Transportation Engineering

Transportation engineering is a very diverse and multidisciplinary field, which deals with the planning, design, operation and maintenance of transportation systems. Good transportation is that which provides safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible movement of both goods and people.

ROLE OF TRANSPORT IN SOCIETY

Transport is a key infrastructure of a country. The economic status of a nation can be judged by the extent and scale of transportation existing in the country. Transportation is a vital activity in a society affecting its overall economy, trade, administration and defence.

Transportation is vital for the economic development of any region since every Commodity produced whether it is food, clothing, industrial products or medicine needs transport at all stages from production to distribution. In the production stage transportation is required for carrying raw materials like seeds, manure, coal, steel etc. In the distribution stage Transportation is required from the production centres viz; farms and factories to the marketing centres and later to the retailers and the consumers for distribution These above are some of the necessities which make us to use transportation. The importance and adequacy of transportation system of a country indicates its economic and social development. Economic Activity: Two important factors well known in economic activity are: Production or supply and

Consumption for human wants or demand.

Social Effects: The various social effects of transportation may be further classified into: Sectionalism and transportation

Concentration of population into urban area

Aspect of safety, law and order.

Scope and functions of transportation The purpose of a transportation system is to coordinate the movement of people, goods and vehicles in order to utilize routes most efficiently. When implemented, transportation systems seek to reduce transport costs and improve delivery times through effective timetabling and route management. Periodic re-evaluations and the development of alternative routes allow for timely changes to the transportation system in order to maintain efficiency. Standard transportation system will usually feature multiple timetables designed to inform the user of where each vehicle in the fleet is expected to be at any given point in time. These timetables are developed alongside an array of route plans designed to coordinate vehicle movements in a way that prevents bottlenecks in any one location

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Role of Roads in India in achieving speedy economic development.

Roads in India perform a variety of roles in achieving speedy economic development. Some of the important aspects are discussed below:

Connection to villages: India is a country having 590,000 villages, scattered into small habitations and often located in the extreme interior. Thus social uplift, health and education of the village population is aided by roads.Communications in hilly terrain: For the hill states located along the Himalayan range, communication facility is possible only by roads because of the steep terrain involved.Strategic importance: The defence of the northern, north-eastern and western borders of the country is dependent to a large extent on the road system.Helps agricultural development: Roads have fostered quicker agricultural development facilitating movement of modern inputs such as fertilizers and high yielding seeds.Helps dairy development: Since the cattle wealth of the nation is concentrated in innumerable villages and small habitations, the collection and processing of surplus milk only because of roads.Forestry development: The forest wealth of the country is being exploited mainly because of the roads which penetrate in to the thick jungles.Fisheries Development: The Development of the fisheries along the coast line has been rendered possible because of the construction of link roads leading to the coast.Tourism Development: Some of the ancient monuments, religious places, natural parks and sanctuaries are accessible only roads. Tourism, both domestic and international, has been greatly aided by roads serving such as places of interest.Employment: As already stated, roads and road transport provide employment to a large number of people in the country. Since road construction involves labour intensive techniques in India, the large unemployed labour force gets gainful employment.Famine and flood relief: Roads have helped operations pertaining to flood and famine relief. The affected people are frequently employed on road construction to build durable assets.Administrative convenience: Roads have helped the effective administration of this large country. Maintenance of law and order and dispensation of justice have been aided by roads. National integration and cohesion have been brought about by roads which traverse the length and breath of the country and which link people from different parts together.

Reasons for the poor state of road development in IndiaThe poor state of road development in India in the past may be due to the following reasons:

1. There was no planned development of roads in the country up to the initiation of Nagpur Road plan in the year 1943.Only during the five-year plans since 1951; the development works were speeded up.

2. The investment even today on the road development programme is much lower than the revenue from the road transport.

3. Poor economic conditions of the vast majority of the population in villages prohibit the owing of private vehicles and discourage the use of transport.

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TRANSPORTATION IN INDIA TODAYIndia has a reasonably good transportation system, covering many modes. India's economy depends upon its transportation system to a large extent. The modernization of the present system will greatly facilitate the speedy economic growth of the country.

MODES OF TRANSPORTThere are several modes of transport which can be developed by a country. In India, the principal modes exist are: (a) Roads (b) Railways (c) Air Transport (d) Shipping (e) Inland Water Transport (f) Pipelines (g) Ropeways In addition, multi-modal transport, which combines more than one mode, also exists. Urban transport is a special subject by itself, though it is mainly served by roads and railways.Role of Each Mode of Transport: Each mode of transport has its own role to play in a country. In India, the role of each is as under:

Roads:Road transport carries 80 per cent of the passenger transport and 60 per cent of the goods movement. Its role in passenger transport is confirmed to short distances and in urban transport. In goods transport, its role is to collect and distribute the goods and to carry the goods over short and medium hauls. For long distance it deals with high value goods.Railways:Railways carry long distance passenger traffic and suburban passenger traffic. For goods movement, they are suited for haulage of low rated (coal, ores, food-grains, fertilisers, etc.) over long distances.Air Transport:Air transport is suited for long distance passenger movement where speed of travel is the main criterion.Shipping:Most international trade in goods takes place through overseas shipping. Coastal shipping can handle goods movement along the coast of the country.Inland Water Transport (IWT):This mode takes place along perennial rivers (Brahmaputra, Ganges, etc.), canals and backwaters. Both passengers and goods are moved.Pipelines:Pipelines are ideal for long distance transport of petroleum crude and products and gas.Ropeways:Ropeways find application in extremely difficult hilly locations, both for goods and passenger movement.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Each ModeThe following table summarises the advantages and disadvantages of the principal modes of transport :

Sl. No.

Mode Advantages Disadvantages

1 Roads 1. Accessible to remote parts2. Flexibility to deal with changes in demand3. Provides personal transport4. Generates high employment5. Reasonably good speed (upto 120 Km/hr)6. A good mode for urban travel7. Cheap mode

1. Very poor safety record. About 90,000 people get killed from Road Accidents in India every year.2. High environmental pollution (air quality, noise, etc.)3. High consumption of fuel, particularly liquid petroleum products

2 Railways 1. Good safety record2. Good energy efficiency3. Non-polluting4. Good comfort for passengers5. Reasonably good speed (upto 120 Km/hr)6. Cheap mode7. Can run on electricity

1. Cannot reach remote parts2. Lacks flexibility to deal with changes in demand3. There is government monopoly leading to inefficiency

3 Air Transport

1. Very high speed (speeds upto1000 Km/hr are possible)2. Very good comfort3. Good record of safety4. Low pollution

1. High energy consumption, and solely dependent on petroleum products2. Very costly

4 Shipping 1. Good energy efficiency2. Non-polluting3. Good record of safety4. Good comfort

1. Low speeds, particularly for international passenger travel

5 Inland Water Transport

1. Non-polluting2. Good energy efficiency3. Good employment generation4. Cheap

1. Slow speed of travel2. Can operate only on perennial rivers and canals

6 Pipelines 1.Non-polluting (No environmental pollution)

2. Good safety3. Cheap (economical to construct, consumes very little land & Maintenance cost is very low.)

4. Good energy efficiency5.It does not have problem of return of empty wagons or trucks6.There are no chances of pilferage and theft7. The flow has a high degree of flexibility, and can be turned on or shut off as desired.

1. Can handle only liquids and gases

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INDIA’S TRANSPORT SYSTEM: AN OVERVIEW

1. Roads:In India, Road infrastructure is used to transport over 60 per cent of total goods and 85 per cent of total passenger traffic. Road network provides the arterial network to facilitate trade, transport, social integration and economic development. Transportation by road has the advantage over other means of transport because of its easy accessibility, flexibility of operations, door-to-door service and reliability. The total road length in India increased more than 11 times during the 60 years between 1951 and 2011. From 3.99 lakh kilometer as on 31 March 1951, the road length increased to 46.90 lakh kilometers as on 31 March 2011.The road network of 46.90 lakh km. has road density of 1.43 km per square km2. It consists of National Highways, Expressways, State Highways, Major Districts Roads, other Districts Roads and Village Roads with the following length distributionNational Highways / Expressway

79,116 km

State Highways 1,55,716 km Other Roads 44,55,010 km

India’s road network of 33 lakh km is the second largest in the world. The break-up of the length is as under:

Length (Km) Expressways 200National Highways 79,243State Highways 1,31,899Major District Roads 4,67,763Rural Roads & other roads 26,50,000Total length (Approx) 33,00,000 In spite of the impressive network length, the road system suffers from several deficiencies, such as:

Only half the length is surfaced (53.83 per cent of total road length) Only 54 per cent of the country’s villages are connected Only 200 Km of high speed Expressways exist There is severe congestion in the highways Several railway level crossings exist There is a need to provide bypasses to several towns and

cities The road pavement is grossly deficient Severe overloading of trucks take place Funds for maintenance are meagre

The Government of India have taken up the following ambitious schemes to overcome the deficiencies:

National Highway Development Project (NHDP) Pradhan Mantri Grameen Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) which aims at

connecting all villages with a population of above 500 by the year 2015.

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The central and state governments have now undertaken several road projects on a Public Private Partnership, collecting tolls to recoup the investments. National Highways are owned by the Government of India.

2. RailwaysIndian Railways, wholly owned by the Government, have a route length of 63,500 Km, and are the Asia’s largest and the world’s second largest state owned system under a single management. 17,500 Kms of the route length is electrified. About 5400 million passengers travel on the railways every year and about 600 million tonnes of goods are moved.The Railways have major schemes on hand such as :• extension of electrification• conversion of metre gauge sections to broad gauge (Unigauge programme)• doubling of track provision of dedicated freight corridors

Metro rail systems exist in Kolkata and Delhi and are being planned for Bangalore, Hyderabad and Mumbai.

3. Air TransportAir traffic in India is growing at a rapid rate. There are 66 airports in India. There are several airlines operating the services, including the government owned Air India and many private airlines. Air transport accounts for 42 billion passenger-km, compared to 940 billion pass-km by Railways and 5500 billion pass-km by roads. The government have recently entrusted the modernisation of Delhi and Mumbai airports to private entrepreneurs.4 ShippingIndia’s external trade mainly takes place through oceanic shipping. There are about 900 ocean-going vessels with a dead weight tonnage of 10 mil tonnes. There are 11 major ports and 139 minor ports in the country. Coastal shipping takes place mainly through the minor ports.5 Inland Water TransportInland Water Transport takes place on a limited scale in the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers, some canals and backwaters of Kerala. Both passenger and goods transport takes place.6 PipelinesPipelines are one of the transport systems where a continuous flow takes place. They are ideal for the transport of liquids, gases and solids in a slurry form across land or under sea. Pipelines in India carry petroleum products (for example Kandla to Bhatinda), gas (for example Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur line : 2,800 km long), and iron ore in a slurry form (for example Kudremukh mines to New Mangalore Port). A major gas pipe line to transport Iran gas to India through Pakistan is currently being planned. The Reliance group are contemplating a network of gas pipes to transport the gas from the newly discovered gas reserves in the Krishna-Godavari off-shore basin.7 RopewaysRopeways, also known as aerial ropeways, consist of a cable suspended between towers and cars (or cabs) moving on them. They are particularly suited for hilly regions where deep gorges make the construction of roads and bridges costly. They can also be used for transporting new materials for a plant or for placing concrete for

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high dams. The towers (trestles) are made of steel. The cables are made of stranded wires. The cabs have rollers moving on the cables.8 Multi-modal TransportOne of the recent revolutions in transport is the use of containers in which the goods are stuffed. The advantage is that the goods are well protected from damage and that the containers can move on various modes such as road (in trucks and trailers), railways (on flat wagons), ships and barges and air (in aeroplanes). This system, involving various modes, is known as multi-modal transport. For transshipment from one mode to another, cranes of suitable capacity are employed.9 Urban TransportIndia is essentially a rural-oriented economy, with only 28 per cent living in towns and cities. But with increasing urbanization, the percentage of people living in cities will increase. The movement of people within towns and cities is a serious problem since the streets of most towns and cities were not planned to accommodate the exploding number of cars, two wheelers and cycles.The problem can be solved by various measures as :• making public transport (buses, suburban trains, taxis and auto rickshaws) attractive and cheap,• constructing new Metro lines, as in Delhi and Kolkata,• dispersal of commercial activity to various centres of the cities instead of concentrating them at the city centre, and• constructing bypasses and ring roads so that through traffic does not enter the city.

Urban Transport ProblemRapid urbanization is taking place in India. The current urban population proportion of 28 per cent may reach 40 per cent in the coming decades. Side by side, the population of vehicles is growing at more than 10 per cent per annum. These have created serious problems of transport in towns and cities. Some of the problems are:(a) Severe congestion on the streets(b) Delays at intersections(c) Parking problems(d) High level of pollution(e) Serious accident situation on roadsUrgent measures are needed to overcome these problems. Modern transport systems provide possible situations.

Improvements to Public Bus TransportSince buses carry a large number of passengers, improvements in bus transport is a cheap solution. Some of the possible improvements are :(a) Exclusive Bus Lanes, where only buses can run. The High Capacity Bus System (HCBS) being planned in Delhi is one such.(b) Introduction of buses with low floors, so that passengers can get in and get out easily.(c) Introduction of vestibule buses, doubling the seating capacity.

Light Rail Transit (LRT)Light Rail Transit is also known by the name train. LRT can be run on the surface if road space is available (as in Kolkata) or as elevated, with pillars located in the median of roads. It can carry upto 20,000 persons per hour per direction.

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Rapid Rail Transit (Metro Rail)Rapid Rail Transit systems, also called Metro Rail systems, can carry 60,000 persons per hour per direction. They can be surface, elevated or underground. The Metro Rail of Delhi is a good example. The Kolkata Metro, 16.4 Km long, has cost about Rs. 1,000 crores (cost at 1980-90). At current prices, the system may cost about Rs. 100-200 crores per Km.

CONTINUOUS FLOW SYSTEMSTransport by road, rail, air or ships takes place in vehicles which move along a path at intervals. As against this, continuous flow systems are those where the flow is continuous and not at intervals. Pipelines and conveyors are typical examples. We may consider ropeways also in this category though the cars (or buckets) can travel continuously or intermittently as one desires.

Belt ConveyorsBelt conveyors are used for conveying materials on a continuous basis. The materials usually handled are coal, mineral ores and stone. They are commonly installed near cement plants, thermal power stations, ports for handling bulk cargo and stone crushers. The components of the system are :(a) belts which are continuous(b) idlers, which are rollers on which the belt moves

Passenger ConveyorsPassenger conveyors are used at locations where a large concentration of passengers has to be moved from one place to another. Escalators are used to convey passengers from one level to another. Examples of location of passenger conveyors are :(a) Airport passenger terminals(b) Metro rail (for example Delhi)(c) Shopping Malls (in Delhi and other cities)The speed at which passengers are moved in passenger conveyors at one level is about 1.0-1.5 m/sec to make it comfortable. The speed of escalators is about 0.5-1.0 m/sec to make it comfortable for alighting and embarking passengers.

INTERMODAL TRANSPORTWhen more than one mode of transport is involved in the transport of goods, it becomes advantageous to resort to a system which eliminates delays, damages and inconveniences in transfers. The most popular form of intermodal transport is "containerisation". The advantages of containerisation are :

1. Increase in productivity and reduction in cost because rehandling costs and delays are avoided.

2. The goods need not be packaged elaborately inside a container.3. The container is reusuable.4. Damages and pilferage are reduced5. Dirty cargoes like bones and hides can be packed inside a container thus

eliminating human misery.Apart from the use of containers, inter-modal transport takes other forms too. Three. popular forms are:

1. Piggy-back, in which a truck is transported on flat railway wagons.2. Road-railer, in which a truck can also be made to run on rails.3. RORO (Roll-On-Roll-Off) in which trucks can be loaded onto ships

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Advantages and disadvantages of road transport:

1. Wide Geographical Coverage provided by roads: Roads can be constructed to penetrate the interior of any region and to connect remote villages. The advantage becomes particularly evident when planning the communication system in hilly regions and sparsely populated areas.2. Low Capital investment: Roads can be constructed at comparatively lower initial cost than railways. The cost of roads varies with specifications, but even the best road is cheaper than a railway line.3. Quick and assured deliveries: Time is great value for a wide range of articles; including both perishables and high value is manufactured products. Road transport by its quick deliveries reduces the need for larger inventories and locking up of working capital a great cost.4. Flexibility: Road transport offers a flexible service, free from fixed schedules. Any number of trucks or buses can be pressed into service quickly to meet sudden demand or withdrawn .Such a flexibility is absent in railways, which operate generally according to fixed schedules.5. Door-to-door services: Road transport offers door-to-door service, free from transshipments from origin to destination. Railways on the other hand have to depend upon road transport for picking up loads and making deliveries.6. Simpler packaging: Road transport permits simpler packaging and crating for the protection of goods against breakage.7. Personalized service: A personal touch is generally present in road transport. The customer is given in individualized attention in various matters.8. Employment potential: Road transport has a high employment potential. This is an important factor in a country with a large and employment problem.9. Personalized travel: Travel by private car or motorized two wheeler or even a cycle, satisfies personal pleasures. This is one of the main reasons for the popularity of personalized travel mode in the developed countries.10. Short hauls: For short hauls transport is there only economical means if a major project is to be constructed and is the construction materials have to be transported through short distances one turns only to road transport.11. Safety: One of the serious advantages of road transport is its poor record of safety. Road accidents have become a serious menace, claiming enormous economic loss to the nation.12. Environmental pollution: Road transport has been one of the major causes for environmental pollution, noise fumes, vibration, loss of aesthetics, ribbon development these are the some ill effects.13. Parking problem: Road transport has caused parking problem of serious proportions in city streets.14. Long hauls: It has been found that most commodity movements are cheaper by road for short hauls up to 300-350 kms, but beyond this range, the cost advantage lies with the railways.15. Energy: Road transport consumes greater energy per passenger km and tonne km than railways.

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Comparison between Roadways and Railways

Item Roadways Railways1 Construction of route:  In roadways, these routes

consist of suitable pavement of specified width provided usually with shoulders on either side.

In railways, the routes consist of pair of steel rails which are laid parallel to each other on sleepers at fixed distance apart. 

2 Suitability to traffic:  In roadways, routes are meant for movement of different types, of traffic such as buses, trucks, scooters, rickshaws, cycles, pedestrians etc.

The railway routes are meant only for movement of trains. 

3 Width of right-of-way: The roadway routes require more width of right-of-way.

The railway routes require less width of right-of-way. 

4 Starting and destinations: 

In roadways, starting and destination points of traffic are not fixed.

In railways, starting and destination points of trains are always fixed. 

5 Right of entry:  In roadways, the right of entry is free to all vehicles because their movements are not according to any schedule.

In railways, the right of entry is not free to all railway vehicles because their movements are always according to schedule. 

6 Strength of route:  The required strength of roadways is less.

The required strength of railway tracks is more. 

7 Elasticity:  The roadway routes do not require an elastic structure since they are not to withstand impacts of heavy wheel loads.

The railway routes require an elastic structure to withstand impact of heavy wheel loads.

8 Gradients and curves:  In roadways, the routes can be constructed with steep gradients and sharp curves. Thus, route length in their case is less.

In railways, these routes cannot be constructed with steep gradients and flat curves. Thus, route length in their case is more. 

9 Tractive resistance:  The tractive resistance of roadway routes is high (5 to 6 times the tractive resistance in case of railway).

The tractive resistance of railway routes is low (1/5th to 1/6th the tractive resistance in case of roadways). 

10 Load handling capacity: 

The load handling capacity of road vehicles is less and that too at low speeds.

Load handling capacity of railway vehicles is more and that too at high speeds. 

11 Requirement of turning devices: 

In roadways, no special turning devices are constructed for turning vehicles on these routes.

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12 Operational control devices: 

In roadways, no special operational control devices in the form of signaling and interlocking are required on these routes for safe and efficient movement of vehicles.

In railways, special operational control devices in the form of signaling and interlocking are required on these routes for safe and efficient movements of trains as per schedule. 

13 Suitability to transportation of people and goods:

Transportation of people and light goods for short distances(upto 500 km) is convenient and cheap by roadway routes.

Transport of people and heavy goods like raw materials, coal, ores, etc. for long distance or manufacturing concerns is convenient and cheap by railway routes. 

14Adaptability to type and size of goods: 

All types and sizes of goods cannot be handled by road vehicles.

Almost all types and sizes of goods can be handled by the trains. 

15 Suitability for hilly area: 

Roadway vehicles are more suitable for hilly area.

Railway vehicles are less suitable for hilly area. 

16 Employment potential:  Roadways have less employment potential.

Railways have high employment potential. 

17Construction and maintenance cost: 

The construction and maintenance cost of roadway vehicles is less.

In case of railway vehicles, the cost is more.

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