR PLASMID-BEARING MICROORGANISM

2 12.5

1985 EP0164992 Nitrogen fixation regulator genes 2 12.5

1985 CA1185804 (US4421544)

LEGUME-INOCULATING COMPOSITION 1 29.6875

1986 EP0205071 Genes involved with hydrogenase and nitrogenase activities in rhizobium japonicum and cosmids

2 25

1986 HU38598

PROCESS FOR PRODUCING AND UTILIZING RHIZOBIUM-KONCENTRATES WITH STABIL CHARACTER EVEN BEING IN CONTACT WITH HERBICIDES

2 4.6875

1986 EP0203708 Bacterial agricultural inoculants 2 23.4375

1987 EP0245931 Nodulation inducing factors 2 12.5

1987 EP0242892 Process for activating rhizobium nodulation promoters 1 12.5

1987 US4713330 Visual bioassay for rhizobium competition variants 2 12.5

1987 EP0242474 Rhizobium inoculants 1 25

1987 CN86105904 RHIZOBIUM INOCULANTS 1 25

1987 EP0239878 Process for identifying a colony of Rhizobium japonicum 2 12.5

1987 EP0218770 Use of marine algae derivatives as culturing agents, as growth factors and as anti-stress agents for microorganisms and fungi, and uses in the coating of seeds and fertilizers

2 4.6875

1987 EP0227336 Nodulation promoting bacteria and use thereof 1 25

1987 US4711656 Enhancement of nitrogen-fixation with rhizobial tan variants 2 25

29

1987 JP62234005 MICROBIAL PREPARATION FOR AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND FISHERY

1 4.6875

1988 US4720461 Succinate-sensitive, nodulation-enhancing Rhizobium mutants for use with legumes

2 12.5

1988 CA1236036 IDENTIFICATION AND ISOLATION OF ROOT HAIR-CURLING GENES

2 12.5

1988 CA1236037 RHIZOBIUM VECTOR SYSTEM 2 12.5

1988 US4755468 Inocula of low water activity with improved resistance to temperature and rehydration, and preparation thereof

3 28.125

1988 US4782022 Nitrogen fixation regulator genes 2 12.5

1989 US4818696 Rhizobium japonicum symbiosis gene transfer 2 34.375

1989 US4875921 Bacterial agricultural inoculants 2 23.4375

1989 JP1010923 GRANULAR INOCULATION COMPOSITION FOR PLANT 1 4.6875

1989 US4863866 Bradyrhizobium japonicum mutants exhibiting superior soybean nodulation

1 25

1990 FR2636965 Rhizobium strains exhibiting enhanced capacities for fixing gaseous nitrogen

2 12.5

1990 CA2017783 RECOMBINANT RHIZOBIUM BACTERIA INOCULANTS 2 12.5

1990 WO9002805 A PROCESS FOR ACTIVATING NODULATION PROMOTERS OF RHIZOBIUM-BACTERIA

2 37.5

1990 US4966847 Recombinant DNA clones containing a broad host range gene from Bradyrhizobium japonicum +B

2 9.375

1991 EP0454291 Process for producing enhanced rhizobium inoculants 2 31.25

1991 US5059534 Rhizobium japonicum 191 NODD-related genes 2 12.5

1991 US5023180 Bradyrhizobium japonicum nodulation regulatory protein and gene

2 12.5

1991 US4983519 Recombinant DNA clones of essential nodulation genes of bradyrhizobium japonicum +B

2 12.5

1991 US5041383 Rhizobium inoculants 1 25

1991 US5008194 nifH promoters of Bradyrhizobium 2 12.5

1991 US5001061 nifD promoter of Bradyrhizobium 2 12.5

1991 CA1288076 RHIZOBIAL GROWTH ENHANCEMENT 2 18.75

1991 US5021076 Enhancement of nitrogen fixation with Bradyrhizobium japonicum mutants

2 34.375

1991 US5045461 Method for increasing yield and nodulation by bradyrhizobium 2 25

1991 WO9101377

PROCEDURE FOR THE ISOLATION OF NITROGEN FIXING BACTERIAL STRAINS MUTATED IN THE NITROGEN CONTROL OF SYMBIOTIC NODULATION GENES

2 12.5

1991 US5059533 Rhizobial ferredoxin genes 2 12.5

1992 US5141745 Nodulation inducing factors 3 12.5

30

1992 US5173424 Enhancing modulation ability of Rhizobium japonicum by incubation with soybean lectin

2 17.1875

1992 US5137816 Rhizobial diagnostic probes and rhizobium trifolii nifH promoters

2 12.5

1992 NZ217146 TWO GENES (NODD-R1 AND NODD-R2) FROM RHIZOBIUM JAPONICUM, DNA AND PROMOTERS

2 12.5

1993 US5183759 Recombinant Rhizobium bacteria inoculants 2 12.5

1993 KR9309509B COMPOSITION OF RHIZOBIUM SP FOR SOYBEAN NODULES

1 25

1993 CA1314249 BRADYRHIZOBIUM SP. (PARASPONIA) MODULATION REGULATORY PROTEIN AND GENE

2 12.5

1993 AU636565B IMPROVED BIOLOGICAL NITROGEN FIXATION 2 12.5

1993 US5229113 Bradyrhizobium japonicum nodulation inducing factor 3 12.5

1993 JP5213707 AGENT FOR INOCULATING MICROORGANISM 1 12.5

1994 WO9425568 COLD-TOLERANT STRAINS OF RHIZOBIUM SPECIES 2 29.6875

1994 RU2025471 STRAIN RHIZOBIUM SP (CORONILLA) FOR PREPARING FERTILIZER FOR CORONILLA

1 25

1994 FR2693724 Inducing Rhizobium nodulation gene expression - using benzopyranone or benzo:thiopyranone deriv. used to promote nitrogen fixation in leguminous plants

2 12.5

1994 WO9406732 METHOD FOR OBTAINING A WETTABLE POWDER INOCULANT FOR USE WITH LEGUMINOUS CROPS

3 23.4375

1994 WO9419924 FLOCCULATED MICROBIAL INOCULANTS FOR DELIVERY OF AGRICULTURALLY BENEFICIAL MICROORGANISMS

2 35.9375

1994 US5308616 Mutant strain of Bradyrhizobium japonicum 2 12.5

1995 WO9517806 METHODS AND COMPOSITIONS FOR INCREASING THE BENEFITS OF RHIZOBIUM INOCULATION TO LEGUME CROP PRODUCTIVITY

2 29.6875

1995 US5432079 Method for selecting mutants of legume-nodulating bacteria enhanced in competition

2 12.5

1996 RU2061666 STRAIN OF BACTERIUM RHIZOBIUM FREDII FOR PREPARING BACTERIAL FERTILIZER

1 29.6875

1996 US5586411 Method of preparing a seed treatment composition 2 29.6875

1996 JP8109109 MICROBIAL PREPARATION FOR LENGUMINOUS PLANT

1 25

1996 JP8109110 MICROBIAL PREPARATION FOR LEGUMINOUS PLANT 2 29.6875

1996 KR9601812B NEW MICRO-ORGANISM BRADYRHIZOBIUM SPECIES 1 25

1997 ES2099679 Use of Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. Viceae strain Z25 as an inoculating agent for the cultivation of leguminous plants

1 12.5

1997 US5697186 Flocculated microbial inoculants for delivery of agriculturally beneficial microorganisms

2 36.9375

31

1997 JP9227323 BACTERIUM MATERIAL FOR CULTIVATING CROP AND CULTIVATION OF CROP USING THE SAME

1 4.6875

1998 CN1191854 Composite microbial fertilizer and its production process 2 25

1998 EP0818465 Genomic sequence of Rhizobium sp. NGR234 symbiotic plasmid

1 34.375

1998 WO9850564 ENHANCED INOCULANT FOR SOYBEAN CULTIVATION

2 25

1999 US5863728 DNA encoding carbohydrate binding protein and biological materials derived therefrom

2 12.5

1999 EP0917582 GENOMIC SEQUENCE OF RHIZOBIUM SP. NGR 234 SYMBIOTIC PLASMID 1 34.375

1999 MD1254F Strain of Rhizobium meliloti alfala legume bacteria used as a symbiotic nitrogen fixer

1 12.5

1999 EP0939129 Increase of nodule number and nitrogen fixation in leguminosae 1 25

1999 JP11253150 STORAGE OF MICROORGNISM 2 4.6875

2000 CN1266036 Multielement compound microbe bacterial manure 1 25

2000 CN1240779 Efficient multifunctional composite microbe fertilizer and its industrially preparing process

1 9.375

2001 WO0138492 IMPROVED INOCULANT STRAINS OF BRADYRHIZOBIUM JAPONICUM

1 12.5

2002 US6475793 Genomic sequence of Rhizobium sp. NGR 234 symbiotic plasmid

1 34.375

2002 US2002050096 (US 6606822)

Aqueous base inoculant composition for seeds, coated seeds and method for storing the composition

3 29.6875

2002 US6872562 Herbicide resistant dinitrogen fixing bacteria and method of use 3 29.6875

2002 US2002142451 Materials and methods for the enhancement of effective root nodulation in legumes

2 25

2002 WO0208386 MATERIALS AND METHODS FOR THE ENHANCEMENT OF EFFECTIVE ROOT NODULATION IN LEGUMES

2 25

2002 US2002058327 (US6855536)

Materials and methods for the enhancement of effective root nodulation in legumes 2 25

2002 US6492176 Increase of nodule number and nitrogen fixation in leguminosae

1 25

2003 WO03089640 BIOFERTILIZER FOR PLANTS BASED ON RHIZOBIUM BACTERIA HAVING AN IMPROVED NITROGEN FIXING CAPACITY

2 12.5

2003 MD20010226 MD 2387 B2

Strain of Rhizobium phaseoli bacterium CNM RB-04 - bean nitrogen fixer

1 25

2003 RU2205215 METHOD OF SELECTION OF STRAINS OF RHIZOBIUM TRIFOLII ABLE TO EFFECTIVE SYMBIOSIS IN ACID SOIL WITH ENHANCED CONTENT OF ALUMINIUM ION

2 4.6875

32

2003 JP2003038166 METHOD FOR CULTURING RHIZOBIA AND MEDIUM TO BE USED FOR THE METHOD

1 18.75

2003 US6548289 Biological nitrogen fixation 2 12.5

2004 US2004241847 Leguminous bacterium having potentiated nitrogen fixation ability

2 29.6875

2004 US2004092400 (US7022649)

Composition for inoculating legumes and method therefor 2 14.0625

2004 AU2003236590 RHIZOBIAL INOCULANT COMPOSITION 2 17.1875

2004 RU2237048 METHOD FOR CULTIVATING NITROGEN-FIXING BACTERIA

1 23.4375

2005 UA7954U A STRAIN OF SYMBIOTIC BACTERIA RHIZOBIUM TRIFOLII 20 TO PREPARE AN AGENT FOR INCREASING TREFOIL PRODUCTIVITY

1 25

2005 US2005060930 Micro-organisms for the treatment of soil and process for obtaining them

1 9.375

2006 MD3054F Strain of Rhizobium phaseoli bacteria with nitrogen-fixing activity

1 12.5

2006 US2006053850 Package for storing a formulate liquid inoculating solution containing rhizobia and process for growing rhizobia in it

3 23.4375

2006 EP1622850 RHIZOBIAL INOCULANT COMPOSITION 2 17.1875

18.chansa ngavej.par[1]

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