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2001 Global School Feeding Baseline Study Preliminary Report

2001 School Feeding Baseline Results

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Table of Contents

Preface 1 Part I: Survey Background ............................3 Setting the scene ..............................................3

An historic perspective............................................3 The rationale behind School Feeding......................5 The rationale behind baseline studies .....................6 Programme objectives...........................................6 Identifying adequate indicators.............................6 Indicator data requirements..................................7 Data Sources.........................................................7 Survey Unit and Sample frame..............................7 Sample size............................................................7 Stratification and desegregation of data...............7

School Feeding Baseline Surveys 2001 ..........8 Programme objectives.............................................8 Identifying adequate indicators ...............................8 Survey Unit and Sample Frame ............................12 Sample size ...........................................................13 Implementation methodology ...............................15 Field test..............................................................15 Data collection....................................................16 Quality control ....................................................16 Data entry ...........................................................16 Data analysis ......................................................17

The future 18 Part II: Survey Results .................................19 Introduction to Results .................................19 Global Results................................................22 Africa 25

Cameroon..............................................................28 Chad ......................................................................31 Cote d'Ivoire..........................................................33 Ethiopia.................................................................36 Ghana ....................................................................39 Guinea...................................................................42 Kenya ....................................................................45 Mozambique .........................................................48 Tanzania................................................................51 The Gambia...........................................................54 Uganda ..................................................................57

Latin America................................................60 Bolivia...................................................................63 Colombia...............................................................65 Dominican Republic .............................................68 El Salvador............................................................71 Honduras ...............................................................74 Nicaragua ..............................................................77 Peru .......................................................................80

Asia 83 Bhutan .................................................................. 86 Cambodia ............................................................. 89 Nepal .................................................................... 92 Pakistan ................................................................ 95 Tajikistan.............................................................. 98

Annex 1. Rationale behind indicators,... 101 Annex 2. School Feeding Baseline Survey

Questionnaire .......................... 109 Annex 3. Revised Baseline Survey:

Primary schools ....................... 113 Annex 4. Baseline Data ........................... 133

Bibliography....................................................... 148


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Preface Beginning in September 2001, the World Food Programme’s School Feeding Unit organised and coordinated the implementation of School Feeding Baseline Surveys in twenty-three countries. This is a preliminary report that presents some of the most salient indicators of the status of primary school education in schools with and without existing school feeding programmes, as captured by those surveys. Follow-up Evaluation surveys are currently underway in the twenty-three countries in which the 2001 Baseline Survey was conducted, and their results will be presented in extended form in a final report that will be made available towards the end of summer 2003. With the goal of sharing current - and future - WFP school feeding results with the widest audience possible, this report is presented for readers already familiar with school-feeding and baseline survey activities, as well as for those who are not. The report aims to provide a brief historical and theoretical perspective that explains how the value of school feeding, as an effective means of improving children’s participation in primary education, has developed over time. It also provides background information on the rationale and general methodology behind conducting baseline surveys, thus setting the scene for a detailed description of the methodology and implementation details that defined the 2001 School Feeding Baseline exercise. Readers already familiar with school feeding and baseline surveys may wish to proceed directly to this section. A rapid glance at other, related School Feeding activities and plans for the future closes Part I of the report, and leads the reader into Part II, where survey results are presented.

Following an introduction on the rationale behind the indicators selected for inclusion in this report, results are then presented at global, regional and country levels. Where possible, data are also presented in graphic form, and are accompanied by brief interpretative descriptions. Closing annexes contain details of materials referenced throughout the text.


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Part I: Survey Background Setting the scene An historic perspective This section intends to provide a brief overview of the social, cultural and political events that have given rise to the now global commitment to ensuring universal primary education. 1948 In 1948, through the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed that all nations should strive, through teaching and education, to promote respect for the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family, that are the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world. Among these, is the right to elementary and fundamental education1. 1990 Despite global commitment and efforts, in 1990, more than 100 million children, including at least 60 million girls, still had no access to primary schooling, and more than 960 million adults, two-thirds of whom were women, were illiterate. The World Conference on Education for All in Jomtien, Thailand (5-9 March 1990) adjourned with a resolution to universalise primary education and massively reduce illiteracy before the end of the decade through the World Declaration on Education for All2. The Jomtien Declaration went beyond restating a global commitment. It outlined the numerous focus areas that were, and continue to be today, fundamental for sustainable education initiatives. Article VI, on Enhancing the Environment for learning, states:

“Learning does not take place in isolation. Societies, therefore, must ensure that all learners receive the nutrition, health care, and general physical and emotional support they need in order to participate actively in and benefit from their education.”

Articles VII, VIII and IX proceed to state the importance of wide-spread support for

education through partnerships, policy and resource mobilisation: “… When we speak of "an expanded vision and a renewed commitment", partnerships are at the heart of it.” (Art. VII) “If the basic learning needs of all are to be met … it will be essential to mobilize existing and new financial and human resources, public, private and voluntary.” (Art. IX) 1996 Within six years an estimated fifty million more children were enrolled in primary school, and the number of out-of-school children had declined by 20 million3. The Mid-Decade Conference held in Amman Jordan in 1996, noted the achievements, but raised awareness with regards to the necessity for accurate, detailed reporting on results. This lead to the launching of a global exercise in 1998 that was the most comprehensive study ever made of basic education. Later called the EFA 2000 Assessment, it involved over 180 countries worldwide, and was carried out by ten regional advisory groups, comprising UN agencies the World Bank, bilateral donor agencies, development banks and inter-governmental organizations. Assessment objectives were geared at evaluating progress in the six Education for All “target dimensions” set forth in the Jomtien Framework for Action to Meet Basic Learning Needs, which may be summarised as follows: • Expansion of early childhood care and

developmental activities; • Universal access to primary schooling by

the year 2000 – simultaneously ensuring the possibility of completing it;

• Improvement in learning achievement; • Reduction of adult illiteracy, emphasising

female literacy to significantly reduce gender disparity in illiteracy rates;

• Expansion of provision of basic education and training in other essential skills;

• Increased acquisition by individuals and families of the knowledge, skills and


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values required for better living and sound and sustainable development.

The assessment revealed that while the number of children in school soared (from 599 million in 1990 to 681 million in 1998) and many countries were approaching full primary school enrolment for the first time, some 113 million children were still out of school, discrimination against girls was widespread, and nearly a billion adults – mostly women – were illiterate, demonstrating that the lack of qualified teachers and learning materials was a reality for too many schools4. 2000 With the turn of the millennium, the continuing commitment to global education as the most powerful means of improving livelihoods grew to unprecedented levels. In February 2000, U.S. Ambassador to the UN Food and Agricultural Agencies in Rome, Mr. George McGovern launched the proposition that all children worldwide should receive lunch at school. The Dakar Framework for Action, adopted by the World Education Forum (Dakar, Senegal, 26-28 April 2000) restated a collective commitment to the basic EFA targets, and established that the international community would act to achieve them by launching a global initiative aimed at supporting national efforts. The initiative would include, inter alia: • increasing external finance for basic

education; • ensuring greater predictability in the flow

of external assistance; • facilitating more effective donor

coordination; • strengthening sector-wide approaches; • providing broader debt relief and/or

cancellation for poverty reduction, with a strong commitment to basic education;

• undertaking more effective and regular monitoring of progress towards EFA goals and targets.

In July, building on Ambassador McGovern’s ideas, as well as those of former Senator Bob Dole, U.S. President Bill Clinton announced

the birth of the Global Food for Education Initiative (GFEI), coupled with a commitment by the USDA’s Commodity Credit Corporation, of $300 million for U.S. commodities, transportation, and administrative expenses. Under the initiative, implemented in fiscal years 2001 and 2002, with completion expected in fiscal year 2003, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) donated surplus U.S. agricultural commodities to USDA-approved school-feeding and pre-school nutrition programs in developing countries. These programmes were carried out by the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP), private voluntary organizations, and eligible foreign governments5. Forty-eight percent of the total commitment was dedicated to WFP6 for distribution through its School Feeding (SF) programmes in twenty-three countries, as part of WFP’s Global School Feeding Campaign (GSFC). In 2000, in September, the 191 Member States of the United Nations approved, and pledged to meet, the eight Millennium Development Goals – the first of which is to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, the second of which is to achieve universal primary education – defined in order to provide a framework for the entire UN system to work coherently together towards a common end. 2001 In September 2001, as part of its monitoring and evaluation programme, WFP began conducting baseline surveys for the GFEI/GSFC SF programme, the results of which are the scope of this report. 2002 Continued United States’ efforts to encourage a global commitment to school feeding and child nutrition have resulted in the Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002 authorising $100 million in Commodity Credit Corporation funds to launch the McGovern-Dole International Food for Education and Child Nutrition Program (FFE program). The funds will be administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Foreign Agricultural Service and will continue to support education, child development, and


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food security for some of the world’s poorest children. Funds potentially dedicated to the WFP will continue to support those SF programmes initiated during the GFEI in 2000.

The rationale behind School Feeding7 The previous section briefly illustrated the historical context that has defined global interest and commitment to ensuring primary school education for children around the world. This section aims to describe the importance school feeding can have, and has had, on encouraging and sustaining primary education. While an empirical relationship is hard to define given the context, widespread research on school feeding has yielded positive results. Research over the past couple of decades has clearly highlighted that having basic education positively influences opportunities for improved economic and living conditions across a number of dimensions: • Increased female literacy and education

often results in fewer children per family, better health conditions for children, and decreased infant mortality rates;

• The introduction of new production-enhancing agricultural technologies is facilitated when farmers possess basic reading, writing and numeracy skills;

• Studies conducted by the World Bank have shown that having at least four years of primary school positively impacts a farmers’ production by an average of 8.7% in all countries, up to 10% in countries undergoing modernization.

Worldwide and historic agreement on the importance of education in poverty reduction is, and remains, unwavering. Nonetheless, improving enrolment and regular attendance has proven to be a challenging task, making it hard to meet the deadlines regularly posed for global education-related objectives. As early as the 1980’s, various research efforts have attempted to identify and investigate the recurring, underlying difficulties behind increasing primary school enrolment and retention. While numerous economic and

socio-cultural factors have been seen to decrease enrolment and attendance, when present, school feeding programmes have frequently run parallel with increases in both. The theoretical base and justification for school feeding is complex, but it does exist, and is probably most easily appreciated if placed in the context of school-feeding study results. For the sake of objectivity, it must be said that studies addressing the effects of school feeding are frequently characterised by design difficulties as the variables affecting enrolment, attendance and retention are numerous, embedded in the socio-economic realities of the children, and difficult to isolate. Some studies, particularly those addressing the impact of school feeding on achievement and learning, have not clearly revealed a positive relationship between the presence of school feeding programmes and children’s performance. However, numerous researchers agree that this lack of causal identification is probably due to study design flaws and not to a lack of feeding programme impact. Having said that, the following are brief summaries of only some of the results available, that demonstrate the influence of school feeding on, inter alia, enrolment, attendance, retention, achievement and health. These brief summaries by no means intend to be an exhaustive and conclusive statement as to the validity of school feeding programmes in positively affecting children in education. Studies span decades - with results addressing thousands of schools, millions of children and a multitude of countries: 1982 Dominican Republic: Studies on the impact of an abrupt interruption in a school feeding programme (begun in 1962 and interrupted in 1979) revealed that approximately one-fourth the children enrolled, who had regularly attended until the interruption, dropped out of school. The impact was higher in the lower grades and among girls (Levinger, 1986). 1983 Jamaica: studies undertaken to assess the impact of two school breakfasts (one providing 380 kCal and 13 g of protein, and one providing 730 kCal and 25 g of protein)


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revealed that the more nutritious breakfast successfully addressed short-term hunger, which ultimately lead to improved achievement and attendance (Powell et al., 1983) 1984 India: An evaluation of a government school feeding programme in Tamil Nadu that provided a free nutritious meal to children between the ages of two and fifteen revealed that the meal encouraged enrolment as well as continued education beyond the primary level. This was particularly the case for children coming from agricultural labourer households (Babu, 1989). 1991 Benin: Primary school students in second and fifth grade were tested in French and Mathematics at the end of the school year. Test results indicated significantly higher performance in children attending schools with canteens – results that remained constant even when other potentially impacting variables were controlled. 1993 Morocco: A Ministry of Education study assessed the impact of school canteens on enrolment and retention in a sample of 1600 schools in rural areas. The results revealed that children between the ages of seven and twelve were more likely to enrol – and stay in school – if the school was equipped with a full-scale canteen. There is extensive literature on school feeding, and while it may not always concretely quantify the impact of feeding programmes, overall results are unanimously perceived as positive. Today, the collective objective regarding the evaluation of school feeding is that of better quantifying its positive impact. This will be possible as measurement issues are addressed in the context of complex ecological settings: “…[limitations in assessing precisely]…This is not due to scientific negligence, but to the complexity of measuring, in the human context, the effects of a particular variable in a complex ecological setting.” (Pollit, 1984) Insufficient control over environmental variables, lack of comparative data and insufficient baseline information only

exacerbate efforts to clearly illustrate the value of school feeding – yet fortunately, these issues can be (and in some respects have been) addressed. The following sections lead into one way this has been done.

The rationale behind baseline studies8 The previous section briefly described selected study results that illustrate the value of school feeding in initiatives supporting primary education. It also raised some of the issues affecting impact assessment of school feeding programmes. This section aims to outline the rationale behind one of the many tools whose correct use can greatly assist in accurately assessing the impact of school feeding over time – the baseline study.

Programme objectives All aide programmes exist with a mandate to improve select conditions in a target area and/or population. Such improvement will take the form of different degrees of change in those conditions over time. That expression of change “indicates” how the programme is proceeding – and is called an indicator of programme performance. While conceptually the baseline study collects data prior to – or in the earliest phases – of programme implementation so that a starting level for all indicators is identified, baseline surveys may also be used to collect benchmark information on selected indicators at a certain point of time (this is the appropriate definition in the case of the surveys conducted in 2001). This rationalises subsequent comparison in change levels, ultimately quantifying impact.

Identifying adequate indicators The programme’s design describes what, and how, activities will be delivered, and ultimately how they are intended to lead to the desired programme outcomes and impacts. Activities, inputs, outputs and outcomes are tabled in a Logical Framework Matrix (a table that plots these items in columns and rows – see Table 3 to see an example of a logical framework matrix), to help clearly identify the most coherent and reliable indicators of programme impact.


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Indicator data requirements Depending on the indicator, the required data may be of quantitative or qualitative nature, where the first reflect tangible, verifiable, or numeric information, and the second reflect perceptions and quality of, as well as opinions about, a particular experience or condition as its beneficiaries view it. Quantitative data are normally collected via closed-ended questions and/or questions with limited response options (e.g., multiple choice from lists of options). Qualitative data is usually collected through a more participatory approach, usually through open-ended questions that allow respondents to enter into discussion towards issues that they find important.

Data Sources Data may be obtained from primary or secondary sources. Primary data are obtained through direct contact with respondents and entail face-to-face information sharing between the surveyor and the representatives of the population under survey. Secondary data simply means information that has already been collected by others –i.e., routine data collected by institutions participating in an activity (e.g. schools, health centres). Making use of solid secondary data (accurate collection methodology and verification of validity) is very resource-effective.

Survey Unit and Sample frame The survey unit refers to the unit that will provide the majority of the information required to yield the indicators that will measure programme results over time.

Sample size Choosing a group of individuals to study the characteristics of the larger population may be done by probability and non-probability sampling. Which is used is defined by: (a) the data collection method being used in primary data collection; and (b) the degree of statistical rigour needed for extrapolating the sample estimate to the larger study population. Both methods seek to gather data that provide a fair representation of the larger population, although the definition of “representative” varies between the two methods. Probability sampling allows for statistical inference and is almost exclusively used with

quantitative data collection methods. Non-probability sampling is almost always used for qualitative data collection methods and can be used for quantitative methods for which statistical inference is not desired. Size of sample, and sampling method then, will be largely determined by what is ultimately desired of the data. Sample size must accommodate representatives of all subpopulations in the large population, and the stratification (identification of internal sub-group characteristics) should take the factors the affect the variable(s) of interest in the study into consideration. The most common types of non-probability sampling methods are: • Purposive sampling (choosing respondents

based on the fact that they are likely to give the best picture of the phenomena you wish to inquire about).

• Random sampling (using a random method to select respondents).

• Opportunistic sampling (simply choosing respondents based on their availability to participate at the moment you arrive to collect data).

In general, purposive and random sampling will yield better data than opportunistic sampling.

Stratification and desegregation of data Common variables for stratification are geographic location, gender, age groups, school grades, etc., and should be selected on the basis of the analytic needs of the operation. The best practice is to list the factors for stratification in the indicators. This ensures that critical pre-stratification needs are considered prior to choosing a sample. It also ensures that post-stratification (or disaggregating) occurs during analysis.


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School Feeding Baseline Surveys 20019 The previous section outlined the underlying principles behind baseline surveys. This section details the application of those principles to the 2001 School Feeding Baseline exercise.

Programme objectives As a first step in identifying outcomes and associated indicators, a generic logical framework was developed for SF projects focussing on feeding school children. The scope of the projects included pre-school feeding, primary school feeding and take home rations. This framework is shown in Table 1 presented on page 9. Care was taken in reviewing the SF projects so as not to blur differences between indicators of long-term impacts (or goals), medium-term outcomes and outputs10, or effectiveness, efficiency, relevance and sustainability. It must be stated, as mentioned previously, that gauging the degree to which impacts and outcomes may be attributed to particular project activities, such as school feeding programmes and investments, can be problematical.11 The objective of the analysis undertaken, was to identify areas where it was feasible to meaningfully capture key changes: to combine what is substantially relevant with what is practically feasible to measure and monitor. In this exercise, indicators have been intended simply as ‘signposts’ of change12.

Identifying adequate indicators Two guiding principles were adopted in the final choice of indicators: • compliance with WFP’s policy framework

for action, detailed in the background paper of the GSFEI and the GSFC 13.

• ease of collection of the data required for their computation, and continued monitoring.

The indicators for the FFE baseline surveys are classified according to whether they measure outcomes or assumptions and are shown in Table 2 presented on page 10. The key indicators identified in the policy framework reflect that although there was variation in objectives and contexts between different WFP-assisted SF projects, assisted through GFEI, activities however, were similar. Projects to be supported were to focus upon primary school and pre-school feeding, providing breakfasts, mid-morning snacks, lunchtime meals and take home rations, either alone or in combination. Outcomes common to all the projects were identified as programme benefits, which ultimately indicate educative improvements. These are: • increase in school attendance

(enrolment and regular daily attendance), • reduction in the gap between the rate of

school attendance of girls and boys, • improved learning. Increase in school attendance and reduction in the gap between the rate of school attendance of girls and boys. For this first round of baseline surveys, measurements for these two programme benefits were derived from the following indicators: Indicator 1: Net/gross enrolment Indicator 2: Enrolment Indicator 3: Retention Indicator 4: Attendance Improved Learning. A child’s progress through the education system is a reflection not only of the efficiency of the system but also of the child’s learning. The usual indicators (test scores) for the third programme benefit - improved learning - require specialised surveys and standardised tests to assess children’s performance as they progress through the system 14. WFP assumes that children in school are in fact learning (plausible inference) and that implementing such surveys and tests are beyond the scope of


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Table 1: Generic Logical Framework for WFP assisted School Feeding projects

Background information

1. School Feeding Projects contribute to promotion of basic education in alleviating poverty and hunger and improving people's lives: World Conference on Education for All (Jomtien, Thailand 1990), World Summit for Social Development (Copenhagen, Denmark 1995), Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing, China 1995), World Education Forum (Dakar, Senegal, 2000).

2. Education and increased awareness are catalysts for improvements in economic and social well-being. Education equips individuals for learning, critical thinking and social awareness, better access to information, more informed choices and the exercise of their civil rights

3. Benefits include: self-employment; increased productivity; increased incomes; more equal distribution of incomes; more informed choices on health and reproductive health; environmental awareness; social cohesion.

4. Four strategies may be identified by which WFP programmes may contribute to achievement of long term goals: a. integrate programmes with other agencies; b. design programmes to target the most vulnerable and poor; c. ensure individual country programmes are internally coherent; d. ensure programmes are flexible in response to lessons learned.

Narrative Summary Objectively verifiable

Indicators Means of Verification Assumptions

Goal. To enable all girls and boys to obtain a basic primary education

Successful completion of primary education (number completing primary).

School records, district education office records, ministry and dept. records. WFP records

Education of boys and girls is an essential element of poverty reduction.

Purpose. To increase access to basic education for boys and girls by facilitating access to education for people living in poverty by providing meals as an incentive for families to keep children in school

Enrolment, net enrolment, attendance by gender. Retention rates by gender.


That the school and education system continues to meet educative needs of children especially girls. Resources are available - teachers and facilities. That parents enroll their children in school and children attend.

Output. Boys and girls will have enrolled in school

Increased enrolment of girls and boys Enrolment, net enrolment.


That the ration is incentive to encourage enrolment. That parents are encouraged to enrol their children

Activity. School feeding and ration programme

• Children fed - b'fast, mid-morning, lunch etc.

• Take home ration provided

WFP and school records • Feeding strategy is appropriate

• Deliveries made etc. • Community awareness

programme Output. Boys and girls will be attending school regularly and will be learning

Regular attendance of girls and boys at school throughout the year. Attendance by gender. Recording teachers opinions on learning and hunger issues

School records, district education office records, ministry and dept. records. WFP records. Focus groups

That the ration is incentive for regular attendance. That parents ensure children attend school. That children attend school. That children are not hungry and learn.



• Take home rations provided


• Deliveries made etc.

Output. Boys and girls will be completing primary education

Continued enrolment of girls and boys from year to year. Retention rates by gender.


That the ration is incentive for continued enrolment. That parents are committed to children's (especially girls') education.



• Take home ration provided


• Deliveries made etc.


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Table 2: Baseline Survey indicators

Measurements Indicator Outcomes / Assumptions Numerator Denominator

Net enrolment rate

Girls and boys enrolled. Girls and boys attending. Gender gap reduced

Proportion of primary school-age children (in each age group) enrolled in school

No of primary school-age girls or boys (in age group) enrolled

Number of primary school-age boys or girls (in age group) in school catchment

Gross enrolment rates No of children enrolled regardless of age (by grade)

official school age population (by grade)

Enrolment Girls and boys enrolled. Girls and boys attending. Gender gap reduced

The number of boys and girls enrolled in each grade/standard at school

No of primary school-age girls or boys (in each age group) enrolled

Retention Girls and boys enrolled. Girls and boys attending. Gender gap reduced

The ratio of boys or girls in grade six to those in grade one

No of boys or girls enrolled in grade six at the beginning of school year

The number of boys or girls enrolled in grade one at the beginning of the school year

Attendance Girls and boys enrolled. Girls and boys attending. Gender gap reduced

This indicator is a measure of the degree to which pupils enrolled in school actually attend in any particular month

The sum (cumulative total) of the daily attendance of girls or boys for particular months

The sum of the daily enrolment of girls or boys for particular months

Continuing Education

Girls and boys taking opportunities for further education

The degree to which elementary school leads to higher educational levels

No of boys or girls graduating from elementary school and enrolling in secondary school

Number of girls or boys graduating from elementary school

Relief of short term hunger

Girls and boys learning The significance school teachers place on relief of short term hunger affecting pupils abilities to concentrate and learn.

Significance as assessed by teachers.

Scale

Staff to pupil ratio

Assumption: Capacity of the education system maintained

Changes in quality of teaching as affected by over-crowding

No of teaching staff (by grade and by gender)

Number of girls and boys in each grade.

Pupil classroom ratio

Assumption: Capacity of the education system maintained

Quality of education as affected by physical resources available.

No of pupils No of classrooms

Teacher/community Involvement ratio

Assumption: Project targeted and reaching the poorest and most marginalised (those HHs dependent upon family labour)

The degree to which the teaching programme may be disrupted. Degree of community commitment to the school feeding programme.

teaching staff involved in the day to day management of the programme

community members involved in the day to day management of the feeding programme

Importance of 'household/family/farming commitments' for absence of enrolled children (by gender)

ASSUMPTION Project targeted and reaching the poorest and most marginalised (those HHs dependent upon family labour)

Proportion of children absent from school because of 'household/family/farming commitments'

Rank as assessed by teachers and PTA

Total categories identified

Importance of “household/family/farming commitments” for non-enrolment of children (by gender)

Assumption: Project targeted and reaching the poorest and most marginalized (those HHs dependent upon family labour)

This indicator measures the degree to which “household/family commitments” prevents children from being enrolled in school.

Rank as assessed by PTA

Total categories identified


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baseline surveys. However, a series of simple surrogate or proxy indicators (e.g., staff-to-pupil and classroom-to-pupil ratios) were selected to measure changes in the learning environment15. In addition, teacher’s and children’s assessments were recorded (through focus groups) of the effect of school feeding upon children’s learning – the effect of the alleviation of short-term hunger in helping children to concentrate and assimilate knowledge. Indicator 5 Continuing Education Indicator 6. Relief of short-term hunger

and improved learning Indicator 7. Pupil to Staff ratio Indicator 8. Pupil to Classroom ratio Account was taken of other strategic (policy) issues for the programme. Data were collected to specifically gauge the degree to which particular projects were addressing the strategic objectives (goals) of WFP16. In particular, simple indicators were identified for the following: • the GSFC’s objective of encouraging

government commitment to Education for All, and school feeding;

• cooperation with other operational

partners (NGOs, INGOs, CBOs and other UN agencies) to enhance the impact of school feeding 17;

• the degree to which schools are girl

‘friendly’. The data required to compute these simple indicators also identified the school, and its location. Data were collected about school’s facilities. It was from such data that further indicators of the learning environment also were calculated (in addition to staff to pupil ratios, pupil to classroom ratios), proportion of schools with water supplies, and whether there are separate ablution facilities for girls. These indicators, together with the ratio of female to male teachers (trained and untrained), also allows assessment of the degree to which schools are girl ‘friendly’, and of the investments being made by government and other agencies in school infrastructure.

Measures to involve parents and communities as a means to encourage commitment were also seen as important to the sustainability of the projects to be funded. Collection of data to gauge indicators of community involvement (financial support, etc.) especially of women (PTA membership) was included in the survey. Indicator 9. Teacher/community

involvement ratio As much as possible the data collected to compute the indicators were of a quantitative nature. Open-ended questions were avoided and where qualitative data were collected respondents were asked to choose pre-selected opinions and categories using a very simple Likert type scale or a simple ranking. An exception was made in order to collect further data on non-enrolment and non-attendance of school children. [A Likert scale is a unidimensional scaling method used to assess intangible “items” – conditions, situations, feelings, etc. It is used to assess items that can be either one way or another –i.e., either good or bad, more or less important, etc. The items are assigned numbers according to a rule in order to facilitate their comparison and assessment. A common Likert scale presents five levels of assessment: 1= strongly agree, 2= agree, 3= undecided, 4= disagree, 5= strongly disagree. Other level definitions may be constructed depending on case-specific need.] Indicator 10. Importance of 'household/family/farming commitments' for absence of enrolled children (by gender) Indicator 11. The importance of 'household/family/farming commitments' as a reason for children not to enrol in school (by gender) One of the key strategic objectives of WFP’s school feeding is to accurately target the children of the poorest of poor households and to attract them into schools. Many of the projects in the GSFC were part of long-standing school feeding programmes. In many


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cases the available data suggested that the rate of increase in school enrolment had gradually slowed, as had improvements in attendance. Little was known of the extent to which children were not enrolled in school and the reasons why. During the baseline survey, data were gathered to address this issue. Focus groups of children and staff were asked to rank a list of reasons for non-enrolment and non-attendance – see above.

Survey Unit and Sample Frame Randomly drawn samples of schools were surveyed in each project area of the 23 countries. A list of the total schools (primary and preschools) in receipt of school feeding or planned for the school-feeding programme was supplied by the WFP country office school feeding focal points, and made up the sampling frames. In some cases the lists were drawn from the host government’s education management information systems. A standard survey methodology was devised based upon simple random sampling.18 And samples were drawn to be representative of each project in the GSFEI/GSFC. Samples were not stratified. Separate random samples were drawn from a maximum of four distinct ‘populations’ (sample frames) of schools in each project: • Pre-schools already with school feeding

programmes • Pre-schools new to school feeding

programmes • Primary schools already with school

feeding programmes • Primary schools new to the school feeding

programmes. The individual country sample numbers are reproduced below for ease of reference. Table 3: Baseline Survey Country Samples

Primary Pre-school

Country E N Tot. E N Tot.

Grand Total

Bhutan 60 60 0 60

Bolivia 0 270 270 270

Cambodia 92 50 142 0 142

Cameroon 135 135 0 135

Primary Pre-school

Country E N Tot. E N Tot.

Grand

Chad 96 96 0 96

Colombia 73 73 0 73

Cote d'Ivoire 65 40 105 0 105

Dom. Rep. 125 125 250 0 250

El Salvador 243 243 0 243

Ethiopia 118 47 165 0 165

Ghana 60 60 0 60

Guinea 61 61 0 61

Honduras 286 286 0 286

Kenya 348 348 0 348

Mozambique 70 40 110 0 110

Nepal 203 203 0 203

Nicaragua 165 165 83 83 248

Pakistan 142 142 284 0 284

Peru 155 155 95 95 250

Tajikistan 136 162 298 0 298

Tanzania 60 60 0 60

The Gambia 45 23 68 17 17 85

Uganda 120 79 199 0 199

Total 1 121 1 068 3 566 365 100 465 4 031

E: Existing programme sample N: New programme sample The main consideration in designing the survey was that it should collect descriptive information to calibrate the chosen indicators in each of the ‘populations’. The survey was designed to assess changes in the indicators over time by comparing the descriptive results of repeated random sample surveys. The ‘experimental’ design was kept simple: to allow a comparison of before and after situations using simple tests (Chi square and Student’s t Test) based upon the descriptive statistics of proportions, arithmetical means and modes, distributions and numeric counts. The use of ‘control’ groups – schools not in school feeding programs - was excluded as was using a survey design sufficient to allow an analysis of variance. Comparison with ‘control’ groups was not considered feasible or appropriate. The main reason for this is because control groups - schools not to be in the school feeding programme – should be randomly selected from the same population from which is drawn


13

the sample to be treated – i.e. to receive school feeding. But because WFP targets all schools in a particular geographic area for school feeding, the control group (those not to receive school feeding) would have to be drawn from outside the area. It would thus not be possible to select a true control group of schools with the same characteristics (the same geography) as the sample of schools with school feeding. Secondly, even if it were considered possible (or ethical), to draw and survey a control group sample, because of the impossibility of controlling all factors, it would not contribute greatly to the level of confidence in the results of the overall survey. It would not contribute significantly to the interpretation of the results, and would not justify the additional cost. Far better to ensure that the before and after samples are of adequate size.

Sample size Consideration of how representative was the sample of schools drawn of the complete ‘population’ of schools in each project area, was essential for deciding the sample size.19 There are two reasons for this. First, being ‘representative’ is a prerequisite for extrapolating the results observed for the sample list of schools to the schools throughout the whole project area. Secondly, the degree to which a sample is representative is key to the confidence with which results from one survey round may be compared with those of subsequent sample surveys of the same project area at some time in the future. Selection of schools was done in such a way that the sample was representative of the entire population. Each school in the project area list was given a number. A random number table was then used to identify schools to make up the sample. Each school had an equal chance of being selected into the sample. In addition, the selection of one school was independent of the selection of any other. However, whenever a sample is drawn, there is always a probability of error such that the sample may not be a true representation of the total ‘population’. The level of risk that this would occur in the baseline surveys was set at 5% (a design or error risk of 1.96) and sample sizes were calculated to meet this requirement.20 The size of the samples were also calculated to ensure that the survey results would be

estimates within known limits (the confidence interval) of the ‘true’ result for the whole ‘population’.21 A table was prepared using a standard methodology from which the required sample sizes could be calculated. In order to standardize the methodology over all countries surveyed, proportional (percentage) change in enrolment was taken as the key indicator to be used in the calculations22. That is, each sample must be of sufficient size for a mean enrolment figure to be computed and compared with the mean figure of a sample of schools at a future date and the statistical significance of any proportional difference calculated. The basic equation to calculate the required sample size23 for indicators expressed as a percentage or proportions is as follows:24

n = D [(Z1 + Z2)2 * (P1 (1 - P1) + P2(1 - P2)) /(P2 - P1) 2] where: n Required minimum sample size per survey

round or comparison group D Design effect, assumed to be the default

value of 2 (1.96), an error risk of 5% P1 The estimated level of an indicator

measured as a proportion at the time of the first survey or for the control area

P2 The expected level of the indicator either at some future date or for the project area such that the quantity (P2 – P1) is the size of the magnitude of change it is desired to be able to detect

Z1 The Z-score corresponding to the degree of confidence with which it is desired to be able to conclude that an observed change of size (P2 – P1) would not have occurred by chance (the level of statistical significance)

Z2 The z-score corresponding to the degree of confidence with which it is desired to be certain of detecting a change of size (P2 – P1) if one actually occurred (statistical power)

In most cases when preparing for the baseline surveys accurate information was not readily available to calculate the sample sizes required. In particular the enrolment as a proportion of all children of primary school age – the net/gross enrolment rate – required for P1 in the above formula. Thus, when applying the formula to calculate samples for each project in each of the 23 countries two


14

features of the process were carefully considered: First, a sample size, determined by the formula, from a ‘population’ of schools where large changes are expected in the enrolment of children (increase or decrease), is smaller than that if a small level of change is expected. Second, when the original level of the indicator is close to the 50% level (i.e. expected level of gross/net-enrolment is about half), the sample size will increase. Making estimates of net/gross enrolment and expected changes erred on the side of caution to ensure that the samples were not too small and that results would fall within acceptable confidence limits25. Nevertheless, the cost of conducting the survey over large samples was also considered when making the final choice 26.

New school feeding programmes In countries where the current level of gross or net-enrolment in the project area was not accurately known, it was not clear what was the level of expected change in the enrolment as a consequence of the school feeding programme. In these cases the following assumptions were made in calculating the sample size: • current level of enrolment: 50%27 • expected increase in enrolment: a 20%

change of the net-enrolment to 70% (i.e. a 40% relative increase)

In some cases the current levels of enrolment were known, and the expected increase in enrolment relative to the existing enrolment was estimated and was detailed in the project documentation. Where figures were available they were used to calculate the sample sizes28. Ongoing school feeding programmes In cases of ongoing school feeding programmes it was assumed there would not be large increases in the level of enrolment/attendance as a result of the (continued) project implementation. Continued feeding would simply maintain the current enrolment/attendance levels.

In order to calculate the sample size in such cases it was assumed that the school feeding programme would prevent a drop of an estimated 20% (40% relative) in net-enrolment. Therefore the size of the current sample was calculated so that results could be compared with those from a sample taken in the future in order to show with a high degree of confidence that enrolment was, indeed, not significantly different. The assumptions made were the same as for new schools, but in reverse: • current level of enrolment (i.e. net-

enrolment): 70% • expected decrease in enrolment should

school feeding discontinue: 20% of the net-enrolment (i.e. approximately 30% relative decrease)

The above formula refers to infinite populations (i.e. all schools receiving school feeding assistance). Having calculated the sample sizes an adjustment was made to take account of the fact that the total was known of the schools – project schools - from which samples were being drawn – a finite population. Calculation of the sample size for finite (small) populations Because in most school feeding programmes, the number of schools covered is a relative small number, a correction can be reasonably applied. The formula for this is: nf = n / [1 + (n/N)] where: nf Adjusted sample size for small (finite)

populations N Population size n Sample size for large (infinite)

populations For the baseline surveys, populations larger than 1,000 schools were considered to be infinite. For smaller populations the correction was applied. Sample size requirement for follow-up survey. The procedures for determining survey sample size described above are designed to take into account the requirements for a follow-up


15

survey round. It is expected that the sample size will be adjusted in the second round.29 This will occur, for instance, if the indicators observed in the results of the baseline survey show markedly different levels from the estimates of the indicators used when calculating the required sample sizes prior to the survey. In some cases if the sample size used in the baseline survey is used in subsequent sample surveys the results will be of insufficient precision for meaningful comparisons to be made. A correction can be made by computing a revised estimate of the sample size for the follow up surveys. The follow up sample size may be calculated using the same basic equation with indicators expressed as proportions, taking into account the results obtained in the baseline survey. To compensate for shortfalls in the sample size of the baseline survey the sample size in the follow-up survey will be increased.30 On the other hand the sample size may be safely reduced. However, other factors must be considered before reducing the selected sample size. Allowance for non-response and quality control During the surveys efforts were made to both minimize the level of non-response and ensure the quality of data collected. Nevertheless, as in most surveys, it was expected that in a number of cases various elements of the survey form either would not be completed or would contain errors. These factors were taken into account in finalising the sample sizes and were weighed against reducing the sample sizes to contain cost or to ease logistics. No fixed level of allowance for non-response and quality control was used, but rather adjustments were made for each country and project after consideration of particular circumstances.

Implementation methodology Field test Prior to implementing the survey, pilot tests were conducted in Uganda and in El Salvador in August 2001. The purpose of the Pilot Tests was not simply to test the survey template in the field but to ascertain the feasibility of country offices conducting such a major exercise as the baseline surveys. The

results of the Pilot Test were used to develop a training programme and materials for briefing the survey coordinators in each country. In particular the pilot test was conducted to do the following: • Survey organisation and availability of

data − assess training requirements for

enumerators/surveyors − assess time and support required for

planning the survey – itinerary etc. − assess time taken to complete the

questionnaire at each school − assess the travel time required to reach

each school − gauge the requirements for making

arrangements at each school − convening of staff meeting focus group − convening of PTA meeting focus group − examine the availability of enrolment and

attendance data at schools and at local administrative centres

− test the practicality of assessing individual school ‘catchments’ – the school age population in the area of the school, and how defined, in order to calculate gross/net enrolments

• Survey template and the suitability of the

indicators − test the degree to which indicators are

understood and relate to the objectives of country programmes

− to assess the adequacy of the template in collecting the ‘right’ information for computation of the indicators

− determine the ease of use and understanding of the template by all concerned

− make a preliminary analysis and assessment of the data collected and the indicators computed

At the conclusion of the pilot study the template was modified and a set of Field Guidelines prepared for field enumerators Three regional briefings were held for selected WFP (School Feeding Focal Points) and partner agency staff responsible for implementing the survey in each country. The briefings were of two days duration and took place as follows:


16

Participating countries Location Dates Bolivia, Colombia, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Peru

Managua, Nicaragua

3 – 5 September 2001

Cameroon, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Ethiopia, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Mozambique (one staff member), Tanzania and Uganda

Kampala, Uganda

13-14 September 2001

Bhutan, Cambodia, Mozambique (remaining staff members), Nepal, Pakistan, Tajikistan,

Kathmandu, Nepal

18-19 September 2001

A separate training was held in Pakistan in November 2001, as staff from this country office could not participate as planned at the training in Nepal due to the September 11th event. Country office staff members, invited to the briefings, were asked to prepare and bring with them the sampling frames for each project. The objective of the training was to explain the background to the baseline survey, the rationale for the choice of indicators and the issues involved in collecting the data to calibrate them. At the same time support was given to participants to select the sample size for the surveys. Upon return to their country duty station, WFP staff and government staff were expected to select and train field personnel to conduct the surveys, however the SPF Unit provided follow up support to in-country supervisors to help prepare for the survey when necessary.

Data collection Upon completion of the briefing and in-country field training the survey was implemented in the 23 countries. Conduct and management of the survey varied from country to country. In some cases in-country consultants, university departments and partner agencies were involved. WFP in-country staff managed the survey programs and ensured that identified schools were visited and forms were correctly completed and collated.

Quality control Forms were checked (in some cases preliminary quality control checks were carried out) and collated in-country and dispatched to Rome. Arrangements varied but

lists were compiled of the forms completed and checked against the samples selected. In some cases, where schools were difficult to access, alternatives were selected. The leaders of each team in the field in each country prepared a report and noted any particular information or ‘lessons-learned’ in conducting the surveys. Copies were taken of completed forms and retained in country offices for future referral and cross checking during the data entry process in Rome. Once in Rome, management of the forms was rigorously controlled. As each country’s forms were received in Rome they were checked off against sample lists for each country and for each sample type. A register was kept of the number of forms received from each country. Each form was examined and checked for errors and missing values before they were passed to the data entry team. In some cases clarification was sought from WFP offices in-country. Identified errors were rectified and further checks carried out. The completion of the forms, in general, reflected a high standard of quality control and collection in the field

Data entry In view of optimising both data management and subsequent analysis, the School Feeding Unit embarked upon a database development project that has so far yielded positive and encouraging results. A database was developed using Microsoft Access, and was designed to facilitate survey construction (and generation of survey questionnaires), data entry and data cleaning. A number of straight-forward reports have been constructed such that all users may extract simple counts, totals, means, etc. As forms were received and verified in Rome, four data entry clerks and assorted SPF Unit associates transferred the data from the survey forms to the survey software. Once trained and after practice, clerks were able to enter the information from over 20 forms each day. Data entry took place concurrently with data entry training and ‘de-bugging’ of the database programme as it was further developed and modified. Data entry started in November and was completed by mid February 2002. Over 4,000


17

survey forms were transferred to the database made up of 34 samples across the 23 countries.

Data analysis A reporting tool based upon a set of required analyses was developed using Microsoft Access. Additional analysis utilised Microsoft Excel. Analysis and reporting was done country by country and for each sample in each country. Analysis started in mid February and preliminary reports completed by mid March. As analysis proceeded data verification continued with the identification of outliers and incorrect data. Results were calculated for each sample and expressed as a description of a representative/ typical or ‘average’ school in the project area. Results were calculated using totals, proportions and distributions, highest and lowest scores, means and standard deviations. From the simple statistics the indicators were calibrated. The objective of the analysis was to allow for future statistical comparison of the results of the baseline and subsequent surveys for each indicator. The results will allow simple tests of significance to be used if required – Chi Square tests and Student’s t test. The results presented in this report were prepared using data exported from the Survey Software and run through SPSS.


18

The future School feeding programmes have a number of multi-dimensional effects, with the provision of actual food and nutrition being only one of the most obvious ones. By attracting children to school, and encouraging them to continue and complete basic primary education, school feeding paves the way for a brighter, healthier future. Afghanistan In October 2002 the School Feeding unit organised and conducted a training workshop in Kabul, on survey methodology and implementation, for the WFP Afghanistan Country Office. It was attended by representatives of the Afghanistan Ministry of Education, UNICEF, and numerous WFP Country office and Area office staff. During the three day training, conceptual, methodological and logistic issues relating to survey activities were discussed in detail, and participants had two-days of hand-on training using the new survey software. The software was left with the Afghanistan Country Office, which is currently using it to collect additional baseline data on schools, as well as Deworming data from a survey conducted in collaboration with the World Health Organisation (WHO). Another training session was held in Banjul, The Gambia in November 2002, and a five-day workshop is scheduled to take place in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in 2003, for WFP representatives from all over the world. Working together towards common goals In October 2002 a new Gender Policy on Enhanced Commitments to Women to Ensure Food Security was submitted to the Executive Board for Approval. One of the new features of the Enhanced Commitments to Women is a strengthened emphasis on adolescent girls: “as adolescence is a critical period of life especially for girls, from a nutritional and social point of view – WFP’s assistance portfolio is proposed to be enlarged, if resources can be made available, to support also secondary school education and food-for-training (FFT) activities for adolescent girls in places where gender gaps are biggest”31

Now approved, Commitment II of the Gender Policy is specifically dedicated to expanding activities that enable girls to attend school. Fundamental to attaining any related objectives then, is the analysis of existing conditions in targeted countries, in order to “iv) generate and disseminate gender-disaggregated data and information for planning and evaluation.”32. In view of the above, plans for the immediate future include the analysis and construction of a baseline survey for secondary schools that adequately captures the information required to maximise the development of gender initiatives, as well as new school feeding initiatives in general. Plans to develop a similar survey for pre-schools are also underway. Using technology to enhance baseline and monitoring activities The innovative survey methodology and software developed and adopted by the School Feeding Unit makes this amalgamating of scopes and objectives not only feasible, but desirable. At the same time, while data collection becomes evermore structured and rationalised across activities, the opportunity to address data collection for monitoring purposes cannot pass unnoticed. Discussions with country offices are currently underway to investigate possible extensions of the Survey Software to include Monitoring formats, with an aim to unite baseline and monitoring and evaluation data in one container for facilitated analysis, and to ultimately empower management with results-based decision-making opportunities. School Feeding is a powerful means of improving children’s lives around the world, and it must continue. School Feeding is not only food for thought, it is food for the future.


19

Part II: Survey Results Introduction to Results The following sections focus on selected sets of information that can be extracted from the data collected during the 2001 School Feeding Baseline Survey exercise. Information is presented at global, regional and country levels. In the sections presenting country results, a brief project description is provided to assist readers in placing the results in the appropriate context. Global results, as is usually the case, provide average trends that do not display the country-specific conditions of the primary school environment. Where possible, brief descriptions will be provided to explain country variations, while general observations will be provided for global and regional aggregates. At all levels data are presented distinct according to belongingness to the new programme sample frame, or the existing programme sample frame. Hence the reference in all tables and graphs to “New” and “Existing” aggregates. The objective of these data is to present a “snapshot” of the conditions that characterise the primary schools where school feeding activities are taking place today, so as to enhance effective programme impact assessment tomorrow. The collection of data valid two years ago helps identify changes that may have already taken place in schools were there are ongoing school feeding programmes.

Key Indicators discussed in this report As discussed in the section on programme objectives and the identification of appropriate performance indicators, indicators may be / are defined by individual programmes. For the scope of this report, the indicators that will be discussed are among those that relate to the higher-level objectives of school feeding as a means of providing food assistance in view of increasing primary school enrolment and retention. They are:

• Changes in enrolment of boys and girls

over time • Changes in the ratio of girls to boys over

time • Changes in the Student/Teacher ratio • Changes in the Student/Classroom ratio • Reasons for non-enrolment of children • Reasons for non-attendance of enrolled

children • Sanitation at the school Here follows a brief description of the definition and relevance of each in evaluating the impact of school feeding programmes. Changes in enrolment by gender and Gender ratio One of WFP’s key commitments is to ensuring that boys and girls alike have equal access to skills and opportunities aimed at improving livelihoods. This also applies to education, where programmes strive to eliminate gender imbalances in primarily, but not only, enrolment, attendance and retention. In order to encourage gender equality, accurate assessment of existing conditions is required, going beyond the collection of numbers alone, by investigating social and cultural factors that may impact equal involvement of boys and girls in a variety of non-household related activities. Where school feeding programmes are already under implementation, it is expected that figures will show gradual increases in enrolment as the programme encourages parents to send their children to school. It is foreseen that the increase in enrolment figures in schools with school feeding programmes will be steeper than that in schools without programmes. At the same time, the initial impact of a school feeding programme (during the first year) may create a significant jump in enrolment figures, that will then stabilise over time. Student to teacher ratio and Student to Classroom ratio The quality of the educational environment is important, as it, among other things, will affect children’s achievement. The number of children in a classroom, and the number of children taught by a single teacher may affect the quality of the teaching (and learning) if the


20

numbers are too high and the teacher is not able to follow students individually, or at least in small groups. Extremely large classes and very high teacher-to-student ratios have been seen in some cases to have detrimental effects on children’s learning. In view of describing the school environment in the countries targeted, questions on the number of classrooms, the number of teachers, and the number of children per grade have been asked, in order to identify the existing teacher:student and student:classroom ratios. It is important to note that these ratios are approximate as they do not reflect cases where a single teacher teaches the total number of children enrolled for his or her grade in shifts of smaller groups of children. In addition, some schools may split the number of children enrolled for a given grade into smaller groups that will use the same classrooms during different shifts For example, if there are 200 children enrolled in Grade 2 and there are 3 Grade 2 teachers, the teacher:student ratio would be approximately 66 children per teacher. If however the teacher teaches the 66 children in three shifts of 22 children each, the ratio would clearly be less impressive. For example, if Grade 5 reports 123 children enrolled and there are four classrooms available, the current calculation will yield a Student:Classroom ratio of approximately 31 children per classroom. This is correct if the four classrooms are used for a single shift each. However, if classrooms are used in shifts –i.e., a morning shift and an afternoon shift, then the classroom capacity is doubled and the corrected ratio would be approximately 15 children per classroom. The parameters regarding shifts and/or smaller groups of children, and the number of times classrooms are used, were not captured in this survey. They have been included in the revised School Feeding Baseline Survey for Primary schools which will be implemented shortly. The revised survey is available in Annex 3 for ease of reference.

Reasons for Non-enrolment and Non-attendance (Absenteeism) Identifying and understanding the reasons for which children do not enrol in school is fundamental if the final objective is to increase and sustain primary school enrolment. As reasons may vary tremendously from country to country, as well as for gender, a series of factors are provided for respondents to consider. Respondents are asked to evaluate the reasons with regards to how important they are in causing children not to enrol, using a simplified unidimensional scaling method (see description on page 13). The level of importance is provided by ranking the item with a value of 1 if it is the most important reason down to a value of 9 if it is the least important reason. Respondents may provide other reasons, with the appropriate ranking, if such reasons are not included in the questionnaire. The text provided to describe such “other” reasons is not tallied in the table, but is captured in the database and is available for additional evaluation and analysis. The tables displayed provide the mean ranking for each factor in the list provided in the questionnaire. It should be noted that mean ranking values carry meaning only if considered in the context of the country where they have been collected. It is not appropriate to report ranking means on a cross-country basis. The tables provided with ranking means in the global and regional sections are purely for illustrative purposes. Enrolment is only the first step in sustaining primary education for all. Even if children are enrolled, a series of factors may affect the likelihood of their regularly attending school. As with the previous data set, respondents are asked to rank a series of possible reasons that might affect attendance at school. As there are only five reasons in the questionnaire, ranking levels are assigned starting with 1 for the most important reason, ending with 5 for the least important reason. Again, these figures are more likely to be truly indicative only at country level.


21

Sanitation at the school Controlled sanitary waste disposal is fundamental to safeguarding food supply and water sources. Human waste harbours numerous micro-organisms that can easily contaminate well and open-air water sources, even if left a considerable distance away from the locations where children study, play, drink and eat. Adequate handling and treatment then of human waste is the first step towards reducing the spread of various diseases, improving children’s health, and consequently their ability to maximise absorption of nutrients from food provided at school (or at home). The long-term effects of school-feeding will be enhanced if food assistance is provided in schools having adequate sanitary facilities where children practice sound sanitary behaviours. Ideally schools should have separate facilities for boys and girls., and children should be taught how facilities are to be used --i.e., washing hands after using the facilities. Ideally, separate facilities should also be provided for staff. Facilities may range from simple pit latrines, ventilated improved pit latrines, to modern flush toilets (where sewerage systems are available) 33. This indicator is collected during the School Feeding Baselines to monitor the impact that school feeding can have on helping schools invest in improved sanitation, among other things.


22

Global Results Response pool Upon survey completion, a total of 3,947 questionnaires were returned to Rome for data entry and analysis. Of these, 2,985 provided information relating to primary and pre-schools where school feeding programme were in full implementation (herein referred to as the “Existing” sample schools), and 962 provided information on schools where school feeding programmes whether either just beginning or were intended to begin shortly (herein referred to as the “New” sample schools).

Total Number

(N)

% of Regional

N

% of Total N

Total N 3947 Total Nexisting 2985 --- 75.6%Total Nnew 962 --- 24.4% Changes in enrolment by gender

This year

Last year

Two years ago

Three years ago

Rate of change

Existing Boys 129.91 125.48 120.49 115.68 1.04 Existing Girls 107.19 102.24 97.48 92.62 1.05 New Boys 150.72 148.09 144.06 145.22 1.01 New Girls 121.55 118.10 112.98 113.14 1.02 * Rate of change is calculated by: (this year's mean/3 years ago's mean)^(1.3) Global figures on changes in enrolment show that on average, schools with existing school feeding programmes experience a stable increase in enrolment over time (see rate of change). While increases are also evident in schools without feeding programmes, they are undeniably greater in schools with programmes. Figures also show fluctuations in enrolment two years ago in schools without school feeding programmes, while schools with programmes were not affected. When making such observations, it is equally important to evaluate changes in teaching staff over the same time period. At times, rapid increases in enrolment – if not supported by increases in teaching staff – may lead to an impoverishing of the quality of education. The following figures show the increases in teaching staff in Existing and New schools, for

the global populations over the same time period. Changes in the average number of teachers per school: This

year Last year

Two years ago

Three years ago

Rate of change

* Existing 7.65 7.70 7.87 7.99 1.05 New 11.19 10.94 10.66 10.84 0.97 A comparison of the rate of change in the two samples is impressive. Schools where there are ongoing school feeding programmes on average experience an increase in the number of teaching staff that is in line with the increase experienced in children’s enrolment. Furthermore, the data illustrate how the 1.05 rate of change in girls enrolment in Existing schools is matched by the 1.05 rate of change in teaching staff over the same period – potentially dispelling any concerns regarding overcrowding (on a global basis) that frequently arise when enrolment figures increase noticeably.

Changes in Enrolment

80.0

90.0

100.0

110.0

120.0

130.0

140.0

150.0

160.0

Threeyears ago

Two yearsago

Last year This year

Bo ys (Ex.)Girls (Ex.)Bo ys (New)Girls (New)


23

Changes in Teaching staff

0.00

2.00

4.00

6.00

8.00

10.00

12.00

Three yearsago

Two yearsago

Last Year This year

New progExisting prog

Gender ratio

This year Last year 2 years ago

3 years ago

Existing prog 0.83 0.81 0.81 0.80 New prog 0.81 0.80 0.78 0.78

Global figures confirm a general increase in the number of girls to boys over the last three years, although a gender gap definitely still exists in many countries. This increase is evident in both schools with and schools without school feeding programmes. Figures show that schools with existing school feeding programmes tend to have a slightly improved gender ratio versus schools that do not receive food assistance.

Ratio of Girls to Boys

0.80 0.81 0.81 0.83

0.78 0.78 0.80 0.810.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

3 years ago 2 years ago Last year This year

Girls ExistingGirls NewBoys

Student to teacher ratio This year Last year 2 years

ago 3 years

ago Existing prog 29.1 28.5 27.9 26.8 New prog 24.7 24.5 23.1 22.9

The student to teacher ratio is calculated as follows (Mean number of students) / (Mean number of teachers). Global figures show a slightly stronger increase in the number of children to teachers in the schools with school feeding programmes, as would be in line with the increases in enrolment mentioned above. Student to classroom ratio


3 years ago

Existing prog 42.9 42.8 42.4 41.7 New prog 39.6 40.6 39.9 41.3

Global figures on the student to classroom ratio show an increase that follows logically from the increases in enrolment and in teacher:student ratio. However, in both cases, interpretation should be cautious as the figures collected do not reflect cases where large groups of students are split into smaller groups for better teacher/classroom management.

Student to Teacher ratio

26.8 27.9 28.5 29.1

22.9 23.124.5 24.7

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

40.0

45.0

50.0


Existing New


24

Student to Classroom ratio

41.7 42.4 42.8 42.941.3

39.9 40.6 39.6

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

40.0

45.0

50.0


Existing New

Reasons for non-enrolment Boys Girls

Exist. New Exist. New Alt. Employment Attitude of parents Cost of schooling Distance from school Family economy Health/ disability Marriage Personal safety Other

4.7 2.7 3.7 4.6 2.6 4.9 6.9 6.0 5.7

5.1 3.2 4.1 5.1 2.7 5.3 7.1 6.5 5.8

5.1 2.8 3.8 4.8 2.6 5.2 5.6 5.8 5.9

5.4 3.1 4.2 5.2 2.7 5.5 6.1 6.4 5.8

As mentioned in the introduction, by nature of subjective ranking exercises, it is difficult to apply results to a global population. Nonetheless, as will be evident in the country data, it appears that the two factors that most affect parent’s decisions regarding children’s enrolment are concerns for personal safety and marriage. In general, these factors seem to affect both boys and girls, although depending on the country, to varying degrees. The ranking results of most factors tend to settle around the arithmetic mean of the ranking scale given the tremendous variety in ranking levels that may be reported. See country data for meaningful ranking figures. Reasons for non-attendance

Boys Girls Exist. New Exist. New Family economy Other employment Sickness/ health Weather Other reasons

1.8 3.6 2.7 3.7 3.1

1.9 3.5 2.2 3.6 3.1

1.8 3.5 2.3 3.6 3.1

1.8 3.6 2.8 3.7 3.1

It must be noted that in both cases, these are “soft” parameters that often carry social and

cultural valence, which consequently, as mentioned above, vary tremendously from country to country. Information on this indicator will be more accurate at country level. Sanitation at the school

Toilet facilities Septic tank

Valid

N Freq % Valid

N Freq % Existing 2942 415 14.1% 2941 639 21.7%New 960 34 3.5% 959 154 16.1%

Pit latrine for children Toilet/latrine for girls

Valid

N Freq % Valid

N Freq % Existing 2843 1830 64.4% 2955 1710 57.9%New 959 539 56.2% 958 491 51.3% Global data suggest that where school feeding programmes have been implemented and are ongoing, sanitation facilities are more likely to be present, and of better quality. The presence of toilet facilities is significantly higher in the Existing population (14.1%) versus the New population (3.5%). While figures report 57.9% of the Existing sample schools - and 51.3% of the New sample schools - having separate facilities for girls, it should be noted that these figures apply only to those schools that report having facilities to begin with, and should not be read as there being a 50% presence of facilities for girls across the board.

Sanitation in the School

14.1%

21.7%

64.4%

57.9%

3.5%

16.1%

56.2%51.3%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Toilet facilities Septic tank Pit latrine forchildren

Toilet/latrinefor girls

Existing New


25

Africa Countries • Cameroon • Chad • Cote d’Ivoire • Ethiopia • Ghana • Guinea • Kenya • Mozambique • Tanzania • The Gambia • Uganda Response pool

Total Number

(N)

% of Regional

N

% of Total N

Total N 3947 Existing 2985 75.6%New 962 24.4% Total N Africa 1420 100.0% 36.0%Existing Africa 1005 70.8% 33.7%New Africa 415 29.2% 43.1% Changes in enrolment by gender This

year Last year

Two years ago

Three years ago

Rate of change

* Existing boys 226.7 216.6 204.4 190.7 1.06 Existing girls 172.4 163.2 152.1 139.5 1.07

New boys 193.3 190.9 197.5 206.4 0.98 New girls 148.3 144.9 151.4 155.9 0.98

Regional figures for Africa show a positive trend in enrolment for boys and girls in schools with existing school feeding programmes. This contrasts with the less positive trend in schools without programmes, or where programmes are just starting.

Africa: Changes in Enrolment

120.0

140.0

160.0

180.0

200.0

220.0

240.0

Threeyears ago

Two yearsago

Last year This year

Boys (Ex.) Girls (Ex.)

Boys (New) Girls (New)

The following are figures on the change in mean number of teachers over the same time period. Regional figures for Africa show that in schools where there are existing school feeding programmes there is also a consistent increase in the average number of teaching staff in the school. Unfortunately, in schools where there is no school feeding programme, there has been a negative trend in staffing numbers that has only recently started to be reversed (possibly due to the impending introduction of the new school feeding programmes). This

year Last year

Two years ago

Three years ago

Rate of change

* Existing 8.55 8.38 8.08 8.18 1.04 New 7.58 7.45 7.85 8.57 0.88 The difference between these figures is more apparent when they are presented graphically.


26

Africa: Changes in Teaching Staff

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

10.00

Three yearsago

Two yearsago

Last Year This year

Existing New

Gender ratio by year


3 years ago

Existing 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.73 New 0.77 0.76 0.77 0.76

Change in the ratio of girls to boys has been positive, but marginal. It would appear from the figures that the introduction of a new school feeding programmes is an effective catalyst in getting girls enrolled, however it is matched by the effect of ongoing programmes in that the girl to boy ratio remains fairly consistent at about 0.75 girls for every boy.

Africa: Ratio of Girls to Boys

0.73 0.74 0.75 0.76

0.76 0.77 0.76 0.770.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20


Girls ExistingGirls NewBoys

Of course, in terms of people, this translates into there being three girls in school for every four boys. Student to teacher ratio by year

This year Last year 2 years ago 3 years ago

Existing 46.3 45.1 43.9 40.0

New 44.5 44.6 44.0 41.9

Figures for Africa show a fairly delicate increase in the number of students to teachers (an average increase of two students per teacher per year over the past three years in schools with food assistance). This is likely because, although positive, the rate of change in teaching staff is not as strong as the rate of change in enrolment. Schools without food assistance have also seen an increase in the number of children per teacher, though to a lesser degree – however this may be the result of the decrease in the number of teachers as demonstrated in the figures presented above (see graph Africa: changes in teaching staff).

Africa: Student to Teacher ratio

40.0

43.945.1

46.3

41.9

44.044.6 44.5

30

32

34

36

38

40

42

44

46

48

50


Existing New

Student to classroom ratio by year

This year Last year 2 years ago 3 years ago

Existing 54.4 54.1 52.8 50.2

New 50.2 54.4 56.8 61.4

As would be coherent with the dips in availability of teaching staff in schools without school feeding programmes, the classroom ratio for the New sample was fairly high two-three years ago. As enrolment begins to increase, possibly due to the impending implementation of a school feeding


27

programme (see enrolment figures for this year) and teaching staff begin to return (or are hired), the classroom ratio remains high, but stabilises at levels closer to those experienced by schools with ongoing school feeding programmes.

Africa: Student to Classroom ratio

50 .252 .8

54 .1 54 .4

6 1.4

56 .854 .4

50 .2

30.0

35.0

40.0

45.0

50.0

55.0

60.0

65.0

70.0

75.0

80.0


Existing New

Non-enrolment reasons Boys Girls Reason E N E N Alt. Employment Attitude of parents Cost of schooling Distance from school Family economy Health/ disability Marriage Personal safety Other

4.8 2.6 3.6 4.9 2.6 5.4 6.9 6.6 5.9

5.8 2.6 3.9 5.3 2.6 5.7 4.7 6.6 6.2

5.4 3.1 3.4 4.9 3.1 5.5 6.9 6.6 5.3

6.1 3.1 3.7 5.1 3.0 5.7 5.4 6.6 5.5

As mentioned in the introduction to the results section, these indicators are not extremely significant at a regional level and should be appreciated in a specific country context. Nonetheless, it is interesting to note that for both school samples the factors that are deemed most impacting on whether or not children are enrolled, are marriage and personal safety – with the latter being consistently rated as most important for boys and girls. Other reasons have also been provided by respondents as carrying significant weight. Absenteeism reasons Boys Girls Reason E N E N Family economy Other employment

1.9 3.5

2.0 3.8

1.7 3.6

1.9 3.9

Boys Girls Reason E N E N Sickness/ health Weather Other reasons

2.3 3.9 3.0

2.5 3.8 2.8

2.4 3.9 3.0

2.5 3.9 2.8

Regional figures for Africa seem to indicate that among the factors that most affect the attendance of enrolled children, we may expect to see weather and other employment. A closer look at the results on a country level will give these figures more meaning. Sanitation at the school

Toilet facilities Septic tank

Valid

N Freq % Valid

N Freq % Existing 1000 24 2.4% 1000 47 4.7%New 413 6 1.5% 413 25 6.1%


Valid

N Freq % Valid

N Freq % Existing 1004 768 76.5% 998 633 63.4%New 414 283 68.4% 413 247 59.8% The majority of the schools in both samples have at least a pit latrine, and approximately half of these provide a separate pit latrine for girls. The presence of actual toilet facilities is quite low, as is the availability of a septic tank. Regional figures for Africa show that schools with ongoing school feeding programmes have significantly higher numbers of sanitary facilities than do schools without school feeding programmes.

Africa: Sanitation in the School

2447

768

633

6 25

283247

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Toiletfacilities

Septic tank Pit latrine forchildren


Existing New


28

Cameroon Project code: 4387.01 Project category: Development School type: Primary Number surveyed: 135 Existing programmes: 135 New programmes: 0 Project proposal WFP is currently assisting 49,000 primary school children under development project 4387.01. Beneficiaries are located in the four poorest provinces in the northern and eastern parts of Cameroon, which are subject to substantial food deficits. WFP is providing a hot meal, as well as a dry ration, to 16,000 of the total 49,000 beneficiaries. The project supports the Government’s strong commitment to basic education for all. The impact of the current project on school enrolment is massive: preliminary mid-term estimates indicate that assisted schools (representing less than 20 percent of the government schools) have seen an average increase of more than 50 percent children over the two-year project’s first year. Furthermore, the increase in girls’ enrolment is twice that of boys, and girl drop out rates are virtually coming to an end. WFP proposes to increase the current project by an additional 49,000 (40 percent girls) children a year to the current number of beneficiaries, bringing the grand total to 98,000 beneficiaries. Of these, 3,900 girls would also receive a quarterly take-home ration. This expansion is in line with the Government’s recent decision to increase the education budget by 50 percent for the year 2000-2001. Changes in enrolment by gender

Existing This Year

Last year

2 years ago

3 years ago

Rate of change*

Boys 202.4 195.6 163.6 139.7 1.13 Girls 120.4 111.1 86.9 64.0 1.23 Changes in enrolment in Cameroon are fairly representative of the theoretical effects of school feeding interventions, demonstrating a consistent yet controlled increase in numbers over time in the schools receiving food aid. It is interesting to note that the rate of change in

enrolment for girls is a little higher than that for boys.

Cameroon: Changes in Enrolment

0.0

25.0

50.0

75.0

100.0

125.0

150.0

175.0

200.0

225.0

Three yearsago

Two yearsago

Last year This year

Boys (Ex.)

Girls (Ex.)

At the same time, we may see that the schools surveyed in Cameroon also experienced a positive increase in the average number of teachers per school, although the increase has not been as steep as that in enrolment: This

year Last year

Two years ago

Three years ago

Rate of change

* Existing 4.18 3.95 3.93 3.85 1.09

Cameroon: Changes in Enrolment

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

10.00

Three yearsago

Two yearsago

Last Year This year

Teachers


29

Gender ratio by year

This year

Last year

2 years ago

3 years ago

Existing 0.59 0.57 0.53 0.46 The number of girls to boys enrolled in school in Cameroon is gradually increasing, although it has only recently surpassed the 1:2 mark.

Cameroon: Ratio of Girls to Boys

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

Three yearsago

Two yearsago

Last year This year

Girls Existing Boys

Student to teacher ratio by year

This year

Last year

2 years ago

3 years ago

Existing 76.8 76.8 63.7 51.6 Figures indicate that the student to teacher ratio has increased impressively over the past three years. However, coupled with the increase in enrolment and the increase in teaching staff (which is positive, but not as strong as that in enrolment), it is also quite feasible that the resulting larger groups of children may be split into smaller groups that are then taught separately across different shifts. As mentioned earlier, information on the number of shifts that might characterise a typical school day has not been captured, therefore the high student:teacher ratios may not necessarily depict the real situation.

Cameroon: Student to Teacher ratio

51.6

63.7

76.8 76.8

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0


Existing

Student to classroom ratio by year

This year

Last year 2 years ago 3 years ago

Existing 71.7 70.7 61.8 50.8 The same reasoning expressed for the previous indicator is applicable here. It is very feasible that the classrooms available to teachers are few, and that they are used by various classes throughout the day. The more times a given classroom is used, the more the student to classroom ratio will decrease. Information on this parameter will be collected in future surveys.

Cameroon: Student to Classroom ratio

50 .8

61.8

70 .7 71.7

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

3 yearsago

2 yearsago

Last year This year

Existing


30

Non-enrolment reasons Boys Girls Reason E N E N Alt. Employment Attitude of parents Cost of schooling Distance from school Family economy Health/ disability Marriage Personal safety Other

5.0 1.7 4.6 5.2 2.4 5.0 8.1 7.4 6.4

-- 7.3 1.8 5.3 5.8 2.4 5.3 3.7 7.2 6.9

--

Observing reasons for non-enrolment in Cameroon, we may see that the factor that affects boys’ enrolment the most is marriage, which is followed closely by concerns for personal safety, and the other reasons provided by respondents. For girls instead, the factors most affecting enrolment are again concerns for personal safety, which is followed by alternative employment, presumably related to the household. Again other reasons have been provided that respondents have listed as fairly important. Absenteeism reasons Boys Girls Reason E N E N Family economy Other employment Sickness/ health Weather Other reasons

1.7 3.2 2.2 3.5 4.1

-- 1.6 3.3 2.2 3.5 4.1

--

Once children are enrolled in Cameroon, they may have difficulties attending school due to other employment. Contrary to the reasons that affect initial enrolment, other employment is the top ranking reason for which enrolled children fail to attend school regularly. The most influential factors once again remain among the case-specific reasons that respondents have provided.

Sanitation at the school Toilet facilities Septic tank

Valid N Freq % Valid

N Freq % Existing 131 0 0.0% 131 8 6.1%


Valid N Freq % Valid

N Freq % Existing 135 9368.9% 131 55 42.0% Of the schools surveyed in Cameroon, none have toilet facilities, although eight do have a septic tank. Almost 70% have at least a pit latrine and of these, 42% provide a separate facility for girls.

Cameroon: Sanitation in the School

0.0%6.1%

68.9%

42.0%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Toilet facilities Septic tank Pit latrine forchildren


Existing

2001 global school feeding baseline study - … feeding 2001 report.pdf · 2001 school feeding...

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