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EDUCATION THEORY AND PRACTICE B

ETP520S

FEEDBACK TUTORIAL LETTER 2

SEMESTER 2/2017

EDUCATION THEORY AND PRACTICE B

ETP520S

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Dear ETP520S students Your assignments reflect well, however I need to emphasise the importance of formatting and editing

your work before sending it off. With that I mean that you should make your assignment look attractive

and it should appear as a piece of academic writing.

Avoid long sentences; give facts in bullet form and highlight your headings. Please use my numbering as

indicated in the Tutorial letter.

Please read extensively and make use of YouTube to see presentations and enjoy life chats.

Do not give up, you are almost there!

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CLASSROOM GROUP ACTIVITIES

Students learn through their participation in the attainment of knowledge by gathering information

and processing it by solving problems and articulating what they have discovered. Each activity

below provides students with opportunities to deepen their learning by applying concepts and

articulating new knowledge and many of these activities also provide the instructor feedback about

the students’ learning.

Entry/Exit Tickets

Entry & Exit tickets are short prompts that provide instructors with a quick student diagnostic. These

exercises can be collected on 3”x5” cards, small pieces of paper, or online through a survey or course

management system.

• Entry tickets focus student attention on the day’s topic or ask students to recall

background knowledge relevant to the day’s lesson: e.g., “Based on the readings for

class today, what is your understanding of ___________?”

• Exit tickets collect feedback on students’ understanding at the end of a class and provide

the students with an opportunity to reflect on what they have learned. They can be

helpful in prompting the student to begin to synthesize and integrate the information

gained during a class period. For example, a muddiest point prompt: “What was the

muddiest point in today’s class?” or “What questions do you still have about today’s

lecture?”.

Advantages of entrance and exit tickets include: participation of each student, prompt for students

to focus on key concepts and ideas, a high return of information for the amount of time invested,

important feedback for the instructor that can be useful to guide teaching decisions (e.g., course

pacing, quick clarification of small misunderstandings, identification of student interests and

questions).

Learn more about entry and exit tickets, and see examples.

Free Writing/Minute Paper/Question of the Day Exercise

These are activities that prompt students to write a response to an open question and can be done

at any time during a class. Writing activities are usually 1-2 minutes, and can focus on key questions

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and ideas or ask students to make predictions. These activities give students the opportunity to

organize their own thoughts, or can be collected by the teacher to gain feedback from the

students. Advantages include developing students’ abilities to think holistically and critically, and

improving their writing skills.

Learn more about one-minute papers and see examples.

Ice Breakers

Ice Breakers are low-stakes activities that get students to interact and talk to each other, and

encourage subsequent classroom interactions. They can be useful at the beginning of the semester:

for example, asking students to introduce themselves to each other and what they would like to

learn in the course. Advantages of icebreakers include: participation of each student, the creation of

a sense of community and focusing students’ attention on material that will be covered during the

class period.

Learn more about ice breakers and see examples.

Think–Pair–Share

This type of activity first asks students to consider a question on their own, and then provides an

opportunity for students to discuss it in pairs, and finally together with the whole class. The success

of these activities depends on the nature of the questions posed. This activity works ideally with

questions to encourage deeper thinking, problem-solving, and/or critical analysis. The group

discussions are critical as they allow students to articulate their thought processes.

The procedure is as follows:

1. Pose a question, usually by writing it on the board or projecting it.

2. Have students consider the question on their own (1 – 2 min).

3. Then allow the students form groups of 2-3 people.

4. Next, have students discuss the question with their partner and share their ideas and/or

contrasting opinions (3 min).

5. Re-group as a whole class and solicit responses from some or all of the pairs (3 min).

Advantages of the think-pair-share include the engagement of all students in the classroom

(particularly the opportunity to give voice to quieter students who might have difficulty sharing in a

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larger group), quick feedback for the instructor (e.g., the revelation of student misconceptions),

encouragement and support for higher levels of thinking of the students.

Learn more about think-pair-share and see examples.

Case Studies and Problem-Based Learning

Case studies are scenarios that apply concepts learned in class to a “real-life” situation. They are

usually presented in narrative form and often involve problem-solving, links to course readings or

source materials, and discussions by groups of students, or the entire class. Usually, case studies are

most effective if they are presented sequentially, so that students receive additional information as

the case unfolds, and can continue to analyze or critique the situation/problem.

Guiding questions lead students through the activity. The questions should be designed to develop

student’s critical thinking by asking students to distinguish between fact and assumptions, and

critically analyze both the process they take in solving the case study as well as the solution

itself. Example questions include:

• What is the situation? What questions do you have?

• What problem(s) need to be solved? What are some solution strategies? Evaluate

pros/cons and underlying assumptions of these strategies.

• What information do you need? Where/how could you find it?

• What criteria will you use to evaluate your solution?

There are many collections of case studies publically available in a variety of disciplines.

Learn more about case studies and explore collections.

Problem-based learning activities are similar to case studies but usually focus on quantitative

problems. In some cases the problems are designed to introduce the material as well as provide

students with a deeper learning opportunity.

Learn more about problem-based learning and see examples.

The advantages of problem-based learning activities and case studies include developing students

problem solving and decision making skills, develop student’s critical thinking skills encouraging

critical reflection and enabling the appreciation of ambiguity in situations.

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Group work: Using cooperative learning groups effectively

Group work: Using cooperative learning groups effectively

By Cynthia J. Brame, Ph.D., CFT Assistant Director and Rachel Biel, CFT undergraduate intern

Many instructors from disciplines across the university use group work to enhance their students’

learning. Whether the goal is to increase student understanding of content, to build particular

transferable skills, or some combination of the two, instructors often turn to small group work to

capitalize on the benefits of peer-to-peer instruction. This type of group work is formally termed

cooperative learning, and is defined as the instructional use of small groups to promote students

working together to maximize their own and each other’s learning (Johnson, et al., 2008).

Cooperative learning is characterized by positive interdependence, where students perceive that

better performance by individuals produces better performance by the entire group (Johnson, et al.,

2014). It can be formal or informal, but often involves specific instructor intervention to maximize

student interaction and learning. It is infinitely adaptable, working in small and large classes and

across disciplines, and can be one of the most effective teaching approaches available to college

instructors.

What can it look like?

What’s the theoretical underpinning?

Is there evidence that it works?

What are approaches that can help make it effective?

References

What can it look like?

Informal cooperative learning groups

In informal cooperative learning, small, temporary, ad-hoc groups of two to four students work

together for brief periods in a class, typically up to one class period, to answer questions or respond

to prompts posed by the instructor.

This video shows an example of informal cooperative learning in a large class taught by Tessa

Andrews at the University of Georgia:

Additional examples of ways to structure informal group work are given in the table below.

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Formal cooperative learning groups

In formal cooperative learning students work together for one or more class periods to complete a

joint task or assignment (Johnson et al., 2014). There are several features that can help these groups

work well:

The instructor defines the learning objectives for the activity and assigns students to groups.

The groups are typically heterogeneous, with particular attention to the skills that are needed for

success in the task.

Within the groups, students may be assigned specific roles, with the instructor communicating the

criteria for success and the types of social skills that will be needed.

Importantly, the instructor continues to play an active role during the groups’ work, monitoring the

work and evaluating group and individual performance.

Instructors also encourage groups to reflect on their interactions to identify potential improvements

for future group work.

This video shows an example of formal cooperative learning groups in David Matthes’ class at the

University of Minnesota:

There are many more specific types of group work that fall under the general descriptions given

here, including team-based learning, problem-based learning, and process-oriented guided inquiry

learning.

What’s the theoretical underpinning?

The use of cooperative learning groups in instruction is based on the principle of constructivism,

with particular attention to the contribution that social interaction can make. In essence,

constructivism rests on the idea that individuals learn through building their own knowledge,

connecting new ideas and experiences to existing knowledge and experiences to form new or

enhanced understanding (Bransford, et al., 1999). The consideration of the role that groups can play

in this process is based in social interdependence theory, which grew out of Kurt Koffka’s and Kurt

Lewin’s identification of groups as dynamic entities that could exhibit varied interdependence

among members, with group members motivated to achieve common goals. Morton Deutsch

conceptualized varied types of interdependence, with positive correlation among group members’

goal achievements promoting cooperation.

Lev Vygotsky extended this work by examining the relationship between cognitive processes and

social activities, developing the sociocultural theory of development. The sociocultural theory of

development suggests that learning takes place when students solve problems beyond their current

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developmental level with the support of their instructor or their peers. Thus both the idea of a zone

of proximal development, supported by positive group interdependence, is the basis of cooperative

learning (Davidson and Major, 2014; Johnson, et al., 2014).

Cooperative learning follows this idea as groups work together to learn or solve a problem, with

each individual responsible for understanding all aspects. The small groups are essential to this

process because students are able to both be heard and to hear their peers, while in a traditional

classroom setting students may spend more time listening to what the instructor says.

Cooperative learning uses both goal interdependence and resource interdependence to ensure

interaction and communication among group members. Changing the role of the instructor from

lecturing to facilitating the groups helps foster this social environment for students to learn through

interaction.

Is there evidence that it works?

David Johnson, Roger Johnson, and Karl Smith performed a meta-analysis of 168 studies comparing

cooperative learning to competitive learning and individualistic learning in college students (Johnson

et al., 2006). They found that cooperative learning produced greater academic achievement than

both competitive learning and individualistic learning across the studies, exhibiting a mean weighted

effect size of 0.54 when comparing cooperation and competition and 0.51 when comparing

cooperation and individualistic learning. In essence, these results indicate that cooperative learning

increases student academic performance by approximately one-half of a standard deviation when

compared to non-cooperative learning models, an effect that is considered moderate. Importantly,

the academic achievement measures were defined in each study, and ranged from lower-level

cognitive tasks (e.g., knowledge acquisition and retention) to higher level cognitive activity (e.g.,

creative problem solving), and from verbal tasks to mathematical tasks to procedural tasks. The

meta-analysis also showed substantial effects on other metrics, including self-esteem and positive

attitudes about learning. George Kuh and colleagues also conclude that cooperative group learning

promotes student engagement and academic performance (Kuh et al., 2007).

Springer, Stanne, and Donovan (1999) confirmed these results in their meta-analysis of 39 studies in

university STEM classrooms. They found that students who participated in various types of small-

group learning, ranging from extended formal interactions to brief informal interactions, had greater

academic achievement, exhibited more favorable attitudes towards learning, and had increased

persistence through STEM courses than students who did not participate in STEM small-group

learning.

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The box below summarizes three individual studies examining the effects of cooperative learning

groups.

What are approaches that can help make group work effective?

Preparation

Articulate your goals for the group work, including both the academic objectives you want the

students to achieve and the social skills you want them to develop.

Determine the group conformation that will help meet your goals.

In informal group learning, groups often form ad hoc from near neighbors in a class.

In formal group learning, it is helpful for the instructor to form groups that are heterogeneous with

regard to particular skills or abilities relevant to group tasks. For example, groups may be

heterogeneous with regard to academic skill in the discipline or with regard to other skills related to

the group task (e.g., design capabilities, programming skills, writing skills, organizational skills)

(Johnson et al, 2006).

Groups from 2-6 are generally recommended, with groups that consist of three members exhibiting

the best performance in some problem-solving tasks (Johnson et al., 2006; Heller and Hollabaugh,

1992).

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To avoid common problems in group work, such as dominance by a single student or conflict

avoidance, it can be useful to assign roles to group members (e.g., manager, skeptic, educator,

conciliator) and to rotate them on a regular basis (Heller and Hollabaugh, 1992). Assigning these

roles is not necessary in well-functioning groups, but can be useful for students who are unfamiliar

with or unskilled at group work.

Choose an assessment method that will promote positive group interdependence as well as

individual accountability.

In team-based learning, two approaches promote positive interdependence and individual

accountability. First, students take an individual readiness assessment test, and then immediately

take the same test again as a group. Their grade is a composite of the two scores. Second, students

complete a group project together, and receive a group score on the project. They also, however,

distribute points among their group partners, allowing student assessment of members’

contributions to contribute to the final score.

Heller and Hollabaugh (1992) describe an approach in which they incorporated group problem-

solving into a class. Students regularly solved problems in small groups, turning in a single solution.

In addition, tests were structured such that 25% of the points derived from a group problem, where

only those individuals who attended the group problem-solving sessions could participate in the

group test problem. This approach can help prevent the “free rider” problem that can plague group

work.

The University of New South Wales describes a variety of ways to assess group work, ranging from

shared group grades, to grades that are averages of individual grades, to strictly individual grades, to

a combination of these. They also suggest ways to assess not only the product of the group work but

also the process. Again, having a portion of a grade that derives from individual contribution helps

combat the free rider problem.

Helping groups get started

Explain the group’s task, including your goals for their academic achievement and social interaction.

Explain how the task involves both positive interdependence and individual accountability, and how

you will be assessing each.

Assign group roles or give groups prompts to help them articulate effective ways for interaction. The

University of New South Wales provides a valuable set of tools to help groups establish good

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practices when first meeting. The site also provides some exercises for building group dynamics;

these may be particularly valuable for groups that will be working on larger projects.

Monitoring group work

Regularly observe group interactions and progress, either by circulating during group work,

collecting in-process documents, or both. When you observe problems, intervene to help students

move forward on the task and work together effectively. The University of New South Wales

provides handouts that instructors can use to promote effective group interactions, such as a

handout to help students listen reflectively or give constructive feedback, or to help groups identify

particular problems that they may be encountering.

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Assessing and reflecting

In addition to providing feedback on group and individual performance (link to preparation section

above), it is also useful to provide a structure for groups to reflect on what worked well in their

group and what could be improved. Graham Gibbs (1994) suggests using the checklists shown

below.

The University of New South Wales provides other reflective activities that may help students identify

effective group practices and avoid ineffective practices in future cooperative learning experiences.

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Debate

Engaging in collaborative discourse and argumentation enhances student’s conceptual

understandings and refines their reasoning abilities. Stage a debate exploiting an arguable divide in

the day’s materials. Give teams time to prepare, and then put them into argument with a team

focused on representing an opposing viewpoint. Advantages include practice in using the language

of the discipline and crafting evidence-based reasoning in their arguments.

Learn more about debate.

Interview or Role Play

Members of the class take the part or perspective of historical figures, authors, or other characters

and must interact from their perspective. Breakdown the role play into specific tasks to keep

students organized and to structure them so that the content you want to cover is

addressed. Preparation work can be assigned for outside of class, so clearly communicating your

expectations is essential. Advantages include motivation to solve a problem or to resolve a conflict

for the character, providing a new perspective through which students can explore or understand an

issue and the development of skills, such as writing, leadership, coordination, collaboration and

research.

Learn more about role play.

Interactive Demonstrations

Interactive demonstrations can be used in lectures to demonstrate the application of a concept, a

skill, or to act out a process. The exercise should not be passive; you should plan and structure your

demonstration to incorporate opportunities for students to reflect and analyze the process.

1. Introduce the goal and description of the demonstration.

2. Have students think-pair-share (see above) to discuss what they predict may happen, or

to analyze the situation at hand (“pre-demonstration” state or situation).

3. Conduct the demonstration.

4. Students discuss and analyze the outcome (either in pairs/small groups, or as a whole

class), based on their initial predictions/interpretations.

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Advantages of interactive demonstrations include novel visualizations of the material and allowing

students to probe their own understanding by asking if they can predict the outcome of the

demo. They are also a venue for providing applications of ideas or concepts.

Learn more about interactive demonstrations.

Jigsaw

A Jigsaw is a cooperative active learning exercise where students are grouped into teams to solve a

problem or analyze a reading. These can be done in one of two ways – either each team works on

completing a different portion of the assignment and then contributes their knowledge to the class

as a whole, or within each group, one student is assigned to a portion of the assignment (the jigsaw

comes from the bringing together the various ideas at the end of the activity to produce a solution

to the problem). In a jigsaw the activity must be divided into several equal parts, each of which is

necessary to solving a problem, or answering a question. Example activities include implementing

experiments, small research projects, analyzing and comparing datasets, and working with

professional literature. The advantages of the jigsaw include the ability to explore substantive

problems or readings, the engagement of all students with the material and in the process of

working together, learning from each other, and sharing and critical analyzing a diversity of ideas.

Learn more about the jigsaw method.

Learn about how to use groups effectively.

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7 Reasons Good Teams Become Dysfunctional

1. Leadership

Dysfunctional teams lack a strong leader. A team needs a strong leader to identify the team's objective, maintain the group's focus on that end, and drive the team toward its established goal.

2. Team Members

Dysfunctional teams often have members more interested in individual glory and less interested in the team's objective. The goal of the team must always remain the team's focus. The quest for individual glory is contrary to the very concept of a team. As such, a true team needs members that are concerned only with how they can help the team achieve its goal and not what achieving the goal will be able to do for them individually.

3. Defined Goal

A dysfunctional team often fails to define its goal. A well-organized team defines its goal or goals from the outset and then sets out a road map as to how to get there.

4. Equitable Distribution

Dysfunctional teams disproportionately place too much of the team's work on a few of its members' shoulders. This is contrary to the entire concept of the team. If one person is going to do everything, why have a team to begin with? It is wasteful. A successful team combines individuals who come together to accomplish the defined goal and spread the work load evenly across team members. Each person is necessary to achieve the goal.

5. Focus

Dysfunctional teams lack focus. They may convene to discuss an issue but get caught up in seemingly endless debate surrounding a general topic while never moving toward an ultimate goal. A team needs to maintain its focus on achieving its defined goal.

6. Accountability

Dysfunctional teams lack accountability. They push back deadlines, or worse, they ponder theoretical questions without defined goals in mind. Moving back deadlines or simply gathering to endlessly pontificate without defined goals leads to a lack of accountability. Without accountability, it is easy to lose focus on the team's goal. A successful team maintains its accountability to achieving its ultimate end.

7. Decisiveness

Dysfunctional teams lack decisiveness. Often flowing from a strong team leader, a team needs to be decisive. Consider facts, draw conclusions on the basis of the best available information, and make a decision. A team's goal must always be to make a decision and then to act to accomplish its goal or make recommendations as required to do so.

The opinions expressed here by Inc.com columnists are their own, not those of Inc.com.