1.why do organisms need haploid cells? 2.what would happen if “crossing over” didn’t occur...
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1. Why do organisms need haploid cells?
2. What would happen if “crossing over” didn’t occur during Meiosis?
3. What are gametes?
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Heredity• Heredity is the passing on of characteristics
from parents to offspring.
These characteristics are called
traits
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• It was not until the mid-nineteenth century that Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, carried out important studies of heredity.
Gregor Mendel
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• Mendel argued that parents pass on to their offspring factors (now called genes) that are responsible for inherited traits.
• Mendel was the first person to succeed in predicting how traits are transferred from one generation to the next.
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• Mendel chose to use the garden pea in his
experiments.
• Garden pea plants reproduce sexually, which means that they produce male and female sex cells, called gametes.
Mendel chose his subject carefully
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• When Mendel wanted to breed, or cross, one plant with another, he opened the petals of a flower and
removed the male organs.
Remove male parts
Mendel wanted to pick his own parent plants
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• He then dusted the female organ with pollen from the plant he wished to cross it with.
Pollen grains
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• He only wanted to study one trait at a time at first.
• So he picked two plants that were the same in every way, except height.
SHORT TALL
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• The tall pea plants he worked with were from populations of plants that had been tall for many
generations and had always produced tall offspring.
• They were said to be pure-bred tall- “pure-bred” means that it comes from two parents with the same form of a trait.
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• Likewise, the short plants he worked with were
pure-bred for shortness.
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• A hybrid is the offspring of parents that have different forms of a trait, such as tall and short height.
Parents
Hybrid Offspring
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Monohybrid crosses• Mendel’s first experiments are called mono-hybrid crosses
• Mono means “one”
• Hybrid means “parents with different forms of a trait”
• So we are crossing two parent plants that differ from each other by a one trait—
which in this case is height.
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• He cross-pollinated the tall pea plant with pollen from a short pea plant.
• All of the offspring grew to be as tall as the taller parent.
The First Generation
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• Mendel allowed the tall plants in this first generation of offspring to pollinate.
What happened?
The Second Generation
P1- Parents
F1- first generation of offspring
F2- second generation of offspring
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• Mendel concluded that each organism has two genes that control each of its traits.
• We now know that these genes are located on chromosomes.
Gene
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• Genes exist in alternative forms. We call these different gene forms alleles.
Chromosome # 1
Inherited from mom
Gene for Hair Texture
Chromosome # 1
Inherited from dad
Gene for Hair Texture
Mom’s allele codes for Straight hair
Dad’s allele codes for Curly hair
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• An organism’s two alleles are located on their homologous chromosomes—one inherited from the female parent and one from the male parent.
B b
Bb
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• Mendel called the over-powering allele “dominant” and the trait that sometimes disappeared “recessive”.
• Mendel concluded that the allele for tall plants is dominant to the allele for short plants.
Rule of Dominance
Bb
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• It is customary to use the same letter for different alleles of the same gene.
T T
T
T
t t
t
t
Tall plant Short plant
All tall plants
F1
Tfor Tall
tfor Short
The letter “T” equals height.
Big T is Tall
Little T is Short
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• An uppercase letter is used for the dominant allele and a lowercase letter for the
recessive allele.
• The dominant allele is always written first for each trait.
T T
T
T
t t
t
tAll tall plants
F1
Tall plant Short plant
Tt
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• The law of segregation states:
every individual has two alleles of each gene. (one inherited from mom, one inherited from dad)
But, when gametes (or sex cells) are produced, each gamete only receives one of these alleles to pass on.
The Law of Segregation
Bb
B
b
bb
b b
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Phenotypes and GenotypesPhenotypes and Genotypes
• The way an organism looks and behaves is called its phenotype. (brown eyes)
• The allele combination an organism contains is known as its genotype. (Bb)
• An organism’s genotype can’t always be known by its phenotype.
Bb BB
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• An organism is homozygous for a trait if its two alleles for the trait are the same.
• The pure-bred tall plant that had two alleles for tallness (TT) would be homozygous for the trait of height.
TT
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• An organism is heterozygous for a trait if its two alleles for the trait differ from each other.
• Therefore, the tall plant that had one allele for tallness and one allele for shortness (Tt) is heterozygous for the trait of height.
Tt
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What is the phenotype of the pea plant below?
What is the genotype of the pea plant ?
ttSo therefore, what would you call this trait?
Homozygous short
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• A Punnett square is a quick way to find the possible allele combinations in offspring.
• Lets say: one parent has a genotype of Tt
the other parent also has Tt
Punnett Squares
Remind me of what the Law of
Segregation states.
TT Tt
Tt tt
T t
T
t
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Punnet Square Activity
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Question 1
What is the relationship between TRAITS and ALLELES?
DISCUSS WITH THOSE AROUND YOU:
WHAT ARE TRAITS AND ALLELES, AND HOW THEY ARE PASSED DOWN
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Question 2What is a Mono-hybrid cross?
DISCUSS WITH THOSE AROUND YOU:
WHAT DOES “MONO-HYBRID CROSS” MEAN
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Question 3
In your own words, explain the law of segregation?
How are alleles segregated and passed to offspring?
DISCUSS WITH THOSE AROUND YOU:
MENDEL’S LAW OF SEGREGATION
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• Remember, Mendel performed experiments on pea plants that only differed in one trait: HEIGHT
Di-hybrid crosses
• Mendel then decided to perform another set of crosses in which he used peas that differed from each other only in TWO traits rather than one.
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Di-hybrid crossesThese experiments were called Di-hybrid crosses:
• Di means “two” - because there were only two differences
• Hybrid because the parents were different from each other (in two ways)
• Cross because he chose the parents to breed with each other
The pea plants were the same in every way, EXCEPT
PEA SHAPE (round, wrinkled) and PEA COLOR (yellow, green)
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Mendel took pure-bred plants with round yellow peas and crossed them with pure-bred plants with
wrinkled green seeds.
• In pea plants:
Yellow is Dominant “Y” and Green is Recessive “y”
Round is Dominant “R” and Wrinkled is Recessive “r”
THE TWO DIFFERENCES
RR YY rr yy
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• What happened with the first generation of offspring?
What happened with the second generation of offspring?
P1- Parents
F1- first generation of offspring
F2- 2nd generation of offspring
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• The Law of Independent Assortment states:
genes for different traits—for example, eye shape and eye color—
are inherited independently of each other.
The Law of Independent Assortment
Bb bb
rr RRBb
Rr
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• A Punnett square for a dihybrid cross will need to be four boxes on each side for a total of 16 boxes.
Dihybrid crossesDihybrid crosses
Punnett Square of Dihybrid Cross
Gametes from RrYy parentRY Ry rY ry
Ga
me
tes
from
RrY
y p
are
nt
RY
Ry
rY
ry
RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy
RRYy RRYy RrYy Rryy
RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy
RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy
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Head, C-curly, c-straight
Eyes, S-slanted, s-straight
Father, CcSs (Curly hair, Slanted eyes)M
oth
er,
CcS
s (C
urly
hai
r, S
lant
ed e
yes)
CS Cs cS cs
CS
Cs
cS
cs
CCSS CCSs CcSS CcSs
CCSs CCss CcSs Ccss
CcSS CcSs ccSS ccSs
CcSs Ccss ccSs ccss