20. reconsolidation tests and sonic velocity …

Hill, I.A., Taira, A., Firth, J.V., et al., 1993Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, Vol. 131

20. RECONSOLIDATION TESTS AND SONIC VELOCITY MEASUREMENTSOF CLAY-RICH SEDIMENTS FROM THE NANKAI TROUGH1

Daniel E. Karig2

ABSTRACT

Uniaxial reconsolidation tests were conducted on samples from four whole-round cores of similar hemipelagic silty mudstonesfrom the Shikoku Basin sequence recovered at DSDP Site 582 and ODP Site 808. Two cores from Site 808 were from below thedécollement, in the prism toe, and two from Site 582 were from the undeformed trench wedge. The objectives of testing includedthe estimation of maximum past consolidation stress, the in-situ stress, the exploration of relationships between physical propertiesand mechanical state of the naturally consolidated mudstones, and comparison of the behavior of these natural sediments withsimilar but experimentally consolidated mudstone. Testing also determined the effect of pressure between laboratory (1 bar) andin-situ conditions on seismic velocity and on porosity.

On the basis of their yield stresses (σ/), samples from Site 582 were overconsolidated, whereas those from Site 808 werehighly underconsolidated. The apparent overconsolidation at Site 582 is attributed to incipient cementation, which contributesstrength and stiffness to the sediment. Porosity in these samples was much higher than that in the experimentally consolidatedanalog at the same σv', which probably reflects higher than hydrostatic pore pressure. However, the effect of excess pore pressureon σ c ' is masked by that of cementation.

In part, the underconsolidation at Site 808 is thought to reflect inhibited drainage, primarily occurring as these sedimentswere subducted beneath the tip of the décollement. The extreme apparent underconsolidation of the sample closest to thedécollement is attributed to a reduction of σ c ' caused by destruction of cementation, possibly by isotropic stress pulses of highpore-fluid pressure.

The enhanced cementation at Site 582 relative to that at Site 808, which behaves similarly to the uncemented, experimentallyconsolidated mudstone, results in much higher constrained moduli and higher seismic velocities at equivalent porosities. Thisdemonstrates that velocity-porosity relationships are strongly influenced by very subtle differences in sediment properties.Seismic velocities increased between 5% and 10% between laboratory and in-situ pressures. Most of this increase reflects crackclosing at low pressure. Porosity rebound at both sites was from <l%-2%, far less than for the experimentally consolidatedsediment or than was predicted from published values for mudstones.

INTRODUCTION

The mechanical behavior of clay-rich sediments, particularly atconditions of higher stresses and lower porosities, is probably the leastknown among the common sedimentary rocks. In large part this stemsfrom their low permeability, so that mechanical behavior tests mustbe of long duration using specialized testing equipment. Nevertheless,data from low-porosity, clay-rich strata are very important, as thissediment type will account for an increasing fraction of ODP cores asprogressively deeper holes are drilled into thick sediment sections.

Most of the sediment recovered from Site 808, from the unitsbeneath the trench fill, fall into this category. From a depth of about600 mbsf, almost to the base of the section, the sediments consist offairly uniform clayey silts and silty clays with porosities between 30%and 40% (Taira, Hill, Firth et al., 1991). As such they comprise a gooddata set that illustrates changes in physical properties and mechanicalparameters related to the stress history to which these sediments havebeen subjected. Conversely, determination of physical properties andsome mechanical parameters in these sediments can be used toconstrain the state of stress in Hole 808C. In fact, given the problemsencountered with downhole measurements at this site, laboratory-based techniques constitute a primary means to this end for Leg 131.

The testing undertaken in this study employed our computer-controlled high-stress triaxial cell, in which core samples could besubjected to a wide variety of stress paths. In addition, acoustictransducers in the platens allowed the determination of compressional

1 Hill, LA., Taira, A., Firth, J.V., et al., 1993. Proc. ODP, Sci. Results, 131: CollegeStation, TX (Ocean Drilling Program).

2 Department of Geological Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, 14853,U.S.A.

seismic velocities (Vp) in the vertical direction at any time during thetesting sequence. Because the low permeability required very lowstrain rates, each test sequence included several subtests to maximizedata from each sample.

Samples for this study were restricted to clay-rich sediments fromdepths where the cores were macroscopically undisturbed by thedrilling process. Clay-rich lithologies were chosen for study becausethese are the dominant sediment type and display the most sensitivestrain responses to applied stress. In addition, the results of tests onthese sediments are compared with our earlier test results on a suiteof clay-rich sediments with similar lithologic characteristics that wereexperimentally consolidated (Karig and Hou, 1992). Six 15-17 cmlong, whole-round samples were collected between depths of 386 and1099 mbsf from Hole 8O8C for this testing; four from above thedécollement and two from below. These samples were selected on thecore rack for minimum disturbance and were used first for anelasticstrain recovery (ASR) tests (Taira, Hill, Firth et al., 1991). Aftercompletion of these nondestructive tests the cores were sealed inplastic tubes, waxed, and stored in a refrigerated humid environment.Only the deepest two cores from Site 808 have been used to date inthis test series (Table 1), which is still in progress.

One aspect of mechanical testing planned for samples from Leg 131was to compare the strain and states of stress between the uniaxiallyconsolidated sediment of the trench wedge with their deformed analogsin the prism toe. Because no hole was drilled in the trench wedge nearSite 808, and because we still had a suite of six whole-round samplesfrom the Nankai Trench wedge at DSDP Site 582 (Fig. 1), the twodeepest and consolidated samples were included in the testing program(Table 1). These cores, which had been refrigerated in a humid envi-ronment, were still in excellent condition and proved to be mineralogi-cally very similar to those tested from Site 808 (Fig. 2).

247

D.E. KARIG

Table 1. Principal values and results of sample tests. Table 2. Explanation of symbols.

SampleTest NumberDepth (mbsf)σ/ (MPa)σvh' (MPa)σ / (MPa)

η@σ/=0η@σ/= σ/η<g>σ/= σv«'Vp@σ/=0Vp<a>σ/= σ/Vp@σ/= σ v 'fc(m2)

582-63-2T-38

6446.9+0.2

5.61.80.650.5250.5080.521.6921.881.79

1.3×10"15

582-73-1T-36

7449.0±0.5

6.42.4_0.5010.4790.4931.781.991.91

4.4×10"15

808-74-2T-33

10042.9±0.2

9.2<2.9

0.680.330.310.31_-_

-

808-85-1T-39

10985.5±0.3

10.4<5.5

0.600.3120.2920.291.8582.12

<2.122.94×1016

Because of the lack of downhole stress data from Leg 131, theestimation of on the in-situ vertical effective stress (σv/) became aprincipal objective of the test program (see Table 2 for symbols anddefinitions of variables used in this paper). Reconsolidation tests donot allow the direct determination of σv*' but do generate yield stress(σ/), which, under appropriate conditions, approximate the maxi-mum vertical effective stress to which a sediment has been subjected.This state marks the yield point separating elastic from plastic me-chanical behavior, and should be manifested by changes in the re-sponse of many parameters. All the tests of this series employeduniaxial (vertical) strain paths because the sediments both at Site 582and beneath the décollement at Site 808 were thought to have under-gone only uniaxial consolidation. Integrated into this test programwas a comparison of the mechanical behavior of these naturallyconsolidated sediments with that of similar mudstones that had pre-viously been experimentally consolidated in our laboratory.

Another objective was the determination of the porosity (η) andseismic velocity (Vp) at σv*'. More specifically, the pressure correc-tions were sought that should be applied to laboratory measurementsso that they can be compared with in-situ or log measurements. Inaddition, estimates of intergranular permeability (k) were made dur-ing the saturation phase of most tests.

TESTING PROCEDURES

Each whole-round core sample was to have been subsampled forup to four separate tests. Cracking of the material during storage orduring the attempt to core the samples limited this goal, especiallybefore experience was acquired in handling the material. The initial,

σv' Effective vertical stress (in the tests)ch' Effective horizontal stressσm ' Effective mean stress [(σv'+2σA')/3]

σ Differential stress [σv'-σA']σ/ Yield stress (in the tests)σvh' Effective vertical stress (in-situ), assuming hydrostatic pore pressureσ v , ' Effective vertical stress (in-situ)KQ Stress ratio [σh'/σv'] during plastic, uniaxial (vertical) consolidationε v Vertical strain (in the tests)z Depth in meters below sea floor (mbsf)η Sediment porosityV Compressional seismic velocity in the vertical directionk Permeability (hydraulic conductivity)p b Sediment bulk densityλ Fluid overpressure ratio (see equation 2)

e Gravitational acceleration

and primary subsample for this study was a cylindrical core, with avertical axis, 50 mm in length and 30 mm in diameter, used for uniaxialconsolidation. The three subsequent subsamples for triaxial tests, iftaken, were 50 mm long and 20 mm in diameter. These dimensionswere determined by the diameter of ODP cores and by the requirementof triaxial testing that sample lengths be at least twice as great as theirdiameters. Only the consolidation testing, which was divided into twoto three phases, is described in this paper.

Phase 1—Resaturation

Exsolution of dissolved gas in the pore spaces of some ODP corescan cause them to be only partly saturated, and the samples must befully saturated before water volume change can be used as a measureof volume strain. Saturation was accomplished by placing the sampleunder a hydrostatic pressure of 1 MPa and a differential pore pressurefrom one end to the other of approx 0.4 MPa, and maintaining thispressure gradient until fluid flows at a constant rate out the low-pressure end. The fluid used during this and all phases of the testingwas a 3 5-ppt NaCl solution intended to simulation a seawater porefluid. Fluid flow through the sample was measured by a linear variabledisplacement transformer (LVDT) in parallel with the fluid pressureintensifier cylinder. This phase of the test constituted a constant-headpermeability test.

Phase 2—Equilibration

Following resaturation, which takes a day or more, the sample isbrought to a uniform hydrostatic stress state at a total confiningpressure of 2 MPa and a pore pressure of 1 MPa, the latter to ensure

Major Minerals Clay Minerals

~ 40-

• % Clay MineralsB % QuartzH % PlagioclaseE2 % Calcite

• % Kaolin + Chlorite

B % Hlite

B % Smectite

562-63 582-73 808-74 BOβ-85

A.

582-73 808-74 808-85

B.

Figure 1. Location of DSDP Site 582 and ODP Site 808, from which the

samples for this study were recovered.

Figure 2. Mineralogy of samples used in the test program based on bulk

powder XRD analyses run by M.B. Underwood. Histogram A shows the

relative abundance of the major minerals, whereas Histogram B displays the

relative abundance of clay minerals. Both show that the mineralogy at both

sites is very similar.

248

RECONSOLIDATION AND SONIC VELOCITY

that all remaining gases in the system are in solution. This phaseusually takes 1 to 2 days.

Phase 3—Reconsolidation

When the sample shows no further significant change in volume,the uniaxial reconsolidation phase is begun. This stress path, whichrequires that the cross-sectional area of the sample stay constantduring application of a constantly increasing axial stress, is generatedby an algorithm that adjusts the confining pressure and the axial loadproportionately to the rate of change of cross-sectional area. This"buffering" prevents oscillation of the applied stresses. Vertical stressrates ( av'/ t) of 1.15 × I0"5 MPa/s were used in our tests and axialstress limits were set well above those expected for yield so that stressratios in the plastic regime could be determined. Constant stress ratetests were used instead of stepwise increasing stresses to producebetter definition of the yield state. This method also balanced theeffects of decreasing axial strain rate in the plastic regime againstthose of decreasing permeability on possible excess pore-fluid pres-sures. Some tests had stress holds to detect possible excess pore-waterpressures, but in no test did we see evidence for any. Moreover, theseholds afforded us the opportunity to investigate secondary creep andits effects on stress ratio.

The LVDT's in our system are sensitive to displacements of lessthan 1 µm, but environmental factors such as electrical drift limit theaccuracy to several micrometers and the resultant strain to ± 0.5 ×10"5. Stresses from the pressure transducers and from our internal loadcell are accurate to better than 0.01 MPa.

At selected time intervals (0.5 hr in these tests), voltages were readby the computer from the four radial LVDT pairs, two axial LVDT's,axial load, water volume LVDT, and the confining pressure andpore-pressure sensors. In addition to being stored for later manipula-tions, these voltages were also converted to approximate values of allstresses and strains, and plotted in real time. In this way test progresswas easily monitored and adjustments could be made immediately.

Compressional seismic velocities (Vp) were run at selected pointsthroughout the test, with an initial velocity measurement usually takenat 0 MPa confining pressure for comparison with shipboard measure-ments. The traveltime through the sample was automatically inte-grated with the strain data to permit velocity determination to anaccuracy within ± 0.01 km/s.

TEST RESULTS

Eight reconsolidation tests were run on core samples from fourcores collected at DSDP/ODP Sites 582 and 808, although some wereterminated before completion. The tests are described by hole, withincreasing depth, rather than in order of testing.

Mechanical parameters measured included axial and radial strain(along four equally spaced azimuths), confining and pore pressure,and axial stress. To estimate the yield stress, various relationshipsamong these variables (e.g., σA' vs. σv', σ vs. εv) were used inaddition to the the relationship between εvand σv' which is commonlyrelied upon in geotechnical studies (e.g., Ladd et.al., 1977; Jamiol-kowski et al., 1985). The yield points were picked at the point wherethe rate of deviation from the elastic slope began to change rapidly.In some cases (e.g., εv vs. σ/), the plastic response can be linearizedby using a semilogarithmic plot, which further constrains the choice.In other cases, however, the post-yield response is complex, with afull plastic state being reached only far beyond the yield point. A finalyield stress was a qualitative best fit or mean to the picks using all theavailable relationships.

SAMPLES FROM SITE 582

Site 582 was drilled in the Nankai Trough several kilometersseaward of the deformation front, but about 100 km west of Site 808

(Fig. 1). The structural and sedimentological settings in the two areasof this trough are generally similar, with a sand-rich turbiditic trench-fill overlying hemipelagic silty clays and clay-rich silts comprisingthe Shikoku Basin fill. Samples used for these tests came from theupper part of the Shikoku Basin sequence.

Sample 87-582-63-2 (130-150 cm), 644 mbsf

Sample 582-63 is an olive-gray hemipelagic bioturbated siltymudstone consisting of 32% clay minerals, 43% quartz, 17% feldspar,and 6% calcite (Fig. 2). It was recovered from a zone with severalmicro-normal faults that dip 50°-80° (Lundberg and Karig, 1986).Although these sediments are assumed to have been uniaxially con-solidated in the trench, these normal faults imply incipient lateralextension due to very mild flexure of the downgoing plate (Lundbergand Karig, 1986).

When opened, the core was found to be broken on a 5°-10°dipping fracture about 15 mm from the base. A first attempt tosubsample the larger piece resulted in the cracking of the sample, sothat only one vertically oriented subsample was obtained for testing.Even this sample was shorter (45 mm) than desirable, which degradedthe measurement of axial strain at higher vertical strains when ringsholding the LVDT's came into contact. Several step increases andholds in the vertical stress path were incorporated into this test toexplore creep and the effect of creep on stress ratios.

Consolidation and Stress Ratios

The elastic-plastic transition or yield point in this sample is welldefined on plots of σh' vs. σv', εv vs. σv' , and σ vs. εv. The effectivevertical stress at yield, or σ c, ranges from 6.5 to 7.2 MPa, with themost sharply defined break on the σ vs. εvplot at 6.9 MPa (Fig 3).

The stress ratio (σA7σv') during initial reconsolidation, whichreflects an elastic response, is about 0.10. This is a reasonable valuefor a silty clay of this porosity, but after the sample passed throughthe yield point, this ratio went to values of greater than 1, which ismuch higher than expected for the plastic regime. With a furtherincrease in σv' during testing, the stress ratio became constant at 0.65,which is almost identical to the Ko value of our experimentallyconsolidated silty clay (Karig and Hou, 1992).

A step increase in σv' from 2 MPa to 3.5 MPa, well inside the elasticdomain, showed no or very little vertical strain (creep) and no changein σh', indicating that the constant stress rate technique was equivalentto step loading. However, at a σv' of 9.4 MPa, just above the yieldstress, a 50-hr stress hold resulted in significant axial creep and a0.7-MPa increase in σh'. On the other hand, another stress hold fartherinto the plastic regime, at σv' = 17 MPa, resulted in very little creepand no change in ah'.

Porosity

The initial porosity of this sample, using measured bulk densityand grain density of 52.1% from Bray and Karig (1986), is signifi-cantly greater than the 48%-49% porosities measured on board shipfor nearby samples. This might have reflected less-saturated condi-tions for our long-stored sample, but the water content of our sample(0.37) is significantly greater than those of the two shipboard meas-urements on cores from the same section, indicating that sampledehydration over the years was not the cause of an apparent porosityincrease. Moreover, this water content and wet volumes before andafter the test, together with measured grain density (Bray and Karig,1986), confirms that our samples were initially saturated.

The most reliable porosities during the test were obtained byback-calculation from the final conditions using measured volumestrains. These data show that the porosity at yield was 50.8% and thatthe porosity decrease from laboratory to yield states was 1.3%.Although the porosities measured on our sample differ from ship-

249

D.E. KARIG

10-

4 <> *T 10 12 14

Effective Vertical Stress (MPa)

16 18 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18


6 8 10

Vertical Strain (%)

12 14 16 18 4 6 8 10 12 14Effective Vertical Stress (MPa)

16 18

Figure 3. Representative relationships of mechanical parameters and physical properties for consolidation test (T-38) on Sample 582-63-2. The curves consist of

closely spaced data points. Yield stress (σc') and the several stress steps and holds are also indicated.

board values, our rebound value should be applicable because it is aporosity difference.

Permeability

Intergranular permeability was estimated during the initial satura-tion phase by recording the volume flow rate into the sample over a15-hr period during which the flow rate was constant. With a confin-ing pressure of 0.69 MPa and a differential pore pressure of 0.413MPa, the sample was near a mean stress of 0.5 MPa. The calculatedpermeability at that condition is 1.3 × I0"15 m2.

Sonic Velocity

A suite of 27 Vp measurements was collected during the saturation,reconsolidation, and consolidation phases of testing. The vertical seis-mic velocity through the sample at 1 bar (laboratory conditions) was1.692 km/s, which is significantly below the 1.82 km/s velocity re-corded on board ship for samples near that depth. Velocities in oursample show an initial rapid increase with axial stress, but this rate ofincrease becomes roughly constant at 0.13 km/s MPa to the yield stressor slightly above. In the plastic regime the velocity also increases withaxial stress, at a roughly constant but larger rate (0.24 km/s MPa).

Sample 87-582-73-1 (68-84 cm), 744 mbsf

Core 87-582-73, collected from the bottom of Hole 582B, is aslightly laminated hemipelagic silty clay, consisting of 37% clay

minerals, 44% quartz, 16% feldspar, and 2% calcite (Fig. 2). Nostructural features were mentioned in (Lundberg and Karig, 1986),but when opened, the sample had a low-angle (20°) fracture about100 mm above the base, with crude down-dip grooves. Attempts tosubsample the pieces caused two additional fractures to open, both ofwhich were approximately coplanar with the first and also with faintdown-dip grooves. Only a single short vertical subsample, approxi-mately 42 mm long, could be salvaged from this core.

Consolidation and Stress Ratio

Uniaxial reconsolidation of this sample produced a high qualitydata set, but the yield stress is less well-defined than that for theprevious sample. The principal reason for this is the nonlinearity ofthe pre-yield (reconsolidation) part of the curves (Fig. 4). Elasticbehavior should have produced linear σv'-εv and stress ratio curves,with relatively sharp changes in slope near the yield state. Thecombination of all relationships that should reflect the yield pointindicates that σv ' at yield is best estimated as 9.0 ± 0.5 MPa (Fig. 4).

The post-yield stress ratio was relatively constant between a σv 'of 12 and 13.5 MPa at a value of 1.23, which is far more than expectedfor a uniaxially consolidated sediment. Because of this anomalousvalue, a subsequent reconsolidation test with the same sample wasrun to see if this stress ratio would return to a more "normal" value athigher σv'. Due to an inadvertent shutdown of this test, the maximumσv ' of this second test was also only 13.5 MPa, but this time thepost-yield stress ratio (Å"o) was 0.887 (Fig. 4). A comparison of thetwo stress ratio curves shows that the second test has a more sharply

250


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14Effective Vertical Stress (MPa)

c/)

oN

O

I>

1LU

040

c•

Second Test First Test

c*

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14Effective Vertical Stress (MPa)

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5Vertical Strain (%)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14Effective Vertical Stress (MPa)

Figure 4. Representative relationships of mechanical parameters and physical properties for consolidation tests (T-36 and T-37) on Sample 582-73-1. The severalstress holds in these tests are discussed in the text.

defined yield stress, also near 9 MPa, with more linear pre-andpost-yield segments. At the maximum stress (13.5 MPa), the stressratios for both tests were identical.

During both tests several axial stress holds were inserted to exploresecondary consolidation (creep) and change of stress ratio as a func-tion of mechanical state. A 20-hr stress hold at σv' = 11 MPa, just intothe plastic regime of the first test, resulted in a 0.5-MPa increase inthe horizontal stress and significant axial strain (0.006). Upon re-sumption of axial stress increase, the axial strain and horizontal stresschanged very little until the curve intersected the interpolation of thegeneral curves. Several holds and steps in axial load were inserted inthe second test to explore this behavior further. In the elastic range(σ/ = 3 MPa and 5 MPa), stress holds produced very small amountsof creep but no change in stress ratio. Small inadvertent jumps in bothaxial and confining stress near σv ' of 6.5 MPa and 9 MPa, caused bya software error, produced offsets on the curve and local increases instress ratio, but values quickly returned to the general curve and arenot indicative of intrinsic mechanical behavior. A stress hold near σv '= 10.9 MPa, just into the plastic regime, resulted in creep and in anincrease in σA'.

Porosity

The initial porosity of this sample was determined using one ofthe subsamples that had cracked during preparation. Wet weight, wetvolume, and dry weight, together with a shipboard grain density of2.80 (Bray and Karig, 1986), demonstrated that the sample waseffectively saturated. The initial porosity of 50.1% is well above the

shipboard porosities of 46%^7% measured in cores from the samesection. The porosity at σ/ was 47.9%.

Permeability

This test included one of our first attempts to measure permeabilityand was of lower quality. The duration of this phase was too short(5 hr) and at the end still showed a decreasing flow rate. With a meanstress of 1.15 MPa and a differential pressure of 0.516 MPa, theminimum flow rate gave a permeability of 4.4 × I0"15 m2.

Sonic Velocity

Twenty sonic measurements were acquired during this test, but thefirst measurement was taken only after the sample had been put undera hydrostatic load of 1.0 MPa. A linear extrapolation of the velocitiesto 1 bar indicates a Vp of 1.78 krη/s. This is significantly lower than theshipboard measurements of 1.86-1.87 km/s in other samples of Core582-73 (Bray and Karig, 1986). Vp increased rapidly with increasingaxial stress to about 6 or 7 MPa, then more slowly to the yield stressand again more rapidly in the plastic regime. At the estimated σc' of9 MPa, Vp is about 1.98 km/s.

SAMPLES FROM SITE 808

The samples from Site 808 below the décollement are roughlycorrelative with those from Site 582 in that they both represent theupper clay-rich units of the Shikoku Basin strata, but the Site 808

251

D.E. KARIG

samples are slightly older. XRD analyses show that the bulk miner-alogy of this section is very similar at the two sites (Fig. 2).

Those samples from below the décollement at Site 808 are interpretedas having been uniaxially consolidated because of the very marked stressdiscontinuity at that zone, which has isolated the material beneath fromhorizontal tectonic stress (Taira, Hill, Firth, et al, 1991; Kang, et al.,1990). Therefore uniaxial (vertical) reconsolidation tests are probablyvalid reproduction of the stress history in the samples from below thedécollement. This is clearly not the case above the décollement, wherethe sediments have been deformed under plane strain conditions and themaximum principal stress is subhorizontal.

Sample 131-808C-74R-2 (114-130 cm), 1004.6 mbsf

This sample was the closest to (50 m beneath) the décollement ofthis series and was also used for ASR test 5 (Taira, Hill, Firth et al.,1991). It is a moderately bioturbated, hemipelagic clayey siltstonefrom Unit IVb of the Shikoku Basin, consisting of 31 % clay minerals,48% quartz, 15% feldspar, and 5% calcite (Fig. 2). As this was thefirst test of the series, a number of technical problems had yet to beovercome, including electronic noise problems with the LVDT's anda mechanical failure of the sonic system.


Both the stress ratio and axial stress-axial strain curves show quitelinear pre- and post-yield behavior, but the records, especially thestress ratio, are quite noisy because the apparent changes in cross-sectional area of the sample produced by the LVDT noise causedoscillations in the confining pressure (Fig. 5). Moreover, there is adata shift near a σ/ of 3.5 MPa because the output from the noisiestpair of LVDT's was removed from the algorithm for area calculationduring the test, giving a sudden small shift in area. Nevertheless, thecurves give reasonable and internally consistent results.

The yield stress is well defined near 2.9 MPa, which is extremelylow, considering the depth from which the sample was cored. Notonly the internal consistency of these curves but also the value of thepost-yield stress ratio indicate that the yield stress estimated in thistest is valid. The stress ratio in the plastic regime is 0.68, which is onlyslightly greater than that of the experimentally consolidated sediment(Fig. 5).

Porosity

The weight and dimensions of two subsamples of this core beforetesting gave an apparent bulk density of 2.15 g/cm3, which comparedfairly well with the shipboard value of 2.17 g/cm3 for samples in thesame section, but the initial porosity, using the grain density obtainedduring shipboard measurements, was 33 ± 0.06%, significantly lessthan the shipboard value of 36.5% (Taira, Hill, Firth, et al., 1991).Water content measurements on samples after testing, combined withshipboard grain densities, demonstrated that this core was initiallyeffectively saturated. The porosity at σc ' is approximately 30%-32%.An accurate determination is impossible because of inadequate con-trol of differential dimensional change during unloading.

Permeability

No attempt to measure permeability was made during this first testof the series.

Sonic Velocity

Because of broken electrical leads, followed by the failure of avoltage generator, no useful sonic measurements were made duringthis test.

Sample 131-808C-85R-1 (22-38 cm), 1098.3 mbsf

The sample from Core 131-8086-85R was the deepest sample ofthe series at Site 808 and was collected 150 m beneath the décolle-ment. It is a highly bioturbated, hemipelagic, clay-rich silt consistingof 37% clay minerals, 46% quartz, and 16% feldspar (Fig. 2). Thissample was also used for shipboard ASR test 6 (Taira, Hill, Firth, etal., 1991).


The consolidation stress for this test is difficult to pick because thepre-yield curves are not very linear and because a loose electricalcontact produced erratic signals near the anticipated yield state (Fig. 6).The stress response shows a pronounced change between a σv' of 5 and6 MPa on various plots, with the most sharply defined change on theplot of σ vs. σm' near σv' = 5.7 MPa. The consolidation stress (σ/) is5.5 ± 0.3 MPa, based on picks from all of the plots. After tightening ofthe loose connection, the output signals became stable and resulted indetermination of a stress ratio in the plastic field (Ko) of 0.60.

Porosity

This sample was effectively saturated before testing based on ourwater content and shipboard grain-density measurements combinedwith volumetric calculations. The initial porosity calculated from boththe initial bulk density and water content was 31.2%, far less than the34% shipboard figure measured on adjacent samples. The porosity atσ/ was 29.2%.

Permeability

The permeability determined during the saturation phase wasbased on a constant flow rate for over 10 hr and led to a calculatedvalue of k = 2.9A 10~16 m2 at a confining stress of 1 MPa and a pres-sure differential of 0.4 MPa.

Sonic Velocity

Twenty-eight compressional sonic velocities were run during thistest, from axial stresses of 0 to 10 MPa. Without stress, the velocitywas 1.858 km/s, only slightly less than the raw shipboard value (notcorrected for temperature effects). After a rapid rise in velocity withaxial stress to about 1 MPa, the velocity rose more slowly to about2.11 km/s at an assumed yield stress of 5.5 MPa and continued intothe plastic regime with no obvious change in slope.

INTERPRETATION

The most striking general observation to be drawn from these testsis that the mechanical response of the samples tested from Site 582 isvery different from that of the samples from below the décollementat Site 808 (Fig. 7), despite their similar mineralogy and grain-sizedistribution. Test results from samples at Site 582 display a sharpbreak in all variables near the yield state and had apparently anoma-lous post-yield behavior. Results from samples at Site 808 show noneof the anomalous post-yield behavior and are quite similar to testresults from experimentally consolidated silty clays. In addition, thesamples from Site 582 have higher constrained moduli than those atSite 808, particularly when the much higher porosities of the formerare taken into consideration (Fig. 8). Sharp differences in the relation-ship between seismic velocity and stress of the two groups can alsobe interpreted as a reflection of different elastic stiffnesses.

Elastic Behavior

The test samples respond elastically during the pre-yield stresspath, particularly after the initially more compliant response that

252


2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Effective Vertical Stress (MPa)

11 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Efffective Vertical Stress (MPa)

3 4 5 6 7 8 9Effective Mean Stress (MPa) Effective Vertical Stress (MPa)

Figure 5. Representative relationships of mechanical parameters and physical properties for consolidation test (T-33) on Sample 808-74-2. The large increase invertical strain and void ratio at σ v ' = 1.5 MPa represents dewatering after the initial stress step. The offset in σ at σm ' = 2.7 MPa was a result of removal of oneLVDT signal (see text for details).

reflects the "settling" of the LVDT's and the closing of microcracks.Although the uniaxial strain of these tests precludes the direct meas-urement of Young's modulus (E), the axial stress/axial strain ratioduring this phase, which is termed the constrained modulus (Ec), alsoprovides a measure of compressional stiffness. Better values of Ec

could be generated by cycling the axial stress through a part of theelastic regime, but the data obtained during the single loading pathare sufficient for approximate and comparative values. That there wasvery little axial strain (creep) during stress holds in the elastic regimealso supports the validity of these as elastic constants.

Magnitudes of Ec for the samples tested from Site 582 are onlyslightly greater than those from Site 808, but the porosities of samplesfrom Site 582 are much higher (Fig. 8). When Ec for both sites isplotted against porosity (η), together with values of Ec from theexperimentally consolidated sediment and with the slope of thisrelationship for typical clay-rich sediments, it becomes obvious thatthe sediments tested from Site 582 are much suffer than those fromSite 808, which are only slightly suffer than the experimentallyconsolidated mudstone at similar porosities. The much greater stiff-ness of the sediments from Site 582 will be shown to have majoreffects on the consolidation behavior as well as on Vp.

Yield and Consolidation Behavior

Perhaps the most striking difference between the mechanicalbehavior of samples from the two sites occurred at the yield state and

during the initial post-yield stress path. The samples from Site 582are mildly to moderately overconsolidated whereas those frombeneath the décollement at Site 808 are strongly underconsoli-dated, at least on the basis of yield stresses. The reference stateagainst which sample consolidation is compared is the maximumeffective vertical stress to which that sample had been subjected,assuming that pore-fluid pressures were hydrostatic. At both sitesthe depth of core recovery is almost certainly the maximum depthto which the sample had been buried, but σv*' at that depth is notnecessarily the maximum to which the sample has been subjectedbecause pore pressures may have since increased. This is probablythe case at Site 808 (see below).

Another, less precise measure of consolidation state is providedby a comparison of the sample porosity with that of a similar naturalsediment subjected to cvh' at the same depth. In this case a highersample porosity implies underconsolidation and excess pore pres-sure. A combination of both approaches for the test samples revealsa complex, apparently contradictory picture of consolidation state atboth sites.

The consolidation state for the samples from Site 582 was firstdetermined from a comparison of the yield stress in the tests with cvh'.The value of cvh' was calculated by integrating the bulk densityupward from the sample depth to the sediment surface and subtractingthe pressure due to a column of pore fluid of the same height:

avh = 8] (Pè- Pw) z, or approximately: gZ(pè _ p J z. (1)

2>3

D.E. KARIG

u> c

5

o

I 3I 2

•j

J*

Exp. Mdttn

/ /r :

808-85-

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Effective Vertical Stress (MPa)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10


3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Effective Mean Stress (MPa)

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Effective Vertical Stress (MPa)11

Figure 6. Representative relationships of mechanical parameters and physical properties for consolidation test (T-39) on Sample 582-85-1 and for a similar test onan analogous mudstone previously consolidated to σv ' = 6 MPa.

For Sample 582-63, σvh' is thus calculated to be about 5.6 ± 0.2MPa, which is significantly less than the estimated value of σ/ = 6.9MPa. On the same basis, Sample 582-73 is more overconsolidated,with σv/l' = 6.4 ± 0.2 MPa and σ/ = 9.0 ± 0.5 MPa.

In contrast to the overconsolidation suggested by σc', the porosityof both samples tested from Site 582 are far greater than those of theexperimentally consolidated mudstone or of typical mudstones at thesame stress or depth (Fig. 9). These anomalously high porositieswould imply that the samples from Site 582 were highly undercon-solidated, with overpressures of about 6 MPa for Core 582-63 and8 MPa for Core 582-73. If valid, this porosity-stress correlation alsoleads to values for σv*' of about 2 MPa at the sample depths.

This is not an anomaly restricted to the two samples tested, becausemost of the upper Shikoku Basin sequence at Site 582 displays thesehigh porosities (Fig. 10, and Bray and Karig, 1986). Bray and Karig(1988) attributed the downward increase in porosity of about 5%, fromthe base of the trench-fill strata into the Shikoku Basin hemipelagites,to a pore pressure gradient resulting from drainage of the overpressuredhemipelagites into the more permeable trench-fill strata. However, thisoverpressure was estimated to be only about 1 MPa above hydrostaticin the section from which the samples were recovered based upon ananalysis using the consolidation equation (Bray and Karig, 1988).

The mechanical behavior of the samples from Site 582 at stress levelsabove the yield state was complex, as illustrated by plots of σA' vs. σv'and σ vs. m ' (Fig. 7). Instead of showing simple, bilinear trends on theσh' vs. σ/ plot, as do the experimental mudstones and those from Site 808,the stress ratios for samples from Site 582 increase to values far above

the Ko value expected for a plastic response. The test on Core 582-63,which was continued to an axial stress far above σ/, showed that thestress ratio decreased to Ko and remained constant as σv' increased. Inretrospect it is clear that the tests on Core 582-73 were not continued tohigh-enough values of σv'.

On plots of σ vs. σm', which have become a common method ofillustrating stress paths for porous sediments, test results for samplesfrom Site 582 show the stress paths to have risen far above that forKo consolidation before converging with the Ko line (Fig. 7). Over thepost-yield stress range there is also a sharp increase in εv or equiva-lently, a decrease in porosity on these tests.

Such post-yield responses suggest that the samples from Site 582have a component of strength in excess of that imparted by mechani-cal consolidation. Furthermore, this excess strength is apparentlybeing destroyed in the post-yield stress range as the sample returns toa simple plastic response similar to that of the experimentally con-solidated mudstone. This interpretation is supported by the largevertical creep and increase in σA' during stress holds in the post-yieldstress range, which also suggests breakdown of conditions supportingthe excess strength.

This behavior, and the apparently contradictory consolidationstates for the samples from Site 582, can be explained by the effectof "cementation" on the measured yield stress. In this sense cemen-tation refers to processes such as secondary mineralization and elec-trochemical effects in clays as well as deposition of a matrix materialand is equivalent to "structure" as used in geotechnical literature (e.g.,Burland, 1990). In the samples from Site 582, cementation probably

254


2.0

4 6 8 10 12 14Effective Vertical Stress (MPa)

i ' Exp. Mudstone

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5E f f e c t i v e Mean Stress (MPa)

Figure 7. Comparative plots of σ vs. σm' and σh' vs. σ v ' for samplesfrom Sites 582 and 808 and for an experimentally consolidated mudstoneof similar mineralogy. These plots illustrate that the experimentallyconsolidated mudstone is quite similar in mechanical response during theelastic and post-yield stress paths to samples from Site 808, but is quitedifferent from the samples from Site 582. All samples have remarkablysimilar stress paths when fully plastic.

results from secondary (authigenic) phyllosilicates at grain contacts(Knipe, 1986).

This cement increases the yield strength and stiffness of a sedimentwithout significantly reducing its porosity. To some extent, cementa-tion inhibits consolidation so that, even with hydrostatic pore pres-sure, porosities of natural mudstones, which are generally incipientlycemented, are somewhat higher than that of their experimentallyconsolidated analogs (Fig. 9). However, the samples from Site 582have far higher porosities than typical mudstones at an equivalent σvh'and must reflect some excess pore pressure. Thus, in these samplesthe effects of high pore pressure and of cementation oppose each otherin affecting the yield stress, but the increase due to cementation hasovercompensated for the reduction that should have resulted from theexcess pore pressure. The opposing effects of high pore pressure andof cementation on σ/ are not separable by consolidation tests alone,but qualitative discrimination between them is provided by the shapeof the stress path on plots of σ vs. σm'.

In contrast to the behavior of samples from Site 582, samples frombeneath the décollement at Site 808 show no excess strength attribut-able to cementation and show values of σc ' significantly less than ovh'.Core 131-808C-74R, taken at a depth of about 1000 mbsf, and 50 mbeneath the décollement, has a σ/ of 2.9 MPa, whereas σvh' at thatposition is about 9.2 MPa (Fig. 5). Core 131-808C-85R was collected

1.5-

Q.i .0-

0 . 5 -

0.00,0 0.2 0.3

Porosity0.4 0.5 0.6

Figure 8. Plot of constrained modulus (£c) vs. porosity (η) for samples fromSites 582 and 808 and also from samples of experimentally consolidatedmudstone (Kang and Hou, 1992). The diagonal line is a general relationshipbetween Ec and η derived from data of Evans et al. (1989) and Kulhawy (1975).

at a depth 100 m greater and shows less extreme apparent undercon-solidation; σc ' for that sample was 5.5 MPa in contrast to σvh

f ofapproximately 10.4 MPa (Fig. 6).

Plots of results from both tests are qualitatively similar to those ofthe experimentally consolidated mudstone in that there were noanomalous responses in the post-yield stress range. The results fromCore 131-808C-74R were even quantitatively similar to the experi-mental mudstone (Fig. 7). In addition, Ec for both these samples wasonly moderately greater than that of the experimental mudstone andfar less than the extrapolated value for Site 582 (Fig. 8). Theseobservations suggest a very low level of cementation in the samplestested from Site 808 and would imply that their underconsolidatedstate reflects high fluid pressures.

Ironically, the porosities of these samples are far less than thosefrom Site 582, both absolutely and relative to σvA', as shown on a plotof porosity vs. σv' (Fig. 9). In comparison with a typical mudstone atthe same cvh', these samples are slightly underconsolidated, with over-pressures of about 1 MPa, significantly less than are implied by σ/.

Porosity0.3 0.4 0.5 0-6

Figure 9. Porosity vs. σ v ' for the samples from Sites 582 and 808, for theexperimentally consolidated mudstone (from Karig and Hou, 1992), and fortypical natural mudstone sections (from Hamilton, 1979 and Busch, 1989).The bars for the test samples show the relationships among the observed σ/,the calculated Gvh' at the sample depth, and the estimated σv*', all at theappropriate porosities.

255

D.E. KARIG

500

5JO

1000-

1500

.Trench Fill (808)

Trench Fill (582)

582

Dθcollement (808)

20 40 60

porosity (%)

80 100

Figure 10. Porosity vs. depth relationships at Site 582 (from Bray and Kang,1986) and Site 808 (from Taira, Hill, Firth, et al., 1991), with the positions ofrelevant geologic boundaries. The data are not corrected for porosity reboundand represent primarily mudstones.

Yet another possible estimate of the consolidation state beneaththe décollement at Site 808 might be made by comparison of σvA' inthese samples with that of mudstones above the décollement that havethe same porosity (Fig. 10). The difference in σvh' might then beattributed to the additional load from sedimentation and tectonicthickening after drainage from the lower strata had become blocked.If so, this difference in σvft' would be equivalent to an excess porepressure. Unfortunately, this approach is not valid because the sedi-ments above the décollement have reached failure or at least havebeen subjected to higher differential stresses than those below. Suchstress states result in lower porosities than do Ko stresses at the sameσm' (e.g., Atkinson and Bransby, 1978; Kang, 1990). Thus to some asyet unquantified extent, the downward porosity increase across thedécollement is a result of differing stress states, although higher porepressure below that stress boundary is also a likely contributor.

The consolidation states derived from porosity data of the samplestested from Site 808 are, in reality, compatible with those based onmeasurements of σ/ if the effects of both excess pore pressure and lossof cementation are considered. The porosity in Core 131-808C-85R,which is the easier of the two tests to explain, is compatible withhydrostatic consolidation to a depth of about 700 m. This depthestimate would increase if higher pore pressures were assumed. Thissample was recovered 150 m beneath the décollement, the tip of whichpropagates seaward at a depth of 600 to 650 m (Moore et al., 1991).Thus the porosity could be explained by hydrostatic or slightly higherpore pressures during consolidation until the sample passed beneaththe tip of the décollement, at which point drainage effectively ceased.Cessation of drainage does not preclude flow of fluid beneath thedécollement, but only that no net loss of fluid occur.

The depth of consolidation in Core 31-808 C-8SR implied by σ/,assuming hydrostatic pore pressure, is about the same or slightly less

(600 m) than that suggested by porosity. If this difference is notattributable merely to a lack of accuracy it could reflect slight "de-structuring." Destructuring is the destruction of cementation, ob-served in some clays (Leroueil and Vaughan, 1990), that reduces σ/toward that of a totally unstructured or uncemented sediment. Destruc-turing is attributed to natural or human-induced sample disturbance, orapplication of stress states below the yield state (Leroueil and Vaughan,1990; Burland, 1990). If the η - σv' curve for typical natural mudstonescan be assumed to be a reference for the mudstones at Site 808, Figure 9indicates that the sample from Core 131-8O8C-85R may have beenslightly destructured.

The consolidation of the sample from Core 131-808C-74R can beexplained in a similar manner, but a much greater degree of destruc-turing is implied. The estimation of depth at maximum consolidationbased on porosity is about 600 m, again a bit shallower than the depthof the tip of the décollement plus the depth of the sample below thedécollement, and could reflect some overpressure before drainagewas blocked. The value of 2.9 MPa for σc ' is compatible with theobserved porosity (Fig. 9) if destructuring were effectively complete,as is suggested by the lack of cementation reflected in the test results(Figs. 5 and 7).

The destructuring of samples from Site 808 is not thought to be aresult of handling because samples from Site 582, which had beenstored for many years, showed no such destructuring. It is more likelythat the destructuring was natural, such as might have been producedby isotropic stress oscillations (Leroueil and Vaughan, 1990). Theoscillations might have been caused by pulses of pore fluid movingalong the décollement and diffusing outward. This scenario could alsoexplain why destructuring is more nearly complete for the samplecloser to the décollement.

Whatever the cause for destructuring, if it has occurred naturallyin the samples from Site 808, σ/ from the tests provide upper boundsfor σv*' (Fig. 9). No lower bound for σv*' can be deduced from theexperimental data because the minimum value of σc ' possible is thatassociated with a totally unstructured, uncemented mudstone; porepressures could be even higher, and thus σv ' lower, leaving nopermanent record in the sediment.

Plastic Regime

A plastic or "virgin" response seems to have been generated duringboth tests at Site 808 and the test on Core 582-63 as marked by constantstress ratios, or Ko values. Ko ranged from 0.60 to 0.68 in these tests(Figs. 3,5, and 6) and compares closely with the 0.62 to 0.64 values forthe experimentally consolidated mudstone (Fig. 7). Such KQ values aretypical for mudstones and shales and appear to be constant over a largerange of applied vertical stress (Kang and Hou, 1992).

On the other hand, the porosities of the samples from Site 582,particularly the sample from Core 582-63, which is assumed tobehave plastically, are still far greater than those of the experimentallyconsolidated mudstone at the same stress levels (Fig. 9). One probablecause of this difference is that only the central sections of the sampleshave become fully plastic because of the frictional "end effects" ofthe platens (Peng, 1971). The rapid, quasilinear vertical strain ob-served during the final stages of this test also suggests that porositieswere decreasing toward those of their uncemented analogs (Fig. 3).Support for the validity of the observed Ko values despite this porositybehavior is provided by stress holds in this regime, which show nochange in σA' but significant vertical strain.

Determination of the in-situ value of σA' remains an importantobjective in the study of stress in the crust. Even for the simple caseof uniaxial consolidation, as approximated in basins, <5h

r and Ko arenot well constrained. Estimates of ch' at the in-situ value of σv ' fromthe tests on samples from Sites 582 and 808 might provide an estimateof the in-situ value of σA'. Values of oh' at σ/ during reconsolidationtests on the experimentally consolidated mudstone are very close tothose during the initial consolidation. However, there is a serious

256


question as to whether or not sediments, especially clays, behaveviscoelastically over geologic time and tend toward an isotropic stressstate (e.g., Warpinski et al, 1985). Moreover, the effect of cementationon Ko is not known. The values of σA' at σ/ for all the samples testedfrom the Nankai Trough are significantly less than Ko, with the valuefor the sample from Core 131-8O8C-73R being the highest (0.55).Thus, if viscoelastic effects were not significant, cementation duringconsolidation would appear to reduce the value of Ko, but this assump-tion must still be justified by in-situ testing.

Porosity Rebound

Porosity rebound has been an important but seldom analyzedfactor in relating lab data to in-situ or logging values. Logging valuesof η have tended to be accepted as accurate (e.g., Nobes, 1991, Jarrardet al., 1989), but these can be significantly affected by the assumedgrain density and mineralogy (e.g., Plumb et al, 1991). Until sucheffects are better evaluated, it would seem judicious to comparelogging values with rebound-corrected shipboard values of η.

Porosity rebound for experimentally consolidated, uncementedmudstones increases with increasing σ/ and approaches 10% at σ/of 35 MPa (Karig and Hou, 1992). The most commonly cited data setfor naturally consolidated mudstones is that of Hamilton (1976),which shows rebound to rise to more than 9% near σ/ = 5 MPa andthen decrease with increasing σ/ (Fig. 11). This pattern of porosityrebound was interpreted as the combined result of elastic and inelasticvolume increase, with the elastic component decreasing as Young'smodulus increases (Karig and Hou, 1992). Thus, increasing cemen-tation will decrease the elastic rebound, although its effect on theinelastic component is not well known.

Porosity rebound for all the natural samples of the test series wasfar less than those found by Hamilton (1976). Rebound values dependon the validity of the estimated σv*', but because porosity changesvery slowly between the crack-closing stress (~l MPa) and σc\ evena general estimate of the in-situ stress is sufficient for an adequaterebound value. Samples from Site 582 have rebound values of <1%,whereas those from Site 808 have values of about 2%. The reason forthe large differences between these and the values of Hamilton (1976)will require further careful measurements of both rebound and asso-ciated elastic moduli of natural mudstones.

Seismic Velocities

The velocity of seismic waves in porous sediments are dependenton the porosity, lithology, and elastic moduli of those sediments.Seismic velocities are also affected by pressure at which the measure-ments are made, and shipboard values should be corrected beforecomparison with log or other in-situ velocity measurements.

Measurements of Vp in our lab during tests having various stress pathshave indicated that Vp is primarily responsive to stress in the directionof wave propagation, which is σv ' in this study. Vp in all our testsincreased sharply with increased axial stress at low stresses (from0 MPa to 2 or 3 MPa). This is a widely observed phenomenon andis attributed to closing of microcracks (e.g., Bourbie et al., 1987).Plots of Vp vs. σv ' for uncemented, experimentally consolidatedmudstone show a single quasilinear relationship through that part ofthe elastic regime above the crack-closing stress into the plastic,consolidation regime (Fig. 12). For the sample from Core 131-8O8C-85R, the slope of Vpl σv' appears to decrease slightly throughout thisrange. Velocities are lower than for the experimental mudstone,reflecting the effect of the higher porosity of samples from Site 808,but the basic Vp- σv ' patterns are similar.

The measurements on samples from Site 582, on the other hand,show a bilinear relationship, with a lower Vp/σv' slope through theelastic regime (above the crack-closing stress range) and slightly intothe plastic regime (Fig. 12). Over the rest of the plastic regime tested,this slope became significantly higher.

Hamilton (1976) Hou (1988

15 20 25

σv'(MPa)30 40

Figure 11. Porosity rebound for samples of this test series together withrebound curves for natural mudstones from Hamilton (1976) and for theexperimentally consolidated mudstone from Karig and Hou (1992). Reboundfor the samples is taken from the estimated σv*' rather than from σc', but thedifferences are small. The arrows on the data points for Site 808 reflect thepossibility that the tests provide only upper bounds for σv'.

Another perspective on the seismic velocities is obtained fromVp - r\ plots of individual tests (Fig. 13). The samples from Site 808and those consolidated experimentally show near-linear curves withslopes of η vs. Vp near 0.11 s/km over the entire stress rangeinvestigated. The samples from Site 582, on the other hand, show asharp increase in slope at or near σc'. At stresses below σ/, the slopeis very small (0.02 s/km) and constant, even in the crack-closingregime, but above σ/ this slope increases dramatically.

Clearly Vp in these mudstones is responding to some factor otherthan η, and this factor is most likely the component of elastic stiffnessinduced by cementation. In the stress range of elastic response, thehigher values of E in the samples from Site 582 produce similarvelocities at higher porosities, or conversely, much higher velocitiesat similar porosities. Furthermore, the velocities in the cementedsamples increase faster with decreasing porosity, reflecting the domi-nance of increasing elastic stiffness over decreasing porosity anddensity. Most likely, the apparent decrease in the dependence of Vp

on η at stresses above σ/ in the samples from Site 582 reflects thedestruction of cementation during deformation through the plasticregime and loss of the cementation-induced stiffness. This loss ofcementation would also account for the more rapid decrease in η seenin these samples in the plastic regime. This more rapid reduction inη, on the other hand, does cause a more rapid increase in velocitywhen plotted against σv' (Fig. 13).

The increase in Vp from lab conditions to σ/ ranged from 0.18 to0.25 km/s (Table 1). The corrections to the estimated in-situ stress areabout 0.10 km/s for samples from Site 582 and 0.20 km/s for thesample from Core 131-8O8C-85R. These velocity measurementsprovide a pressure correction for the shipboard measurements towardtheir in-situ values, but do not take into account possible effects ofthe difference in temperature between laboratory and in-situ condi-tions. Such temperature corrections are usually assumed to be muchsmaller than the pressure corrections and in the opposite direction(Bourbie et al., 1987; Timur, 1977), but the Vp data of Leg 131 (Taira,Hill, Firth et al., 1991) were presented with large positive temperaturecorrections. The apparent assumption behind these corrections is thatthe increase in Vp of the saline pore fluid with temperature (e.g.,Mackenzie, 1981) dominates the effect.

There is very little information available concerning the effect oftemperature on Vp in sediments of high (>25%) porosity. Measure-

257

D.E. KARIG

2.6

2.4-

1.60 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18


Figure 12. Comparative Vp vs. σv ' data from tests on samples from Sites 582and 808, and from the experimentally consolidated mudstone. Velocities weremeasured in the vertical direction.

ments by Timur (1977) and Wang and Nur (1990) are the mostapplicable and show that an increase in temperature decreases Vp inthe mineral component but that this effect decreases with an increasein porosity. There are no data for mudstones of high porosities, butsandstones with porosities as high as 37% still have a moderatelynegative temperature correction (Wang and Nur, 1990).

Values of Vp at the estimated in-situ stress provide information forconstruction of a velocity-porosity relationship, which not only per-mits estimation of in-situ porosity from seismic data, but also revealsmore about the effect of cementation on the elastic properties of thesediment. Despite the present paucity of data points, there is a cleardifference in the velocity-porosity relationships between the samplesfrom Sites 582 and 808. The estimated in-situ Vp for the samples fromSite 582 lie on or slightly above the η vs. Vp curve of Hamilton (1978),which appears to be applicable to natural mudstones (Fig. 14). Anin-situ Vp from Core 131-808C-85R as well as one from a test usingCore 131-808C-74R that was aborted before reaching σc ' both lie wellbelow the Hamilton curve. From the few seismic data from the testsit would appear that the mudstones from Site 582 are more nearlytypical than are those from beneath the décollement at Site 808, inagreement with the mechanical responses of these samples.

DISCUSSION AND SPECULATIONS

The results of this series of tests on mudstones from the NankaiTrough have implications both for the state of stress at Site 808 andfor the mechanical behavior of natural mudstones in general. Al-though the test results do not provide unambiguous values of thein-situ vertical stress they do offer constraints, not only for the stresspath during consolidation in the trench wedge but also for that part ofthe path followed by the sediments as they pass beneath the décolle-ment. The basic assumption in this exercise is that the behavior of thenatural mudstones of the tests can be compared with that of typical

oQ_

0.55-

0.50-

0.45-

0.40-

0.35-

0.30-

0?5-

• m ***** .

Φ

606-65• •

E×p. Mdstn

*

• • •r

1.60 1.65 1.70 1.75 1.80 1.85 1.90 1.95 2.00 2.05 2.10 2.15 2.20 2.25

\£(km/s)

Figure 13. Comparative Vp vs. η data from tests on samples from Sites 582 and808, and from the experimentally consolidated mudstone. Velocities weremeasured in the vertical direction.

mudstones, and that our experimentally consolidated mudstone canbe viewed as a destructured reference sediment for all the naturalmudstones. Aspects of this broad assumption are supported by thesimilarity of the test samples with the experimental analog over theplastic stress path and by at least some similarities between samplesfrom Site 582 and typical mudstones.

The evidence for fluid overpressure at Site 582 suggests that theconsolidation of the relatively impermeable Shikoku Basin mudstonesis associated with pore pressures well above hydrostatic. The overpres-sure at the depths of the two samples can be estimated if the porosity-σ/relationship for typical natural mudstones can be used as a reference;from these estimates the relative overpressure can be calculated.

Overpressures at Site 582 increase downward from about 5 MPaat 644 mbsf to about 6 MPa at 744 mbsf. Although these values aresignificantly greater than those found using solutions to the consoli-dation equation (Bray and Karig, 1988), those solutions also involveserious assumptions. The downward increase in overpressure is logi-cal if the boundary with the overlying, more highly permeable trench-fill strata permits easy upward drainage.

The relative overpressure, or λ (using the definition of Davis etal., 1983), is

λ = (gpw Az + Overpressure)^ pbAz (2)

For Core 582-63 at 644 mbsf, λ ~ 0.85, and for Core 582-73, λ ~0.83. These values are probably upper bounds, whereas the 0.6 to 0.65values of Bray and Karig (1988) might be close to a lower bound, ifthese samples were anomalously well cemented. In any case, the upperShikoku mudstones at Site 582 are almost certainly overpressured.

It is not clear whether consolidation of the Shikoku Basin mudstonesat Site 808 beneath the load of the trench-fill was accompanied by similaroverpressures. The porosity of these samples is much lower than that atSite 582, even after the effects of tectonic thickening and differences indepth at maximum consolidation stress are taken into account. Further-more, when these effects are removed, the porosities of the samplesfrom Site 808 are much like those of typical natural mudstones atsimilar depths (Figs. 9, 15). Both observations suggest that overpres-sures were much less than at Site 582 during loading by the trench-fill,although there is no obvious reason why this should be so.

The samples from below the décollement at Site 808 representpoints now further along the stress path, and show evidence of largefluid overpressure (Fig. 15). The constant thickness and velocitythrough the section beneath the décollement from the tip to Site 808(Moore et al., 1991) argues for an effectively undrained behavior

258


0.7

0 . 6 ••

Site 808

1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1

Velocity (km/s)2.2 2.3 2.4

Figure 14. Seismic velocity vs. estimated in-situ porosity data from tests onsamples from Sites 582 and 808, together with the Vp vs. η relationship formudstone sections from Hamilton (1979).

(Fig. 15). If this were the only effect on the pore fluid, then, despitethe increase in σv σv*' would remain unchanged, and without cemen-tation, σ/ ~ σv*'. This is approximately the case for the deeper of thetwo samples, where σc ' is only slightly less than avh' would be for adepth about 150 m beneath the tip of the décollement.

For the sample from Core 131-808C-74R, however, σc ' is far lessthan σvA' at the equivalent depth beneath the tip. This low value isinterpreted as an effect of destructuring, or destruction of cement bysub-yield stress oscillations. These oscillations could possibly bevariations in pore-fluid pressure, caused by pulses of high-pressurefluid traveling up the décollement and diffusing outward (Karig, etal., 1990).

Values of λ can be calculated from the two tests at Site 808, butthese would be minimal, for the reasons discussed earlier. For thesample from Core 131-8O8C-85R, λ > 0.75, and for the sample fromCore 131-808C-74R, λ > 0.90. It is quite likely that λ becomes evengreater toward the décollement and may approach 1.0 in that zone.This would explain the apparent complete stress discontinuity acrossthe décollement.

The behavior of vertically propagated Vp in this test series alsoreflects the differences in mechanical response between samples fromthe two sites, due largely to differences in "cementation." As has beenrecognized elsewhere (e.g., Hamilton, 1979), very subtle cementationcan greatly increase seismic velocities in mineralogically uniformstrata without significantly affecting porosity. This effect not onlycalls for caution in application of a single velocity-porosity functionto a region, but it also implies that local variations in cementation cancreate velocity contrasts and anomalies.

In conclusion, these tests have illustrated the complex mechanicalbehavior of naturally consolidated mudstones in contrast to that oftheir experimentally consolidated analogs. Elucidation of these com-plexities requires more care in the design of test programs and in dataanalysis than has generally been the case for reconsolidation tests inthe ODP. In particular, conventional uniaxial consolidation (odome-ter) tests without measurements of σA' are seriously limited in theirability to discriminate between the effects of cementation and fluidoverpressure on σc'. This problem is exacerbated for low porosity,less cemented sediments for which the slope-break marking σ/ onplots of εv vs. σ/ can be extremely difficult to discern.

Despite the lack of success in the downhole measurements pro-gram at Site 808, the structural, physical properties, and experimentaldeformation data on cores has been able to provide some constraintson the mechanical behavior at the toe of the Nankai prism. Correlationand integration of these post-cruise investigations should furthertighten these constraints. These studies will certainly allow future

Position

Figure 15. Summary diagram of vertical stresses along the flow line followedby test samples 808-74 beneath the décollement to Site 808. The graphconceptually shows the interpreted changes in σc\ cvh', and σv* along theflow line.

investigations of this fascinating tectonic environment to be betterfocused and more efficient.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I particularly appreciate the engineering support from GeorgeHade, without whom the test equipment wouldn't have functioned.Cindy Bray and Juli Morgan helped respectively in developing soft-ware and in monitoring tests. Mike Underwood graciously ran theXRD analyses of the samples and, finally, Kevin Brown and TerryMiller provided critical and useful reviews of the manuscript. Thework was supported by funds from the National Science Foundationthrough the U.S. Science Support Program associated with the OceanDrilling Program and NSF Grant EAR8720754.

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Date of initial receipt: 30 September 1991Date of acceptance: 29 April 1992Ms 131SR-127

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