1950 - 1965

Expanding Knowledge

Social Scientific Ideological Economic Political

“We realize now that what a child is learning in school today or what an adult learned in school yesterday may be of little of no use to him tomorrow.” (Smith, p. 288)

Technological Revolution

Notable Inventions ~ 1951 - First Videotape Recorder 1952 – First Patent for Bar Code 1955 – Optic Fiber 1956 – First Computer Hard Disk 1957 – Fortran Computer Language 1958 – Modem, Laser, Integrated

Circuit

1962 – Spacewar: The first video game 1963 – First Video Disc 1964 – BASIC Computer Language 1965 – Compact Disc

“Education will be necessary to hold the jobs of the

future, and education cannot proceed withoutreading competency.”(Smith, p. 288)

Concern for the Survival of Democracy

Threat of Communism National Preservation Role of Education

“The task of public education in this age is to develop the knowledge, appreciations, skills and attitudes necessary for living in a changing world…” (Smith, p. 289)

Sociological Concerns

The Social Effects and Values of Reading

The Effects Mass Media Reading HabitsThe Use of Libraries

The Flight of Sputnik The launch of the First Russian Satellite led to

pressure to produce competent readers in shorter time as well criticism towards education.

Criticism led to positive effects on reading instruction.

“Educators and laymen alike awakened to the sharp realization that more vigorous effort must be put forth

if we were to preserve and improve the American way of life.” (Smith, p. 290)

 

Increased Governmental Support

Funding for Education War on Poverty Fight Joblessness Civil Rights for All Citizens

“Never in the history of our country had reading been the

subject of such high interest. Never had opportunities to learn

to read been extended to so many individuals at all age levels,

in school and out.” (Smith, p. 295)

Jack HolmesSubstrata Factor Theory of

Reading ~ 1953

First published theory specific to reading. Based on the cognitive processing perspective. Identified variables & sub-variables underlying

reading ability. First testable, hypothesis-driven theory of

reading ability.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism focused on observable changes in behavior.

Behaviorists believe that behavior is the result of a person’s response to a stimuli and that an external stimuli can be manipulated to strengthen or reduce a person’s behavior

B. F. SkinnerTheory of Operant Conditioning

Skinner’s Theory of Operant Conditioning had a big impact on reading instruction.

Operant Conditioning or “programmed learning” was developed to increase the chances of students being successful.

Reading was considered a complex act that consisted of many sub skill components.

Tracey, D. H. & Morrow, L. M. (2006). Lenses on reading: An introduction to theories and models. NY: Guilford Press.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau - Word Theory The early “word” theorists were influenced by Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s famous treatise on education, Émile written in 1762. As stated in Smith’s seminal work on the history of reading, Rousseau influenced trends towards silent reading (Smith, 2002, p. 150), “the Activity Movement” (Smith, p. 227), and “the readiness concept” (Smith, p. 242) which rejected the formal teaching of schools and advocated education according to nature. 

Rousseau’s Tenants for Educating “Émile” or “Johnny”:

 We are born good, but are corrupted by the evils of society. In other words, we are born willing and able to learn, but society, or society’s systems, like schools, try to make us according to their own mold, instead of our own. 

People should be natural. Learning is provided by the growth or nature of the person and what the educator needs to do is to facilitate opportunities for learning.

  People develop through various stages and different

forms of education may be appropriate for each stage.

What is to be learned should be determined by an understanding of the person’s nature at each stage of their development. “Every mind has its own form.”

Every child has an impulse to activity. This restlessness is replaced by curiosity.

The power of the environment is crucial in determining the success of educational encounters.

It is important for people to develop ideas for themselves, to make sense of the world in their own way. Instead of Émile being taught other people’s idea, Émile must be encouraged to draw his own conclusions from his own experience.

 Doyle, M.D. and Smith, M.K. (2007) ‘Jean-Jacques Rousseau on education’, the encyclopedia of informal education . Retrieved April 2,

2008 from http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-rous.htm.

It is important for people to develop ideas for themselves, to make sense of the world in their own way. Instead of Émile being taught other people’s idea, Émile must be encouraged to draw his own conclusions from his own experience.

 

Doyle, M.D. and Smith, M.K. (2007) ‘Jean-Jacques Rousseau on education’, the encyclopedia of informal education . Retrieved April 2, 2008 from http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-rous.htm.

William S. Gray1885 – 1960

Contributions to the field of reading: Coauthor of the Basic Reading Series and Elson-Gray

Readers. (Forerunners of “Dick & Jane” basic readers.)

One of the founders of the International Reading Association.

He is known for his significant contributions to both research and literature about the diagnosis and correction of reading difficulties.

His work is based on his belief that a well-trained teacher is the center of an effective reading program.

Gray identified four major areas that he believed

should be the primary goals for readinginstruction: (These are still relevant

today.)

To promote an understanding and appreciation of the role and values of reading in the age of mass media.

To promote the ability to adjust to the needs of contemporary life.

To cultivate personal interests in reading. To promote a high level of reading competency.

Robinson, R.D. (2002). Classics in literacy education: Historical perspectives for today’s teachers. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

William S. Gray’s RecommendationsFor Improving Habits of Study

Realize that different types of reading require different reading strategies.

Reading strategies such as marking important passages, skimming for details, and selecting main ideas shall be taught through discussion, participation, and questioning.

Stop devoting so much time to oral expression and give more attention to silent reading.

Strategy instruction should begin in the first grade and continue throughout elementary school becoming progressively more challenging.

Regular class periods should be used for such instruction.

Robinson, R.D. (2005). Readings in reading instruction: Its history, theory, and development. Boston: Pearson.

Arthur I. Gates1890 – 1972

Arthur I. Gates weighs in on programmed materials:

 First-class programmed materials can help the teacher.

Many programmed materials are often created by novices, untrained in reading.

Teachers should carefully study and judge materials.  Teaching machines do not mimic actual reading. Many techniques that a machine uses can be

implemented naturally without a machine. Robinson, R.D. (2005). Readings in reading instruction: Its history, theory, and development. Boston: Pearson.

Arthur Gates makes recommendations for teaching reading:

Keep your eyes on the prize: The goal of the reading teacher is “to teach children to read well and to love to read.”  

Provide conditions for children to read naturally and freely.

Teach students the best techniques for children to read strategically. 

Know your students’ interests and reading ability. 

Be familiar with hundreds of books and articles and keep up with new publications.

Students should read at a comfortable level with materials that are enjoyable. 

Have a library table with lively and interesting material.

Robinson, R.D. (2002). Classics in literacy education: historical perspectives for today’s teachers. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Emmett Albert Betts1903 – 1987

Considered the role of “readiness” for reading and developed tests to measure it 

The first to describe informal diagnosis of reading difficulties 

Wrote Betts Basic Readers with Carolyn Welch  Put more responsibility upon and trust in classroom

teachers Stressed the importance of knowing the whole child  Advocated activities with real meaning

“Reading is a thinking process.” (Robinson, p. 70)

What Research Has to Say about Reading in the Content Areas

Leo C. Fay ~ 1964

Based upon research, Leo C. Fay draws two important conclusions when studying reading in the content areas. Strong general reading ability is needed. Specific skills are related to successful achievement in various

subject areas.

“…any classroom teacher can achieve better results in content

achievement if he will help his students sharpen their use of the tools of learning – their reading and study skills.” (Robinson,

p. 166)

   

The Utility of Phonics Generalizations in the Primary Grades

Theodore Clymer ~ 1963

Through a series of studies, the results of Clymer’s researchshowed that many commonly taught phonics generalizations have limited usefulness. The study indicates the necessity of pointing out the many exceptions to the generalizations that we teach.

“Mr. Clymer, for years I’ve been teaching ‘When two vowels

go walking, the first one does the talking.’ You’re ruining the

romance in the teaching of reading.” (Robinson, p. 69)

Why Johnny Can’t ReadRudolph Flesch – 1955

In 1955 Dr. Rudolf Flesch explains why Johnny can’t read. The reason according to Flesch is because students are not being taught to read phonetically, but rather with the word method. According to Flesch, if children are taught the sounds of the letters and the sounds of combinations of letters, then childrencan read. Students are being taught to read using the “Chinesemethod of teaching reading, (Flesch, 1955, p. 22)” that is, by memorizing words, instead of by learning the sounds of the letters. 

Flesch’s Pet Peeves  Learning to read by looking at words over and over

again Using pictures as cues Word guessing Using readers with artificial stories like Dick and Jane The absence of literature in teaching reading Rousseau’s belief that a child must be motivated to read Experience charts Reading readiness Flesch, R.F. (1955). Why Johnny can’t read. NY: Harper and Row.

 

The Problem of Meaning in ReadingPaul McKee - 1941

McKee conducted a study on students who had made at least average scores on standardized tests in reading.

Recognized that reading comprehension is a complex thinking process and that readers needed to take an active role in their understanding

The results of this studied showed that students were not understanding what they were reading in the content area subjects. They were able to manipulate symbols of meaning without understanding the message. This is referred to as “verbalism.” Students lack the strategies needed to expose the meaning of words. Robinson, R.D. (2005). Readings in reading instruction: Its history, theory, and development. Boston: Pearson.

 

Urgent need for reading instruction in the content areas.

Increasing use of technology. Focusing on reading as part of the language arts

– reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Attention to materials selected and used for

reading instruction (Schema Theory). Attention to individual differences – race, socio-

economic status, reading ability, etc… Cultivation of wholesome, moral attitudes.

“The reading process is extremely complex.” (ARI, p.333)

Setting up conditions that guide thinking AND behavior.

Realizing that no one method is best. Helping children understand that reading is for a

variety of purposes. Greater number of professional books available for

teachers as well as parents. Basal series may include: testing materials, big

books, multiple texts, self-help dictionaries, emphasis on language ability as a prerequisite to reading, and a variety of literary forms.

Phonics instruction still a debate as to whole word vs. sounding out.

No longer a belief in a fixed age for beginning reading instruction.

Focus on reading as a meaning making process and importance of teaching comprehension strategies.

Research indicates advantage for kids who have kindergarten experience.

Attention to study skills.  “ The goal sought is a closely coordinated, sequential program of reading improvement in all curriculum fields

andfor all levels of schooling. The ultimate success depends

on the blending of old blood and new…holding fast to that which has proved its worth…” (ARI, p.297)

 

 Doyle, M.D. and Smith, M.K. (2007) ‘Jean-Jacques Rousseau on education’, the encyclopedia of informal education . Retrieved April 2, 2008 from http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-rous.htm.

 Flesch, R.F. (1955). Why Johnny can’t read. NY: Harper and Row. Flesch, R.F. (1981). Why Johnny still can’t read. NY: Harper and Row. Robinson, R.D. (2002). Classics in literacy education: Historical perspectives for today’s teachers. Newark,

DE: International Reading Association. Robinson, R.D. (2005). Readings in reading instruction: Its history, theory, and development. Boston:

Pearson.  Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Smith, N.B. (2002). American reading instruction. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. (Original

work published in 1934). Tracey, D. H. & Morrow, L. M. (2006). Lenses on reading: An introduction to theories and models. NY:

Guilford Press.

Walker, B.F. (2008). History of phonics instruction. In (Flesch, M.J.), An essential history of reading instruction (pp. 33-51). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.