31254432 ib history mussolini italy

Mussolini’s Italy 02/23/2009

� Background

– 1848 – Italy became unified country

– divided in parts which fought together

– economy was backward

– agriculture primitive

– in Lombardy and Venetia were foreigners – influenced by Austria

– no central authority

– after 1815 – rebirth (“Risorgimento”) – cultural revival, call for unification of Italy

– all agreed to be united – 7 states -> annexation

– 1859 – Garibaldi invaded Sicily and handed over to the king

– 1861 – Italy became constitutional monarchy, king Victor Emanuel

– dominated by liberals for next 50 years

– it was new but still divided state

– Italians had no national feeling, 70% illiterate

– 2 Italy’s: Real Italy – peasants, Legal Italy – king and bureaucrats

– communication between the two was rare

– many Italians remain distrustful to the government

– catholic church didn’t like the government too – felt that their power was challenged

– many religious orders were dissolved, 1871 – Rome was occupied

– Backwardness prevented nationalistic feeling – industries and agriculture

underdeveloped, no progressives

– liberal system brought some changes and introduced reforms

– most politicians were very wealthy and ineffective, corrupt – wouldn’t deal with any

serious issue

– free education was introduced but unsuccessful

– foreign affairs had little success

– 1895 – Italians had clash with Ethiopians who won

– 1897 – poor harvest led to demonstration

– 1898 – Martial law introduced

– Fasci – workers groups demanding change, more money, lower rants – demonstrations

• wanted to see changes in latiafundios

– political groups were banned

– 1900 – new prime minister introduced social reforms

• e.g. 1 day a week off

• under 12 not allowed to work

• public commodities improved – water, roads

– 1911 Italy invaded Libya – success but socialists condemned it

• because it had nothing to do with ordinary people

– Socialist newspaper ‘Avanti’ with editor Benito Mussolini called for the end to private

property and overthrow of the state

– the socialists condemned the liberal government because the wages were still low, long

working hours, low welfare benefits, the state was quick in crashing the oppositions,

“imperialist adventures” were waste

– 1871 – 1915 – 5 million people “forced” to emigrate – highlighted the failure of

government

– nationalist groups saw emigration as disgrace and the government ineffective

• felt that the spirit of nation wasn’t developed

– Catholics wouldn’t support the regime because the Pope was challenged by the state

– the Popular party (“Popolari”) established after WWI. – catholic groups wanting social

reform to reduce poverty

• saw liberals as urban educated elite who didn’t understand the real Italy

• there were also conservative liberals who would prefer liberal government

– 1914 – mass outbreak of unrest in Italy

• riots, demonstrations in cities

�

Rise of fascism 02/23/2009

– the liberal state is facing two main challenges:

• First world war

• Socialism

– the war exposed the state – obvious problem started to appear therefore socialists

influence increased

– the war divided Italy and led Mussolini to break away from socialism and created

conditions for fascist to gain power

– (Italy was part of Triple alliance, Italy left when A-H attacked Serbia)

– Italians did not want war but many of the liberals and nationalist felt that this was Italy’s

opportunity to gain power and territory

=> division within the society

– Rome (govern) was now negotiating with both side (Triple alliance and Entente) – they

were offered land (S. Tirol, Trentino, Dalmatia, region of Yugoslavia + colonies) from

Entente

– best opportunity – entered side on Entente

– 1915 – War


– nationalists were happy that they joined war but poor in the south and mass of people

weren’t

• people felt that they’re going to war for few people from other regions

• conscriptions – about 5 million served

• conditions were terrible ->War of attrition (stuck in trench stalemate)

• rations were poor and pay was low

• approx. 600 000 Italians were killed, million wounded

– 2 major battles:

• Battle of Caporetto (Oct 1917)

○ major defeat -> low morale

○ nationalists blamed the liberal government – for inefficiency


○ government promised reforms so expectations raised

• (Oct 1918) Battle at Vittorio Veneto

○ Italy won victory

○ expectations of ‘rewards of victory’

– the victory at the end of the war became known as ‘mutilated victory’ – harsh, costly,

not expected victory

• they expected Italy as great nation in Europe

• nationalists blamed the government

• Italy did not receive the territorial gains that they expected, only bits

Italy faced severe domestic problems:

• Human costs of war

• Financial cost of the war -> burden on treasury

○ had to borrow from Great Britain and US -> debt

○ 1914: 16 billion Lira, 1919: 83 billion


○ Inflation -> savings of middle class were destroyed

• Industrialists have done well during the war because they supported it but now

their profits fell -> will effect workers

– the end of the war saw growth in labour militancy – strikes, demonstrations

– during the war – very strong discipline but now the discipline is released and workers are

angry at the harsh conditions of the time – wages low, inflation, …

• evidence: 1919: 1 million workers took part in strikes

• membership of socialist trade unions grew

– soldiers were returning from the war -> unemployment (1919 2 million unemployed)

Socialist threat to a liberal government:

– as the economy got worse political divisions increased

– the industrials workers started to join the socialist party

– the socialist party called for revolution – wanted to get rid of liberal government

– wanted socialist republic and dictatorship of the proletariat (workers) – even trough

violence

– November 1919 elections – universal suffrage


• the socialist PSI (Italian socialist party – Partito Socialisto Italiano)

• catholic ‘Popolari’ Party

– 32% of the votes taken by the socialist (at most at north – industrialists)

– middle class and conservatives were terrified because socialists continued to make their

traditional demands on economy

• wages, hours, more control on labour

– the socialists are not united and don’t have a clear strategy

– government under Nitti (liberal) urged the industrialists to make concessions to workers –

reduce tensions

– inflation continues -> food riots – showing incompetency of the government

• government did attempt to set up food committee

– socialist threat spread to rural area - peasants were occupying the land

• government was slow to act -> the landowners are angry bc. of incompetence of

government

– agricultural trade unions increased – demand better wages

– in 1920 the PSI won elections to many town councils


• now they control local taxes

– between 1919 – 1920 – increase in strikes called “ Biennio Rosso ” (two red years)

• fear of socialist revolution especially by middle class

– this fear pushed many elite to support the fascists

– the weaknesses of the socialists helped the fascist to ‘come to power’ in 1922

� The Peace Settlement

– seen as “mutilated victory”

– damaged the prestige of socialists and liberals

– the nationalists/right saw the government as weak in dealing with socialist threat but also

incompetent in dealing with war and peace

– the nationalists /right said that Italy should get the territory agreed by Entente agreed in

1915 but also Fiume in the border of Istria

• (city occupied by Italians, suburb by Croatians)

– Great Britain and US refused to give in (important for economy to Yugoslavia)

– Dalmatia also wasn’t given to Italy

– Nationalists blamed government and felt that Italy was cheated

– they also didn’t get German colonies


– many officers saw Italy being undermined by weak government and saw Italy falling into

socialist revolution

• felt that the parliamentary and liberal system was a failure and

– Italy needed other system to recover

– September 1919 – Nationalist intellectual d’Amunzio

– he seized Fume, praised by the nationalist and government did nothing

– government was criticised by nationalists

– he ruled the city for one year

– became public hero

– in December 1920 the new government (liberal) under Giolitti sent troops to Fume to re-

establish their authority

– d’Amunzio fled and army took command of the city

– Fume remained under international supervision until 1923

– force would achieve political aims in Italy

– d’Amuzio inspired many fascists

Mussolini and Fascism

– he was a good speaker and writer


– put his energy into socialist revolution – then became fascist supporter

– he wanted the war -> socialist disgusted with him

– resigned from Avanti and set up his own socialist newspaper ‘Il Popolo d’Italia’

– he was conscripted in 1915, discharged 1917

– in his newspaper he blamed government for failure in Caporreto, said that Italy needs

dictator

– in 1918 he tried to use his paper to try and create new political movement that would

promote nationalism and social reform

– called his newspaper as for ‘combatants and producers’ (soldiers, farmers, factory

workers)

– March 1919 – first meeting of his new movement the Fasci di Comattimento

– it appealed to all Italians

– Mussolini had no clear political ideology

1919-1921 Rise of fascism

– Fascism grows stronger

– 1919 – liberal government fasces problems:

• socialist party 156 seats after election

• Catholic party 100


• Liberals under Nitti – survive by forming coalition with Catholics

• Nitti’s government is criticized over Fume (failed to crush it quickly)

• Nitti resigned – successor Giolitti – politically in a weak position

– Sept 1920 – engineering workers occupied factories in the northern areas in dispute over

wages

• 400 000 workers involved in north cities

• Employers demand that government crush the occupation

• Giolitti remained neutral -> afraid to use force -> industrialists outrages – will

support fascists

• occupation collapsed after 1 month but weakened Giolitti’s position

– In rural areas there were agricultural strikes and land occupation

• the landowners are feared of socialist threat

• socialist trade unions established in some areas

– 1920 local elections

• the socialist controlled 26 provinces (north and centre)

• middle class feared that taxes will be raised


– by the end of 1920 the right (landowners, ind) in north and centre began to take action

which included violence

• they felt that the government has abandoned them

Fascist squads

– in Emilia and Tuscany – landowners and middle class turned to local fascist groups who

shared their hatred of socialism and attacked the socialists

– squads were usually small

– they burned down socialist offices and beat up trade unions

– in the early stages the squads were ex-army officers and middle class students

– as they attacked more socialist, members in the squads increased (small farmers, better-

off peasants)

– 1920-21 the violence continued especially in Emilia and Tuscany where there were very

strong squads

• the police did not interfere with the squadrisimo

– the local fascist leaders – the Ras – build up their own power

– Mussolini saw the political opportunity of having his own squadrisimo

– he used his newspaper to publish fascist activities


• he said the fascist violence was necessary because it would save Italy from

Bolshevism

– Giolitti hoped that fascism could be absorbed into liberal system

– Giolitti offered election alliance to the fascists to produce an anti-socialist coalition

– in May 1921 elections – Mussolini portrayed as diplomat and squads continue violence

(p. 163)

• liberals 125??

• socialists have 123 seats

• catholic Popolari 107 seats

• fascist 35 seats

– Mussolini is now member of parliament

Fascist supporters

– Mussolini managed to exploit fear of middle and upper class, particularly during the two

red years

– then fascism became more right

– also young and middle class students, civil servants

– = Petty bourgeoisie


– industrialist afraid of socialism

– shop keepers, small business owners, teachers, small landowners, …

Mussolini gaining support from conservatives

– 1921 Mussolini is junior member coalition government

– Mussolini needs to convince landowners and industrialists that liberalism has failed and

that fascism would restore order

– he moves away from the radical economic ideas / social reform ideas to make fascism

more attractive to middle class (see the handout)

– the government after 1921 was very unstable

• Giolitti / Mussolini coalition lasted 1 month

• liberals were very divided among themselves

– May 1921 – October 1922 Italian government is unstable and cannot pass any measure to

deal with industrial problems/strikes and there is collapse of law and order

• this is advantage for Mussolini

– the fascist actions contributed to the collapse of law and order


• still attacking socialists

– Mussolini needs to make fascist more united/presentable to conservatives

– in 1921 Mussolini works to make fascism strong political force

– he established the Partitio Nazionale Fascita in October 1921

• Mussolini is leader of this party and

– to gain support of the conservatives (who hate socialists and government) Mussolini

changes his policies from 1921

• his speeches talk of a “war” against socialism and liberalism

• he has no detailed policy – he stresses patriotism and strong government

• he hates democracy and socialism

• he kept catholic on his side by saying that fascism opposes divorce and peasants

disserve better

– Mussolini’s approach worked and his support increased (by end 1921 – 200,000 in party)

– there was a danger that he will loose control because of fascist leader in provinces who

wanted Coup d‘etat (takeover)

– he was also afraid that fascist violence might go too far

– he was worried that conservatives would want government to crush fascists


– he followed ‘dual policy’ in 1922

• saying 2 things depending to who is he talking to

○ encourages squads to continue campaign of violence against socialists /

cease of power by violence

○ persuading conservatives that he is opposed to violence

�

– July 1922 – the socialist trade unions called general strike to make government do

something about fascist violence

– Mussolini used this to his advantage by restoring order “if the government doesn’t stop

this industrial action, the fascists would”

– as soon as the strike began the fascist took over the public transport, postal system

– the general strike was disaster for the left – poorly organized and collapsed after 2 days

– Mussolini present the fascist as defenders of law and order

– middle class and conservatives impressed

March on Rome

– 1922 most fascist think it’s time to cease power

– Mussolini wants to be appointed legally


– he began talks with different liberal groups about creating new government

– at the same time he talks to squads about possible Coup

– Oct 22 1922 Fascist congress in Naples

• fascists drew up plan to march on Rome

• cease building in north and centre of Rome

– Mussolini has his doubts and wanted to use it to blackmail the king

– under threat politicians would agree to make him leader of government

– said that fascism and monarchy can work together to assure conservatives

– Oct 27 1922 – fascist squads cease town halls and other key buildings

– success varied

– the reports started to go to Rome that fascists are advancing

– prime minister Facta goes to king to put Marshall law into act

– king agreed but then changed his mind – king lacked confidence in his government and

was afraid of violent confrontation (civil war) with Fascists

• king didn’t have much respect to liberals and thought that Fascism might bring

new “spirit” to Italy


– he decided to have talks with Mussolini

– king refused Marshall law and Facta resigned -> no government

– king asked Salandra (conservative liberal) to lead and form new government including

Mussolini

• he tried to talk to Fascist offering them few of government posts – Mussolini

refused

• Mussolini would accept nothing but a post of prime minister

• other liberals are opposing Salandra -> ‘in-fighting’ among liberals

– king relies he needs to find someone who would form a government

– Salandra is facing too much opposition

– 29th October 1922 Mussolini is appointed prime minister

Fascism – strong contender?


�

Consolidation of power

– Mussolini is prime minister but cannot get rid of parliament

– has to construct coalition parliament

– the first government - 14 senior ministers

• Fascist were only 4

• liberals

• Popolari

– liberals and conservatives reassured

� Yes� Many assets� Controlled several regions� Firm leadership� End class conflict� By smashing socialism they attract support from elite� Benefited from opponents weaknesses� Opposition was unable to operate against them� Socialists weakened by unemployment, demoralization� People’s fears of socialism confirmed by ‘general strike’ – goal for fascists

� No� Fascism contained many diverse elements� Divided at how to achieve power – Ras/Mussolini� Mussolini had weak base in parliament� No support in parliament – had to be appointed by the king� Had to use threat of the Ras to reinforce his claims��


– even though Mussolini had no absolute power, he was prime minister, minister of foreign

affairs and interior

– Mussolini used the threat of the left and breakdown of law and order and threat of

Bolshevik revolution to request extraordinary measures

– Liberals believe Mussolini and believed that any new power he would be given he would

give up as soon as they’d not be needed

I. Mussolini demands from parliament to give him the right to rule by decree for 12

months

– could create law and didn’t need to consult parliament

– claimed he needs this to create law & order and strong government

– he was given Emergency powers

– Only Socialists objected

I. Establish the Grand Council of Fascism

– this would increase the authority over his own party

– this would be the top body of the Fascist party

– Mussolini would make all the appointments to the council

– he controlled the fascist policy


I. Reduction of the influence of fascist leaders in provinces

– he created a new militia paid for by the state -> private army

– composed of fascist squads

I. Won support of industrialists

– Mussolini announced he would not go after tax evaders

I. Support of the church

– by saying he would ban contraception

– made RE (religious education) compulsory in State school

– as a result the Pope Pius XI. withdrew support from Popolari -> they lost their political

influence

I. Reformed electoral system

– parliament has support of fascist MPs but king can dismiss them any time

– has support of liberals, conservatives and Catholics

– Mussolini said reform needed to produce a government with secure majority

• end weak coalitions

– in July 1923 – the chamber us surrounded by blackshirts as Acerbo law is passed


– the party gaining most votes in election (as long as they got 25% of votes) would take 2/3

of the seats

1924 General elections

– fascists joined with right wing liberals incl. Salandra

– got 66% of the vote

– meant that fascist deputies increase from 35 to 374 out of 535 -> majority

– opposition was split because communists would join socialists

– Blackshirt violence, Ballot rigging split in opposition -> helped fascists gain votes

– mid 1924 Mussolini is in strong position

Matteotti crises

– socialists shot

– Mussolini blamed but he denies it

– Mussolini introduces censorship on the 1st July and bans meeting of opposition

– Avanti walked out in process and when wanted go back, blocked

– Avanti secession -> assembly of opposition deputies

• walked out and expected the king to dismiss Mussolini


• king refused because he feared it would strengthen the left and might lead to civil

war

• conservatives also supported Mussolini

Mussolini moves to Dictatorship

– Mussolini’s respond to the crises was a policy of repression and concession

• press censorship 1924

• banned meetings of opposition political parties

– criticism continued

– Jan 1925 – Mussolini addresses chamber of deputies

• he will take measures to make himself dictator

– over the next year he introduced decrees to increase government control:

– Dec 1925

• passed the Legge Fascistissimo

• banned opposition political parties and Trade unions


• increased press censorship

• new secret police – OURA

• Special court to try political crimes

• Podestas – appointed local leaders (mayors) – led to control of local

governments/councils

– Law of Jan 1926

• his position was made unchallengeable

• it destroyed constitutional democracy

Why people voted for him? Page 170

Mutulated victory

weak government

economy – primitive agriculture

backwardness prevented nationalistic feeling

– by 1926 Mussolini was the dictator of Italy

– parliament is under his control and there is no opposition


– aim – to increase his personal power – he encourages the cult of personality

– Mussolini controlled the key institutions

• King – kept out of domestic policy, impressed with Mussolini – took adv of that, )

• Government – not going to share power with gov., no discussion on policies,

ministers simply follow his instructions

○ Mussolini held 8 ministries (foreign, interior, 3 armed services)

○ it was impossible for him to monitor his own decisions over so many areas

-> illusion of power

• Parliament – its political importance decreased over the years, couldn’t discuss

○ all candidates had to be fascist approved

○ in 1939 abolished

• Civil services – fascist party membership was low


○ was job for them

○ by 1930 the members increased

○ got support by rewarding loyalty

• Judiciary – Mussolini conducted purge

○ many judges sacked bc. not enough pro-fascist

○ legal system no longer impartial – he could jail anyone whenever

• Local government – elected mayors replaced by fascists


○ extend his power to the towns and countryside

• Church – shifted his policies – friendly

○ 1929 – Lateran Packs – improve the relationship between church & state

the Pope recognized Rome as part of Italian state, in return the state

would recognized Pope’s sovereignty over the Vatican

compensation of 30 million Pounds for Rome

○ Mussolini – dictator – was anti-religious -> not controlled by anyone

○ when seen as getting on with Rome – increased his public support and

prestige abroad

○ 1923 – reintroduced RE in schools, banned abortion and contraceptives

�

Mussolini in power 02/23/2009

� Mussolini and the Fascist Party


– PNF would serve Mussolini

– since 1921 Mussolini stressed central control but it was difficult because of Ras

• March on Rome was a degree of concession to Ras

– as prime minister he extends his control

• Created Militia – paid by state – ensure loyalty

• Grand Council of fascism – policy making body

• also punished opposition – 1923 local parties purged of dissidents

– Ras – purges, people appointed to the posts

– Mussolini did dominate the fascist party – good political skills

– PNF was not united – groups held together by Mussolini

– Mussolini directed policy, not the party

– most of the party members were white colored public employees

– see the handout

� HWK: Make outline – rise and consolidation of power – personality, weaknesses

of former regime, ideology, economy

�

� Mussolini myth (handout)


– seen as a great lover

– sent by god

– role of the myth – to provide focal point for the people to rally around

– helped win mass support

– his personal prestige

– other problems were blamed of fascists, not Mussolini

Opposition and support

– strong control of the fascist party and institutions of state made opposition difficult and

dangerous

– Mussolini had no problems with using violence or murder to silence critics

– by 1926 the Fascist squads had murdered 2,000 opponents

– there was a ban on political activity except the fascist party

– press censorship -> opponents had no opportunity to give their views

– dissidents were spied on by OVRA

• could be imprisoned without trial

– with such repression opposition was disorganized -> ineffective

– there were 2 networks of anti-fascism


• Communists

○ tried to keep underground party organization within Italy

○ had own newspaper Unita

○ distributed anti-fascist propaganda leaflets

○ only 7,000 active supporters

• Justice and Liberty

○ founded by Carlo Roselli

○ worked from Paris and kept international press informed about repression

○ tried to spread anti-fascist propaganda

○ only few thousand supporters, small scale

○ did attract attention of fascists, Roselli was murdered 1937

�

– Liberals and Popolari were left alone as long as they didn’t criticize the regime

• the OVRA would sometime pick individuals and harass them to show that it is

easier to conform

– Journalists and intellectuals were encouraged to join the system

• journalists had their pay doubled and had secured jobs


• easy reward – many conformed

– Mussolini also used fear and self interest to destroy any opposition from the public

• self-interest = rewards

• e.g. party membership became more necessary to get a good job or promotion

– criticism would result in exile

– at same time building up popular support -> propaganda (cult of Duce, achievements

glorified, parades, education, press)

– citizens had to participate in the adventure

– many did not feel the need for opposition in 1930s

• there was stability

• success abroad

• no much of interference in people’s life

–

Mussolini’s economic policies 02/23/2009

� Aims:

– to consolidate the political system

– to make the economy self sufficient – Autarky

– to provide economic base for military strength

Economic situation

1. limited raw materials

2. North-South divide (N-industry, modern agriculture S- poverty)

3. Literacy level is low

4. strong link between industry and state

Key economic periods

1) 1922 onwards – Economic recovery

– Mussolini had no clear policy

– except liberal economic policy and lowering inflation and limited government

intervention

1) 1927 onwards – economy weakens – due to problems caused by overvaluation of lira

2) 1929 onwards – Italy is hit by Great depression -> Mussolini’s response -> more

government intervention to bail out industrialists


attempts made to establish Fascists Corporative state

3) 1939 – Economy gets worse due to stress Autarky

Industry


– when Mussolini came to power industry (and economy) was at boom

– demand was growing in mid 20s

• Exports of cars and textile and agriculture doubled in 1922, 25

– de Stefani followed liberal economic policy

• there would be limited government spending which would lower inflation and also

there was less state intervention in industry

○ e.g. Telephone industry was handed back to private ownership

○ Taxes put on industrial profits made during the war were reduced or

abandoned – pleased industrialists

○ in 1925 Trade unions were outlawed/banned – Vidoni pact

– 1927 is coming to an end and the exchange rate of lira is falling against other currencies

• Battle of the lira

– the exchanged rate was 150L to 1BP

– in 1927 he changes the rate to 90L to 1BP

• this increased his prestige with Italians

• inflation went down which was harming middle class

• the image of fascist stability in Italy increased


– long term: hit the export – Italian goods were expensive

– banks tighten control of money

– the imports of food should have been cheaper but Duce imposed tax on the imports to

protect his own goods

– the only industries that benefited was steel, armaments, shipbuilding – he didn’t but tax

on those

• it was cheaper to import raw materials

– the battle was only partly successful

1930 World Depression

– large number of companies collapse

– car production fell by 50%

– unemployment went up by 2 million

– the fascist government intervened

• they introduced public work schemes, eg. building motorways, hydroelectric

plants -> created jobs -> increased money in circulation -> more demand -> more

jobs

• banks had were bailed out otherwise they would be able to pay investors


• in Jan 1933 The institute for Industrial reconstruction

○ gives loans to industry instead of the banks

• costs tax payers a lot but helped Italy to go trough the depression

– Mussolini wasn’t interested to improve life of ordinary citizens

– balance of payments dramatically improved – still negative but better since 1920s

– by mid 30s the living standards and general economy were suffering

– Mussolini was too interested in foreign affairs

– believed war was inevitable so he has to be prepared -> Italy has to be self sufficient ->

Italy should be in complete Autarky

– Mussolini encouraged heavy industry – steel, chemicals, shipbuilding – by making large

government orders

– the state control also expanded

• 50% of steel, 80% shipb. were directed by government

– encouraged economy of scale – allowed large major companies to merge -> monopolies

• eg. Fiat controlled the car production

– when Duce declared was in 1940 the economy wasn’t self sufficient

• problems – huge budget deficit – Spain, Ethiopian adventure, rearmament


How effective was Autarky?

– Mussolini attempt wasn’t successful either

– did become self sufficient in grain

– still had to import lot of goods – basic needs

– lack of foreign currency because he neglected exports

– couldn’t import needed raw materials for military because he didn’t have the currency

– oil companies had to search for new resources (eg. Agip)

– no coal supplies, little iron, no oil

– increased prices

– balance of trade still suffered – made it hard to import raw materials

Agriculture

– Mussolini wasn’t concerned about poor peasants

– introduced in 1925 The Battle for Grain

• wanted to be self sufficient during war

• poor was important

• increase his prestige and country’s prestige

• it would reduce the balance of trade deficit


– would put high tariffs on imported grain

– government grants given to farmers to buy machinery and fertilizers

– free advice on best technique

– guaranteed farmers high price

– results:

• cereal production increased (doubled from 1922 – 39)

• imported grain declined sharply (75% down from 1925-35)

• Italy becomes almost self sufficient in cereals (but not in fertilizers)

• Mussolini could claim success

– Failures:

• grain production increased at expense of other agricultural products (e.g. olive oil,

wine…)

• those declined because instead of them, grain was seeded

• central and southern Italy more suitable for citrus fruits was changed to produce

cereals

• yields remained low

• small farmers hit by world slump in food prices


�

– because Italy wasn’t self sufficient in production of fertilizers, cereal production declined

during the war

– cost of grain and bread went up because of taxes on imported stuff, he could raise prices

of his own products

– increased import of meat and eggs

– The Battle of Marshes

• aim:

○ to show a dynamic government in action to impress foreigners

○ and to improve health by reducing malaria

○ to provide more jobs

○ to increase land for cereal production

• to set up drainage schemes

• private landowners were encouraged to cooperate

• was already started by liberal government – mostly show case

• passed laws in 1923, 28 and 33 on reclamation of land

• the show case: Pontine marshes – 50km from Rome

• Results:


○ very little land was reclaimed – about 1/28 of what propaganda claimed

○ there was improvement in public health

○ 1000 of jobs created during the depression

○ most land reclaimed at North, little at south

• the rural poverty in south remained bad

• USA made decision to stop migration -> closed escaped route from poverty

• Italians started to move to towns and cities

• his aim was to created prosperous peasants devoted to fascism but this didn’t

happen

• his policies didn’t help to the poor, it benefited the large landowners

(p. 179)

� Transport – clear progress but projects were not economically vital

• poor roads remained in backward agricultural areas

� Trade – (…see handout)

�


� What were the main factors that enabled Mussolini to rise to power, and consolidate

his position in Italy, between 1918 and 1926. [20]

– dissatisfaction with results of WW1

– Economic depression

– Political instability -> Develop point – (evidence) analyse how it played part in rise to

power

– Weakness of monarchy and rise of Fascism

– The Matteotti affair

– Acerbo Electoral law -> Explain -> analyse how it was a factor in rise to power

– Fear of Communism

– Elimination of opposition – use of violence

– Skills/Personality

To what extend were the aims of Mussolini’s domestic and foreign policies achieved between

1923 and 1939? [20]

aim:

– to establish totalitarian government

– rebuilt the glory

– good relationships with church

– improve economy


Analyse the methods used by one single party state ruler in his successful bid for power

– explain the methods used by chosen ruler

– why were these methods chosen?

– analyse the methods by indicating how and why they were successful in propelling the

ruler into power

– types of methods could be:

• legal or violent

• types of support sought and obtained

• ideology

• the nature of the regime that is overthrown

• the regional (and the world) situation

(May 06) To what extend was the rise the rise to power of either Hitler or Mao due to

personal appeal and ability?

– start with personal appeal – how it help him to rise to power

– then other abilities

– evidence


– speeches

–

Fascism and Domestic policies 02/23/2009

� Fascist intrusion into the everyday life

– Italians banned to belong to opposition, trade unions

– press, theatre, radio and films censored

– bombarded with propaganda

– women denied the benefit of higher education and job opportunities limited

– regime tried to impose code of conduct for young women

– upper class less affected – enjoyed clothes, high life, party going and foreign holidays

– not all intrusion were unwelcomed – eg. welfare benefits

– provision of sickness and unemployment benefits

– help for poorer families during winter

– Achille Starace – Party secretary

– (involved in drugs, rape,…) one of the most thoroughly unpleasant of all leaders

– replaced Augusto Turati in 1931 whom falsely accused of sado-masochism

– his 2 aims: to promote even further Mussolini’s cult of personality and introduce Fascist

uniformity into peoples’ life

– Mussolini called him ”cretin but an obedient one”

The Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro


– National Institution for Leisure Activities

– to provide healthy and profitable leisure time activities and improve the quality of life of

Italian people


– also used for propaganda purposes: libraries, providing radio sets, showing films…

– club houses for local communities, distributed food and clothing to the poor

– became very popular and in 1928 control of Dopolavoro was passed to the Party

– by 1939 its membership exceeded 4 mil.

– facilities were more accessible in rural areas than in villages, however they provided

community centres – sometimes even replaced the Catholic church as a centre

– Dopolavoro might be regarded as one real success of Mussolini probably because it rather

focused on leisure activities than on the real political indoctrination

�

� Youth Policies

� Use of schools and universities for propaganda

– wanted to create mentally and physically perfect ‘new men and women’

– had to deal with illiteracy – needed qualified men and women to move with the

advanced technological age

– Mussolini appointed Gentile as Education minister

– middle class favoured the grammar school which concentrate on Latin, philosophy and

humanities – provided route to career in the professions

– Gentile believed to ‘better but fewer’ schools – the less gifted received ‘more suitable

and relevant education’

– set up standardized system of examinations


– schools were single sexed and emphasis was on physical fitness

– Attendance dropped by 100,000 in first 4 years of Fascist rule

– revision of school system angered many fascist and in July 1924 Gentile’s system was

dismantled

– serious attempt of fascistising education was made in 1930s

– a curriculum was made and new textbooks – history concentrated on the greatness

of Roman Empire,…

– Mussolini explained it in order to mould in children ‘a real awareness of their duties

as Fascist citizens’

– 1931 – all teachers’ associations merged into Fascist Association

– system centralised and teachers had to take an oath of loyalty -> Bottai’s 1939 School

Charter

– Bottai wanted to establish an organic union of party and school

– he wanted to break down the class barriers in the system and place more emphasis on

science and technology

– special schools for the children of peasants an craftsmen were created -> rural sector

would benefit

– ‘new Fascist men and women’ were trying to be created

– this radical idea worried the conservative middle class


– experiment was disrupted by war

– it is impossible to assess how successful the Fascists were in trying to indoctrinate

their young.

• obstacles: church, teachers, parents

• however with government higher expenditure on education the illiteracy rate

fell rapidly

– Italian universities rose from 54,000 in 1921 to 165,000 in 1942

– government control declined with higher education structures

– it was more about adding courses (military training, Fascist culture) and highlighting

Italian and Fascist achievements

– also secondary and university teachers weren’t all committed to Fascism

– the oath of loyalty prevented purge of teachers

�

� Fascist youth movements

– youth organisations were most successful in inculcating the Fascist values into youth

– young people were more attracted to the facilities rather than to the propaganda message


– ONB (Opera Nazionale Balilla) was the new fascist youth organization but in 1929 it

was taken over by Education ministry

– some complained that this led to insufficient fascist aspects in ONB and loss of Fascist

spirit influence by unreformed education officials

• many joined in order to take advantage of the facilities rather than out of

political conviction

• sports and physical exercises encouraged, weekend rallies and summer

camps

– Girls enjoyed more feminine pursuits – cookery, childcare

– had to contend with counter attractions from Church Action by catholics

– intensification of indoctrination in the late 1930s

– 1937 the ONB was incorporate into GIL (Gioventú Italiana del Littorio) – for all youth

– Following activities organized by ONB

• sports, propaganda lectures, parades, Saturday after noon rallies, competitions,

summer camps

– older Avanguardisti


• resembled those of adult Blackshirts (squadristi)

– Girls

• enrolled on smaller scale

• they also did rhythmic exercises, watched films, sewing, handcrafting

– GUF

• catering for university students

• people joined for career or social purposes

• organized Littorialia (1934-40) contest covering art and politics

�

� Did Fascism capture the minds of young’s?

– 1928 decree – only youths who had been in the ONB could join the Fascist party

– 1989 – about 60% on N youths were members, lower in S

– 1935 – membership became compulsory

– organization tied to school system

– teachers urged to become ONB leaders

– therefore members were disproportionately male and middle class because girls and

poorer boys left school early and were able to escape


– ONB organized on neighborhoods so little class mixing

– strong position of Catholicism in Italy also served to spread Fascism

– some complain that male youth became more lovers than haters – were just time-servers,

not enthusiasts

– propaganda strengthened the regime because between 1910-1930 all Italians born

experienced Fascist propaganda

– the extent to which support of Fascism disappeared after 1943 when Mussolini was

overthrew – Fascism had limited success

�

� Propaganda

� Posters!!

�

� Cinema

– messages of Mussolini before films

– great vehicle for conveying propagnda

– few melodramas and comedies produced for general consumption

– each film projected had to have link between the plot and politics

– Italians films were banned from dubbing however foreign films had to be dubbed into

Italian, otherwise rather banned


�

� Radio

– began in 1924 and expanded rapidly

– Radioballila produced however cheaply and therefore unreliable

– Dopolavoro popularized the broadcasting

– Loudspeakers set up in market places, schools etc.

– by 1942 2 mil. of Italians regularly listened to radio

– however some tuned foreign radio stations to hear reliable news or listened to Vatican

radio and read Osservatore Romano

�

� Newspapers

– self-censorship

– certain news that were to be published

– correct version of events

– Vatican papers increased circulation

– Milan based paper too – 5x times more than fascist paper

�

� Music – had an impact on young

�


� Leasure – ONB and Dopolavoro (see above) – sporting activities, family events – not

only youth

– aim: to create sense of belonging and indoctrinate fascist ideas

– acitivities with fascist flavour

– shows totalitarian aspirations of Mussolini

• seeking to control all aspects of their life

– club houses

– everything subsidized – even holiday

– lot did join and it did won the support for the fascists but didn’t indoctrinate completely –

they just went along

�

� Rallies

– organization, order

– mass parades

– collective identity

�

� Sports

– discipline

– to socialize people

– national prestige and pride


�

� Art

– unlikely in Russia or Germany Italians enjoyed at least minimal freedom

– artist didn’t escape

– even though art was in decline, it didn’t disappear

Roman culture but also modern like Futurism

�

– Propaganda gained a lot of support for fascism and Mussolini

– Wasn’t as organized as in Germany

• e.g. Art – couldn’t agree on the style

– Did set new values and influenced lot of young people

– Wasn’t very controlled

Fascism and Catholicism

– church was for Mussolini important and wanted to secure it

– Mussolini settled the church-state quarrel – for many great achievement of the Duce

Church-state quarrel

– quarrel over land


– 1929 - ending it was part of Mussolini’s initial policy of favouring the social,

economic and administrative Elite to consolidate his regime

– Fascism wanted to have clear area of conflict because it was part of their totalitarian

regime

• should not allow powerful alternatives of beliefs

– Roman Catholic church encouraged people to look to Rome for leadership

– agreement with the Pope would boost the Fascist regime’s international image

– church was more concerned with Socialism rather than with Fascism – better than

previous regime

– also they shared:

• need for order

• discipline

• respect for hierarchy

• the acceptance of an infallible leader and hostility to Liberalism and materialism

• similar approach to family and the role of women

• corporativism = similar to Christian stress on harmony

– if the regime provides authoritarian state then Christianity could grow


– political treaty was reached recognizing the independence of Vatican, church was given

compensation and Concordat regulation Church-state relations

– Italy was catholic so Mussolini needed the church

– Vatican was centre for Catholicism worldwide – could hurt his image

After the Concordat – The Lateran Treaty of 1929

– the church took part in the everyday life of Fascism

– priests participated in ONB activities

– Priests and party officials cooperated in campaigning against modern dancing, short skirts

and decadent films

– Catholic journal urged Catholics to go and vote for Duce’s government

– church welcomed the ‘crusades’ against Bolsheviks in Abyssinia and Spain

– Some radical Fascism considered Concordat as betrayal of their aims

– some priests were concerned about church identifying too much with Fascist state – good

Catholics cannot accept Fascism

– 2 major quarrels between Church and Fascism


• 1931 – the government considered Catholic Action was extending too much into

state so several its branches were closed. The Pope responded by criticizing the

regime in the papal newspaper L’Osservatore Romano. Compromise reached that

Catholic Action would just run strictly religious, education and recreational

activities (not sport) and would be more decentralized.

• 1937-38 – over anti-Semitism. The pope and priests criticized the government for

undermining Christianity by forbidding marriages between Jews and Italians

– although Mussolini benefited from the agreement, the church gained more long-lasting

gains

– it continued its missing based on Christian rather than Fascist principles which probably

helped undermine the Fascist propaganda

– 1930 – considerable religious revival – church marriages, schools and priests increasing

– careful church leadership allowed the church to weaken the totalitarians claims of the

regime

– Catholic Actions provided an alternative environment for its members

Rivals or collaborators?

– the concordat boosted Mussolini’s popularity


– the strengthening of Catholicism in schools and the Catholic action gave another

perspectives, which sometimes was similar to the Fascist but sometimes not (respect for

human life and militarism)

�

� THUR - Domestic policies

– specific facts

� Women

�

“Child bearing is woman’s natural and fundamental role in life” and “Women should be

exemplary wives and mothers, guardians of the hearth, and subject to the legitimate

authority of their husbands” Mussolini

– even though women were not banned from colleges there we few job opportunities and

almost no possibility of promotion in jobs

– some were employed in traditional women jobs (teaching, nursing…) and increasingly

also in factories

– in countryside it was essential to the rural economy for women to work on land

– women were to wear simple, plain clothes and avoid revealing dresses, high-heeled shoes

and cosmetics


– Mussolini was against women being involved in sports since it was believe that it can

cause infertility

– however, wives of leading Fascist leaders enjoyed clothes from leading Paris designers

and French perfumes

– in 1925 women could vote however only in local government elections

– remained excluded from politics

� The Battle for births

– Mussolini needed predominantly young population to supply the needs of army, industry

and to populate its overseas empire

– wanted to reverse the trend of 1927 – increase the pop. from 40 m to 60 m by 1950

– policy – generous reward for married and penalties for single

– backed with propaganda, 12 children was ideal

– loans offered to couples and they canceled with every new child (6 children – loan repaid)

– even though policies were issued there was no increase in the number of marriages and

the birth rate marginally declined

– ban of contraception

– total population reached 47.5 million in 1950 (1940??)

Problems faced and how successful was he in solving them?


– lack of unity

– low birth rate

Critically evaluate the success and failures of domestic policy (22-??) (Lenin + Muss)

– inflation

– unemployment

– poor parliamentary system

– …

Fascism and Foreign policy 02/23/2009

– no clear policy first

– only to make Italy great, respected and feared

�

� European policies 1922-35

– secured position in Europe but not a lot of influence in diplomacy

– after humiliation in WW1 Mussolini wanted to make Italy great again

– problem: powerful and hostile northern neighbors

• he had to protect his country against France and Germany – they were in power /

they dominated Africa

○ any change had to be agreed by them

• had to secure influence in Balkans

• achieved in 1920s, expansionist policy in 1930s – to control the Mediterranean

and African empire

– Mussolini’s ‘renewed greatness’

• in Aug 1923 General Enrico Tellini and others were assassinated during their

work at Conference of Ambassadors (territorial arrangement of 1919 treaties) I

Greece

• Mussolini demanded full apology and 50 million Lire compensation


• Greece appealed to the League of Nations

• on 31st Aug, after Greece rejected Italy’s demands, Mussolini bombarded Corfu –

Greek marines

• under pressure from Britain and Conference Mussolini withdrew his forces on 27

September

• received 50 million lire

• FAILRUES OF ITALY:

○ responded to pressure from Conference of Amb.

○ hadn’t received full apology

○ not a strong political power in Europe

○ showed weakness when having to stand against big countries

– 1924 Pact of Rome

• diplomatic pressure on Yugoslavia -> pact with them

• Italy received Fiume -> prestige and popularity

• Mussolini believed that he can now influence Yugoslavia

• Italy economically supported local chief in Albania to take over

• Albania was basically Italian satellite -> Yug. saw it as a threat – Italian army on

the border


• Mussolini was aggressive towards Yug. (strategic during the war)

– needed to stay on good terms with Britain

1) stays in the League of Nation

2) signs Kellogg –Briand pact 1928 - war could be outlawed

3) agreed to Locarno Pact – to secure post-war territory settlements

4) negotiated with Britain to settle the border between Egypt and Libia

– Mussolini was determined to revise the peace settlement – revisionist

– 1927 treaty of friendship with Hungary / 1930 with Austria

– trained German pilots in Italy – clear break of Versailles

1933-1935

Relationship with Germany

– Mussolini thought that if Germany would frighten France and Britain, they would be

more willing to give concessions to Italy to keep her as an ally

– Mussolini was afraid that Germany would be centre of fascism and Hitler would

overshadow him


– afraid that Hitler will take over Austria and the greater Germany would share border with

Italy

– 1935 relations were at low

– b/c March 35 Hitler revealed the existence of the Luftwaffe

– also alarmed when conscription in Germany began again

– Mussolini felt challenged so he agreed to meet Britain and France in Stressa

• agreed a united front that would work to prevent the breaking of Versailles

• this gave Mussolini important security against the Anschluss

• also showed Mussolini that W powers were worried, also that Germany would

ally with others – thought that Brit and Fr would be more sympathetic for him

War in Ethiopia (Abyssinian Crisis)

– the situation gave him opportunity to expand his empire

– successful adventure would bring him glory and strengthen the regime (ADV) and

impress the great powers

– Ethiopia was an ideal target

• not colony of anybody else


• not in the position to fight the modern war

• neighboring Italian lands are Italy’s colonies (Somali land, Eritrea) – easier to

attack Ethiopia

– would be a revenge to Adowa 1896 where Italy was defeated

– wanted to be it his sphere of influence

– 1934 – clash between Italian and Ethiopian troops in Wal-Wal – disputed border area

– Ethiopia asked the League of Nations to investigate

– Mussolini sends a ½ million army

– 1935 – Italian army attacks Ethiopia

– Ethiopians are disorganized with poor weapons

– 1936 the capital Addis Ababa occupied and the emperor Haile Selassie fled to Britain

– the incident made Mussolini more popular in Italy

– the League condemned the invasion but the people in Italy supported him

– the League put economic sanctions on Italy – no arms sold to Italy, member states were to

ban Italian imports – but only symbolic because there was no ban on oil, coal and steal

and the Suez canal remained opened to Italian ships

– this convinced hat Brit and Fr were ‘paper tigers’ and wouldn’t use force


look up: Hoare – Laval pact

Relations with Germany after 1 93 5

– he looked more favourably at Germany

– by frightening Brit and Fr they might give more concessions

– by early 1936 the relations between the two fascist regimes strengthen

– Hitler agreed not to carry out Anschluss and Mussolini agreed that he would accept

Austria as Germany’s sphere of influence

� -> Rome-Berlin Axis in April 1936

– this confirmed their friendship

– they agreed that Hitler would expand towards Baltic and Mussolini towards East

– Mussolini wasn’t thinking about war

– 1936-1939

– Italy was very much involved in the Spanish Civil war

– he supported the Spanish fascist to overthrow the government (see notes on Spanish Civil

War, foreign interventions)

– Italy would expand its sphere of influence, increase its prestige

– British fleet dominates in W Mediterranean so it was opportunity for them to gain more

influence


– Nov 1937

– the Rome-Berlin Axis were strengthened when Italy joined the Anti-Comintern Pact

(Germany, Japan, Italy) – they would fight together against communist Russia

– March 1938

– Relationship between Germany and Italy cooled – Hitler did Anschluss in March

– in response Mussolini signs an agreement to keep the status-quo in Mediterranean

– in May1938 Hitler visited Rome and renewed the friendship

– Sept 1938

– Hitler demands Sudetenland and there was a danger that this could lead to war and

change the balance of power

– Chamberlain asked Mussolini to act as a mediator in Munich Conference

– he got very positive publicity in the news – prestige, sense of power

– Mussolini secretly worked with Hitler to find a solution that would favour Nazi Germany

– as a result Sudetenland is handed over to Germany

– both at home and in Europe Mussolini is seen as the one who brought the peace, very

good reputation


– for Mussolini this was indication that Britain and France are weak – he will use this to his

advantage

– Nov 1938

– Mussolini wanted to annex Corsica, Tunis, Nice (but later he didn’t)

– French are outraged and by 1939 they’re rearming

– Mussolini knew that if he continues there will be war

– he believed that he can win the war (especially with German alliance) and that Britain

might not get involved (p. 187)

– April 1939 Mussolini organized the invasion of Albania

– he’s trying to show that he’s the key figure in Europe

– even though that Albania was its sphere of influence he wanted it because he felt

overshadowed by Hitler

– in response Brit and Fr promised military assistance to Turkey and Greece if they’re

attacked

– Mussolini saw this promise as aggressive move against Italy because he considered it as

his sphere of influence

– these guarantees may have convinced Mussolini to sign the military alliance with Hitler

-> ‘Pact of steel’


– Mussolini was under pressure from government to back-track – it was seen as dangerous

commitment

– Note sent to Hitler that they’re not ready for war

○ help from Germany needed

– Note ignored and Hitler insisted that they stand by the terms

– Mussolini was attracted to Germany because it was also fascist state and felt that Ger

might win the war and he would gain

– Their resources were depleted since Abyssinia

– 1939 When Ger went to war over Poland with the West, Italy remained neutral (non-

belligerent = non-fighting)

– majority of Italians were relieved

– Mussolini wasn’t happy with neutrality but his regime wasn’t ready for war

– by June 1940 Mussolini declared war on Brit and France

a) because by May Ger had taken Holland and Belgium over Brit and Fr

b) if Italy remained neutral they would be faced with Europe dominated by Germany

c) she would also gain nothing

d) if she joined the war Ger would be friend and Italy would receive


– he hoped to gain as much territory as possible before the war ended

– Sept 1940 British position in Egypt, in Suez attacked

– Oct he attacked Greece

– both offences were unsuccessful

– by the end of the year the fascist army was pushed out from Suez and Greece

– Suez canal was closed to Italy

– Navy crippled by the British

– end 1940 Britain still controls Mediterranean and Suez

– 1941 Mussolini has to accept that German general Rommel as a Commander in Africa

– Hitler had no faith in Italian army

– by April 1941 Ger swept trough Yugoslavia and Greece so the axis powers were doing

well but Italy was no more than Junior partner – relied on Germany for supplies

– decisions were made by Germany

– some Italian troops sent to Russian from but proved to be untrained and in sufficient

– East African Empire taken over by British in 1941

– by the end of 1942 Germany defeated at Stalingrad and German froces in N Africa were

retreating

– by May 1943 the axis army were surrendered

– Allies land in Sicily in 1943 – the end of Mussolini


– poorly organized

– outdated weapons (from WW1)

– troops poorly trained

– there was opposition in the country against the war

– incompetent

– 600 Generals use defensive tactics from WW1

– strategic materials had to be imported from Germany (coal, iron)

– the fascist regime did not think the war is going to last long – they didn’t fully mobilize

– supplies were low coal, iron, petrol, bread (150g per day)

– peoples’ faith in Il Duce was shattered

– longer working hours for those in factories

– opposition groups began to organize (from catholics to communists)

– by 1943 the shortages and anti-war mood led to strikes

– the allies invading Sicily – mainland is in danger

– group of fascist persuaded Mussolini to call meeting of Grand Council of Fascism (1943)

– July 1943 the council meets and they voted by majority to ask the king to restore the

parliament

– the King declared the war as a lost and appointed Marshall Badoglio as prime minister

and instructed him to restore peace


– Mussolini is dismissed and arrested – the fascist regime collapsed

– Armistice arranged with Britain and France by Sept 1943

How successful was Italian foreign policy?

– look at aims: great Italy, resources from Africa, empire in Africa, become great power in

Europe, Balkans as sphere of influence

– Abyssinian affair – success at the time – achieved the nationalist dream of war territory in

africa, revenged the previous defeat (Edoa); consolidated his position; brings Italian

prestige; gains more support at home – cult of personality; support from the church

(civilizing the Africans); more market BUT drain on resource; budget deficit (2.5 bil to

16 bil Lira); 250 thousand occupying troops that had to be supplied; upsets Brit and Fr;

sanctions are imposed – has to trade more with Germany; has to continue fighting

guerrilla war in Abys.; their rule was corrupt and brutal – bad reputation in Eur;

– Spain – strategic ally, demonstrate fascist might, good victory – could claim that defeated

communist; win at the time BUT cost 14 bil Lira; became unpopular; had no financial

value

– Relationships with Germany

○ what was the hope? Equal partner but didn’t achieve

○ Anschluss and N Africa affair (Ger command)

31254432 ib history mussolini italy

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