5b-02-an overview of date palm production-chapter1

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants — Industrial Profiles

Edited by A. Manickavasagan

M. Mohamed Essa

E. Sukumar

DatesProduction, Processing, Food, and Medicinal Values

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vii

ContentsPreface��xiEditors�� xiiiContributors��xv

Part I Production

Chapter 1 An�Overview�of�Date�Palm Production��3

R. Al-Yahyai and A. Manickavasagan

Chapter 2 Tissue�Culture�Studies�in Date Palm�� 13

Sardar A. Farooq, Roohi S. Khan, and Talat T. Farook

Chapter 3 The�Date�Palm�Genome�Project�in�the�Kingdom�of Saudi Arabia��29

Xiaowei Zhang, Jun Tan, Meng Yang, Yuxin Yin, Ibrahim S. Al-Mssallem,and Jun Yu

Chapter 4 Water�Management�in Date Palm�Groves�� 45

M. Mumtaz Khan and S. A. Prathapar

Chapter 5 Fertilizer�Application�in�Date�Palm�Cultivation�� 67

Ahmed Al-Busaidi

Chapter 6 Environmental�Concern�in Date�Palm�Production�from Atmospheric� Trace�Metal�Contamination�� 81

Salim H. Al-Rawahy and Hameed Sulaiman

Chapter 7 Salinity�Problems�and Their Management�in Date Palm�Production��87

Nazir Hussain, Salim Al-Rasbi, Nasser Salim Al-Wahaibi, Ghanum Abdul Rehman Al-Ghanum, and Osman El-Sharief Abdalla

Chapter 8 Date�Palm�Insect�and�Mite�Pests�and�Their�Management�� 113

Mohammad Ali Al-Deeb

Chapter 9 Mechanization�in�Date�Palm Pollination�� 129

Ahmad Mostaan

viii Contents

Chapter 10 Design�Concepts�for�Date-Harvesting�Process�� 141

Hemantha P. W. Jayasuriya

Chapter 11 Date�Marketing�� 155

Msafiri Daudi Mbaga

Part II Processing

Chapter 12 Drying�Characteristics,�Rehydration,�and�Color�Changes�of� Palm�Fruits�during Storage�� 175

Kolawole O. Falade and Emmanuel S. Abbo

Chapter 13 Solar�Tunnel�Dryer:�A�Novel�Dryer�for�Dates�� 191

M. A. Basunia and H. H. Handali

Chapter 14 Processing�of�Dates�by�Dehydration�and�Microwave�Drying��203

D. G. Rao, T. Hariharan, and S. Feroz

Chapter 15 Quality�Assessment�of�Dates�by�Computer�Vision�Technology�� 217

A. Manickavasagan and R. Al-Yahyai

Chapter 16 Nonchemical�Methyl�Bromide�Alternatives�in�Dates’�Processing�Sector�� 227

Mohsen Ahmed El Mohandes

Chapter 17 Processing�of�Dates�into�Value-Added�Products�� 255

P. Vijayanand and S. G. Kulkarni

Chapter 18 Exploring�the�Possibility�of�Biofuel�Production�from�By-Products�and�Wastes Generated�from�Date�Industry��265

D. Ramesh, S. Karthikeyan, and G. Chinnanchetty

Part III Food

Chapter 19 Physical�Characteristics�and�Chemical�Composition�of�Date�Palm�Fruits�� 277

Nejib Guizani and Vandita Singh

Chapter 20 Sorption�and�Structural�Characteristics�of�Date�Palm�Fruit�� 289

Mohammad Shafiur Rahman

ixContents

Chapter 21 Fermentative�Products�Using�Dates�as�a�Substrate��305

Nallusamy Sivakumar

Chapter 22 Dates�as�Potential�Substitute�for�Added�Sugar�in�Food�� 317

A. Manickavasagan

Chapter 23 Use�of�Date�Palm�By-Products�in�Feeding�Livestock�� 323

O. Mahgoub, I. T. Kadim, and W. Al-Marzooqi

Part IV Medicinal Values

Chapter 24 Dates:�A�Fruit�from�Heaven�� 341

Muhammad Qasim and Summar A. Naqvi

Chapter 25 The�Functional�Values�of�Dates�� 351

Mohamed Ali Al-Farsi and Chang Yong Lee

Chapter 26 Nutritional�and�Medicinal�Value�of�Date�Fruit�� 361

Amanat Ali, Mostafa Waly, M. Mohamed Essa, and Sankar Devarajan

Chapter 27 Uses�of�Date�Palm�in�Ayurveda�� 377

M. Shanmugapriya and Kishor Patwardhan

Chapter 28 Dates�in�Indigenous�Medicines�of�India�� 387

Ethirajan Sukumar

Chapter 29 Antiamyloidogenic�Effect�of�Dates�Grown�in�Oman�with�Reference�to�Their Possible Protection�against Alzheimer’s�Disease�� 397

M. Mohamed Essa, Gilles J. Guillemin, Samir Al-Adawi, Abdullah Al-Asmi, Ragini Vaishnav, Nandhagopal Ramachandiran, and Mustaq A. Memon

Index��405

xv

ContributorsEmmanuel S. AbboDepartment�of�Food�TechnologyKaduna�PolytechnicKaduna,�Nigeria

Osman El-Sharief AbdallaDepartment�of�Agricultural�AffairsMinistry�of�EnvironmentDoha,�Qatar

Samir Al-AdawiDepartment�of�MedicineCollege�of�Medicine�and�

Health�SciencesSultan�Qaboos�UniversityAl�Khoud,�Sultanate�of�Oman

Abdullah Al-AsmiDepartment�of�MedicineCollege�of�Medicine�and�

Health�SciencesSultan�Qaboos�UniversityAl�Koudh,�Sultanate�of�Oman

Ahmed Al-BusaidiDepartment�of�Soils,�Water�and�Agricultural�

EngineeringCollege�of�Agricultural�and�Marine�SciencesSultan�Qaboos�UniversityAl�Khoud,�Sultanate�of�Oman

Mohammad Ali Al-DeebDepartment�of�BiologyUnited�Arab�Emirates�UniversityAl-Ain,�United�Arab�Emirates

Mohamed Ali Al-FarsiMinistry�of�AgricultureMuscat,�Sultanate�of�Oman

Ghanum Abdul Rehman Al-GhanumDepartment�of�Agricultural�AffairsMinistry�of�EnvironmentDoha,�Qatar

Amanat AliDepartment�of�Food�Science�and�NutritionCollege�of�Agriculture�and�Marine�SciencesSultan�Qaboos�UniversityAl�Khoud,�Sultanate�of�Oman

W. Al-MarzooqiDepartment�of�Animal�and�Veterinary�

SciencesCollege�of�Agricultural�and�Marine�SciencesSultan�Qaboos�UniversityAl�Khoud,�Sultanate�of�Oman

Ibrahim S. Al-MssallemDate�Palm�Genome�ProjectKing�Abdul-Aziz�City�for�Science�and�

TechnologyRiyadh,�Kingdom�of�Saudi�Arabia

Salim Al-RasbiAgricultural�Research�CenterRumais,�Sultanate�of�Oman

Salim H. Al-RawahyDepartment�of�BiologyCollege�of�ScienceSultan�Qaboos�UniversityAl�Khoud,�Sultanate�of�Oman

Nasser Salim Al-WahaibiAgricultural�Research�CenterRumais,�Sultanate�of�Oman

R. Al-YahyaiDepartment�of�Crop�SciencesCollege�of�Agricultural�and�Marine�SciencesSultan�Qaboos�UniversityAl�Khoud,�Sultanate�of�Oman

M. A. BasuniaDepartment�of�Soils,�Water�and�Agricultural�

EngineeringCollege�of�Agricultural�and�Marine�SciencesSultan�Qaboos�UniversityAl�Khoud,�Sultanate�of�Oman

3

1 An Overview of Date Palm Production

R. Al-Yahyai and A. Manickavasagan

INTRODUCTION

Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) is the main fruit crop in arid and semiarid regions, particularly in the arid regions of western Asia and North Africa. The palm tree is well adapted to desert envi-ronments that are characterized by extreme temperatures and water shortage, both in quality and quantity, due to scarcity of rainfall. Beyond the arid climates, date palm can also be grown in many other countries for food or as an ornamental plant including the continents of Americas, southern Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. The majority of date palm-growing areas are located in devel-oping or underdeveloped countries where dates are considered the primary food crop, thus playing a major role in the nutritional status of these communities. By-products from date palm are used in building structures, animal feed, and also in several items such as baskets and ropes. The date palm tree that has been in cultivation since 2400 BC was praised and cherished as is evident from the drawings and sculptures of ancient civilizations of the Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Egyptians, and later by the Greeks and the Romans that inhabited the Mediterranean basin where date palm and other Phoenix species are also commonly grown (Pruessner 1920). Date palm still carries great religious significance in all three major religions of the world. In Islam, date palm is cited 21 times in the Holy Quran and 300 times in the Hadith of the Prophet Mohammed, making it by far the most frequently cited plant. Similarly, date palm is praised in Christian and Judaism faiths and has been linked to numerous religious ceremonies such as Passover and Palm Sunday (Musselman 2007).

CONTENTS

Introduction ........................................................................................................................................3Biology of the Date Palm ...................................................................................................................4Botanical Description of Date Palm ..................................................................................................4

Roots .............................................................................................................................................4Trunk .............................................................................................................................................5Leaves ............................................................................................................................................5Flowers ..........................................................................................................................................5Fruits .............................................................................................................................................6

Origin of Date Palm ...........................................................................................................................6Geographical Distribution of Date Palm ............................................................................................7World Date Production and Trade ......................................................................................................8Date Palm Cultivation ........................................................................................................................9Summary and Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 10References ........................................................................................................................................ 10

4 Dates: Production, Processing, Food, and Medicinal Values

BIOLOGY OF THE DATE PALM

The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) is an angiosperm monocotyledonous plant that belongs to the family Arecaceae (syn. Palmaceae) that includes 200 genera (Dowson 1982; Uhl and Dransfield 1987). The genus Phoenix contains 12 of the 1500 species that belong to the date palm family. Phoenix palms are dioecious and are characterized by pinnate leaves and in duplicate leaflets with acute tips (Uhl and Dransfield 1987). Besides date palm, the other two most highly valued Phoenix palms are Canary Island Palm (P. canariensis Chabeaud), an ornamental palm (Gilman and Watson 2006), and the Sugar Palm (P. sylvestris Roxb) that is common in the Indian subcontinent for its sugar syrup (Zaid and de Wet 2002). Date palm can be distinguished from the other two species by the production of offshoots and the dull glaucous leaves instead of glossy leaves.

Date palm is a dioecious plant; that is, staminate (male) and pistillate (female) flowers are born on two different palms. There are thousands of male and female cultivars distributed throughout date palm-growing countries (Zaid and de Wet 2002). For example, in the Sultanate of Oman, there are over 200 female and 21 male cultivars (Al-Yahyai 2010). However, 75% of dates are produced only from 10 cultivars (Table 1.1). Date palm passport descriptors have been published by IPGRI to aid the characterization of date palm based on morphological and anatomical features (IPGRI et al. 2005). Using these characteristics, cultivars from Oman (Macki and Othman 1997), Saudi Arabia (Ministry of Agriculture 2006), and Algeria (Belguedj 2002), among others, have all been fully described. Zaid and de Wet (2002) provided a detailed description of Medjool and Barhee cultivars. In addition, fruit physical and chemical characteristics have also been used to describe and distinguish date palm culti-vars (Jaradat and Zaid 2004; Al-Yahyai and Al-Khanjari 2008). Recently, molecular tools such as DNA fingerprinting techniques have also been utilized to describe and differentiate date palms in vari-ous parts of the world (Billotte et al. 2004; Cao and Chao 2002; Jubrael et al. 2005; Zehdi et al. 2004).

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OF DATE PALM

Roots

Date palm has a fasciculated fibrous root system that originates from a bulb at the trunk base. The primary roots have an average length of 4 m and may extend to 10 m in light soils. Primary roots

TABLE 1.1Major Date Palm Varieties and Its Total Production in the Sultanate of Oman

Cultivars 2004 Yield (tons) % of Total Cumulative %

Um el Sela 32,696.48 14.15 14.15

Mabsli 30,583.24 13.24 27.39

Khasab 26,678.61 11.55 38.94

Naghal 24,423.38 10.57 49.51

Fardh 18,051.93 7.81 57.33

Shahl 11,435.75 4.95 62.28

Khunaizi 11,340.99 4.91 67.18

Khalas 11,139.04 4.82 72.01

Madloki 5,423.58 2.35 74.35

Barni 4,966.30 2.15 78.65

Total 231,034.91

Source: Al-Yahyai, R. 2010. Proceedings of the International Conference on Date Palm Production and Processing Technology. Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman. 09–11 May 2006, pp. 1–6.

5An Overview of Date Palm Production

give rise to secondary roots that further branch to form tertiary roots that are shorter in length and diameter (Zaid and de Wet 2002). Primary roots originate from seeds but may also continue to grow if date palm is grown from an offshoot or a tissue-cultured seedling.

tRunk

The trunk or stripe of date palm is a single, vertical cylinder of equal diameter (average 1 m) throughout its length that can reach 30 m (Figure 1.1) (Zaid and de Wet 2002). The stem is covered with leaf bases that are enclosed in fiber, an evolutionary mechanism to protect the trunk from herbivorous insects and animals, as well as an insulation to reduce water loss. Water and nutrients are translocated via vascular tissue composed of tightly-stacked vascular bundles. The stem grows vertically at the terminal bud (phyllophor or phyllogen) and laterally via the fascicular cambium.

Leaves

Date palm leaves, called fronds, are pinnate, compound leaves spirally arranged around the trunk (Figure 1.1) (Uhl and Dransfield 1987). The fully mature leaf is 4 m long, but ranges from 3 to 6 m, and is 0.5 m wide at the middle midrib that narrows toward both leaf ends (Zaid and de Wet 2002). The date palm leaf is divided into three regions: the petiole, the spinal region that transitions into the blade region that is held by a geometrically shaped midrib. Angular leaflets are distributed in the blade region. The number of leaves produced annually varies from 10 to 26 and a mature palm may have from 100 to 125 leaves; 50% of them are photosynthetically active (Zaid and de Wet 2002). Leaves remain attached to the tree following their senescence and have to be manually pruned.

FLoweRs

Date palm is a dioecious plant where pistillate and staminate flowers are born on separate plants (Uhl and Dransfield 1987). Male and female flowers are arranged in strands that attach to a rachis forming an inflorescence called spadix. A bract, called spathe, enclosing the immature inflores-cence, splits longitudinally at anthesis, which allows for the pollination of mature male and female flowers.

FIGURE 1.1 The pinnate leaves (fronds) and single stem (stipe) of the date palm.


FRuits

Fruits of date palm, called dates, develop from one fertilized ovule forming one carpel, while the other two ovules are aborted but remain visible at the fruit calyx. If no fertilization occurs, three or more carpels develop simultaneously. The date fruit develops on the flowering strands and is a berry characterized by a membranous endocarp surrounding a seed. Large variations exist in the shape, size, color, and chemical composition of date fruit (Zaid and de Wet 2002; Al-Yahyai and Kharusi 2011), depending largely on varietal differences but also on climate, soil, and growing conditions. Similarly, date seeds vary in size and shape, but they are generally ventrally grooved, oblong, and range from 5 to 15 mm with an embryo born in the middle of the seed that is surrounded by the endosperm.

Following pollination and fertilization, date palm fruit grows through five distinct developmental stages characterized by physical and chemical changes at each stage. These stages are Hababouk, Kimri, Khalal, Rutab, and Tamar (Zaid and de Wet 2002). The Hababouk stage lasts 4–5 weeks after fruit set and is characterized by slow growth rate. The fruit is round and the color is cream to light green. The Kimri stage lasts 9–14 weeks and during this stage the fruit elongates and gains rapid development and increased weight, volume, and reducing sugars. The fruit at the Kimri stage is green and is marked by high tannin concentration that is reduced as the fruit develops (Figure 1.2). The Khalal stage, also known as Bisir, is when the fruit is physiologically mature and the color changes to the cultivar-specific color, usually various shades of red and yellow. This stage lasts 3–5 weeks and is marked by slow growth (3%–4% weight gain) to fruit full size and weight, and further accumulation of sugars. Several varieties with high sugars can be consumed either fresh or boiled at this stage. The Rutab stage is when the fruit apex starts to soften and the color changes to a darker color. Most dates are consumed fresh at this stage that lasts 2–4 weeks. Due to softening, dates at this stage lose water content to an average of 30%–45%, but sugars continue to accumulate. The Tamar stage is when the date palm fruit is fully ripe and has completely softened. The fruit color darkens at this stage, which is also marked by low moisture content (10%–25%) and high concentration of total sugars. This stage lasts 2–4 weeks and the dates are appropriate for long-term dry storage or processing.

ORIGIN OF DATE PALM

Date palm has been cultivated in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA region) for millennia; however, the exact origin of date palm has not been verified. Zaid and de Wet (2002) cited reports of its use in Mesopotamian times since 4000 BC (Popenoe 1973) and by the Egyptians perhaps during 3000–2000 BC (Danthine 1937). The African date palm (P. reclinata) or the Indian date palm (P. sylvestris) or both may have been the progenitor of date palm (Zaid and de Wet 2002).

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FIGURE 1.2 Tannin concentration (%) in “khalas” dates at various maturity stages (Al-Yahyai, unpublished data).


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF DATE PALM

Date palm can be cultivated in all five continents of the world, largely between 39° northernmost and 20° southernmost latitudes. However, the main region of production is the Middle East and North Africa, where 89% of dates are produced (Figures 1.3 and 1.4). In recent years, there has been

FIGURE 1.3 (See color insert.) World map of date producing countries according to area distribution (shaded gray) and production quantity (columns).

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FIGURE 1.4 Imports and exports of dates (a) and leading date-producing countries (b). (Adapted from FAOSTAT. 2010. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Available at: http://faostat.fao.org/. Accessed on September 1, 2010.)

http://faostat.fao.org


a surge in the number of date palms planted in this region. The total number of date palms in the UAE, for example, has grown from 10 million in 1999 to 43 million palms in 2010. Similarly, the Sultanate of Oman is planning to add 1 million date palms by 2015. Large projects aimed at intro-ducing date palm in dry areas that have poor resources, such as in Namibia and India, have influ-enced date palm distribution and expansion to new territories.

WORLD DATE PRODUCTION AND TRADE

Current world date production is 7.1 million tons as of 2008 (FAOSTAT 2010). Date exports and imports have been steadily increasing in the years since 2000 (Tables 1.2 and 1.3). Globally, date palm imports have surpassed exports in Europe, Americas, and Oceana, whereas in Africa and Asia, date trade has continued to rise simultaneously (Figure 1.5). There has been a considerable rise in the demand for dates in major date-importing countries including Morocco, the United Kingdom, and Russia (Table 1.3). This remarkable increase in date trade reflects the importance

TABLE 1.3Leading Date-Importing Countries

Country 2007 Imports (tons) % of Sum Change (tons) from 2000 % Change (2000–2007)

India 253,341 40.2 60,722 24

Morocco 50,473 8.0 45,039 89

France 27,439 4.4 3,909 14

Russia 22,375 3.6 13,541 61

Pakistan 19,777 3.1 −9,770 −49

Bangladesh 18,546 2.9 1,046 6

Indonesia 15,549 2.5 2,233 14

Malaysia 15,346 2.4 4,188 27

UK 14,357 2.3 3,927 27

Yemen 13,136 2.1 549 4

2007 Top 10 450,339 71.5 125,384 28

2007 Total 629,773

TABLE 1.2Leading Date-Exporting Countries

Country 2007 Exports (tons) % of Sum Change (tons) from 2000 % Change (2000–2007)

Iran 242,092 38.7 134,245 55

Pakistan 104,090 16.6 25,429 24

Tunisia 68,856 11.0 46,445 67

Saudi Arabia 48,762 7.8 20,514 42

UAE 38,691 6.2 −183,339 −474

Iraq 37,063 5.9 7063 19

Algeria 25,039 4.0 14,256 57

France 10,470 1.7 894 9

Israel 9,513 1.5 8184 86

Oman 9,368 1.5 −513 −5

2007 Top 10 593,944 95.0 256,517 43

2007 Total 625,439


of dates as a trading commodity in international markets. This is perhaps due to the increased awareness among consumers of the healthy constituents of dates, such as antioxidant contents (Mansouri et al. 2005; Al-Farsi et al. 2007), as well as the use of dates as a source of sugar and medicinal alcohol in many parts of the world.

DATE PALM CULTIVATION

Date palm thrives in areas characterized by hot, low humidity, particularly during fruit devel-opment. Moisture adversely affects the quality of fruit, as high humidity leads to fruit cracking and checking. Date palm can be planted in a wide range of soils with varying amounts of organic and mineral nutrients. Date palm is known to tolerate salinity more than any other cultivated fruit crop.

Many parts of the world where date palm is grown still follow the traditional mixed planting of dates of various ages at irregular spacing. Moreover, inadequate fertilizer application and lack of proper tree and bunch management, such as pruning and fruit thinning, lead to the production of low fruit quality and thus lower market values. In Oman, for example, approximately 23% of the total dates produced are considered “surplus,” meaning that they are not accounted for in human consumption (51%), livestock feed (22%), or industrial processing and export (4%). This is despite the Sultanate’s production of over 230,000 tons of dates annually. Oman is ranked ninth in world date production (Figure 1.4), but exports only 2% of its total production (Al-Yahyai 2007), which makes up 1.5% of the total world date exports (Table 1.2).

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FIGURE 1.5 Global and continental date palm imports and exports from 2000 to 2007.


Development of tissue-cultured date palms has led to further expansion of date orchards in many parts of the world, particularly in the Middle East and Africa. However, the majority of date planta-tions still lack modern and appropriate solutions to issues related to cultural practices, such as hand pollination, water and fertilizer requirements, by-product development and utilization, proper har-vesting time and methods, and postharvest transport and storage management. Several recent stud-ies have addressed these issues and reported improved fruit yield and quality by following proper pre- and postharvest management of date palm tree and fruits (El Mardi et al. 2007; Al-Yahyai and Al-Kharusi 2010).

Pest and disease management of date palm also needs considerable research attention. The most common pests of date palm in the Arabian Peninsula are Dubas bug (Ommatissus lybicus Bergevin, Homoptera: Tropiduchidae) and Red Palm Weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier, Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Chemical control of these pests has had limited success; however, a broader ban on pesticides and public demand for chemical-free dates will require alternative methods of pest man-agement. Biochemical control of date palm pests has been shown to reduce pest populations (El-Sufty et al. 2007), but field application has many constraints, including traditional and poor tree and plantation management as noted earlier. Additionally, diseases caused mainly by phytoplasma and fungi, such as lethal yellowing and Bayoud Fusarium wilt, remain a threat to the date palm-producing regions of the world.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Date palm is one of the most important fruit crops in many parts of the world that are usually characterized by arid, high-temperature climate. Date commodity trade has been steadily rising in recent years, reflecting greater demand from all five continents of the world. Date palm consti-tutes a major source of food and its by-products can be utilized in a range of items from construc-tion to clothing. This makes date palm an ideal crop for low-income countries, where poverty and hunger prevail.

REFERENCES

Al-Yahyai, R. 2007. Improvement of date palm production in the Sultanate of Oman. Acta Hort. 736:337–343.

Al-Yahyai, R. 2010. Current status of date palm in the Sultanate of Oman. Proceedings of the International Conference on Date Palm Production and Processing Technology. Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman. 09–11 May 2006, pp. 1–6.

Al-Yahyai, R. and L. Al-Kharusi. 2011. Physical and chemical quality characteristics of freeze-stored dates. Int. J. Agr. Biol. (Accepted).

Al-Yahyai, R. and S. Al-Khanjari. 2008. Biodiversity of date palm in the Sultanate of Oman. Afr. J. Agric. Res. 3(6):389–395.

Al-Farsi, M., A. Morris, and M. Baron. 2007. Functional properties of Omani dates (L.). Acta Hort. 736:479–487.

Belguedj, M. 2002. Charactéristiques des cultivars de dattiers dans les palmeraies du Sud-Est Algérien. Dossier No. 1. Les Ressources Génétiques du Palmier Dattier. Institut national de la Recherche Agronomique, d’Algérie.

Billotte, N., N. Marseillac, P. Brottier, J.-L. Noyer, J.-P. Jacquemoud-Collet, C. Moreau, T. Couvreur, M.-H. Chevallier, J.-C. Pintaud, and A.-M. Risterucci. 2004. Nuclear microsatellite markers for the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.): Characterization and utility across the genus Phoenix and in other palm genera. Mol. Ecol. Notes 4:256–258.

Cao, B.R. and C.T. Chao. 2002. Identification of date cultivars in California using AFLP markers. Hort. Sci. 37(6):966–968.

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