4-1©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

PROPERTIES OF MATTER AND THE ANALYSIS OF

GLASS

Chapter 4

4-2©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Physical vs. Chemical Properties• The forensic scientist must constantly determine those

properties that impart distinguishing characteristics to matter, giving it a unique identity.

• Physical properties such as weight, volume, color, boiling point, and melting point describe a substance without reference to any other substance.

4-3©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Physical vs. Chemical Properties• A chemical property describes the behavior of

a substance when it reacts or combines with another substance.

4-4©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Measurement System• Scientists throughout

the world use the metric system of measurement.

• The metric system has basic units of measurement for length, mass, and volume; they are the meter, gram, and liter, respectively.

4-5©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Measurement System• The following are common prefixes used in the

metric system: deci, centi, milli, micro, nano, kilo, and mega.

4-6©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

The Nature of Matter• An element is the simplest substance known

and provides the building block from which all matter is composed.

• Matter is anything that has a mass and occupies space.

4-7©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

The Nature of Matter• All of the elements are listed by name and

symbol in the periodic table.

4-8©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

The Nature of Matter• Two or more elements combine to form a

compound.

• An atom is the basic particle of an element and a molecule is the smallest unit of a compound.

4-9©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

The States of Matter• Matter can be classified according to the

physical form it takes.– Solid-definite shape and volume – Liquid-specific volume, takes the shape of its

container– Gas/vapor-neither a definite shape nor

volume

4-10©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

The States of Matter• Substances can change from one phase to

another without forming a new chemical species, matter is simply being changed from physical state to another.

• Whenever a situation exists in which a substance can be distinguished by a visible boundary, different phases exist.

4-11©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Theory of Light• Two models describe the behavior of light.– Light is described as a continuous wave.– Light is depicted as a stream of discrete energy

particles.• When white light passes though a prism, it is

dispersed into a continuous spectrum of colors.

4-12©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Theory of Light• Visible light ranges in color from red to violet

in the electromagnetic spectrum.

4-13©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Theory of Light• Waves are described in terms such as:– Wavelength, the distance between two

successive crests (or one trough to the next trough).

– Frequency, the number of crests (or troughs) passing any one given point per unit of time.

4-14©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Theory of Light• Frequency and wavelength are inversely

proportional to one another.

• The electromagnetic spectrum is the entire range of radiation energy from the most energetic cosmic rays to the least energetic radio waves.– Visible light is only a small part of the

electromagnetic spectrum.

4-15©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Theory of Light• As electromagnetic radiation moves through

space, its behavior can be described as that of a continuous wave; however, once radiation is absorbed by a substance, it is best described as discrete particles of light known as photons.

4-16©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Important Physical Properties• Temperature is a measure of heat intensity, or

the hotness or coldness of a substance. – In science, the most commonly used temperature scale is the Celsius scale. This scale is derived by assigning the freezing point of water a value of 0°C and its boiling point a value of 100°C.

4-17©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Important Physical Properties• Weight is the force with which gravity

attracts a body.

• Mass refers to the amount of matter an object contains independent of gravity.

4-18©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Important Physical Properties– The mass of an object is determined by

comparison to the known mass of standard objects.

4-19©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Important Physical Properties• Density is defined as the mass per unit

volume. (D = M/V)– Density is an intensive property of matter,

meaning it remains the same regardless of sample size.

– It is considered a characteristic property of a substance and can be used as an aid in identification.

4-20©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Important Physical Properties• Light waves travel in air at a constant velocity

until they penetrate another medium, such as glass or water, at which point they are suddenly slowed, causing the rays to bend.

4-21©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Important Physical Properties• The bending of light waves because of a change

in velocity is called refraction.

• Refractive index is the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to that in the medium under examination.

4-22©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Important Physical Properties• For example, at 25oC the refractive index of

water is 1.333.

• This means that light travels 1.333 times faster in a vacuum than it does in water.

• Like density, refractive index is an intensive property and will serve to characterize a substance.

4-23©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Important Physical Properties• Crystalline solids have definite geometric forms

because of the orderly arrangement of their atoms.

4-24©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Important Physical Properties• These solids refract a beam of light in two

different light-ray components. • This results in double refraction. • Birefringence is the numerical difference

between these two refractive indices. • Not all solids are crystalline in nature. For

example, glass has a random arrangement of atoms to form an amorphous or noncrystalline solid.

4-25©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Glass Fragments• Glass is a hard, brittle, amorphous substance

that is composed of silicon oxides mixed with various metal oxides.

• Amorphous solids have their atoms arranged randomly, unlike crystals.

• Tempered glass is stronger than normal glass due to rapid heating and cooling.

• Laminated glass found in car windshields has a layer of plastic between two pieces of ordinary window glass.

4-26©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Glass Fragments• For the forensic scientist, the problem of glass

comparison is one that depends on the need to find and measure those properties that will associate one glass fragment with another while minimizing or eliminating other sources.

• To compare glass fragments, a forensic scientist evaluates two important physical properties: density and refractive index.

4-27©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Flotation Method• The flotation method is a rather precise and

rapid method for comparing glass densities.

• In the flotation method, a glass particle is immersed in a liquid.

• The density of the liquid is carefully adjusted by the addition of small amounts of an appropriate liquid until the glass chip remains suspended in the liquid medium.

4-28©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Flotation Method• At this point, the glass will have the same

density as the liquid medium and can be compared to other relevant pieces of glass which will remain suspended, sink, or float.

4-29©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Immersion Method• The flotation and the immersion methods are

best used to determine a glass fragment’s density and refractive index, respectively.

• The latter involves immersing a glass particle in a liquid medium whose refractive index is varied until it is equal to that of the glass particle.

4-30©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Immersion Method• At this point, known as the match point, the

Becke line disappears and minimum contrast between liquid and particle is observed.

• The Becke line is a bright halo near the boarder of a particle that is immersed in a liquid of a different refractive index.

4-31©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Analyzing Cracks• The penetration of window glass by a

projectile, whether it is a bullet or a stone, produces cracks which radiate outward (radial fractures) and encircle the hole (concentric fractures).

4-32©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Analyzing Cracks• By analyzing the radial and concentric fracture

patterns in glass, the forensic scientist can determine the direction of impact.

4-33©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Analyzing Cracks• A high-velocity projectile such as a bullet often

leaves a hole that is wider at the exit side, and hence its examination is important in determining the direction of impact.

• The direction of impact can also be accomplished by applying the 3R Rule: Radial cracks form a Right angle on the Reverse side of the force.

• The sequence of impacts when there have been successive penetrations of glass, is frequently possible to determine because a fracture always terminates at an existing line of fracture.

4-34©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Collection of Glass• If even the remotest possibility exists that glass

fragments may be pieced together, every effort must be made to collect all the glass found.

• When an individual fit is thought improbable, the evidence collector must submit all glass evidence found in the possession of the suspect along with a representative sample of broken glass remaining at the crime scene.

4-35©2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2nd ed.By Richard Saferstein

Collection of Glass• The glass fragments should be packaged in

solid containers to avoid further breakage.

• If the suspect’s shoes and/or clothing are to be examined for the presence of glass fragments, they should be individually wrapped in paper and transmitted to the laboratory.