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INDEX

Aachen, Jews in 553‘Abbasid historians 326–7, 344‘abbot’, use of term in Ireland 414abbots, authority of 419, 706‘Abd al-‘Aziz, Muslim general 370‘Abd al-Malik, Umayyad caliph in Cilicia 302,

344, 572, 575coinage 583

Abd al-Rahman III, emir of Cordoba 552Abercorn, Pictish bishopric 460Aberlemno stone, Fife 89Abernethy, Pictish burial site 458Ablabius, history of Goths 502Abraha, Abyssinian adventurer 322Abraham, father of the Arabs 324Abraham, Jew of Saragossa 566Abu Bakr, first caliph 337, 341Abu Lahab, uncle of Muhammad 332Abu Talib, uncle of Muhammad 331, 332Abundancio, Frankish general 353Abydos, port (Hellespont) 630Abyssinia 321, 322, 332Acacian schism 95, 97, 122, 677, 695Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople 95, 98

Henoticon (482) 580acarius, financial administrator in Roman

church 679acheiropoeita (miraculous icons) 780Achila, claimant to throne of Visigothic Spain

368, 370Achttienhoven, church at 720acolytes, status and role of 689, 690Acra, on Danube 539Adalbert, heretical cleric 729Adalbert of Prague 732Adalgisel, Frankish duke 385Adaloald, son of Agilulf 714Adam of Bremen, History of the Bishops of

Hamburg 720

Aden, Christians in 322Adogitti tribe, northern Scandinavia 500Adomnan 247, 250, 407, 408, 425

as abbot of Iona 414, 460on abbots 420on curaghs 643on kings 574, 589Life of Columba 238, 419, 452, 454, 460on Picts 458, 589and synod of Birr 587on trade 646

Adrianople, Slav advance on 115Adrianople, battle of (378) 24, 48Adrianopolis, province of 543Adriatic, Avar-Slav raids 539Aed Dub of the Dal nAraide, Ulaid overking 242Aed mac Ainmere of the Cenel Conaill 243, 244Aedan mac Gabrain of Dal Riada 243, 244, 250,

262Aega, mayor of the palace in Neustria 384Aegidius, Gallo-Roman magister militum in

Gaul 196, 669Ælfflaed, abbess of Whitby 482Æthelbald, king of Mercia 467, 604Æthelberht, king of Kent 465, 480, 484

and conversion to Christianity 715, 730law code 283, 478, 484, 491, 599marriage to Frankish princess 472, 479, 484

Æthelburh, wife of Edwin 480Æthelfrith, king of Bernicia 250, 465, 472Æthelred, king of Mercia 466, 482, 574Æthelthryth, wife of Ecgfrith of Northumbria

482, 490Æthelwealh, king of Sussex 467, 492Aetius, Roman general

Frankish support for 196gift to Thorismund 774

Africa see North AfricaAfricans, Roman view of 38

911

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912 Index

afterlifein Norse mythology (Other World) 510, 514

association with transitional zones 516pagan tradition 727

Agali monastery, Toledo 752Agapetus, pope 125, 744Agathias, as historian and poet 65, 95, 129Agatho, pope 302Agde (Agatha), Council of 173, 687, 688Aghagower, Ireland, episcopal church 412Agila, king of the Visigoths 182, 183Agilbert, bishop, sarcophagus at Jouarre

765Agilbert, bishop in Wessex 473, 481Agilolfings, dukes of Bavaria 222Agilulf, king of the Lombards 155, 230, 378, 594,

600Arianism of 714

Agiulf, king of the Sueves 165Agnellus, bishop of Ravenna 768Ago, king of Lombards 378Agobard of Lyons 561, 564Agricola, emperor 233agriculture

Arabia 317, 318Celtic kingdoms 234late Roman farms 26–7Scandinavia 521Wales 253

Agrigent, Sicily, Jews in 550Aguntum (near Lienz) 538Aicharius, bishop of Noyon 733Aidan, bishop 420

mission to Northumbria 447, 457, 481, 731see also Lindisfarne

Ainmere of Cenel Conaill 242airchinnech (church head), Ireland 418Airgialla

Irish tribal grouping 241, 588noverkings 244

Aistulf, king of the Lombards, portrait on coins663

Ajax, Arian bishop 166, 712Ajnadayn, battle of (634) 338Alamanni

Franks and 377, 393overkingship 46ruled by ‘dukes’ 573tribal confederation 45on upper Rhine 197, 200

Alamannia, under control of Austrasian Franks202, 222

Alanson Danube 533, 535invasion of Gaul (406) 49, 712in North Africa 118

Sarmatian, Black Sea steppe 527settled in Valence 49

Alaric the Visigoth 49, 121, 667Alaric II, king of the Visigoths 171–4

and Catholics 173death 174as legislator 173, 597

Alban, Saint 486, 710Albi, counts of 224Albinus, consul under Theoderic 147Alboin, king of the Lombards 112, 152–3Alcuin, Life of Willibrord 720, 721, 723Aldfrith, king of Northumbria 449, 460, 482,

493, 574Aldhelm, bishop of Malmesbury 449, 707, 755

writings 494Aldwich (Lundenwic) 492Aldwulf, king of East Anglia 574Alet (St Malo), Brittany 442

diocese of 443trade routes from 650

Alexander of Tralles, doctor 119Alexandria

centre of scholarship 23, 104, 744falls to Arabs 298, 338Narses’ expedition to 101port of 628

Alexandria, church ofparish organisation 686trading contacts 605, 617, 627

Alexandrian system, for dating Easter 415Alexandrian World Chronicle, illuminated

manuscript 783‘Ali, son-in-law of Prophet Muhammad, fourth

caliph 299, 301, 341, 342almshouses, supported by bishops 216altars, portable 442Altfrid, Vita Liudgeri 649Altino, Lombards and 157Amalaric, king of the Visigoths 174, 175, 177–8,

668assassination 178marriage to Frankish princess 200

Amalasuentha, daughter of Theoderic, wife ofEutharic 125, 130, 148–9, 175, 200

Amali, Ostrogothic royal family 502Amandus, Christian missionary 717, 731, 733Amaya, Cantabria 185amber 650, 658

beads, trade in 285Ambrosius Aurelianus, Romano-British leader 50Amida, frontier city 96Amiens, port 656Ammianus Marcellinus 39, 43, 593

as historical writer 65on Persians 38






Index 913

Ammonius Saccos 33, 107Ampelius, vir illustris 176amphitheatres, significance of 600amphorae 608, 612, 633

in Crypta Balbi assemblages 634imported (at Whithorn) 435production, eastern Mediterranean 612, 623types 623

eastern Mediterranean 632Keay LII (southern Italy and Sicily ) 620Late Roman Amphora (LRA): (type 1) 623,

624; (types 2 and 3) 623; (type 4) 612,623, 624; (types 5 and 6) 623; (type 7) 623

ampullae 781‘Amr bin al-‘As, Muslim general 337, 338amulets 725, 782Anastasiopolis (Dara), fortress of 96, 108, 113, 115Anastasius, theologian 294Anastasius, emperor 93, 108, 119, 120, 149

coinage 663, 665, 667and Franks 122, 197and Ostrogoths 120, 146and popular unrest 96religious policies 94, 97, 677

AnatoliaArab raids 298, 307Byzantine victory in 301repopulated by Slavs 299, 302

Anatolikon thema 307Anatolius, calculation of Easter 415anchorism 704Ancona, Italy, Jews in 549al-Andalus, Muslim Spain 339Andrew, Saint, relics 129angelology 107Angers, France, episcopal meeting (453) 441Angles 263, 268, 641

and battle of Chester 254evidence of depopulation of homelands 268identity as 469

Anglesey 463Northumbrian raid on 254, 255

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 66, 68, 238, 263, 283on Romano-British towns 267

Anglo-Saxons (the English)as Christian missionaries 717coinage 673conversion to Christianity 714–16and Dal Riada 244expansion into Celtic areas 261, 446furnished inhumations 55, 265, 269identity formation 263, 265, 268, 269–70kingship 573in northern England 247origin myths 502relations with British 446, 471–2

relations with Franks 472–4relations with Irish 472relations with Picts 250, 451scale of invasions 267–8in Scotland 451settlements 267, 273–6and Wales 254see also Angles; Britain; England; Saxons

Angouleme, taken by Clovis 197Anicia Juliana, patrikia of Constantinople 778,

783church of St Polyeuktos 103, 778

animal art, Scandinavian 504–8and cognitive structures 508–14gold bracteates 509–11and hidden meaning 509human features in 509humans in animal form 511–14Nydam style 505Salin’s Styles I and II 277, 505and transcendental metamorphosis 514

animalsas elements of personal names 595exported from England 493horses in graves 272, 272n

animism, Bedouin 320Anmchad of Kildare, archbishop of Leinster 423Anna, king of East Angles 473Annales Cambriae 238annals

Celtic 238as genre 66, 67–8Irish 401, 403, 455, 461Welsh 238, 441see also chronicles

Annals of Inisfallen 238Annals of Metz 260, 371, 391, 393Annals of Ulster 238, 240, 587Annegray monastery, Burgundy 709annona (land tax)

provision of 146, 151Roman Empire 20, 26under Lombards 157

annona systemand commercial enterprise 616, 629and trade in foodstuffs 615

annonae (ration allowances), Byzantineprefectures 304

anointingof kings 355, 360, 367, 603of the sick 703

Ansbert, bishop of Rouen 392Ansfled, wife of Waratto 392Ansfrid, a Lombard(?) 158Anskar, missionary in Sweden 719, 731Ansovald, Frankish aristocrat 221






914 Index

Anstrude, wife of Berchar 392Antenor, governor of Provence 393Antes (Antae) (Slavic group) 112, 134, 524, 530

in Balkans 536defeated by Avars 536, 539see also Penkovka Culture; Slavs

Anthemius, emperor of the West 168, 669war with Visigoths 169, 170

Anthemius of Tralles, architect 119, 778Anthimius, doctor in Italy 119anthropology 79

to evaluate pre-Christian Scandinavia497

Antiochtaken by Persians (540s) 108trading centre 624, 628

Antonine Constitution (212) 17Apamea, falls to Persians 113Aphrodito, Egypt, occupations 619aphthartodocetism (extreme Monophysite

heresy) 111apokrisiar, responsalis, as papal ambassadors

679Apopthegmata Patrum, anchorite rules 704Apple Down, Sussex, cemetery 273nApplecross monastery, near Skye 456Apringius of Beja 750Apsimar see Tiberius ApsimarAquileia 157, 661Aquileia, metropolitan see of 153, 680,

688schism with Rome 107, 602

Aquitaine 52, 54, 172bishops of 218Frankish dukes of 209Frankish lands in 199, 200Gothic settlement in 49, 197and Merovingians 203, 222–4, 390workshops 658

Arabia, pre-Islamic 317–25northern (desert) 318–21problem of sources 325–31religious customs 320southern (‘Arabia Felix’) 317–18trade with 622tribal confederations 45, 319

Arabic language 321, 329, 345Arabs

attacks on Byzantium 297–8, 322, 759civil war 298, 301conquest of Spain 369–70, 551ethnic identity 321and expansion of Islam 336leadership 582in Medina 332and Persian Empire 297

rise of 116, 139, 291, 315, 324–5Roman view of 38see also Islam; Umayyad Empire

Aragenses (Aregenses) mountains, Spain 185, 186Aramaic language, in Iraq 324Araxes valley 323Arbeo, Lives of Emmeram and Corbinian 721Arbogast, count of Trier 193, 196

letter to 74Arbogast (magister militum) 24Arborius, Aquitanian senator 166archaeological theory 78–81

and ‘culture history’ 78, 80‘New Archaeology’ 79post-processual 80processual 79, 80structural functionalism 79

archaeologyBrittany 260early Islamic sites 330–1early medieval 76–8, 79–81Eastern Empire 96and evidence of depopulation 268and evidence of Roman Christianity in

Britain 427and evidence of Slav expansion 534and homeland of Slavs 528–9and kingdom formation in Britain 282‘late antique’ 76and pattern of Mediterranean trade and

economy 608–12, 614Scandinavia 497technical developments 76, 77–8, 84of trade 85–6urban 76, 77, 85–6and written sources 280see also burials; wics

archbishopsautocephalous, in Eastern church 681in England 681

archdeacons, role of 682archipresbyter (arch-priest)

in Gaul (lay) 691in Spain 691status of 683

architectureByzantine 777–9

domestic 777dome 776, 778, 779English churches 494regional traditions 779Roman 15, 764

atrium houses 777Rome 160, 761, 770in Western Europe 761–4window glass, Jarrow 763






Index 915

architecture (cont.)see also building; church building; public

buildings; sculptureArculf, pilgrim to Jerusalem 633Ardo, king of Septimania 368, 370arenas 213, 600Argimund, dux provinciae in Spain, revolt 348Arian Christianity 23, 693

among barbarian invaders 120, 122, 173, 602,675, 712–14

Ostrogoths in Italy 144, 146of Rechiarius the Sueve 166relations with Catholic populations 120, 123,

192of Visigoths 179, 184, 187, 192, 711

abandoned 346, 347, 348Ariconium (Weston-under-Penyard), Roman

town 252Arioald, son of Agilulf 714aristocracy

Celtic 234in Cornwall 256English 490Frankish 217–18, 219–22, 394

factional interests among 219–22, 223, 227influence of Church on 383and monastic foundations 231, 381, 382power of 230

see also elites; eorls; senatorial aristocracyAristotle, Boethius’ translation of 742Arles

besieged 174, 197, 551as capital of Gallic prefecture 48, 170, 196Church of 681, 684–5circus 600Frankish duke of 209Jews in 552, 553, 564mint 661, 672Statuta Ecclesiae Antiqua 696

Armaghannals 238archbishop of 410, 706claim to supremacy in Ireland 421, 422, 424and episcopal churches 412, 420, 422organisation of 409–11, 413St Patrick at 400, 421, 716

Armenia 302Arabs in 298, 338history of Herakleios 293and Persia 108, 113, 115rejection of Chalcedon 296

Armeniakon thema 307armies

Frankish 211–12Gothic, in Italy 145Islamic 337, 340

Lombard 157Persian 323Visigothic Spain 361, 369see also navies

Armoricaname changed 236, 441in revolt (5th century) 258see also Brittany

Arnulf, bishop of Metz 230, 231, 377Arras 567art

Arabian 317Christian styles 505, 507n, 760non-Roman traditions 760panel-paintings 770, 780representation in 508see also animal art; decorative arts; icons

artefactsgender associations of 84see also bowls; bracteates; gold; ivory;

jewellery; silverArthur, possible Romano-British leader 50Arvandus, praetorian prefect of Gaul 169Arzanene, Armenia 113, 114

Persian withdrawal from 115asceticism, monastic 439, 440, 654, 709

in Britain 437, 440, 444, 449, 450Irish 405, 407, 654and monastic education 743–4

Ashburnham Pentateuch 772Ashton, Northants., Roman Christianity at 427Asia Minor 572, 620, 626

Arab raids in 303, 307, 338Jewish populations 548missionary campaign of John of Ephesus 105Persian invasion 295Slav prisoners resettled in 543

Asidona (Medina Sidonia), Spaintaken by Visigoths (571) 113under Byzantine control 183, 184

Asir kings of Scandinavian myth 511Asparuch, khagan of Bulgars 301, 543, 572assemblies

Merovingian 376oenach (Ireland) 399, 588see also church councils; councils

Asthall, Oxon., princely burial site 280nAsti, Jews in 549Astorga (Asturica Augusta), sacked by Visigoths

164Astures (Astorgans) tribe, Spain 350, 352Asturia, hermits 705Asturian Chronicles 365Athalaric, king of Italy 148, 177, 502Athalocus, Arian bishop of Narbonne 347Athanagild, Visigothic prince 136, 187






916 Index

relations with Franks 183uprising against Agila 182–3, 183n

Athanaric, ruler (iudex) of the Goths 593, 711Athanasius (the ‘Camel-Driver’), Monophysite

patriarch of Antioch 296, 311Athanasius, Life of Anthony 69Athens, Plato’s Academy closed (529) 32, 104Atholl, king of 249Attica, Slavs in 543Attila the Hun 25, 51, 140, 143

death 533Frankish support for Rome against 196

Auch, Jews in 552Audacht Morainn (tract) 239Audeca, king of the Sueves 189, 668Audoenus, referendary at court of Dagobert 444Audoin, father of Alboin 152Audoin, bishop of Rouen 383, 389

Life of Eligius 757and Pippin II 391

Augers, Merovingian court at 384Augsburg, Christianity in 717auguries 725Augustine of Hippo, Saint 724

and adaptation of ancient culture toChristianity 737

De doctrina christiana 737, 738, 744De Magistro 737Historia Monachorum 705and monastic ideals 706on position of Jews 559, 562and role of kings 602The City of God 39

Augustine, Saint, archbishop of Canterbury 752,771

and Æthelberht 484, 730and British church 438, 446, 450, 486mission to Kent (597) 446, 479, 715, 730

Augustus Caesar, emperor 14, 499Aunemund, bishop of Lyons 388Aunomenses people, Lusitania, Spain 168Austoriani tribe, Tripolitania 43Austrasia (‘Francia’) 202

appointment of dukes 209Dagobert in 376rejoined with Burgundy (612) 230relations between kings, aristocrats and

bishops 218–21relations with Neustria 390royal marriages 228sub-kingdom (under Sigibert) 376under Merovingians 375, 376, 389see also Pippin II

Austrasian Franks, links with Lombards 204Austrasian Letters (Epistulae Austrasicae) 74Authari (Flavius), king of the Lombards 154–5

authority, symbols ofadapted from Romans 47, 48, 51assumed by Clovis 197, 213Danubian 51sacralisation of 309see also kingship; Romanitas

Autun‘Menian’ schools 746monastery of St Symphorien 225, 708

Auvergne 209Frankish administration of 202, 208, 211senatorial resistance to Visigoths 170

Auxilius, missionary to Ireland 403Avars 299, 301, 377, 572

alliance with Lombards against Gepids 112,134, 152

alliance with Persians 295, 540expansion to west 538and Franks 202, 531khanate 583in Pannonia 114, 537relations with Byzantium

alliances 112, 113, 537emperor Maurice and 114, 115–16, 539Justin II and 112, 134wars 538–40

revolts against 540, 544rise of 152, 536–7

Avitus, bishop of Vienne 207, 684, 703letters 74

Avitus, emperor 164Ayala, Cantabria 185

Babylon 323Babylonia, rabbinical Judaism in 548, 550, 568Bada, wife of Reccared 347, 348Badjana, Jews in 552Badr, battle of (624) 333Baduarius, general, and Lombards 135, 153Baduila see TotilaBaetan of the Dal Fiatach, Ulaid overking 243Baetica (Betica), Spain 163, 165, 169, 684

defection of Senators (to Byzantines) 182, 186,741

Hermenigild as regent of 186Visigoths in 169n, 180, 183, 187

Baghdad 323as capital of Arab Empire 291, 292

Bagnorea, castrum 158Bahram, Persian satrap 115Baile Chuind, Tara kinglist 243Bakr tribe 338al-Baladhuri, ‘Abbasid historian 326, 327Balaton, Lake, ?Mursian lake 534Balder, death of 510Baldwin, count of Flanders 567






Index 917

Balearics 124, 183hermits 705

Balkans 533, 572barbarian incursions 134, 712Byzantium and 301–2, 306, 540coinage 542, 666Goths allowed to settle in 24, 48kingship in 583–4Romanised culture of 533Slav settlements in 114, 535, 538, 540–3

Balt dynasty 175, 178Balthild, wife of Clovis II 386, 387, 473

Klosterpolitik 388, 756nLife of 387as queen-regent 387–8

BalticSlavs on 531trade 659

Bamburgh, royal seat of Northumbria 464Bangor, monastery 403, 412, 438, 456, 706Bangor-is-Coed monastery 440, 441Bangor-on-Dee, British monks slaughtered at

(616) 472Banu Hashim clan 331baptism 677, 702

and baptisteries 761of infants 702preparation for 702

barbarian invasions 19–20, 660, 712effect on Christian church 710–11effect on local societies 51–5‘Germanic’ character of 36historiography 35–7and pressure on Roman frontiers 45‘Romanist’ (continuity) view of 36–7, 264–7see also Alans; Germanic migrations;

Lombards; Ostrogoths; Slavs; Vandals;Visigoths

barbarian kingsArianism of 120, 122, 173, 602, 675, 712–14long hair of 205relations with Constantinople 93, 119, 131use of Roman writers 736

barbarian tribesconfederations among 45–6marriage alliances between 120, 514nature of kingship 46relations with Late Roman Empire 25, 37,

46–8, 736relations with senatorial aristocrats 52

barbarians, defined 38–41, 53Barbi, Spain, mint 670Barcelona 174

Jews in 552, 566mint 661, 670

Bardney, monastery 470

Bari, Jews in 550Barking, monastery 686barter 645Barton Court Farm, Oxon., Anglo-Saxon

settlement site 267basalt, from Eifel 650, 652Basil, monastic rules 705Basil of Caesarea, Saint 311‘Basileus’ (‘emperor’), use of title 578Basilius, praetorian prefect of Rome 142, 698Basques 54, 169, 350, 369

Christian missions to 717Franks and 379Visigothic kings and 185, 187, 349, 352, 361

Basra, Arab fortification 338Bath (Aquae Sulis) 267Bavaria, establishment of church in 720, 721Bavarians 201

Christian missions to 717, 720conflict with Slavs 538dukes of 222, 573Franks and 377

Bayeux, Saxon settlement 643Baza (Spain), under Byzantine control 183, 184beads

amber 285crystal 285

Bedeon British church 438, 446–7, 449, 450,

463on Cadwallon 254Chronica Minora and Chronica Majora 67contempt for British 471–2, 486on Cuthbert 483De Temporum Ratione 486description of Iona 456Ecclesiastical History of the English People 35,

61, 66, 238, 263, 283, 719, 755on identity of immigrants 268, 469on Kent 478, 715, 720on kingship 476, 485, 573, 593, 604on Lindisfarne 481on London emporium 646on martyrdom of the Hewalds 732on Mercia 466on Merovingians 373on Ninian 431on Oswald 465on Picts 250, 452–3, 458, 461as source 462–3view of Irish 472on Wearmouth 771as writer 494, 740, 755–6

Bedouin 320and rise of Islam 341social structure 319–20






918 Index

tribal affiliations 319tribal leaders 319

Beirut, law school 578Beja, Spain, Jews in 552Beli, king of Strathclyde, father of Pictish king

250, 574Belisarius, general to Justinian 101, 108

and Gothic war 125–8, 149and Vandal war 123–4, 180

Belorado, Spain, Jews in 552Benedict Biscop 473, 700, 707

circulation of manuscripts 754panel paintings 770use of Gallic stone-masons 763, 764

Benedict, pope, and Lombards 153Benedict, Saint 150, 704, 743–4

Rule of 704, 743Benedictine monasticism 677, 704Benevento, Lombard duchy of 153, 154, 156

coinage 666falls to Totila 127Jews in 550

Benjamin of Tudela 549Benouville, Caen, trading post 644Beowulf 522

on dynamics of power 476and heroic fame 602royal hall of Heorot 600and Scandinavian origin myth 504and story of Danish raid (515) 502, 641and warrior society 596

Berbersconversion to Islam 339, 345and Muslim conquest of Spain 369relations with Byzantium 124, 136, 139, 302

Berchar, mayor of the palace in Neustria 391,392

Berinsfield, Oxon., mixed-rite cemetery 271, 273,273n

Bernicia, kingdom of, northern England 244,280, 463

with Deira to form Northumbria 465mass conversions 480and Picts 250Romano-British name 286see also Northumbria

Bertha, wife of Æthelberht of Kent 283, 472,479, 673, 715

Bertram, bishop of Le Mans 259Bertramn, bishop of Bordeaux 223, 224, 229Beth Zagba, near Apamea 782Bethlehem, church of the Nativity 779Betica see BaeticaBible 22, 603

pandects 494scriptural exegesis 416

translated into Gothic 591see also gospel-books; Old Testament model

for kingshipBibles, illuminated 771–3Biclarum monastery 184Bierzo, Spain 753Bilichild, wife of Childeric 386, 389Binford, Lewis 79Birka, Sweden

early medieval town 77emporium 650, 652‘hall settlement’ 519

Birr, synod of (698) 425, 587bishops

appointment of 682, 689, 692consecration 692expected to separate from wives 313, 693

auctoritas 677in Britain/England

in British church 436, 437, 438, 487English 473, 484, 487relationship with monasticism 438, 439,

456as cardinales episcopi 679and conversion of Jews 553councils of 214criminal proceedings against 694developing role of 116, 158, 418, 682education of 692in Gaul/France

from Frankish aristocracy 383of Gallo-Roman descent 216, 383hereditary (‘family sees’) in Gaul 216, 682in Merovingian Francia 214–16, 384,

682in Ireland 402, 417, 421, 706, 754jurisdiction over dioceses 419, 682management of church wealth 697–8power of 219, 224, 349, 350, 384, 682relationship with monasticism 438, 439, 456,

704in Spain

and national councils 349, 350, 354obligation to protect family of king 367

urban sees 94, 116, 158, 313as ‘judges’ of city 94as local leaders 215, 676

see also dioceses; metropolitan bishopsBlack Sea, Avar-Slav raids 539Black Sea steppe 527, 529

Avars on 536Bulgars from 543

Bladast, Frankish duke 223Blathmac mac Aedo Slaine, joint king of Tara

243Bloch, Marc, ‘Annales School’ 57






Index 919

boatscuraghs 643flat-bottomed (Frisian) 651improvements (from 7th century) 651, 659long boats (longae naves) 643with sails 651see also shipping

Bobbio monastery (founded by Columbanus)382, 406, 415, 709, 716

Boeotia, Slavs in 543Boeslunde, Denmark, ‘hall’ settlement 519Boethius (Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus

Boethius) 98, 147, 148, 742Consolation of Philosophy 147, 742as writer 160

Boh river valley, Prague culture 529Bohemia 528

Slav strongholds 532Wends (Slavs) in 378, 532, 534

Boniface, Saint 603, 604, 718in Bavaria 729and heretical practices 729Lives of 573, 718, 720–1martyrdom 718, 732mission to Frisia 718, 720

Bonitus, Frankish general 193Bonos, magister officiorum of Constantinople

295Book of Durrow 455, 772–3Book of Kells 773Book of Llandaff 251, 437book making

Echternach 773Ireland 246, 773ivory covers 784see also manuscripts; texts

bookland, England 491Bordeaux 172

bishops of 223church council (673/675) 390church of St Martin 223church of St Vincentius 223Jewish community in 553

borders, Roman 196in 4th century 19–20, 22, 44, 118fortified 13–14, 16, 777weakening of 16, 96

borders, Welsh 255Borg, Lofoten, Norway 519

‘hall’ settlement 519Bornholm, Denmark, burial site 522Borre, Norway 519, 522

burial mound site 521Bosham, Sussex, Irish monastic community 472boundaries

Anglo-Saxon settlements 274

continuous use of (England) 286and deposition of gold hoards (Scandinavia)

516–17Bourdieu, Pierre 59Bourges, Jews in 553, 556Bourgogne, Jews in 553–4bowls, British hanging 451, 773Boz, king of the Antes 530bracteates

gold 475, 509–11, 722Roman models for 774

Braga (Bracara Augusta), sacked by Visigoths 164Braga, Third Council of 697Braudel, Fernand 57Braulio, bishop of Saragossa 359, 598n

and coenobitic monasticism 705brehons (lawyers), Ireland 398, 589Bremen, diocese of 719, 729Brendan, Irish abbot 706Brescia, Lombards and 157Breton language, Primitive 232, 236Bretons, relations with Franks 379bretwalda (ruler of Britain) 464

relationship to church 688Bridei, son of Derilei, king of the Picts 458, 459,

574Brigit, Saint

and Kildare monastery 411Life of 238as pagan goddess 402

Britain 269, 436, 462adoption of British identity 55Anglo-Saxon kingdoms see Englandarchaeological periodisation 76continuity view of barbarian invasions 37,

264–7cultural links with Europe 441, 494and English identity 55, 269, 462language changes 54Latin culture in 746, 754legacy of Roman political structure 233, 256,

284, 286, 287, 467non-monetary economy 86, 660, 672Roman ports 642Romano-British and Anglo-Saxon cemeteries

264–6, 426use of cremation 83

Romano-British Christianity 426–31survival of 431–5, 486, 710see also British church

stone buildings (reuse of Roman stone) 764trade with Mediterranean 622, 641–2villa life 29, 49western, stone inscriptions 88, 429withdrawal of Roman imperial authority 48,

50, 118






920 Index

see also British (Celtic) kingdoms; Britishchurch; England (from 7th century)

Britain, northern 246–7, 451church in 451–61see also Northumbria; Scotland

British (Celtic) kingdoms 232–7, 261–2English expansion into 469and kingship 574–5north Britain 246–7

British churchascetic revival 437, 440, 449, 450concept of mission 450cooperation with Roman mission 447–8, 450cultural achievements 450–1links with Rome 441, 681missionaries to 161, 430monasticism in Roman and post-Roman 431,

436, 438–41in north 451–61organisation of 435–8synods (6th century) 437, 438variety within 449–51see also Iona; Irish church

Britonsand conversion of Anglo-Saxons 446–7cultural assimilation of 265, 266, 284relations with Anglo-Saxons 265, 471survival of 235–6, 263

Brittany 258–61and British migration 236, 262, 642church

British churchmen in 441–5church councils 238links with Irish church 445ploue churches 443, 444structure 441, 442

and the Franks 258–9, 379kings of 260links with Cornwall 256–8political fragmentation 260, 261relations with Merovingians 222Roman legacy 233, 260source material 237

Gregory of Tours’ histories 239inscribed stones 237, 429Life of Samson 238, 256, 259, 260, 440

towns 235see also Armorica

Brittonic language (P-Celtic type) 232, 235; seealso Breton

Bro Weroc (Morbihan) 259Broighter, Ireland, model of curagh 643bronze

Byzantine 781doors of Hagia Sophia 776see also coins and coinages

broochesabsence of production sites 286‘Anglo-Saxon’, in England and Gaul 643as badges 278barbarian styles adopted 54as female grave goods 272Kaiserfibel (Roman) 774for peplos-style dresses 278saucer 278nScandinavian-style 270, 774square-headed 278, 286

Brown, Peter 25Brude, king of the Picts 250Brunehild, wife of Sigibert I of Metz 183, 186,

205, 206, 228and Barberini diptych 775and Chlothar 373expulsion of Columbanus 382factional interests 220, 222, 229–30, 374founder of abbey of Autun 708as wife of Merovech 204, 224, 229

Bruno of Querfurt 732Brycheiniog, kingdom of 252Bryggen, Bergen, runic staves 498Budic, Breton leader 259, 260building techniques

and archaeological identification 77, 84foundation trenches 275new styles (6th century) 275, 284Roman masonry reused 764, 765tin roofs (church of St Martin) 214window glass, Jarrow 763

buildingscomparative sizes 84hall-type 84, 275, 278, 519

high-seat posts 518, 519longhouses 84, 266stone, in Britain 764sunken-floored (Grubenhauser) 84, 266, 274,

528square with corner ovens (Slav) 529, 531, 535

timberAnglo-Saxon 266, 274, 275Britain 764post-built 528

urban 28, 86see also architecture; building techniques;

public buildingsBuilth, kingdom of 252Bulgaria, Slav settlements in 541Bulgars 134, 301–2, 306, 572

and Avars 537and Byzantium 543–4Danube delta (Little Scythia) 534, 536khans of 583

Buraburg, diocese of 729






Index 921

Burdunellus, rebellion in Tarraconensis 172bureaucracy

Byzantine 579in Merovingian political culture 381Roman imperial 20, 42, 43

and local government 19Burghead, Pictish burial site 458Burgundians

Byzantine view of 121as Catholic Christians 712coinage 668continued use of Latin 54ethnic identity 53, 221invasion of Gaul (406) 49, 118, 712origin myths 502in Provence 174relations with Franks 174, 197settled in Savoy 49

Burgundy 203, 204, 738appointment of dukes 209Frankish attack on 145, 148, 199Jews in 553–4law codes 70

Roman 71nature of kingship 46and reunification of Francia 230, 375under Merovingians 376

burials and burial ritesAnglo-Saxon 265, 269, 272

changes (6th century) 276–7, 280, 284, 486barrows or mounds 276, 521, 522boat (ship) 277, 504chamber graves 277Christian 427cist 83cremation 83

Denmark 522cremation urns 268crouched 265and ethnic identity 81–2furnished inhumations 81, 82–3, 287

Central Europe 528in cremation cemeteries 277Denmark 522England 490‘Germanic’ 36, 55, 81Kent 279Merovingian 81

Germanic 55inhumations 83Lombard 155long-cist 453and monuments 90, 276in Pictland 457post-Roman, excavation of 76Roman (W. Yorks.) 269

in sarcophagi 83Scandinavia 521–2social evidence from 82–3, 270–3, 276–7‘warrior graves’ 272‘weapon’ 272, 276nsee also cemeteries; cremation cemeteries

Bury, J. B. 25Busta Gallorum, battle of (552) 128Byzantine army 306–8

military practice (exemplified in Strategikon)114

palace troops and imperial guard 306Slavs in 536

Byzantium 291–4, 535, 776administration

changes (6th century) 303–4civil 304–6legal 308–9military 306–8

and Avars 537, 540and the Balkans 301–2, 306, 540

relations with Slavs 532, 542–3, 572and Bulgars 543–4civil war (602) 116cultural divergence from West 757–8decline of 738economy

coinage 661, 665–6role in Mediterranean 625–6, 629, 635state factories 305

expelled from Spain 350imperial court 304, 305

chancellery 679gifts of treasure 774significance of palace and ceremonial

579–80Jews

discrimination against 565Jewish merchants 556Jewish populations 548–9

loss of eastern provinces (to Arabs) 297–8,305, 322, 337

loss of North Africa 303, 305, 368military difficulties in the West 134–6relations with Lombards 152, 154, 156relations with Visigoths 180, 182–3, 349sources for 7th century 292–4wars with Persia 96–7, 632, 738

Heraclius 293, 295–6, 297, 324Justinian 108–9Maurice 114, 115

see also Church, Eastern; Constantinople;Justinian I

Cadelling dynasty, Powys 252, 254, 255Cadfan, king of Gwynedd 254






922 Index

Cadog, Saint, Life of 251Cadwallon, king of Gwynedd 254, 262, 472

defeat of Edwin 465Cadwgan, king of Dyfed 574Caedwalla, king of Wessex 467, 482Caen, Saxon settlements 643Caerleon, Wales, Christian martyrs’ burials 432Caerwent, Roman 234Caesarea (Cappadocia)

Arabs at 298, 338famine 617taken by Persians 295

Caesarius, bishop of Arles 681, 684, 687collection of model sermons 702and education of clergy 692and importance of sermons 701, 724, 745monastic rules 708and private penance 703

Caesarius, Byzantine governor in Spain 352Cagliari, Sardinia, customs dues 619Cahors, disputed control over 203Cain Adamnain (tract) 239Cainnech, Saint 418Cairo Genizah

Jewish business papers 548, 550on Jewish traders 556, 560and Jews under Arab rule 551

Caistor-by-Norwich, cemeteries 271Calatayud, Spain, Jews in 552Caldey Island, Piro’s monastery 438, 439calendar

church 701days of week (names of ) 722Muslim 332see also Easter; Sunday

Calendar of Filocalus, illuminated manuscript771

‘caliph’, role of 582Caliphate 341, 343, 582

in Kufa 342in Medina 342see also ‘Abd al-Malik; Abu Bakr; ‘Ali;

Mu‘awiya; ‘Umar; ‘UthmanCalsena, Jews in 552camel, domestication of 318Campigneulles, Ponthieu 655Canao, Breton ruler 260Candidus, agent to Gregory the Great 731canon law 312

in Ireland 401on Jews 314on monasticism 314on pagan rites 314, 710

Cantabrian peoples 169, 185, 186Canterbury

Anglo-Saxon mint 646

archbishopric of 483, 681cathedral church 480and ports 648Roman town 492St Martin’s church 479school at 483, 707theatre 600see also Augustine; Theodore

Cantwarena, Romano-British district 286Canu Aneirin, Welsh poem 239nCanu Taliesin, Welsh poem 239n, 247Capitula Martini, collection of ecclesiastical law

696capitus (fodder allowances) 304Cappadocian Fathers 311Capua, Italy, Jews in 550caput (poll tax), Roman Empire 20Caputvada (Ras Kapoudra) 123Caracalla, emperor 17, 42Carantania (Carinthia), Slavic state 538, 544

establishment of church in 720Carantanian cultural group 538, 541Carantocus, abbot, in Burgundy (British) 441,

445Carcopino, J. 25Cardiff, Welsh kingdom near 252cardinales (originally deacons of Rome)

679Carlisle, Roman 234Carman, Leinster assembly place 399Carmarthen, Roman 234Carolingian dynasty

cultural reformatio 752, 758seizure of throne (751) 372see also Charlemagne

Carpathian mountains 534Carpetana see CeltiberiaCarthach, founder of Lismore 404Carthage 614

ancient schools 740disputation (645) 299

exarch in 136falls to Arabs (698) 303, 368, 758falls to Belisarius 123, 180metropolitan see of 680, 688

parish organisation 686mint 664, 665trading port 614, 626, 628

Carthagenainscription 349, 741mint 666regional religious capital 351

Carthaginensis (Carthagena) 164, 169, 179occupied by Byzantium 182, 351, 352

Cashel, Munster (Ireland) 245Cassian see John Cassian






Index 923

Cassiodorus (Flavius Magnus AureliusCassiodorus) 36, 133, 140, 158

on city life 159Codex Grandior 772in Constantinople 130, 577cultural influence of 747–8Divine Institutions 747and education of clergy 744on Goths and Romans 143, 146, 597history of the Goths (lost) 131, 500, 501,

502Human Institutions 747and monastery of Vivarium 705, 745and monastic life 705, 705nOn Orthography 748on palace government 600praetorian prefect of Italy 126on regional fair in Lucania 620on urban prefects 158Variae (replies to legal grievances) 596as writer 160, 174, 738, 743

Cassiterides (Isles of Scilly) 642Castellum Lucullanum, St Severinus’ grave 704Castle Dore, Cornwall 256Castra Martis, on Danube 539Castrojeriz, Spain, Jews in 552cathedraticum (church tax) 697Catholics

claims of persecution by Arians 120, 123, 192encouraged to convert to Arianism (Toledo

synod 580) 192Catholme, settlement site 279Catihern, Brittonic priest 442, 444Catraeth (Catterick?), battle of (c.600) 247Catstane, inscribed stone 451Caucasus mountains 323Cefn Graeanog (north Wales), Roman farm

234Celeia (Celje) 538Celestine, pope 399, 716celibacy, of clergy 676, 693–4Cell Diuin, Loch Awe 455Cell Toch, Corcu Teimne, bishop of 412Cellach of the Uı Briuin 245Cellach of the Uı Dunlainge 244Celtiberia (Reccopolis) 179, 186, 190, 191

Carpetana ecclesiastical province 179Celtic kingdoms 232–7, 261–2

geographical differences 233–4languages 232nature of kingdoms 261source material 237–9see also British kingdoms

Celtsin Balkans 533migrations 641

Roman view of 38settlements on Western seaways 642see also Britons; entries under Irish

cemeteriesAnglo-Saxon 76, 264, 265archaeological study of 76, 81–3, 268nCentral Europe 528Francia 76, 383inhumation 271long-cist 453mixed cremation and inhumation 271, 274,

277nRomano-British 264spatial organisation 83see also burials and burial rites; cremation

cemeteriesCenel nArdgaile family 241Cenel Cairpre family 241, 245Cenel Conaill family 241, 245Cenel nEogain family 241, 243, 245

and Tara kingship 243Cenel Loiguire family 241Central Asia, Muslim conquests 337Central Europe, collapse of cultural structures

528Centula/Saint-Riquier monastery 654, 655Centumcellae, fortress at 158Cenwalh, king of Wessex 255Ceolfrith, biblical pandects by 494ceorl (free peasant), England 490, 491Cerdic of Wessex 283Ceredig, king of Strathclyde 247Ceredigion, kingdom of 252ceremonial, in Byzantine court 579Cethegus, caput senatus 130Ceuta (Septem) 124, 180

Visigothic defeat at 129Chad (Ceadda), bishop of Northumbria 448,

481, 487Chalcedon, Council of (451) (Fourth

Ecumenical Synod) 94–5, 103, 106, 296,419, 685, 685n, 704

Justinian’s interpretation of 107, 131, 299rejected by Justin I 97rejections of 95, 97, 296western view of 302see also Cyrilline (Neo-)Chalcedonianism;

MonophysitesChalcedon, Persian advance on 295Chalon-sur-Saone

capital of Burgundian Franks 203, 213, 221church council (647/653) 552mint 559, 672

Chalons, Jews in 553–4Chalton, Hants., settlement site 275nchamberlains (eunuch), Byzantine court 305






924 Index

ChampagneFrankish duke of 209Jews in 553–4

Chararic, Frankish king 197Charibert, son of Chlothar, king of Paris 201,

202, 204, 208n, 223, 376marriage of daughter 472, 479

Charibert II, Merovingian sub-king 376, 379charity, organised, Jewish 568Charlemagne, emperor 553, 604, 723

coinage 651, 653conquests 719, 733and trade 655, 658

Charles the Bald, emperor 566Charles Martel 394, 395, 718Charnwood Forest, pottery production 279ncharters 61, 72–3, 599

and bookland 491dating 73forged 63, 72form of 72granted to Jews 567granting monastic independence 382, 383Merovingian 373, 382, 383original 61royal use of 485as source material 73Wales 251, 437

chartoularios, Byzantine treasury official 305chatelaines, as female grave goods 272Chedworth Roman villa 26Chelles, monastery of 388Chernyakhov Culture, Slavic 529Chester 252, 255

battle of (616) 254Chesterholm, inscription 451Childebert I, son of Clovis, king of Paris 199,

201, 224appearance in Life of Samson 259, 443attack on Amalaric in Septimania 178,

200coinage 669invasion of Visigothic Spain 200saints’ cults 213share of Burgundian lands 199, 228

Childebert II, son of Sigibert, king of Austrasia204, 208, 229

Byzantine-backed attack on Lombards 114,136, 154

and factions among aristocrats and bishops219–22, 223

and Guntramn 204–5, 210, 226and law 599and Reccared 347relations with Brunehild 229relations with church 211, 685

Childebert III, king of the Franks 573, 604and Pippin II 393

Childebert, son of Grimoald, king of the Franks386

Childeric, Frankish king (d.c.480) 51,196

and Byzantium 122grave at Tournai 76, 196, 595

Childeric, son of Clovis II 386, 389murdered 389, 390

childrenof clergy 694in inhumation cemeteries 271

Chilperic I, son of Chlothar, king of Soissons201, 202, 212, 559

alliance with Leovigild 187amphitheatres 600and Aquitaine 222, 224assassination of 189, 204, 212and Brunehild 229and Byzantium 137, 774and count of Tours 216feuds and wars 203–4, 221and Gregory of Tours 226marriage to Galsuintha, daughter of

Athanagild 183, 183n, 228and Paris 225poetry 213support for education 213, 746see also Fredegund

China 340, 584Chindasuinth, king of the Visigoths 356–9

coinage 670government of 358–9law codes 598suppression of nobility 358

Chintila, king of the Visigoths 354Chiusi, Italy, municipal coin issues 666Chlochilaic (Hygelac), Danish leader, raid on

Frisia 501, 641Chloderic, of Rhineland Franks 198Chlodomer, son of Clovis, king of Orleans 199,

201, 203, 228Chlogio, Frankish chieftain 196Chlothar I, son of Clovis, king of Soissons 199,

201, 213, 214and Chramn (son) 208, 212and Church 602death (561) 221invasion of Visigothic Spain 200and Nicetius of Trier 219relations with bishop Germanus 225and Saxony 201, 377share of Burgundian lands 200, 228and Thuringians 200, 201unification of Frankish lands 201






Index 925

Chlothar II, king of Neustrian Franks 203, 204,221, 229

and alliance with Burgundy 230forged charters 63reunification of Frankish kingdoms 230–1,

373–6, 394and rights of Church 211, 682, 698

Chlothar III, king of the Franks 386, 387, 388,622

Chosroes I Anushirwan, king of Persia 108, 113,114, 126, 323

Chosroes II Parviz, king of Persia 115, 294, 296,324

and Christian schisms 296Chramn, son of Chlothar 201, 208, 212Christ

depiction as lamb 314image on coinage 315

Christ, nature ofChalcedonian dispute over (unity of godhead

and manhood) 94, 97, 131Christological controversies 23, 107monenergism doctrine 296monothelitism doctrine 297theopaschite doctrine of 106

Christian Hellenism 311Christian life

canons for regulation of (Quinisext Synod)312, 314, 580

duties of 728fasting 313Martin of Braga on 727see also monasticism

Christianity 21, 22, 310among Romano-British 426in Arabian peninsula 321–2archaeological evidence for (Britain) 427chi-rho (Constantinian form) 434development in later Roman Empire 22–3,

397, 675divisive social influence of 94early missions to Ireland 399–401emphasis on ‘purity’ 103and evolution of new culture 737–9and grave goods 81Greek and Latin divisions 116and Judaism 548, 551, 561–2

toleration of Jews 562and kingship (Britain) 484–5late Roman scholars 34mass conversions (Britain) 480, 485, 488in northern Britain 451–4as official religion of Rome 22, 144, 710in post-Roman Britain 431–5rejection of classical learning 104and repeatable penance 450

in rural Francia 383in Scotland 249as urban phenomenon 94, 116, 427see also Church, Eastern; Church, Western;

Islam; JudaismChristians

Great Persecution (under Diocletian) 21polemical attitude to Jews 561–3under Muslim rule 340, 344

Chrodoara, abbess, sarcophagus at Amay 765Chronica Caesaraugustana 170n, 172, 177, 181, 183Chronica Minora 67Chronica Regum Visigothorum 367, 368Chronicle of Fredegar 67, 239, 260, 350n, 353, 756‘Chronicle of Ireland’ 238Chronicle of Saragossa 67chronicles 67–8, 95, 96

Syriac 293see also annals

Chronicon Paschale 67, 95, 292Chunibert, bishop of Cologne 384, 385church building 21, 216, 728

baptisteries 761based on basilica shape 761, 777, 779domination of cities 116in later Roman Empire 28Merovingian 763in Ravenna 761–2regional traditions 779tetraconch, Byzantine 777by Theoderic in Italy 146under Lombards 160urban, Byzantium 778, 784

church Councils (Synods) 676, 687–9British church 437, 438Brittany 238Byzantine 676

imperial leadership of 580Concilium Germanicum (743) 724imperial (western) 689Irish 587jurisdiction of 694Merovingian 373, 746national, and power of kings 688–9provincial 687and secular power 688Spain 689summoned by papal vicars 684see also Chalcedon; Constantinople; Ephesus;

Nicaea; Toledo; Whitbychurch, Eastern 309–16

appointment of bishops 682barbarian tribes and 720Chalcedonian orthodoxy 96, 97collections of ecclesiastical law 312, 695–6and control over holiness 309






926 Index

economic organisation 676episcopal control over monks 704growth of Orthodoxy 310–11hierarchy of 310imperial ecumenical councils 580, 676independence from Rome 313liturgical strictness 700married clergy 694place of religious art in 314, 315political influence 292provincial synods 687

Church Island, Kerry, hermitage site 412, 414church, Western

Acacian schism 95, 97, 122, 677in Africa 675Easter controversy 415–17and Eastern Church 137, 313ecclesiastical histories 68economy of

alienation of wealth 698organisation 173, 676, 696–9property 696, 698wealth of 150, 216, 698

and fall of Rome (476) 142and influence of Italy 161law

codification of 695and Eastern collections of 695ecclesiastical courts 694jurisdiction and legislation 694–6role in secular law-making 478, 484, 599

Lombards and 154, 157need for religious texts 61pastoral care 701–3provincial synods 687schism with Aquileia 107and spiritual welfare 676structure and organisation 215, 675–7

constitution 676Council of Toledo (589) 348location of authority in 416, 419, 438metropolitan administration 680–2as mimesis of the cosmos 102and papal bureaucracy 678–9parishes 686n, 686–7role of elites in hierarchy 381urban sees 94, 116, 313year (calendar) 701

and suppression of heterodoxy 104–5taxation of 210, 648and trade 615, 626–7, 655–6see also bishops; British church; Christianity;

clergy; Irish church; papacychurches

collections (hoards) of silver treasures 781foundations and property 697

grants of fiscal immunity 211, 395local 686‘private’ (Eigenkirche) 676, 697

Ciannachta, Irish tribal grouping 241Cıaran, founder of Clonmacnois 403Cilicia, Asia Minor

Constantine IV’s expedition into 302rural economy 624, 626

Cimbri, land of (Jutland) 499circus (arena, hippodrome)

Paris 213, 600significance of 579, 600

Cirencester 267cities

in Byzantine world 291, 776, 779, 784as centres of Frankish administrative units 209decline of 28, 293Italian 549power of bishops in 94, 116, 158Roman 15, 19, 27–8

as basis of imperial state 93, 159taxation of 210urban building 28, 86urban prefects 158, 305walled 28, 779see also towns

City Prefect, office of (Constantinople) 305Cixilo, wife of Egica 364, 367Clann Cholmain, and Tara kingship 244Clarke, David 79Classe, port of Ravenna 153, 767classical culture

adapted to Christianity 737, 752continuity of 736, 760Frankish familiarity with 212in late Roman Empire 33–4material destruction of 736Ostrogoths and 159see also literature; texts

Classis Britannica 642Claude, Dietrich, on Mediterranean trade 607,

635Claudius, dux of Lusitania 347Clemens, heretical cleric 729Clement of Alexandria 675, 737Cleph, king of the Lombards 153, 154, 156clergy 689–94

admission to 689, 691n, 691–2from cathedral monasteries (England) 691celibacy 676, 693–4and church property 697, 699civil jurisdiction over 359, 694collegiate 684in communities 439education of 33, 678, 692, 744–5funding of 676, 697, 698






Index 927

clergy (cont.)marriage 313, 406, 407, 693–4

Britain 436, 439moral requirements of 693obligation to defend realm (Spain) 361ranks 689status of 401, 488, 676

ClermontFrankish administration of 208, 215Jews in 553, 556Roman aristocracy in 216

Clichy, Merovingian annual assembly (627)376

climatic changes6th century 109, 234, 437‘dust veil’ phenomenon 109improvement (7th century) 645

Clodosinda, sister of Childebert 347Clogher, Ireland, imported pottery 642Clonard monastery 403, 706Clonfert monastery 238, 706Clonmacnoise monastery 403, 412, 413, 419,

706Clonmelsh monastery (Rath Melsigi) 649Clothild, wife of Amalaric 178Clothild, wife of Clovis 197, 199, 205, 213

and conversion of Clovis to Catholicism 713factional interests 227wealth of 227

Clovis I, king of the Franks 121, 596, 602assumed trappings of Roman authority 197,

213and Byzantium 122and church councils 689consolidation of control over Franks 196–8,

208, 713conversion to Catholicism 172, 198, 206, 207,

713council at Orleans (511) 203, 689cultural patronage 213letters 74and Lex Salica 598relations with Burgundians 197and saints’ cults 213, 214and Visigoths 171–2, 197

Clovis II, king of Franks in Neustria andBurgundy 384, 385, 386, 603

Clovis III, king of the Franks 393Clovis, pretender 389Coblenz 202, 652codex 776

production methods 60Codex Amiatinus 772Codex Grandior 772Codex Justinianus 123, 308Codex Theodosianus 308, 351, 562

CogitosusIrish annalist, on Kildare 414, 423Life of Brigit 238, 771

Coifi, pagan priest 480, 723Coimbra (Conimbrica) 167, 552coin hoards 653

Crondall 647, 673Sutton Hoo 645, 647

coins and coinagesAnglo-Saxon 645Breton 260bronze 31, 661

40-nummus piece (follis) 663follis 663, 664, 665minimi 662, 664nummus 661, 662, 665reused Roman (in Africa) 665Visigothic 671

Byzantine 329, 542image of empress Sophia 113Justinian II 303

Charlemagne 651, 653civic issues

Carthage 665Rome 664

copper, Constantinople 665‘Dronrijp’ type 646eastern influence on 137Frankish, Childebert III 393Frisian 645, 646, 652gold

Anglo-Saxon medallion 673Frankish pseudo-imperial 669as imperial prerogative 661, 664, 672, 674Lombard 572Merovingian 672: in Britain 285, 473, 474,

673Ostrogothic 664scillingas (shillings), Anglo-Saxon 673semisses (late Roman) 661solidi 644, 661, 662: Visigothic 379, 667standards of fineness 670, 671, 672, 673thrymsas (Kent) 493, 647tremisses (late Roman) 661: Lombard copies

666; Visigothic 667trientes (tremisses) (Byzantine) 191, 652:

Frankish copies 644, 645triple solidus (Theoderic) 664

image of Christ on 315, 581, 671imperial portraits on 663Islamic 328–9, 330, 583Italy 662–4Merovingian, switch from gold to silver 396,

653, 672national phase 661, 669–74Northern European (late 7th century) 652–3






928 Index

as ornaments, in Britain 645, 673as political tools 87pseudo-Imperial phase 660, 667–9, 674Roman empire 31–2, 616, 660, 661

Diocletian 21military themes 576, 577silver 660, 661

Sasanian 329ships on 644, 651silver 652, 659, 662

Byzantium 781Carolingian penny 660denarius: Gaul 87; Vandal issues 665English pennies 673Frankish pseudo-imperial 668half- and quarter-siliqua (Theoderic) 664,

666Merovingian deniers 672Odovacer’s 663‘pennies’ and ‘deniers’ 652Roman Empire 660, 661sceattas 493, 652

solidus (Roman) 31, 71n, 87, 88as sources 86–8, 328–9Theoderic’s 592, 664, 666values 662Visigothic 667

Chindasuinth 359Leovigild 191, 600

in wic sites 647–8see also mints

Coleraine, episcopal church 412Colman, Saint, bishop of Lindisfarne 408, 420,

481Cologne 652, 657

bishopric of 217, 392, 729Jews in 554, 563

colonii (half-free peasants) (late Roman) 27, 357Jews as 555, 557

Columba, Saint 242, 247, 401, 405, 413, 455, 706and circulation of manuscripts 754conversion of northern Picts 452, 458foundation of Iona 454, 707, 716founder of Irish monasteries 403and kings 586Life of 238, 454sources for 454

Columbanus 413, 441, 450, 752and authority of abbot 419British churchmen and 445and Easter dating 415on Frankish kings 586influence of 709, 716and Irish monasticism in Gaul 231, 382, 406,

708–9Life of 650

on monasticism in Ireland 404relations with Brunehild 230, 382

Columcille (Columban the elder) see Columba,Saint

Comacchio, northern Italy 621combs, ivory 785Comeniciolus, magister militum Spaniae 349comes civitatis, Visigothic kingdoms 358comes rei privatae (Byzantine land administrator)

304comes sacra largition (Byzantine financial

administrator) 304Comgall, Irish abbot 403, 706comitatenses (Byzantine field army) 306commentator, diocesan administrator (Spain) 683Commentiolus, Byzantine governor of

Cartagena 741Commodus, emperor 14, 16communications

in Celtic kingdoms 233see also transport

Conall of Cenel Conaill 243Conall, king of Dal Riada 408Concilium Germanicum (743) 724concubinage, of clergy 694confession

private 677, 703see also penance

Connacht, Ireland 245, 574Conomorus, Breton leader 259Conomorus (Cynfawr), king of Dumnonia 256Constans II, emperor (son of Heracleios) 292,

298and Balkans 299, 543religious policy 299–300in Syracuse, Sicily 300, 758Typos 299, 302, 308

Constantia, Cyprus 298Constantine I, emperor 17, 18, 21–3, 41, 207

and Council of Nicaea 580gold aureus 31and independence of Church 675and judicial role of emperor 577

Constantine III, emperor (son of Heracleios) 298Constantine IV, emperor 300–2, 577

religious policy 302Constantine VII, emperor 579Constantine, king of Cornwall 256Constantine Porphyrogenitus 542Constantinople 19, 21, 777

Arab attacks on 337, 759besieged (626) 295, 540, 780blockaded (674–8) 301bubonic plague (542) 111as centre of influence 120, 130–1centre for scholarship 32, 131






Index 929

Constantinople (cont.)churches 778–9: Hagia Eirene 109, 778; Hagia

Sophia (church of Holy Wisdom) 21,102, 109, 292, 309, 778; St Polyeuktos103, 778; SS Sergius and Bacchus 778; ofthe Twelve Apostles 580, 779

City Prefect 305as Constantine’s New Rome 21, 140, 616ecumenical conference (532) 106Greek character of 22as imperial seat 93, 292and interregional exchange networks 628Jews in 556, 565Justinian’s rebuilding 103, 126Latin literature produced in 131Nika riot (532) 98, 101, 102, 109palace 103, 126, 778patriarchs of 681, 685, 685npottery (Glazed White Ware) 620, 633role of circus factions 109, 579sacred (miraculous) icon 780

Constantinople, Fifth Ecumenical Synod (553)106–7, 297, 348

condemnation of Origenism 107condemnation of ‘Three Chapters’ 106–7,

132Constantinople, Quinisext Synod (692) 303,

308, 580, 678102 canons of 312–15and marriage of clergy 694role of ostiarius 690and theology of icons 780

Constantinople, Sixth Ecumenical Synod(680–1) 302, 311, 678

Constantius II, emperor 22, 23Constantius, deacon of Milan 130Constitution of Medina 333consuls, appointment of 142convents 706

royal nunneries 488–9Conversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum 719,

728Coptic language 322Corbie monastery, luxury imports 622Corbinian, bishop of Freising 721Corcu Sai, church of 419Cordoba

Jews in 552mint 670, 671Muslim conquest 339rebellions 182, 184as royal capital (702) 368taken by Visigoths (572) 113, 183

Coriosolitesin Brittany 442in Dumnonia 260n

Corippus, Flavius Cresconius, African poet andgrammarian 74, 131, 740

Johannide 134, 740Cork, federation of churches 424Cormac mac Airt, legendary Irish king 590Cornish language, Primitive 232Cornouaille, Brittany 259Cornwall 237, 255–8

inscribed stones 237, 256links with Brittany 256–8place names 432see also Dumnonia

Coroticus, British chieftain (?Strathclyde) 434,451

Corpus Christi Gospels 771Corunna, Jews in 552Costisa-Botosana Culture, Moldavia 535Cotton Genesis, Greek illuminated manuscript

782councils

of bishops 214national (Spain) 353, 360, 363see also Church Councils (Synods)

countsByzantine (comites) 304Merovingian 209, 374

Roman aristocrats 216, 223courts

ecclesiastical 694–5punishments 695

episcopal 695royal, jurisdiction over clergy 694

Coutances, monastery 445Cowdery’s Down, Hampshire, settlement site

275, 278, 284Cracow, Slav expansion towards 531craftsmen

barbarian 47Jewish 556, 559

cremation see burials and burial ritescremation cemeteries

Anglian regions 270–1furnished inhumations in 277northern Europe 270nSaxon homelands 48Slav, Olympia 542

cremation urns, gender differences 272Crete, Arab raid on 298Crith Gablach, Irish tract on kingship 588,

589critical theory

in archaeology 80and source material 58–9

Croats, arrival in Balkans 542Crondall, Hants., coin hoard 647, 673Crossland monastery 654






930 Index

crownsVisigothic 600, 774votive 775

Ctesiphon, Persian capital 295, 323, 583falls to Arabs 338

cubiculariichamberlains, Gregory the Great 679eunuch chamberlains, Byzantine court

305cubicularium, Visigothic Spain 358Cuil Dreimne, battle of (561) 242, 245cultural assimilation

of Britons 265, 266, 284of Goths in Italy 145by Slavs 531, 535, 541

cultureBritish revival 739Carolingian reformatio 752, 758development of new Christian 737–9England 493–5Frankish (‘Germanic’) style 745–6influence of Isidore of Seville 750–2, 753–4Jewish 552, 554, 568late Roman 33–4, 54, 735, 736Merovingian 212–13, 746North Africa 739, 740, 746renaissance in Spain 739, 740–2, 746, 750,

752–3stagnation in Italy 739, 742–3, 746, 753see also art; classical culture; decorative arts;

literature; material culture‘culture history’, and archaeological theory 78Cumae, falls to Totila 127Cumbric language, Primitive 232Cunedda, leader of the Votadini 252Cunipert, king of the Lombards 572, 602, 759

coinage 666Cunobelin, coins 644Curetan, bishop of the Picts 461curialis (town councillor) (Roman) 42custodes, managers of church goods 698custom

Frankish notion of 381and law 71, 381, 478

customs dues 619, 629, 655Cuthbert, saint and bishop 449, 460, 483, 707

as writer 494Cynddylan, Welsh king in Shropshire 255Cynegils, king of Wessex 467, 484Cyprian, legal officer to Theoderic 147Cyprus 302

Arab occupation 298, 301, 339theological writings from 294

Cyril, patriarch of Alexandria 95, 103, 105, 311Cyril of Scythopolis, hagiographies 95Cyrila, Suevic dux 166

Cyrilline (Neo-)Chalcedonianism 105–6, 107,297

cyuli (Anglo-Saxon long boats) 643, 644Czechs, in ‘state of Samo’ 540

Dacia, Gepids in 533Dacian culture, mixed with Slav 535Dagobert I, king of the Franks 375, 376–7, 394,

654and Brittany 260, 444and Christian missions 733death of 384and deposition of Swinthila 353king in Austrasia 231, 376and St Denis fair 656and Slavs (Wends) 540

Dagobert II, son of Sigibert III 386, 390–1, 473Dal nAraide dynasty 241, 243, 456Dal Fiatach dynasty 241, 411Dal Riada dynasty 241, 574

in Britain 243, 244in Scotland 244, 246, 251

Dal Riada, kingdom of 454, 460, 464see also Columba; Iona

Dalkey Island, Dublin Bay, trading post 644Dallan Forgaill, Irish fili (poet) 401Dalmatia

Avar-Slav raids 115, 539, 540freed from Avars 540, 542Ostrogoths in 121Roman province of 533Slavs in 536, 542under Byzantium 115, 533

dalmatica (liturgical garment) 701Damascius, Neoplatonist 104Damascus 291

taken by Arabs 298, 338as Umayyad capital 342, 344, 582–3Umayyad mosque 345

Damasus I, pope 697Danes

described by Jordanes 501Franks and 200, 203kings 573see also Denmark

Danevirke frontier defences 573Daniel, bishop of Winchester 722, 728, 731Dankirke, Jutland, trading station 47Danube frontier

barbarian foederati on 533emperor Maurice and 114, 115–16, 539fortresses on 97, 112, 536Justin II and 112Slav breaches of 524, 539

Danube, river, Iron Gates 534Danubian culture 51






Index 931

Dara (Anastasiopolis)fortress of 96, 108taken by Persians (572) 113, 115

date palm 318Datius, bishop of Milan 130Datius, king of the Heruli 504David, Jew of Lyons 566David, Jew of Speyer 566David, Saint 441Dawston, battle of 244De Institutione Virginum et Contemptu Mundi

705deaconesses, in Eastern church 690deacons

of city of Rome 679education of 692status and role of 689, 690

decorative artsAnglo-Saxon ornamental styles 270late Roman Empire 28Salin’s Styles I and II 277, 505

Defensor of Liguge 753defensores

as administrators of church wealth 698administrators of justice in Roman church

679bishops as 682

Deirakingdom of 280, 463Romano-British name 286subsumed into Northumbria 465, 467see also Northumbria

Delbnae Bethra, Irish kingdom 419Demetae, civitas of 252Demetrius, patron saint of Thessalonica 115demography

Anglo-Saxon England 267–9effect of plague 234and rise of Islam 340see also population

Denis (Dionysius), Saint, cult of 231Denmark 499

burial sites 522Heruli migration to 531Willibrord in 649, 719see also Danes

depositio (dismissal from church position) 695Derry monastery 403, 455Dervan, leader of Serbs 532Desert Fathers, Egypt 311Desiderius, (Roman) duke of Albi 222, 223Desiderius, bishop of Cahors 224

letters 74, 383Life of 383

Deusdedit, bishop of Canterbury 481Devon see Dumnonia

Dhu Nuwas, king of Himyar 322Diarmait mac Aedo Slaine, joint king of Tara

243, 245Diarmait mac Cerbaill (of southern Uı Neill)

241, 245, 262and ‘feast of Tara’ 401king of Tara 241

dıberg (Irish pagan ritual) 402Dinas Powys, Wales, imported pottery 642dioceses

in British church 437Byzantine administrative units 304centred on towns 94, 116, 158, 680establishment of 728–9in Ireland 419officials of 682–4secular structure 680vacant 683–4see also bishops

diocesis, original meaning 686Diocletian, emperor 17–18, 19–21, 41

as Divine emperor 20–1and education 32tetrarchy 18transport tariffs 617

dioketai, managers of church lands 698Dionysius, Saint (Denis), cult of 231Dionysius the Areopagite 102, 104, 311Dionysius Exiguus 98Dionysius of Tellmarhre 96, 343diptychs

five-part 784ivory 775, 784

Barberini 775, 784consular 783

Ditch, Battle of the (627) 334diwan, Islamic financial system 342Dnepr river (upper and middle), Slavs from 529Dnestr river valley, Prague culture 529Dobruja, Romania see Scythiadoctores, in British church 437, 438documents

Merovingian use of 381royal (Neustrian) 392

Dokkum, Boniface martyred at 718Dol, monastery of 443Domburg (Walcheren), Netherlands, harbour

646Domnach Mor (‘Donaghmore’) place names,

Ireland 403Domnall Brecc of the Dal Riada 243Domnall mac Aedo of the Cenel Conaill 243,

244Donatus, grammarian 34Donatus of Besancon, founder of Servitanum

705, 708






932 Index

Donatus, rabbi 566Donnan, monk on Eigg 456Dorchester-on-Thames, Roman town 264Dorestad, Netherlands 77

mint 652, 672trade links 650, 652, 657wic 648, 654

Dover (Dubris)Roman port 642trading station 287n

Downpatrick 716dragon, expelled by St Samson 443Drava river valley (upper) 538Dream of the Rood, Anglo-Saxon poem 767Drengsted, Denmark, ‘hall’ settlement 519Drenthe, pagan shrine 733dress

Anglo-Saxon 268, 270, 278barbarian styles adopted 54buckles 474, 774Frankish 222wrist-clasps 270see also hair; jewellery

Droctulf, Lombard duke 115, 154, 154nDrogo, son of Pippin II 392, 394Drost, king of the Picts 250druids 585

Ireland 398, 399, 402see also filid

Druim Cett, ‘convention’ of 243, 244Drustanus, king of Dumnonia 256dryhten (warband-leader) 595Dubricius, bishop of Erdyng 437Dubris see Doverduces, Byzantine commanders of border forces

306duces provinciae, Spain 358Duisberg 657

abbey of Prum 657‘duke’, use of term 573dukes, Merovingian 209Duleek, monastery 419Dumbarton, capital of Strathclyde 244, 247,

642Dumio, monastery 705Dumnonia, kingdom of 255–8, 261, 463

British church in 449inscribed stones 429kings of 574see also Brittany; Cornwall; Wessex

Dumnonii, Roman civitas 256Dun Bolg, battle of (598) 244Dunadd, Scotland, Dal Riada site 244

besieged (683) 251Dunaverty, Scotland, Dal Riada site 244Dundurn (fortress), besieged (683) 251

Dunnottar (fortress), besieged (681) 251Dunollie, Scotland, Dal Riada site 244Dunwich, bishopric of 473Durance, river

castra on 158Ostrogothic frontier 145

Durrow monastery (Ireland) 403, 413, 455, 494Book of Durrow 455, 772–3

Dyfed, kingdom of 235n, 251, 252, 463bishops (in each cantref ) 437British clergy in 449

Eadbald, king of Kent 473coinage 647, 673

ealdormen, role and status of 476, 490Eanfrith of Bernicia, father of Pictish king 250Earconberht, king of Kent 473Earcongota, Kentish princess 473Earconwald, bishop of London 479earthquakes, in Justinian’s reign 109East Anglia

Anglian English culture 270British Christians in 487conversion to Roman Christianity 715and Franks 473kingdom of 280, 463, 464, 574kings 596links with Scandinavia 504Tribal Hidage assessment 468

Easter, origin of name 486Easter controversy

in Britain 448–9, 460Brittany 445in Ireland 415–17, 448in Northumbria 481and synod of Whitby 448–9, 459

eastern Europecollapse of cultural structures 528Jews in 547, 554

Eata, bishop 449Ebbo, bishop of Rheims 719Eboracum (York) 642, 649

as Jorvik 649Eboric, king of the Sueves 189Ebroin, mayor of the palace in Neustria 387–9,

391, 473Eccles (ecclesia), place names 432, 434, 451, 453ecclesiastical histories 68, 95Ecclesius, bishop of Ravenna 768Eccleswell, Ross on Wye 432Ecgberht, Northumbrian peregrinus 461, 717Ecgfrith, king of Northumbria 250, 449, 466,

482Echternach (Luxemburg), monastery of 392,

649, 718, 720book production 773






Index 933

economybeginnings of growth under Merovingians 396Celtic kingdoms 234contraction in West 86, 626–8, 632eastern Mediterranean 624, 625–6, 631growth (northern Europe) 646, 652–3Ireland 235, 246links between East and West 129non-monetary 86, 660, 672regional 620–1Roman Empire 42supply and demand in 614see also production; trade

Edda (Snorri Sturluson) 498Eddius Stephanus

Life of Wilfrid 69, 388on Merovingians 373

Edessa, miraculous icon 780Edinburgh 247, 250education

of clergy 33, 678, 692, 744–5and decline of cities 293elementary, late Roman/transition 32–3importance to Christian culture 738–9in monasteries 707, 736, 755monastery schools 707, 757monastic libraries 705, 707, 747in public schools 757at royal courts 224, 601, 757under Merovingians 213within family 736n, 757see also schools

Edwin, king of Northumbria 254, 255, 447, 465,470

conversion of 480, 715royal vill at Yeavering 275, 284, 474, 477

Egica, king of the Visigoths 364–7, 573Egidius, bishop of Rheims 220, 226Egypt 298

grain supplies from 625, 629Jews in 549Muslim conquest of 337, 338pottery (Red Slip ware) 620, 630, 633trade 622, 630, 641–2

Egyptian churchmonenergism accepted in 296Monophysitism in 296, 322rejection of Chalcedon 95suppression of heterodoxy 105

Eigenkirche (‘private’ churches) 676Eigg, island, church in 456Eilach an Naoimh, hermitage site 459Einhard, Life of Charlemagne 371, 393, 603Elbe river (middle)

Slav settlements 531, 532Warni tribe 531

Eleutherius, count and bishop of Tournai 216Elfpine, son of Eadwine (perhaps Alboin?) 152Elias bar Shinaya, metropolitan of Nisibis,

chronicle 293Eliberri, Spain, mint 670Eligius, bishop of Noyon 383, 717, 723, 730

gifts of treasure 774sermons 728, 731, 757

elitesAnglo-Saxon 283, 287, 490

and impact of Christianity on 483–4and asceticism 654in Britain 284and building styles 278burial rites 277and economy 615

continued access to luxury goods 637tied trade 626

education, late Roman 32, 736, 736nand impact of Lombard rule 159Jewish 567–8and Merovingian political culture 283, 381,

601Elmet (Elmedsæta), British kingdom and

Anglo-Saxon province 282, 464Emain Macha, Ireland, pagan sacral site 410Emma, wife of Eadbald 473Emmeram, Christian missionary 717, 721Emona (Ljubljana) 538emperor, Roman 18, 20

association with Christianity 100, 117, 309Byzantine

appointment of bishops 682coronation by patriarch 309religious leadership 580–2, 676, 678style and ceremonial 578–80world-view of Justinian 103, 110

and gold coinage 661as judge and law-maker 577–8military functions of 575, 577, 594nature of imperial rule 575–82, 602potestas 677power of 16, 572relationship with state 575

‘emporia’ (trading centres) 47, 284, 285, 287, 521and early towns 85, 492increased activity (7th century) 647see also wics

enclosures, Anglo-Saxon settlements 274, 278energumeni (epileptics) 690England (from 7th century)

Anglo-Saxon kingdoms 263–4, 463–4, 467–9distribution 436formation 280–8, 463–4

Anglo-Saxon law-codes 71architecture 764






934 Index

cultureChristian (7th century) 493–5Isidorian 752Latin 755links with Europe 494literary 739

economy 477, 489–93and English identity 55, 269, 462form of Anglo-Saxon charters 72impact of conversion in 483–7, 714–16Jews in 554kings and kingship 474–9, 574

overlordship of bretwalda 464–5petty rulers (south-west) 282shared kingship 574

mints 661Roman legacy 233royal government 476–7sculpture 494, 766–7social organisation 489–92territorial organisation 489towns and trade 492–3see also Anglo-Saxons; Britain

English churchdiocesan organisation 286n, 684establishment of 479–83nature and organisation 487–9parish organisation 686–7and popular acceptance of Christianity

485–7Roman liturgy 700synods 688

English, the see Anglo-Saxons (the English)Ennodius, deacon and writer 148, 160environmental archaeology 79Eochu, king of Dal Riada 574Eoganachta kings of Munster 245eorls (eorlcund), laws protecting (England) 490Eostre, Anglian goddess 486Epaon, synod of (517) 442, 681, 688Ephesus

church of St John the Evangelist 779‘Robber’ synod (449) 106Third Ecumenical Synod (431) 106, 296

Epicureanism 33epigraphy see inscriptionsErchinoald, mayor of the palace in Neustria 385,

386, 387, 473Erfurt, diocese of 729Ergyng, kingdom of 252, 254

bishopric 437Ermanric, state of, falls to Huns (375) 529Ermold the Black 657Ervig, king of the Visigoths 362–4, 573

coinage 671law code revisions 363–4, 598

Escomb, church 766

Essex, kingdom of 280, 463, 574conversion to Christianity 715multiple kings 475Tribal Hidage assessment 468

Estinnes, Council of (744) 724ethnic identity 41

adoption of invaders’ identity 52–3, 269among Anglo-Saxon immigrants 268, 469–72and burial rites 81–2and material culture 78, 268and political unification 268and strength of provincial identity 54–5

ethnography, Roman 38–9Eudaemon, city prefect of Constantinople 109Eudokia, empress, wife of Heraclius 295, 298Eugenius, emperor of the West 24, 48, 49, 193Eugenius of Toledo 359Eugippius, and Regula Magistri 704Eulogius, patriarch of Antioch 627Euphrasius, bishop of Porec 762Euric, king of the Visigoths 171, 197

foedus with Julius Nepos 170kingdom of Toulouse 167–71as legislator 171, 597and Lusitania 167in Provence 142, 170war with Empire 169–70

Europa, province of 543Eusebius, Syrian merchant and bishop 628Eusebius of Caesarea 68Eusebius of Nicomedia 711Eustasius, abbot of Luxeuil 716, 717Eustratios, Life of Eutychios 111Eutharic, of house of Amal, married

Amalasuentha 175Eutropius, abbot of Servitanum monastery 348Eutychios, patriarch of Constantinople 111Evagrius, ecclesiastical historian 68, 95, 138

on bubonic plague 111exarchs, military governors 136, 157exchange networks see Mediterranean, economy;

tradeexcommunication 695Exeter

English monastery 255Roman, decline of 234

exorcists, status and role of 689, 690

Faenza, battle of (542) 127Failbe Flann of Munster 245fairies (pagan deities), Irish belief in 402fairs 620, 633

pilgrimage rites (Arabia) 320faith, and culture 739False judgements of Caratnia (Irish law-tract) 589family structure, evidence from funerary

inscriptions 89






Index 935

faminein inland cities 617Rome 153, 156, 746

farae (clans or lineages) 153, 154, 154nFaraold, Lombard duke of Spoleto 153Faremoutier-en-Brie, Neustrian monastery 473Farmer’s Law (Byzantium) 293, 308farms see agricultureFaroe Islands 459Fate, central to Bedouin belief 320Fatima, daughter of Muhammad 331Felix III, pope 142Felix IV, pope, mosaics 769Felix, bishop of Dunwich 473Fenni tribe, northeastern Europe 527Ferrieres-en-Gatinais monastery 655feud, tariffs for compensation 479, 490fideles regum, role of 355, 366Fidelis, praetorian prefect of Italy 126Fife, Pictish lands in 244filid (poets, seers), Ireland 398, 591

and Irish kingship model 585–6relations with early Christians 401, 585

Finian, Irish abbot and bishop 420, 706founder of Clonard 403, 405

Finnechta of Cenel Conaill 243Finns, described by Jordanes 501fish-sauce, traded 608, 621Fith Fio, founder of church of Drumlease 408Flaochad, mayor of the palace in Burgundy

385Flavius

Lombard use of name 572name adopted by Visigothic dynasty 348, 573

foederatistatus of (Roman Empire) 24, 533Visigoths as 167

folk memory, and early genealogies 283Fontaine monastery, Burgundy 709Fontenelle/St Wandrille monastery 392, 654, 655,

726, 756nfood renders (tribute) 477, 588foods

and diet 119luxury, long-distance trade 622staple, trade in 615, 618, 623

Fordwich, Kent, trading station 287n, 648Formulary of Marculf 373, 756fortifications

against Berbers 124, 139Arab 338in Italy 158Roman borders 13–14, 16, 777rural settlements 84, 777

fortified sitesbarbarian defensive 47Eastern Empire 777

Fortunatus, Italian poet 206, 207, 213and Childebert 215

Fos, Provencal port 622Fosite, Frisian shrine 723, 725, 732Fosses, monastery of 392fosterage, in Ireland 397Foucault, Michel 58Francia

annual assemblies of king and magnates 376architecture 763Jews in 553–4, 564Merovingian divisions 199, 202–4monasteries 382–3partitions of kingdom 201, 202, 230position of bishops in 682regional exchange networks 632relations with neighbouring peoples 377–9reunification 230–1, 373–5, 394royal jurisdiction over clergy 694sources for Merovingian period 371–3, 380taxation of clergy 696see also Austrasia; Burgundy; Gallic church;

Gaul; Merovingian dynasty; NeustriaFrankish armies 211–12Franks 45, 193, 268

Arianism among 713attack on Burgundy (523) 145, 148and Avars 536and Brittany 258–9coinage 661

pseudo-imperial 668–9conversion to Catholicism 172, 713–14defeat of Visigoths 52, 121, 135, 145, 174development of aristocracy 217expansion into Germany 200and freedom from taxation 211in Gaul 118, 135, 175government system 601incursions into Hispania 179iron-working 47and Kent 50kingship 205–13, 573law-codes 70, 598and Lombards 154, 155in northern Italy 121, 128, 135, 136, 152overkingship 46relations with Byzantium 135, 136, 154relations with English 472–4, 641, 646relations with Ostrogoths 200relations with Roman Empire 193, 713relations with Visigoths 178, 189–90, 200,

230in Roman army 193united under Clovis 171–2, 713use of Latin 53, 54see also Clovis; Merovingian dynasty; Salian

Franks






936 Index

Franks Casket 775Fredegar, Chronicle 67, 239, 260, 350n, 353, 356,

753, 756on Chindasuinth 358on Chlothar 374Continuations 372on Dagobert 376, 378, 379, 380on Merovingians 372, 376, 385on Slavs and Avars 537on ‘state of Samo’ 532, 540and Wends 378

Fredegund, wife of Chilperic 183n, 204, 205,206, 228

and factional interest 221, 229freedmen, in Visigothic Spain 357Freising, diocese of 721French language 31Frenouville, Normandy, Saxon settlements 643Frilford, Berks., cemetery 265nFrisia

Christian missions to 505, 717, 718, 720coins 645, 646, 652Danish raid on (515) 501, 641paganism in 725–7trade links 650, 652Viking raid 659

Frisians 200, 203, 268, 641and Neustrian Franks 394as traders 656, 657see also Dorestad

Frithuwold, king of Surrey 468Fritigern, Tervingi (Visigoth) leader 711Froya, Visigothic noble 359Fructuosus of Braga, and coenobitic

monasticism 706Frumarius, king of the Sueves 166Fulda, Boniface’s monastery at 718Fulgentius, bishop of Ruspe 703functionalist archaeological theory 79Fursey, St, tomb 758‘fylgja’ (doppelganger, alter-ego) 513

Gaeta, Jews in 550gafolgelda (semi-free smallholders) 491

Welsh 492Gailenga, Irish tribal grouping 241Gaius, jurist 100galdraastafir (magic staves), Iceland 498galdur (pagan concept), Iceland 498Galicia

British churches in 441, 450hermits 705mints 670

Galindians, Baltic tribe 527Galinie, Henri 85Galla Placidia, empress

church building in Ravenna 761mosaics commissioned by 767, 768

Gallaecia province, Spain 162, 164, 168imperial embassy to 165Sueve kingdom based on 188

‘Gallic Chronicles’ 67, 68Gallic church

archdeacons 683baptism of infants 702bishops 682church property leased to laymen 699and Easter controversy 415metropolitan sees in 680parishes 687relations with Frankish kings 206, 381relations with Rome 678status of clergy 694, 696synods 688

Gallodromoi (Gallic merchants) 627Galloway 247Gallus of Clermont, missionary 732, 749Galsuintha, wife of Chilperic of Soissons 183,

183n, 189n, 228Gamla (Old) Uppsala, Sweden

burial mounds 521‘hall settlement’ 520, 522

gardingos (armed clients of royal retinue) (Spain)361, 361n, 599

Garibald, ruler of Bavarians 155Garranes, Ireland, imported pottery 642Gaudiocus, a Jew 566Gaul 53, 55

barbarian invasions (406) 49, 642Britons in 236charters 72coinage and mints 87, 661cultural influences in 742, 745, 753–4Franks and Burgundians in northern 50, 118,

196Jews

in north 553–4in south 552, 553

monastic movements 439, 704, 708non-monetary economy 86, 660praetorian prefecture 176Roman provincial boundaries 19, 49Roman senatorial aristocracy in south 43, 52,

162, 169Roman withdrawal from north 48, 49, 196southern 54, 620, 686survival of classical culture in 212, 745villa life 29, 49Visigoths in 118, 120, 171–4see also Francia; Franks

Gauls, Roman view of 38Gaut/Gapt, first king of Goths 502






Index 937

Gaut-Goths 503described by Jordanes 501

Gauterit, Visigothic comes 169Gautr, name of Odin 502, 502nGaza 624

Arab attacks on 297gebur (dependent peasants) 491Geismar, sacred oak 718, 722, 733Gelasius, pope 133, 580, 677, 691, 696Gelimer, king of the Vandals 123–4genealogies

Anglo-Saxon 283, 470, 474Celtic 239Cornish 256kings of Norway 499

General Logothete, Byzantine imperial official305

genetics, and evidence from cemeteries 273Gennep, Frankish lands, barbarian site 47Genoa, Jewish community in 549Genovefa, Saint 213, 214genre, in writing 63–4Genseric, king of the Vandals 167

sack of Rome (455) 162George of Cyprus, geographer 136George of Pisidia 293, 576Georgia, as buffer zone 108Gepids 120, 145, 533

coinage 666and Heruli 504Lombard and Avar alliance against 112, 152

Geraint, king of Dumnonia 574‘Germanic’, definitions 590Germanic migration 641

in northern France 642and Scandinavian origin myth 502, 505and Slav settlements 531to Britain 263, 264–9, 469

Germanic peoplesand Roman legacy 591, 660, 760Roman view of 38in Tacitus 500

Germanusopponent of iconoclasm 294patriarch of Constantinople 103

Germanus of Auxerre 434Germanus, bishop of Paris 225, 226Germanus, general 116, 128, 137Germany

Church organisation in 719Jews 554, 564

murdered (1096) 563royal nunneries 488Slav strongholds 532view of barbarian Volkerwanderungen 36

Geroald, abbot of St Wandrille 656

Gerona 567, 670Gershom ben Jehuda of Mainz 558Gesalic, king of Visigoths 174Gesoriacum-Bononia (Boulogne) 642Geto-Dacians 533Ghassanids, Monophysite Arabs 107, 108, 322ghazw (raiding), among Bedouin 319Ghent

apostasy in 733Saint-Pierre et Saint-Bavon monastery 654

Ghislemar, son of Waratto 391Gibbon, Edward 25, 42, 735Giberville, Normandy, Saxon settlements 643Gibichung family, Burgundy 712Giddens, Anthony 59gift exchange 645

among barbarian kings 47, 520imperial use of 47, 774in Ireland 401, 408Merovingians’ use of 210, 212, 221and pottery distribution (East Anglia) 279in Scandinavia 514–16and ties of loyalty 47see also tribute

Gildason boat types 643on Christianity in Britain 429, 435–7, 449on Cornwall 256De excidio Britanniae 238, 282, 283, 435, 439,

450, 643Fragments 437, 440and history of Wales 251on Irish monasticism 405and Latin culture in Britain 746perception of Britain as single entity 436on South Wales 432

Gisulf the Lombard, duke of Cividale 153,667

Gladbach, Germany, Merovingian site 76glass

imported vessels, Whithorn 435monasteries’ use of 495for mosaic 776traded 611, 652window (Jarrow) 763

glaziers, Frankish 763Glendalough monastery 404, 414Gloucester, Roman 252, 267Glywysing, kingdom of 254, 255, 261, 463Godfred, king of the Danes 650Gododdin

British kingdom of the 247, 452see also Votadini

Gododdin, The, poem 247, 254, 452, 454Godomar, king of the Burgundians 199godparents, role of 702






938 Index

gods and goddessesin Christian royal genealogies 283, 474, 503Frisian 723Germanic pantheon 722pagan Irish 399pre-Islamic 320Roman pagan 722

Gogo, Romanized Frank 219Goiaric, comes 173, 174Goidelic languages (Q-Celtic type) 232gold

bracteates 509–11as church treasures 781in gift exchange 515, 773imperial status of 661see also coins and coinages

gold foil plaques, Scandinavia 518–19gold hoards, Scandinavian 515, 516n

location of 516–17Golgotha, stone cross 766Gonotiernus, bishop of Senlis (British) 441, 445Goodmanham, pagan shrine 480, 486, 723Gortyna, Crete 777Gospel-books

Book of Durrow 455, 772–3Corpus Christi Gospels 771Greek 782from Iona 455Lindisfarne 494, 772, 773

Gosuintha, wife of Leovigild 184, 186, 347Gotaland, Sweden, burial mound site 521Gothic War (536–52) 124–9, 135, 149

early successes 124–7impact on landscape 158resistance of Totila 127–9

Goths 45Arian Christianity of 23army, in Italy 145on Danube 533granted federated status 24and Latin culture 54, 736leaders (‘Judges’) 46pressure from Huns 45settlement in Balkans 24, 48under Alaric 49see also Ostrogoths; Visigoths

Goths, East, described by Jordanes 501Gotland, steles 651government

apparatus of (Germanic kingdoms) 600–1early Islamic 342–3, 345Merovingian 209

royal palaces 375, 381, 383, 384, 394officials 600role in trade and economy 615Roman Empire 20, 42, 43, 577

Theoderic the Ostrogoth 145–8, 600Visigothic Spain 175–7, 357–9see also bureaucracy; Byzantium; local

governmentGower, Welsh kingdom in 252, 254grain

supplies for Constantinople 626, 626n, 629supplies for Rome 621

GranadaJews in 552Muslim conquest 339

grave goods 81in Anglo-Saxon burials 265, 271–3belt-sets, Saxony 48brooches 48disappearance of 486gender differences 271Gothic use of Roman artefacts 145and social status 271

Great Britain, archaeological theory in 78, 79, 80Great Curator, Byzantine official 305Greece

Jewish populations 549Slav settlements in 541, 543

Greek fire, used by Byzantines 301, 540Greek language

disappearance of in West 742, 758in Eastern Empire 100, 131, 305, 578, 758illuminated manuscripts 782used for historical writing 65used by Jews in Italy 550

Greek sources, and knowledge of world 499Greeks, in Balkans 533Gregory II, pope 699, 718Gregory III, pope 721Gregory IV, pope 770Gregory, exarch of Carthage 138, 138n, 229Gregory the Great, pope 63, 130, 160, 676, 677–8

Britainmission to 161, 446, 479–80, 715, 730organisation of English church 480, 482, 485and story of the ‘Angli’ 470, 492

on Burgundian Christianity 712, 720concept of Christian power 678crypt of St Peter 761cult of (in England) 482Dialogues 150, 748lack of Greek 131, 138letters 550, 552, 555, 564, 565Life of 470and Lombards 155, 156, 157, 158on married clergy 693monasticism and missionaries 678, 730Moralia in Job 131papal organisation 679, 685and patrimony of church 698






Index 939

Gregory the Great, pope (cont.)on penitential prayer 703Reccared and 349Regula Pastoralis 678, 749trading contacts 621, 626, 628and veneration of images 771view of Byzantium 137view of Franks 720as writer 738, 748–9

Gregory of Nazianzus 311, 617, 626Gregory of Nyssa 311Gregory of Tours 36, 62, 225–6

on Avars 531and Brittany 258, 259, 445and Byzantium 137and Chilperic 212on Danish raid (515) 501Frankish family connections 53, 217, 222, 225on Gaza wine 624hagiographies 70, 552, 750on Hermenigild 187on Leovigild 189on Merovingians 198, 203, 204, 205, 206, 211,

372, 719on power of bishops 215references to trade 605Ten Books of Histories (History of the Franks)

35, 62, 66, 198–9, 239, 552, 749on Visigoths 173, 178as writer 64, 66, 68, 738, 749–50

Gregory of Utrecht 718, 719Grimnismal poem 502nGrimoald, son of Pippin II, mayor of the palace

in Neustria 392, 394Grimoald, son of Pippin of Landen, mayor of

the palace of Austrasia 385, 386–7Gripho, bishop of Rouen 392Guaire, king of the Cenel Cairpri 245Guaire of the Uı Fiachrach 245Guarrazar, Visigothic treasure 774Gudhjem, Bornholm, place name 518Gudme/Lundeborg 518

‘hall’ settlement 519, 520trading post 47, 644

Guernsey, long boat wreck 644‘guldgubber’ (gold foil plaques) 518Gundeberga, queen, of Lombards 378Gundemar, king of the Visigoths 351Gundobad, king of the Burgundians 216, 221,

712Gundomar, king of the Burgundians, coinage

668Gundovald, Frankish prince 219, 220

coinage 668rebellion 136, 222, 223

Gundulf, uncle of Gregory of Tours 53, 217

Gunthamund, king of the Vandals, coinage 663,664

Guntiarius, king of Burgundians 712Guntramn Boso, duke 220, 223Guntramn of Orleans, king of the Burgundians

183, 189, 201, 203, 204–5, 206, 208and bishop Germanus 225and Childebert 204–5, 210, 220, 226, 229church building 213and factional interests 221–2, 223, 224miraculous healing 215and Septimania 347

Gwallog, king of Powys 247, 574Gwent, kingdom of (Glywysing) 252, 463Gwerthrynion, kingdom of 252Gwynedd, kingdom of 251, 253, 254, 255, 463

Hadramawt, Arabian city-state 317, 322Hadrian I, pope 699Hadrian, abbot 388, 707, 755Hadrian, emperor 30Haedde, bishop of Winchester 479hagiography 68–70, 95, 750

and Jews 553lives of bishops 70as source for social history 70in verse 74see also saints, Lives of

hairbarbarian styles adopted 54Breton style 222long (Frankish kings) 205see also dress; tonsure

Haithabu, Schleswig-Holstein, port 650hajj (Muslim pilgrimage) 334‘halls’

building types 84, 275, 278, 519as royal courts and residences 600in Scandinavia 517, 519

Hamar, Norway, ‘hall’ settlement 519Hamburg

destruction by Vikings 719diocese (with Bremen) 729History of bishops of 720

Hamra’, converts to Islam (Iraq) 342hamrammr (shape-changer), Iceland 498

‘hamr’ 514Hamwih, Southampton 77, 649, 654

new port at 649, 654trading centre 285, 492, 650, 652

hanifs (monotheists), in Arabia 324haram or hawta (holy enclaves) 320harbour development, Northern seas 646Hasan, grandson of Muhammad 331Hasdai ibn Shaprut, Jewish physician in Spain

552, 557






940 Index

Hatfield Chase, Lindsey 470, 480hearths, in Anglo-Saxon buildings 275Heavenfield (Hefenfelth), battle of 465, 766Hebrew language 550, 569Hebrides islands 459, 646Hedeby, Germany, early medieval town 77Heden, king of Thuringians 720Heldefred, Visigothic comes 169Heledd, sister of Cynddylan 255Helgo, Sweden 519

early medieval town 77emporium 650, 652, 659‘hall settlement’ 519

Heligoland, pagan site 723, 725Heliopolis, battle of (640) 338helmet, at Sutton Hoo 474, 512, 594helmet-plate, Agilulf’s 594Henotikon schism 677Henotikon (statement of belief ) 95

rejected by Justin I 97Henry IV of Germany, charters to Jews 566Heracleonas, emperor (son of Heraclius)

298Heraclius, emperor 137, 138, 292, 293, 294–8

and Avars 540death and succession 298Ekthesis (of monothelitism) 297, 299, 308, 578,

581forced baptism of Jews 581‘Life of David’ set of silver plate 576, 581as military commander 576recapture of Jerusalem 700religious disputes 296–7title of ‘Basileus’ 578, 581and war with Arabs 297–8, 323war with Persians 293, 295–6, 297, 324

Heraclius, exarch of Carthage 294Hermenigild, son of Leovigild the Visigoth 88,

136abandoned Arianism 187rebellion 186–8, 670

Hermeric, king of the Sueves 163hermitage sites

Brittany 443, 445Ireland 411Scotland 459Spain 705

Herouvillette, Normandy, Saxon settlements643

Hertford, Council of (673) 688Heruli 500, 501, 593

migration to Denmark 531origin myths 502, 503–4in Pannonia 533

Hesse, Boniface’s mission to 718Hewalds, missionaries 731

Hexhamfrith-stool 766monastery 482, 707, 764

Hicca, Anglo-Saxon province 282hide, unit of assessment 477, 491hierarchies

Byzantine church 310clergy 689in English society 490Gregory the Great’s view 678Ireland 397, 417in Irish church 416, 421, 423–5of Irish kings 587Roman Empire 397see also overkingship

Hijaz region 321, 322Hilary, Saint, patron saint of Poitiers 214Hild, abbess of Whitby 481, 708Hilderic, king of the Vandals 123Hildigis, Lombard prince 534hill forts

Alamannic 47British 50

Himnechild, wife of Sigibert III 386, 391as queen-regent 386, 387, 389

Himyar, Arabian kingdom 317, 322Hira region (Iraq) 324Hispania see SpainHispania, diocese of 169Hisperica Famina 238Historia Brittonum 239historiography

of Anglo-Saxon invasions 263‘Annales School’ (French) 57, 79attitude to sources 56–7of barbarian invasions 35–7and concept of transitional periods 280early Scandinavian 499European accounts of Scandinavia 499–502‘mentalites’ 57Muslim 328see also sources

hlafordas (lords), England 490Hlinca I culture, Moldavia 541Hlothere, king of Kent 478, 490, 655Hodges, Richard 79Hogum, Sweden, ‘hall settlement’ 520Hohensiedlungen (hill forts), Alamannic 47Holy Island (Lindisfarne) 457‘homoean’ Christianity see Arian ChristianityHonorius, emperor 49, 549

and Vandal coinage 664, 667Honorius, pope 297, 302, 415, 699

church of S. Agnese, Rome 761, 769Hormisdas, pope 97, 98, 677

and papal vicariate 684






Index 941

Hormisdas, shah of Persia 114, 115horses, in male graves 272, 272nhospitalitas system of land distribution (Spain)

181hospitals and hospices

provided by Byzantine emperors 581supported by bishops 216

households, structure (from burials) 273Hubal, Arabic god 320al-Hudaybiyya, truce of (628) 334Hugeberc, Life of Willibald 650Hugo, son of Drogo 392‘hugr’ (spirit, soul) 513Humber, river 470al-Hunayn, battle of 334Huneric, king of the Vandals 120, 122Hungary, Jewish merchants 558Huns 49, 524, 533

on Danube 533and fall of Ermanric 529pressure on Goths 45, 529, 711

hunting, Merovingian kings 212, 217hunting and gathering, to supplement

agriculture 234Husayn, grandson of Muhammad 331Hwicce tribe (kingdom of) 447, 463, 468

kings 475Tribal Hidage assessment 468

HydatiusChronicon 168, 188on Remismund 167on Sueve conversion 166, 712on Theoderic II’s campaign in Spain 164–6

Hygelac see ChlochilaicHypatios, general 109

Iago, Breton count 259Ibas, Ostrogothic dux 174, 175Ibas, bishop of Edessa 106, 131Iberia (Caucasus), revolt against Persia 113Ibn ‘Abd al-Hakam, Egyptian historian 339Ibn Hisham, revision of Sira 328Ibn Ishaq, Sira 328, 333Ibn Khaldun 318, 319, 337Ibn Khordadbeh, account of Radhanites 560Iceland 459, 498Icklingham, Suffolk, Roman Christianity at

427Icknield Way, trade route 279, 285Iconoclasm 310, 311, 315, 780iconography

Byzantine, in Ravenna mosaics 767on Franks Casket 775and ideology, in Scandinavia 505, 506, 522imperial 768local Ravenna 768

Marian, in Porec 779see also Mariology

icons 309, 315, 771growing use of 110, 116miraculous 780role in Orthodox theology 780on war banners 295, 309

ideas, history of, hagiography for 70ideology

and iconography, in Scandinavia 505, 506,508–14, 522

religious 582Idle, battle of (616) 465idols, pagan 724Idwal

king of Dumnonia 258in Life of Samson 259, 260

Idwal, king of Gwynedd 574Ilderic, comes of Nımes 361Ildibad, nephew of Theudis 129Illiberi, Spain, Jews in 552Illtud, monastery at Llantwit 434, 439, 440illuminated manuscripts see manuscriptsIllyria 503, 685

Slav attacks 524, 536Illyrians 533Imma, Northumbrian noble 471, 490India

Muslim conquests 337, 340trade with 622, 659

Indiculus Superstitionum et Paganiarum 724–5industry

Roman, decline of 49, 286see also production

Ine, king of West Saxons 255, 574, 604laws of 266, 476, 478–9, 484, 599

food renders 477lordship 490penal enslavement 492semi-free smallholders 491wergilds 491

and origins of Hamwih 649, 654ingas place names 282, 467Ingo, Bavarian priest 733Ingund, Frankish princess, wife of Hermenigild

136, 186, 187, 189inheritance

of clergy 699dynastic succession 367, 375, 573in Ireland 407of land in England 491matrilinear, Pictish kings 250primogeniture 199

inscriptions 88–90funerary 89–90graffiti (in churches) 88






942 Index

Jewish funerary 548, 550Gaul 552and indication of status 565Rome 555, 563Spain 550

monumental, Arabia 317see also stones, inscribed

interdict, as ecclesiastical punishment 695interest rates, on loans to shippers 629nintermarriage

of Britons and Anglo-Saxons 266Jewish and Christian prohibited 351, 564of Romans and Franks 217of Romans and Goths 145, 191see also marriage

interventor, diocesan administrator 683Inverness, Pictish fortress near 458Iona, monastery 247, 401, 404, 407, 412, 414,

654, 707abbots

Adomnan 460authority of 420, 456Uı Neills as 408, 425, 456

adoption of Roman Easter 461, 472and Aidan’s mission to Northumbria 447, 481annals 238and Christian mission in Scotland 454–7as church for the Picts 459and Easter 448endowment of 408and federation of churches 424, 454, 456Life of Columba 238as literary and artistic centre 454–5, 772and synod of Whitby 459

Ipotesti-Ciurel-Cındesti Culture, Romania 535Ipswich

harbour development 646trade routes 651wic (trading centre) 285, 492, 648, 652

Iran see PersiaIraq see MesopotamiaIreland 233, 235, 240–6, 397

Christianity in 716cultural cohesion 398early Christian missions to 399–401economy 235, 246, 642‘First Synod of Patrick’ 401, 402, 406, 418inscribed stones 237kingdoms and kingship 246, 574, 585–90

overkingship 240–1, 245, 417, 574, 587–8migrants from 235, 235n, 262pagan religion of 399political structure 240–4, 397, 417scholarship 246, 398, 405

adoption of Latin 238, 400, 754annals 401, 403, 455, 461

book production 246, 773ecclesiastical writings 238legal materials 239saints’ lives 238, 754

social structure 397, 417source material 237, 240vernacular tales 239n, 398see also Connacht; Irish church; Irish

monasticism; Leinster; Munster; UlsterIrish church

Easter controversy 415–17endowment of churches 407–9episcopal churches 412, 418federations of churches (paruchiae) 407, 419,

421, 422, 424multifunctional communities 412, 413organisation 402–3, 409–15, 416, 417–25, 684‘overbishops’ 423Romani or Roman party 402, 423synods 416, 420see also Irish monasticism

Irish language 232Irish monasticism

early 402, 403–6in Gaul 231, 382, 716hermitage sites 411links with Brittany 445monastic education and culture 739see also Columbanus; monks

Irish settlers 235, 235n, 261, 262in Dumnonia 256see also monks

Irminsul, pagan sanctuary 723, 733iron, trade in 285iron-working

Central Europe 528Frankish 47

Iserninus, missionary to Ireland 403Isidore of Seville 63, 139, 174, 747

cultural influence of 750–2epitome of kingship 571, 602Etymologies 750on Hermenigild 187Historia Gothorum 174n, 182, 346nHistoria Suevorum 188History of the Goths, Sueves and Vandals 35, 66,

67on Leovigild 190–1, 600and monasticism 705polemics against Jews 551on priests and bishops 690on Reccared 349, 350on Sisebut 352on Swinthila 352, 353on Theudis 178, 179, 184on trade 622






Index 943

Isidore of Seville (cont.)Treaty on Nature 753on Visigothic law-making 597, 598as writer 738, 741–2

Isidorus of Miletos 778Islam

character of 333, 335–6conquests (632–711) 336–41, 342effect of rise on Mediterranean economy 607,

633, 635exclusivity of 333, 342extent of empire (732) 345internal dissensions 339, 341and military life 341military successes 327and model of imperial rule 582–3monotheism of 324, 335Muslim calendar 332nature of early government 342–3, 345origins of 321period of ‘Rightly-Guided’ caliphs (632–61)

341, 343protection for ‘People of the Book’ 342Shi’ites 344

schism with Sunni 299sources for 325–31

‘Abbasid historians 326–7Hadith 328oral tradition 326propaganda 327Qur’an 327–8sacred history 325–6Sira 328

spread of 334, 342state development 341and succession to Muhammad 341, 343–4,

345system of ‘brotherhood’ 332, 345umma 332, 341, 342under Umayyad dynasty 343, 344–5see also Arabs

islands, as hermitage sites 411Istria, province of 542, 621, 680Italians, Roman view of 38Italy 140–1

barbarian presence in 118and Byzantium 302, 306, 678

area of Byzantine control 156Constans II’s campaign in 300hostility to Justinian 133–4, 139Justinian’s reconquests in 101, 108, 200

coinage 662–4, 666–7Byzantine 665

culturearchitectural sculpture 764mosaic decoration 767; see also Ravenna

revival of Latin 758stagnation 739, 742–3, 746, 753

decline of civilian authority 157dominance of Roman Empire 15, 17economic decline 140extent of change (6th century) 159–61Jewish populations in 549kingship in 572latifundia 43Lombard invasion 151–5

significance of 155social disruption of 153

Lombardic law-codes 70loss of political independence 150, 160monasticism

Columbanian 709episcopal control over monasteries 704influence of Byzantine 704

Ostrogothic identity 53Ostrogoths in 53, 120, 533, 712

demise of Ostrogothic state 148–9relations with Romans 143–5, 148rule of Theoderic 145–8

provincial (Roman) identity 54Roman legal culture 598senatorial aristocracy in 52and Three Chapters controversy 132, 139trade 620, 628, 632, 636under Odovacer 142–3

Iudas, Jew of Speyer 566ivory and bone

archangel plaque 784book covers 784Byzantine 783–4carved 775diptychs 775, 783, 784domestic objects 775, 784episcopal throne 130Franks Casket (whalebone) 775sacred portraits (iconic) 780

Jacob bar ‘Addai, Monophysite bishop of Edessa107, 296, 343

Jacob ben Yekutiel, Jew of Rouen 567Jacob, a Jewish merchant 607–8, 629Jacobites (Monophysites in Syria) 296Jaen, Spain, Jews in 552Jarrow monastery 247, 453

stone carving 766see also Wearmouth-Jarrow

Jazira region (northern Iraq) 324Jerome, Saint 586, 706

Lives of Famous Men 69Jerusalem

annual fair 633Dome of the Rock 329, 345






944 Index

falls to Persians (614) 295surrendered to Arabs 298, 338

jewelleryin Scandinavian gold hoards 515for status 773see also bracteates; brooches

Jewish cultureAshkenazi, in France 554influence of Babylonian Judaism

568polemical imperative towards Christians

561Sephardic, in al-Andalus (Spain) 552

JewsAshkenazic 547, 554

conversion of 564in Byzantium 548–9, 554, 581

forced baptisms 581Justinian’s policy towards 105migration within 549

in Christian society 561–8Church and

accusation of conspiracy againstChristianity 366, 551

Jewish proselytising 562, 563Orthodox canon law on 314prohibitions against 564theological dialogue with 310

conversion to Christianity 563–4forced 308, 314, 352, 551, 563‘miraculous’ 553, 563

family histories 548identity of 547in Italy 549in Medina 332, 333, 334as merchants 553, 555, 559–60moneylending 558–9, 569murdered in Germany (1096) 563occupations of 555–61populations in Europe 548–55in Sasanian Iraq 323Sephardic 547, 551social and legal status 565–8

marginalisation of 564, 569wealth 567–8

sources 548in Spain 550–2

Arabic names 551, 552and collaboration with Arabs 551laws against 351–2, 357, 364, 366–7, 370,

551treasures (taken by Titus) 124under Muslim rule 340, 366, 551–2, 555,

568see also Judaism

Jørlunde, Denmark, ‘hall’ settlement 519

John I, pope 147John III, pope 133John IV, pope 542, 770John VII, pope 313, 770John, abbot of St Martin’s, Rome 700John of Ainatha, illuminator 782John the Almsgiver (John of Cyprus), saint and

patriarch of Alexandria 617, 618, 627Life of 641

John of Biclaro 192, 741on Argimund’s revolt 348Chronicle 67, 184, 346nand coenobitic monasticism 705, 706on Hermenigild 187on Leovigild 184, 185, 186, 346on Reccared 348, 349on Sueves 188

John, bishop of Elche 684John, bishop of Nikiu (Egypt) 293, 581John of Caesarea (‘the Grammarian’) 106John of Cappadocia, praetorian prefect of

Constantinople 109John Cassian

monastic rules 704and religious ideal 405, 439, 706

John of Cyprus, Life of 641John of Damascus, and definition of Orthodoxy

311John of Ephesus, Monophysite bishop and

writer 96, 104John of Ephesus (John of Amida), on Slavs 538John of the Ladder (Sinai), theologian 294John of Larbik, illuminator 782John Lydos, on inland economies 626John Malalas, chronicle 95, 109, 315John Maxentius 98John Moschus, hagiographies 95John Troglytus, general 124, 740Jonas of Bobbio, Life of Columbanus 382, 646Jonas, Breton leader 259, 260Jonas, king of Dumnonia 258Jones, A. H. M. 25, 52Jordan, pottery production 633Jordanes, Ostrogothic historian 128, 131, 175

on Arianism of barbarians 712Getica (De Origine Actibusque Getarum) 66,

500description of Scandza 500–1, 502on Sklavenoi (Slavs) 534on Theudis 179on Venethi (Slavs) 527, 530, 531

Josse, Saint 445Jouarre, monastery, crypt 763, 765Jovian, emperor 96Jovinus, Roman usurper 196Judaea, Desert Fathers 311






Index 945

Judaismin Arabian peninsula 321–2, 324Christian (Church) view of 548, 551, 561–2converts to 562and principle of apostasy 564prohibited in Spain 364, 551rabbinical 568refutation of 310rift with Islam 335

Judicael, Breton ruler 260and Dagobert 379, 444

judicial processcode of Wihtred 478in Merovingian political culture 381, 384

Judwal, Breton prince 443Julian, bishop of Halikarnassos,

aphthartodocetism heresy 111Julian, emperor (the Apostate) 23, 32Julian of Toledo 362, 752

History of King Wamba 65, 360on Merovingians 373, 380polemics against Jews 551

Julianus Argentarius, banker in Ravenna 768Julius Caesar 13, 643

on Germanic kingship 592Julius Nepos, emperor of the West 170, 662,

663Jumieges monastery 654Junilus, African scholar 131Jupiter, god 722

cult of 724justice

administration of, Anglo-Saxon 477–9among Bedouin (lex talionis) 319as duty of kings 604and Irish kingship 579, 586as source of revenue 210under Chindasuinth (Spain) 358see also judicial process; law-codes

Justin I, emperor 97–8, 532rejection of Chalcedon 97

Justin II, emperor 111, 137, 572foreign policy 112–13

in Balkans 134–5, 152invasion of Persia 113and Lombards 153

religious orthodoxy 111, 312Justin, cousin of Justinian I 111Justinian I, emperor 97, 98–111, 130, 294, 576

codification of Roman law 32, 71, 100Corpus Iuris Civilis 578Digest (Pandects) 100Institutes 100, 577Novellae 100, 694

coinage 576, 577, 665and cultural changes 740

and Danube frontier 97, 102, 524, 536death 111‘grand design’ view of 99, 107heresy of 111and Heruli 503, 504legal reforms 99–101and metropolitan of Justiniana prima 685and Persians 108–9Pragmatic Sanction (554) 151, 158Procopius on 580rebuilding programme 101, 581reconquests 101, 108, 138, 533

effects on Western culture 740–2Gothic war 124–9, 135, 148, 149–51Italy 101, 108, 200in North Africa 101, 108, 616, 619, 626in Spain 182Vandal war 122–4western opposition to 132–4

religious policies 103–5, 580and Chalcedonian orthodoxy 96, 98, 103,

105–7, 131–2persecution of Monophysites 106

Justinian II, emperor 302–3, 308, 313, 580, 678and ‘Abd al-Malik 582coinage 581and Slavs 543see also Constantinople, Quinisext Synod

Justiniana prima, metropolitan of 685Justus, bishop in west Kent 480Justus of Urgel 750Jutes 263, 268, 641Jutland

‘land of the Cimbri’ 499Ptolemy’s description of 500

Juvenal, bishop of Jerusalem 95

Kahina, Berber queen 339kahins (shamans), among Bedouin 320Kaiserwerth, monastery of 392Kalmargard, Denmark, ‘hall’ settlement 519Kalonymus clan of Jews, Lucca and Mainz

567Kamoulianai, miraculous icon 780Karabisianoi (Byzantine fleet) 307, 308Karaites, Jewish sect 549Kasserine, Africa 631kastra (fortified settlements), Byzantium 777Kaupang, Norway, ‘hall’ settlement 519Kellia, Egypt, monastic site 622Kells, Book of 773Kent, kingdom of 280, 463, 464, 574

burials 279, 475Frankish influence in 50, 270, 283, 472origin myths 470overlordship 465






946 Index

Roman mission to 161, 431, 479–80, 714semi-free peasantry 491trade 285, 473trading stations 287nTribal Hidage assessment 468

Kevin, Saint, founder of Glendalough 404Khadija, wife of Muhammad 331, 332‘khagan’, title of 575khagans, rulers of Avars 572Khalid bin al-Walid, Muslim general 327n, 338‘khans’, role of 583Khaybar oasis 318Khazars, at Danube delta 301Khirbat al-Mafjar 583Khurasan, Persian province 339Khusraw, king of Persia see ChosroesKiev Culture, Slavic 529, 530Kildare

church 771claim to supremacy in Ireland 421, 422, 706as ‘monastery city’ 414monastery of 244, 411, 412, 706

Kilian, Christian missionary 717Kilnaruane, Ireland, carving of boat 643Kinda tribe, Arabia 321‘king’, as title 575

see also dryhten; dukes; knez; rex; rhex; rıkingdoms, southern Arabia 317, 321kinglists

Chronica Regum Visigothorum 367, 368Pictish 239, 249Tara kings 239, 243

kings 572–5and adoption of Christianity 601–3, 715and advisers 476

fideles regum 355, 366Anglo-Saxon (English) 474, 477

and church councils 688and monasteries 488–9

anointing of 355, 360, 367, 603as Christian martyrs 602and development of wics 654–5Irish

hierarchy of 587prescribed activities 588as warriors 587

‘Jewish policies’ 561as law-makers 598

Anglo-Saxons 477–9, 484Germanic 596, 597–8, 599Ireland 589

Merovingian child-kings 375, 380, 381, 395, 573pagan, and Christian missionaries 730right to appoint bishops 682in Spain

elective 354, 360

principle of dynastic succession 367, 375,573

relations with nobility 358, 359–60, 363see also kingship; palaces

kingshipamong barbarian tribes 46Anglo-Saxon 283, 287, 474–9

and Christianity 484–5, 488and royal status 475

Brittany 260Byzantine model 575–82, 602Celtic 261, 585–90council system (Spain) 353, 360, 363Frankish 205–13

and accumulation of wealth 209–10biblical tradition 206–7councils of bishops 214Germanic tradition of 205–6imperial tradition 207–8

‘Germanic’ 590–1proto-kings 591–4

insignia of 205, 474, 591Ireland 246, 585–90and kingly power 603–4legacy of Roman imperial monarchy 575–6,

585Merovingian 375, 603Old Testament model for 571, 577, 581, 586Pictish 249–50in practice 594–603sacralisation of 46, 460, 586

in Spain 353–6, 365in Scandinavia 514Visigothic (Byzantine model) 602war-leader kings 46, 592, 595–6Welsh 253

kinshipin Anglo-Saxon communities 273, 490and ‘chieftaincy’ (knez) 592in Ireland 397in Scandinavia 514

knez, Slav word for ‘lord’ 584, 592Kolochin Culture, upper Dnepr 530kontakion (verse sermon) 109Korchak Culture 535, 539Koritsa, Albania 549Kos, taken by Arabs 298, 301‘Kouber’, a Bulgarian 584nKranj, Lombard-Roman settlement 538Kufa 338

as seat of caliphate 342kuningaz (king/kingship) 592Kusayla, Berber warrior 339Kynwawr, king of Dumnonia 256Kyros of Phasi, patriarch of Alexandria 296, 302Kyzikos (on Sea of Marmara) 301, 302






Index 947

labour services, in late Roman Empire 27laets (semi-free peasants), Kent 491Lagore, Irish crannog, trade with 652Laigin people of Leinster (Ireland) 244Lakhmids, Nestorian Arabs 108lamps, church, bronze or clay 781land

as endowment to churches, Ireland407–9

inalienability of kinland, Ireland 408as social resource 284as source of revenue 210, 395–6

land markets, Ravenna 151land tenure

England 491Ireland 397

land uselowland Britain 268Scandinavia 516see also agriculture

Landevennec monastery 444, 445landowners

and church property 697English gesithcund 490Frankish aristocrats 217in Italy 144, 151Jews as 566, 567, 569

in France 557in Italy 555, 557in Spain 557

late Roman 27, 29Merovingian kings as 210multiple estates (England) 489Spain 357

Langobards see Lombardslanguage(s)

Arabic 321, 329, 345Aramaic 324Baltic, links with Slavic 526in Britain 54, 266Brittonic groups (Celtic) 232, 235Celtic kingdoms 232Coptic 322developing divisions between East and West

138, 758divergence of written and spoken 756,

757Goidelic groups (Celtic) 232Hebrew 550, 569in Merovingian Gaul 208nand migration 235, 236missionaries’ interpreters 731Old English (Anglo-Saxon) 266,

493philosophy of 58proto-Slavic 526

of scholarship in Ireland 246Syriac 96, 322, 782translations between Latin and Greek 119, 138,

758used by Byzantine historical writers 65–6vernacular, for poetry 74see also Greek; Latin

Languedoc, pottery type 620Laoghaire, king of Tara 589Lapps see Sami peopleLarina (Isere), settlement site 84nLateran Palace

claimed by each pope 680oratory of S. Venanzio 770

Lateran Palace, synod (648) 299, 311lathe, administrative unit 477latifundia (large estates), late Roman 43,

51nLatin language

bastardised in Gaul/Francia 756in British church 436, 441continued use of 30, 53, 736in English monasteries 494, 754and Etymologies of Isidore 750on inscribed stones 89, 237, 431, 451in Ireland 400, 754in Irish sources 238for Justinian’s law-codes 578for literature in Constantinople 131reimported to Gaul from Ireland 756spoken 757used by Franks 53, 54used by Ostrogoths 144

latrocinium (banditry), use of term 40Laurentian schism (506) 677Laurentius, pope 677Laurentius, founder of Farfa monastery

704Lavello, Jews in 550law

and customary practice 71, 381, 478ecclesiastical 312, 695–6importance of written 478, 597, 599see also justice; law-codes; legal documents

law-codes 32barbarians privileged in 53Burgundian 70and church property 696‘Edict of Theoderic’ 144, 597nEnglish 71

Æthelberht of Kent 478, 484, 491, 599Ine of Wessex 478–9, 494in vernacular 478, 493

Frankish 70, 598Pactus Legis Salicae (Salian) 61, 71, 283

Islamic 327






948 Index

Justinian (Institutes) 577Lex Frisonum 726Lombards 70, 598

Edict of Rothari 71, 503n, 598Merovingian 210as sources 70–3, 489Theodosius II (438) 577, 597Visigothic 70, 181, 356–8, 598

Breviarium Alarici (Lex RomanaVisigothorum) 173, 180, 351, 356, 565, 597,697

Code of Euric 171Codex Revisus (Leovigild) 181Liber Iudiciorum (Reccesuinth) 181, 356n,

356–8, 598; Ervig’s revision 364law, Roman see Roman lawlaw schools, Beirut 578law tracts, Ireland 398, 588

ecclesiastical hierarchies in 417royal judgements 589status of clergy in 401

law-makingAnglo-Saxon kings 477–9, 484early Germanic kings 596, 597–8, 599Irish kings 589Jewish community 558, 569role of church 478, 484, 599Roman imperial 577–8secular, Merovingian 373see also charters; legal documents

laymenas archipresbyters 691effect of sermons on 701–2influence on appointment of bishops

692influence of Irish monasticism on 406–7, 409,

418Lazica, battle of 108Lazica, Persian wars in 108Le Mans, mint 672Leander, bishop of Seville 130, 347, 348, 349,

684and Byzantium 741and Isidorian renaissance 750and monasticism 705

Lebuin, missionary to Saxony 719, 731lector, status and role of 689, 692Ledsham, stone carving 766Leeds, E. T., archaeologist 76legal documents 61

pizarra (on slate) 72as sources 70–3survival of 71see also charters; law-codes

legend, power of 240legislation see law-codes; law-making

Leinster, Ireland 244, 574overkingship 417Palladius’ mission to 399

Lejre, Denmarkburial site 522‘hall’ settlement 519, 522

Lenteildis, sister of Clovis 713Leo I, emperor, and Vandals in North Africa 101,

168Leo I, pope 94, 106, 302

and celibacy of priests 693and development of liturgy 699

Leo III, emperor 303, 314Ecloga 578

Leo of Narbonne, legal adviser to Euric 171Leon, Jews in 552Leontius, emperor of the East 303Leontius, bishop of Bordeaux 223Leontius of Byzantium, theologian 294Leontius of Jerusalem 106, 294Leontius of Naples, Life of St John the Almsgiver

605Leovigild, king of the Visigoths 136, 183–92, 346,

600, 763annexation of Sueve kingdom 188–90assessment of 190–1Codex Revisus 181, 356and cultural revival 747as legislator 191military campaigns 184–6prestige of monarchy 191, 600and rebellion of Hermenigild 186–8, 670relations with Franks 189–90and religious reunification 191takes Cordoba 183use of coinage 88, 670–1

Lepcis Magna 43–4Lerins, island monastery 439, 708letters

Frankish 74, 213, 383Merovingian 373papal 74pope Gregory’s 550, 552, 555, 564, 565Sidonius Apollinaris 552, 597as source material 73–4

Leucherus, bishop of Dol 443Leudegar, bishop of Autun 387, 389leudes (Frankish supporters) 218Leudesius, son of Erchinoald 389Leudovald, bishop of Bayeux 221Lex Ribuaria 599Lex Romana Visigothorum (Breviarium Alarici)

173, 180, 351, 356, 565, 597and church property 697

Lex Salica 598Libellus Responsionum 730






Index 949

Liber Angeli, on Armagh 410, 421, 423Liber Historiae Francorum 66, 372, 377, 380

on Ebroin 389obituary of Clovis II 386problems of chronology in 386, 390on role of kings 604

Liberius, praetorian prefect of Gaul 130, 176, 183Libya 339, 631Lichfield 466, 487Liguria, occupied by Lombards 112limitanei (Byzantine border forces) 306Lincoln

bishopric (Roman) 426, 480church built in Roman forum 427St-Paul-in-the-Bail church 447

Lindisfarne Gospels 494, 772, 773Lindisfarne (Holy Island), monastery 413, 457,

481, 654, 707Latin culture in 755Viking raid 659

Lindsey, kingdom of 280, 463, 466, 468, 480Romano-British district 286Tribal Hidage assessment 468

linen 658decorated, Byzantine 783

‘linguistic turn’ 58, 59linguistics, and origins of Slavs 526–7Lisbon, Roman population 168Lismore island, church on 456Lismore monastery 404, 706Litard, bishop ‘de Vxuma’ 442nliteracy, urban middle classes, late Roman 33literature

Byzantine apocalyptic 759classical texts 34, 104

illuminated manuscripts 771England 493–4Jewish 548Old Norse 497, 498in Ostrogothic Italy 147prescribed in Rule of Benedict 743secular 706see also letters; texts

Little Ouse Valley, trade route 279, 285liturgy 75

Byzantine 700and Christian doctrines 311development of 676, 700n, 699–701disputes over 97Jewish 568and role of prayer 701Roman, at Wearmouth-Jarrow 494special garments for 701

Litus saxonicum (Saxon shore) 642Liudger

on Boniface 718, 720

in Frisia 723Life of Gregory of Utrecht 718, 719Life of 725–6

Liudhard, bishop in Kent 479, 673, 715Liutpert, son of Cunipert 572Liuva I, king of the Visigoths 183Liuva II, king of the Visigoths 350Lives of the saints see saints, Lives ofLiviritus, comes 176Ljubljana 538Llancarfan, Life of Cadog 251Llandaff, Book of Llandaff 251, 437Llangollen, Powys 255Llantwit, monastery 434, 437, 439, 440Lobbes Mons, monastery of 392local government

in later Roman Empire 19, 42North Africa 43–4territorial administration (Visigothic Spain)

357Logothetes, Byzantine imperial officials 305,

306Loingsech mac Oengusso of Cenel Conaill, king

of Tara 243, 245, 574Lombards 500, 503n, 572

alliance with Avars against Gepids 112, 134,152, 537

Arianism of 712, 714army 157and Avars 537, 538Catholicism of 714coinage 661, 666–7dukedoms 153, 154and Heruli 503law-codes 70, 598

Edict of Rothari 71, 503n, 598migration into Italy 112, 134, 136, 151–5,

712impact of 155

origin myths 502in Pannonia 152, 533, 537and papacy 677peace with Byzantium (680) 758relations with Franks 114, 204, 378, 531and Slavs 534

London (Londinium) 492, 642Aldwich (Lundenwic) 492, 648bishopric (Roman) 426metropolitan see of 480mint 492, 661, 673trading centre 285, 646, 650, 652

Longinus, praetorian prefect 135, 153Lorica (‘Breastplate’) prayers, Ireland 399Lorraine, Jews in 553–4Lothair see Chlotharlots, casting of 726






950 Index

Louis the Pious 445, 719coins 651and Jews 566

Lovocat, Brittonic priest 442, 444loyalty, ties of

civic 29oaths of (to kings) 354, 355, 359, 365obsequium 29personal (to Roman emperor) 18transition from Roman to barbarian 29–30see also gift exchange

Lucania, Italy, regional market (fair) 620Lucca, Italy 549, 666Lucena, Spain, Jewish town 551Lug, Irish god 399, 402Lugaid (Mo Luag), and church on Lismore

island 456Lugo (Galicia), sacked 165Luigne, Irish tribal grouping 241Luka Rajkovetska Culture 539Lullingstone, Kent, Roman villa church 427Luni, forum 151Lupus, duke of Aquitaine 217, 390Lusatian Culture, and proto-Slavic ethnicity 528Lusidius, Roman citizen of Lisbon 168Lusitania, province of 163, 164, 165, 684

Sueves in 167, 188Visigothic settlements in 167, 168n

Luxeuil monastery, Burgundy 382, 406, 415, 445,709, 716

luxury goodsfor gift exchange 521Jewish merchants and 558see also gold; jewellery; silver

Lycia, Asia Minor, rural economy 624, 626Lyons

Jews in 553–4, 564, 566memorial stones 429metropolitan see of 678, 685mint 661, 668, 669

Maastricht 646, 656Macarius, monastic rules 704Macedonia, coins 542Macedonians 533Macha, Irish pagan goddess 409Macliaw, Breton count 259, 260Macon, Jews in 553–4Macon, synod of (626/7) 445Macrobius, Neoplatonist 34Madelinus, mintmaster at Dorestad 648Mael Duin of Cenel nEogain 243Mael Ruba, and monastery of Applecross 456Mael-Moedhoc of Killeshin, archbishop of

Leinster 423Maere, Norway 519

Magdeburg 554, 567Magh Roth, battle of (637) 241, 243, 244magic see superstition and magicmagister militum, power of 24, 25, 157magistrates

Merovingian 209Roman 358

magistri militum (Byzantine commanders of fieldarmy divisions) 306

Magnulf, Roman aristocrat under Franks 217Magnus Maximus, ‘usurper’ emperor of the

West 48, 50, 661Magonsaetan tribe (kingdom) 447, 463, 468

Tribal Hidage assessment 468Maine-Anjou, Jews in 553–4Mainz 202, 672

bishopric of 217, 718Jews in 554, 563, 569

Majorian, emperor of the West 165, 165n, 669Malaga

Byzantine control of 183, 184taken from Byzantium 352

Malalas see John MalalasMalaric, pretender to throne of Sueves 189Maldras, king of the Sueves 164, 165Malo, Saint, Welsh ascetic 443Ma’n, Arabian city-state 317Man, Isle of 233, 237, 463

genealogies 239inscribed stones 237, 429Irish population in 235Ulaid overkings in 243, 244

manaig, monastic tenants (Ireland) 409, 414Manglieu, monastic church 763Mani (d.276), founder of Manichaeism 105Manichaeism (dualist doctrine) 105, 310Mansuetus, ‘bishop of the Britons’, at Tours 442Mansur bin Sarjun, governor of Damascus 343manuscripts

circulation of 753–5copying of 748, 753illuminated 771–3

English (7th century) 494Greek and Syriac 782–3Iona (Insular style) 455late antique British 451

monastic production of 706see also texts

marble, trade in 611nMarcellianum, Lucania (Italy), fair 620Marcellinus Comes, chronicler 95, 119, 131Marcellus, Saint 213Marcian, magister militum per Orientem 113Marculf, Formulary of 373, 756Mardaites (north Syria and Lebanon) 302Mardin, Mesopotamia 782






Index 951

Mari, bishop of Hardascir 131Marib dam and irrigation works 317, 340Mariology 107, 110, 117Marius of Avenches, Chronicle 67, 137markets 521

local 619regional 620

marriageof clergy 313, 406, 407, 693–4

in Britain 436, 439polygamy in Ireland 402prohibited degrees of 729, 730see also intermarriage

marriage networks and alliances 120, 514Merovingian dynasty 199, 201, 224, 228Theoderic the Ostrogoth 121, 145, 160, 172, 175

Marseilles 170, 174, 209, 771as emporium 634Jews in 553, 555mint 137, 393, 669, 672plague brought to 605

Martianus Capella, classical scholar 34Martin I, pope 299, 770

exiled 300, 678Martin, an Arnulfing 391Martin, abbot, envoy to Slavs 542Martin of Braga 696, 750, 750n, 758

De Correctione Rusticorum 723, 727, 731and monastery of Dumio 705

Martin of Tours, bishop and saint 198, 214, 553,732

Lives of 69, 74monastic movement 439prestige of 226

Martina, empress, wife of Heraclius 298, 299Martynovka Culture 535Martyropolis, Arzanene 115Marxist history 58Mary, Mother of God

and Christian armies 309Mariology 107, 110, 117and siege of Constantinople 295

Maserfelth (Oswestry), battle of (642) 465, 487Masona, bishop of Merida 192Masts, Battle of the (655) 339al-Mas’udi, ‘Abbasid historian 327Matasuentha

wife of Germanus 128, 137wife of Witigis 126

material culturebarbarian styles adopted 54and ethnic identity 78, 268, 528and evidence of cultural assimilation 541and production sites 286Scandinavian elite 521Slavic 528–9

Mauchteus of Louth, follower of St Patrick400

Maurice, emperor 114–16, 137, 138, 576and Avars 114, 115–16, 539death of 116and Franks 136, 154and Slavs 115, 294and Spain 349Strategikon military treatise (Pseudo-Maurice)

114, 524, 530, 583, 584war against Persians 114, 115

Mauros, a Bulgarian 584nmawali (non-Arab converts to Islam) 343Maximian, bishop of Ravenna 129, 130, 700,

768, 769, 784Maximian, co-emperor with Diocletian 18Maximianism (Palestinian Orthodoxy) 310, 311Maximos the Confessor 138

and Arab conquests 338and development of Orthodoxy 311, 581and edict on Jews 314Mystagogia 103, 311opposition to monothelitism 299–300, 310,

705theologian 293

Mayenne, trade links 657Mayo, Ireland 408mayors, of Merovingian palaces 209, 375, 573

interest in wics 654power of 388, 601

Mecca 322, 331domination of Islam 343Ka’ba shrine 324, 336Muhammad’s entry into 334Muhammad’s Farewell Pilgrimage to 334persecution of early Muslims 331, 333–4pre-Islamic sanctuary 320

Meclariae, Lombard fort 538Medard, bishop of Noyon, Saint 213, 214Medelpad, Sweden, burial mound site 521Medina (Yathrib) 318, 331, 332

Constitution of Medina 333Jews in 332, 333, 334as seat of caliphate 342

Mediterranean, economy of 659archaeological evidence 608–12, 614Byzantine control of seas 156as centre of Roman Empire 15, 119, 291, 316eastern

Byzantine state economy 625–6economic crisis (7th century) 632–3, 637exchange networks 616, 629–30, 635and rural economy 624, 631

interdependence 632, 635interregional networks 616, 625–38sources for 605–8






952 Index

westerncollapse of state economy 626–8commercial trade 630contraction of networks 616, 631, 635–6interregional exchange networks 633–4,

636–7see also Northern Seas

Meifod, Powys 255Meirionydd, kingdom of 252Mellitus, bishop in Essex 480, 730Melrose monastery 413

Cuthbert as prior of 460, 707memorial stones 429, 431Memphis, miraculous icon 780Menahem the Small, Jewish poet 549Menander the Guardsman, history 95merchants 627–9

church finances for 627eastern 628Jewish 553, 555, 559–60, 567

Byzantine 560in Germany 554in Italy 555moneylending by 558, 569in northern Europe 558

and northern hinterland markets 656–8in Northern Seas 649in sources 628, 645in wics 493working on commission 607see also trade

Mercia, kingdom of 255, 280, 463, 464British bishops in 487conversion of 457overlordship of 466–7, 469rivalry with Wessex 467, 469south Mercia sub-kingdom 468Tribal Hidage assessment 468

Mercury, cult of 724Merida (Emerita Augusta) 163, 164, 167, 181

Greek merchants in 628Hermenigild at 187Jews in 552mint 670, 671as Visigothic centre 168, 169

Merovech, son of Chilperic 198n, 204, 224Merovingian dynasty 371–2, 603

and accumulation of wealth 209–10, 212, 395administration under 209annual assemblies of king and magnates 376armies 211–12campaigns against Germanic tribes 531child-kings 375, 380, 381, 395coinage 671–2development of political culture 371, 381,

395–6

dynastic succession (after 613) 375established by Clovis 198feuds among 199, 201–5, 208, 394importance of royal palaces 375, 381, 383, 384,

394limits of rule 222–7links with Britain 283, 715and making of Frankish kingship 205–13marriage alliances 199, 201, 224, 228and partitions of kingdom 201, 202, 230, 376relations with aristocracy 209, 216–21, 222,

374, 380, 394relations with bishops 214–16, 218–21, 225and reunification of Franks 230–1, 373–6, 394royal women 227–30, 384and saints’ cults 213, 214and threat of revolts 224seealsoAustrasia;Burgundy,Frankish;Neustria

Merseburg 567Merv, in Persian Empire 323Mesopotamia 108, 635

Muslim conquest of 298, 337, 338, 342natural disasters (628–32) 324as province of Sasanian Persia 323–4

metalwork 773–5Byzantine 781–2influences of 772, 773non-Roman traditions 760, 776see also jewellery

metalworkers, Jewish 556metalworking

Scandinavia 521at Whithorn 435

Methodios of Olympus (or Patara), Apocalypse315

metropolitan bishops 680, 687in the East (patriarchs) 681England (archbishops) 681in Gaul 680in Italy 680in North Africa 680Spain 681

Metzannals 260, 371, 391, 393bishopric of 392as capital of Austrasia 202evidence of rich burials 284nJews in 554kingdom of 183, 186, 189

Meurig ap Tewdrig, king of Glywysing 254Michael the Syrian, patriarch of Antioch, Syriac

chronicler 96, 115, 293Middle Anglia, kingdom of 280, 463Midlands (English)

British Christians in (East) 487West 269, 286






Index 953

migrationin Celtic areas 235, 262and evidence from burial rites 82nature of 236and spread of culture 78

Milan 18, 19Jewish community in 549metropolitan see of 680, 688mint 661, 663, 664occupied by Lombards 112, 153razed by Goths 125theatre 600

Military Logothete, Byzantine imperial official305

military obligationsErvig’s revised laws (Spain) 363–4laws of Ine 476Wamba’s law on (Spain) 361

Minister for Petitions, Constantinople 305Minster in Thanet, royal nunnery 488minsters, England 686mintmasters

Dorestad 648named on Merovingian coins 671Ponthieu 647

mintsFrisia 645, 646, 652Gaul/Francia 87, 137, 646, 672late Roman 661location and number of 87London 492, 661, 673Marseilles 137, 393Northumbria 652Ponthieu 647, 672Rome 142, 661, 663, 664south-east England 652Spain 670see also coins and coinages

Miro, king of the Sueves 185, 187, 188missionaries

conversion by example 734and forms of paganism encountered 722–3in northern Europe 716–22and persistence of superstition and magic

723–5risks to 732–3see also Aidan; Boniface; Columba;

Columbanus; monks; Patrick; Wilfrid;Willibrord

missionary practices 677, 730–4adaptation of pagan practice 730, 734forcible conversion 733preaching 731–2, 733

missionsAidan’s to Northumbria 447, 457, 481,

731

IonanNorthumbria 480, 716, 731in Scotland 454–7

Irish see ColumbanusRoman, to Kent 161, 431, 479–80, 714to Frisia 718, 720to Ireland (early) 399–401to Saxony 718, 719, 731to Scandinavia 719

Mo Luag, and church on Lismore island 456Moesia 533

Lower, Bulgars in 543Slav settlements in 536

Moldaviacollapse of cultural structures 528Slav cultures in 535Slav expansion through 532, 534

Mommsen, Theodor 25monasteries

double 706, 708English 494–5, 707–8

cathedral 684on royal estates 487, 495royal nunneries 488–9

foundations by Frankish elite 231, 381Frankish royal patronage of 381independence from bishops 382, 388, 419Ireland 414

as educational centres 406, 413, 707federations of 420, 706founder-saints 403landed endowments 406, 419manaig (monastic tenants) 409as multifunctional communities 410, 411,

414pastoral ministry 413, 706relations with churches 418, 706

land granted by charter to 491in Merovingian Francia 382–3specialised production centres 235and trade 654, 655–6

in luxury goods 622see also monks

monastic rulesBenedictine 704, 743Columbanus’ 709‘Rule of Patrick’ 414, 419as sources 75variety of 382, 440, 704

monasticism 677, 703–9Benedictine (continental) 677in Britain 431, 436, 438–41, 444, 707–8coenobitic 405, 414, 443, 704, 708

Spain 706Irish 405, 407, 418, 654, 677, 706–7

and coastal areas 653–4






954 Index

in Gaul (Columbanus) 231, 382, 708–9influence on lay population 406–7, 409, 418

and liturgical poetry 311Martinian tradition 708Orthodox canon law on 314Wales 434see also asceticism; monks

Moncrieffe (fortress), besieged 251Monemvasia Chronicle, on Slavs 539monenergism, doctrine of 296, 302, 310moneylending, by Jews 558–9, 569monks

as diocesan officials (England) 684in England 488as papal advisers 679peregrini (religious exiles) 405, 440, 444, 450,

459, 752circulation of manuscripts by 754

religious influence of 95, 406under jurisdiction of bishops 419

Monkwearmouth see Wearmouth;Wearmouth-Jarrow

Monophysites 23, 96, 98, 296–7, 310, 741nConstantine IV and 302and Cyrilline (Neo-)Chalcedonianism 105Justinian’s persecution of 106, 113and nature of Christ 106relations with Arab conquerors 343and ‘Three Chapters’ 106, 131–2

monotheism, and rise of Islam 324, 332Monothelitism (‘one will’), doctrine of 297, 302,

310opposition to 299, 678

Mons Lactarius (Nocera), battle of (522) 129Montanism (ancient Christian heresy) 105Monte Cassino, monastery 157Monumenta Germaniae Historica 36, 57, 373Monumentum Ancyranum 499Moravia 534

mixed Slav-Avar culture 537Morbihan, Brittany 259Morgan, British king 247Morgan ap Athrwys, Welsh king 574Morin tribe, Pas-de-Calais 639Morning Thorpe, Norfolk, cemetery 271Morocco 339mosaic decoration 767–71, 776

Byzantine alterations (Italy) 768stylistic changes 767

mosaic pavements 776imperial palace, Constantinople 778Italy and Istria 770

mosaicsBronze Gate of palace, Constantinople 126church of S. Vitale (Ravenna) 130, 768Kalenderhane Camii, Constantinople 778

Mt Sinai monastery 777Rome 769–70

Moses, Jew of Speyer 566mosques 345

‘Abd al-Malik’s building programme 582Moville, monastery 706Mozarabic Chronicle 350n

on civil war (711) 369on Muslim conquest 369on Witiza 367, 368

Musa ibn Nusayr, governor of Ifriqiya 369, 370Mu‘awiya, caliph in Syria 298, 300, 307, 339, 344

imperial style of 582Mucking, Essex, settlement site 264, 274al-Mughira bin Sa’d, Bedouin leader 327Muhammad, Prophet 335

career of 325, 331–6death 334, 341, 345Sira (hallowed biography of ) 328and succession 341, 343–4

Muirchu, Life of Patrick 238Mummolus, Roman duke in Burgundy 222, 223Munster, Germany, bishopric 718Munster, Ireland 245, 398, 574Muslims see ArabsMuthanna bin al-Harith, chief of Bakr tribe 338myth

in Old Norse literature 498represented on gold bracteates 510wisdom and knowledge in 498see also origin myths

Nadir, Jewish clan in Medina 332, 333Naissus (Nis), Slavs at 536Najran, Christians in 322names

adoption of barbarian alternatives 54, 217Breton personal 236Germanic 89, 595Gothic personal (in Italy) 150see also place names

Nantechild, queen 384Nantes (Namnetas) 235, 258, 642

bishops of 442Breton raids 379Jewish community in 553trade with Ireland 646, 650

Naples 156, 556falls to Totila 127Jews in 550, 555, 564

Narbonensis, plague (694) 368Narbonne

Amalaric’s court at 177, 178besieged 197church of 681Frankish attack on 347






Index 955

Narbonne (cont.)Jews in 552, 553, 566, 567mint 670Ostrogoths in 174, 175Visigothic coinage 667

Narses, general to Justinian 101, 108, 112, 135Gothic wars 128, 149and Lombards 152

national histories 66–7origins of 35

natural disasters, in Eastern Empire 109–10navies

Arab (Muslim) 298, 301, 339Byzantine (Karabisianoi) 298, 307Classis Britannica 642Ostrogothic 128, 148Vandal 120see also armies

Nechtan, king of the Picts 251, 461Nechtansmere, battle of (685) 89, 250, 460necklaces, as female grave-goods 272Nedao, battle of 533Negev, Palestine 624Nehalennia, cult of 723Neisse river (middle), Slav settlements 531Nendrum, monastery 411Nennius, History of the Britons 66Neoplatonism 33, 311

and Origenism 107suppression of 104

Nepi, hill-fort at 158Nepotian, comes et magister 165, 166Nestorianism 23, 131, 310

in Persia 296, 323Nestorius 106, 296Neustria 203, 229, 390

appointment of dukes 209and Pippin II 392–3relations with Austrasia 390and reunification of Francia under Chlothar

II 373see also Ebroin; Francia

‘New Archaeology’ 79Niall of the Nine Hostages 241Nicaea, Council of (First Ecumenical Synod)

(325) 21, 23, 94, 120, 580and ecclesiastical provinces 680, 687

Nicetius, bishop of Trier 132, 219, 712Nicomedia, capital of Roman prefecture 18Nihawand, battle of (642) 338Nika riot, Constantinople (532) 98, 101, 102, 109Nikephoros, patriarch of Constantinople, Brief

History 293, 294Nikopolis, Bulgaria 777Nımes 361‘Nine Chapters’ (monenergism) 297

Ninian 453and conversion of the southern Picts 452missionary to Britain 431, 434

NisibisByzantine attack on 113disputed with Persians 96school of theology 744

Nivellesarchitecture 763monastery of 392

nobilitas, importance in Germanic tribes 593Nocera Umbra, Lombard burials at 155Noirmoutier monastery, France 654Nola, Jews in 550nomads and nomadism

Arabia 318, 340as mercenaries 321, 323power shift towards 324relations with southern kingdoms 321

Noricum (Austria), Roman province of 533,680

abandoned by Odovacer 142annexed by Franks 533Avar-Slav colonisation 537, 538

Normandy, Jews in 553–4Nørre Snede, Denmark, hall settlement 519North Africa 118

Byzantine loss of 303, 305, 758and Byzantium 302, 303, 626cultural stagnation 739, 746elephant ivory from 783funerary inscriptions 88Jews in 549, 551, 555Justinian’s reconquests in 101, 108, 616, 619,

626and coinage 665and cultural revival 740opposition to 133, 136

local government 43–4, 183Moorish revolts 112Muslim conquests 337, 339, 369, 633paganism 724pottery 612, 615, 631, 633

fine wares from 612, 616tribal confederacies 45Vandal kingdom 49, 72, 118, 120, 122–4, 602

North African church 340, 687monasticism 705opposition to Council of Constantinople (553)

132, 139, 705opposition to Monothelitism 299, 705

North Britain, Synod of (6th century) 437, 438Northern Seas

in classical literature 639development of maritime economy 639–41,

645–3






956 Index

and hinterlands 653–8trade routes 650–1

Northumbria, kingdom of 462, 463,574

bishops of 420, 460British church in 447, 487English church in 483and the Franks 473and Irish church 421, 447, 716Irish monasticism 707kings 596mints 652monasteries 494, 755overlordship 460, 464, 465–6, 469paganism in 483and Picts 458, 460, 466relations with British 472

Norton-on-Tees, Cleveland, mixed-rite cemetery271, 273, 273n

Norwaygenealogy of kings 499see also Borg; Borre

notarii, administrators in Roman church678

Nothelm, archbishop of Canterbury 729Notitia Dignitatum 771Nouvion, Ponthieu, Saxon cemetery evidence

643Novae (Svistov, Bulgaria) 143Noviedunum (? on Danube delta) 534al-Nu’man, Lakhmid king 324numismatics see coinsNydam boat, Schleswig-Holstein 644, 651

oases, desert Arabia 318Odensala, Sweden 517Oder river (middle), Slav settlements 531Odin

in guise of bird 510name of Gautr 502, 504in place names 517as shape-shifter 511see also Woden

Odovacer, Germanic chieftain 25, 121, 125coinage 661, 662–4

portrait on 663overthrow of Romulus Augustulus 118, 120,

141and Theoderic 142–3, 533and Visigoths 170

oeconomus, responsibility for diocesan financialadministration 683, 698

oenach (assemblies), Ireland 399, 588Oengus, king of the Picts 249, 251Oescus, on Danube 539Offa, king of Mercia 656, 658

ogham alphabet, used on inscribed stones 89,237, 256, 431

oil, olive, traded 608, 621, 622Oiscingas family, Kent 475Old Testament model for kingship 571, 577, 581,

586Ireland 586Spain (Visigoths) 602

Ologicus (Olite), built by Basques for Visigoths352

Olympia, Peloponnese, Slav cremation site 542Olympios, exarch of Ravenna 300Ongendus, king of the Danes 573, 649, 650, 654,

732Onsala, Sweden 517Oppa, bishop of Seville, and Muslim invasion

369Opsikion thema 307, 308opus signinum, used in English monasteries 495oral tradition, Scandinavia 497Ordines Romani, liturgical rites 700Oria, Apulia, Jews in 550, 557, 564Origen, Christian theologian 33, 107, 675, 741origin myths 35, 269, 470

Christian kings traced back to pagan gods 283,474, 503

Jewish 550Palestine and biblical people 502‘Scandza’ 502–4Troy and Trojan heroes 502see also myth

Origo Gentis Langobardorum 759Orkneys 250, 459, 587nOrleans

as Frankish capital under Chlodomer 203Frankish duke of 209Jewish community in 553

Orleans, Councils of 688(511) 203, 215, 689(549) 214

Orleans, synod (533) 442ornament

animal, in Book of Durrow 455Penkovka Culture 535see also animal art

Orosius, Seven Books of History against the Pagans39, 720

on Burgundians 712Orospeda, occupied by Leovigild 185, 186orphanotrophos, official in charge of orphanages

(Byzantium) 305Orton Hall, Peterborough, settlement site

267nOsismii, in Brittany 442, 443Osraige tuath, Leinster 244, 246ostiarius, status and function of 689, 690






Index 957

Ostrogothsadoption of Roman royal genealogy 502alliance with Visigoths 172, 174–7Arian Christians 120in Balkans 712coinage 662, 664as custodians of classical civilisation 159in Italy 53, 120, 125, 142, 143–5, 533

demise of state 148–9, 738, 742Justinian’s war against 124–9and Lombards 152, 159in Pannonia 533royal estates 176as threat to Byzantium 121see also Theoderic

Oswald, king of Northumbria 457, 465, 467,470, 476, 487, 603

conversion of 716and Cynegils of Wessex 484and Ionan church mission 480, 716, 731sanctification of 602wooden cross 766

Oswiu, king of Northumbria 250, 448, 459, 465,596

and Hwicce 475and Peada of Mercia 484and Synod of Whitby 481, 602

Otranto, Jews in 550Otto, mayor of the palace in Austrasia 385overkingship

Celtic 261Franks 46Ireland 240–1, 245, 417, 574, 587–8Pictish 250

Oviedo, church of San Miguel de Lillo 775

Pachomius, monastic rules 705Pactus Legis Salicae, Frankish law code 61Pada, moneyer 673pagan cult sites 724

attacked by missionaries 732–3Britain 447, 483Frisia 723Goodmanham 480, 486, 723

pagan rites 724adapted to Christianity 730, 734observance forbidden by canon law 314, 710

paganismin Britain 429, 434, 483–4

resurgences 465, 480, 715condemnations of 727–8forms of 722–3Franks 206in Frisia 725–7in Germany 718and grave goods 81

in Ireland 399, 400–2in later Roman Empire 21, 710and natural religion 725Neoplatonic 23, 104see also gods and goddesses

paideia (cultural education) 735incorporated in Christian propaideia 737

palacescentrality to Merovingian government 375,

381, 383, 384, 394royal courts and residences 599–600

Ireland 589significance of (Byzantium) 579

Palencia, Spaincathedral 762sacked by Visigoths 164

Palermo, Jews in 550, 555Palestine

Arab attacks on 297and Byzantine Orthodoxy 310–11churches 779Jews in 547, 549Muslim conquest of 337, 338pottery production 633rural economy 624, 631theological writings from 294

palimpsests 60Palladius, Lausiac History 69Palladius, first Christian bishop in Ireland 399,

716Palladius, tribune 43Palmyra, kingdom of 319palynology (pollen analysis) 619

and evidence of land use 268Pamphronius, embassy to Constantinople 135Pamplona, occupied by Visigoths 169panegyrics 74panel-paintings 770

icons 780Pannonia (old Roman province) 533

Avars in 378, 538Germanic settlers in 533Lombards in 152, 533, 537occupied by Gepids 112Slavs in 537, 538see also Sirmium

papacy 677–80bureaucracy 678–9development of 675–6direct authority over Canterbury 681elections and vacancies 679and Frankish church 688imperial confirmation of election required 130and influence of Italy 161and Lateran Palace 680management of property 679






958 Index

move to centralisation 678popes as apocrisiarius (legate) in

Constantinople 130papal legates 689npapal vicariate 684–6

in Eastern church 685Papar (church site), place names 459papyrus 60

Islamic 329survival of 71

parchment 60–1Paris 204, 763

arena 213, 600churches

of the Holy Apostles 602near tomb of St Genovefa 213of St Peter 230of St Vincentius 213

Jewish community in 553Merovingian control over 202, 224–5, 226mint 672regional fairs and markets 656Syrian merchants in 628

Paris, Council of (614) 230, 602Paris, Edict of (614) 374, 694, 698Paris, Synod (c.562) 444parishes, organisation 686n, 686–7, 728Parrett, river (Somerset) 255parrochia, use of term 686Parthenius, Roman aristocrat in Austrasia 218Paschal, pope 769Passau, diocese of 721Passio Leudegarii 387, 388, 389pastoralism

Arabia 318see also agriculture

patriarchsof Constantinople 681and right of consecration 682

Patrick, Saint 247, 407, 716and church organisation 402Confession 400evidence of Christianity in Britain 427, 434,

451Lives of 238, 589mission to Ireland 400, 450, 716monastic ideals 402, 403

patrimonium see royal estatesPaul, rebel dux (‘king’ of Narbonne) 361, 600nPaul Aurelian, Saint, Breton Life of 256, 443Paul, bishop of Merida 628Paul, bishop of Verdun 383Paul the Deacon

History of the Lombards 35, 66, 153, 156on the Lombards 153, 155, 714on Maurice 139

on Merovingians 373, 379, 380on Rosimund 153

Paul, patriarch of Constantinople 299, 302Paul the Silentiary, on Hagia Sophia 102Paulinus, bishop of York 480

mission to England 480missionary in Northumbria 465, 481, 488

Paulinus of Nola 737Paulinus of Pella 736nPavia (Ticinum)

Jews in 549mint 664occupied by Lombards 112, 153, 600

Pax Romana 14as Golden Age of Empire 15

Peada, under-king in Mercia 466, 468, 475conversion of 466, 484

Peak District 269peasantry, free

in Byzantium (improbable) 307English 490, 491

peasantslegal status of (Roman) 27semi-free, in England 491Spain 185

Pelagius I, pope 130, 132, 150, 685, 761Pelagius II, pope 153, 156, 157Peloponnese, Slavs in 539, 542penance 677, 702–3

clerical 703private 406, 450, 703public 703

Penda, king of Mercia 254, 464, 466, 731alliance with Cadwallon 465, 470

Penkovka Culture 529, 534, 535, 539Pennyland, Bucks., settlement site 274n, 279Pentale, monastery 443‘People of the Book’, protection in Islam state

342Perctarit, king of the Lombards 602nPergamum, pottery type 620Peronne, Irish monastery at (Peronna Scottorum)

758Persia, Sasanian Empire 17, 291, 323–4

collapse of 297, 337converts to Islam in 345Heraclius and 295incursions in Arabia 322influence on Steppe nomads 584invasion by (502) 96Justin II and 113Justinian and 108–9Maurice’s military policy against 114, 115Muslim conquest of 337, 339peace with Byzantium (from 561) 108, 113political structures 323–4






Index 959

Persia, Sasanian Empire (cont.)renewed war with Byzantium 96–7, 108, 738truce with Byzantium (573) 113, 114

Persians, Roman view of 38Peter, patriarch of Constantinople,

anathematised 302Peter, a linen merchant 627Peter Mongos, patriarch of Alexandria 95Peter the Patrician, De Magistro Officiorum 579petitions, to emperors 577Petra, kingdom of 319Petronius Maximus, emperor 164Petrus Sabbatius see Justinian IPeucini tribe, Black Sea steppe 527Philip, bishop of Vienne 703Philippi, Greece, basilica 779philosophy

and Christian belief 675of language 58

Philoxenos of Mabbug 98Phocaea, Red Slip ware pottery production 620,

629Phokas, emperor 138, 626n

and Avars 540coup against Maurice 116, 294

Photios, theologian 294physicians

Eastern 119Jewish 553, 556, 557

Pictish language 232Picts 45, 249–51, 451

conflict with Dal Riada 244conversion to Christianity 452–4, 457–9

adoption of Roman Christianity 431, 461British Christianity among 434, 450expulsion of Columban clergy 251, 453Ninian’s mission to 431

and Easter 448identity of 249and kingdom of Strathclyde 247kingship 249–50, 251, 261, 574, 589northern 458–9and Northumbria 461

battle of Nechtansmere (685) 89, 250, 460symbol stones 89, 249, 457

Pietroassa, Asia, gold finds 774pilgrims

to Rome 761to Tours 763

Pippin I of Landen 230, 231, 377, 384, 385Pippin II of Heristal, mayor of the palace at

Metz 391–4, 573and Bretons 260and cultural renewal 758and mission to Frisia 717

Pippin III, king of the Franks 603

piracy, in Northern Seas 641Pirenne, Henri 86

on survival of ancient economy 605, 635, 639,659

Pirmin, Scarapsus de Libris Singulis Canonicis723, 728, 731

Piro, monastery on Caldey Island 438, 439Pisa, municipal coin issues 666Pistoria, municipal coin issues 666Pitzas, count, general to Theoderic 145place names

-ingas 282, 467and Anglo-Saxon territories 282associations of Germanic gods 722Brittany 236Domnach Mor (‘Donaghmore’) 403‘eccles’ (ecclesia) 432, 434, 451, 453and migration 237‘papar’ (church sites) 459and proto-Slavic language 526religious, Denmark 518rivers 526and Romano-British tribe names 286‘sal’ (hall), Scandinavia 517Scandinavia 516

central places 520plague

540s bubonic 111Wales and Ireland 234, 437

660s, England 481Ireland 234, 458

disappearance (7th century) 646Narbonensis (694) 368

planeta (liturgical garment) 701Plato, renewed interest in 33Plectrude, wife of Pippin II 394Pliny the Elder 499, 527Pliska, Bulgar capital 301Plotinus, and Neoplatonism 33, 107Po river, trade along 621Poetovio (Ptuj) 538poetry and poetic writing 74–5

Arabic 321Hebrew religious 548, 549, 550Irish Hisperica Famina 754Lombard 759Poetic Edda 498Welsh vernacular 239n

poetsin Scandinavia (‘thyle’) 517status in Ireland 398

Poher region, Brittany 259Poitiers 203

baptistery 763convent 137mausoleum (Hypogee des Dunes) 763, 765






960 Index

Poitiers, battle of (732 or 733) 337see also ‘Vouille’, battle of (507)

Poitou, Frankish duke of 209Poland 528

Germanic settlement 528Jewish merchants 558Lusatian Culture 528Slav expansion into 531, 532

political cultureArab 582Frankish (Merovingian) 283, 371, 381, 395–6,

601Hellenistic 577and identity formation 268Slav 584

political structuresBrittany 259Celtic kingdoms 233Ireland 240–4Islam 342Roman legacy (Britain) 233, 256, 284, 286,

287, 467Sasanian Persia 323–4Wales 253

politics, practice of, historical study of 58polygamy, in Ireland 402Pomerania, cultural structures 528Ponthieu, France

mint 647Saxon settlement 643, 647see also Quentovic

poorimperial provision for 581royal duty towards 603

popes see papacyPopin I site, Bulgaria 541population

in Anglo-Saxon England 265n, 284Celtic kingdoms 233declining in Italy 140estimates from cemeteries 270, 274growth

7th century 646Slavs 530–1

see also demographyPorec, Istria

church building complex 762mosaics 769

portsRoman 642, 644see also ‘emporia’; transport; wics

Portugalmints 670see also Lusitania

post, public, Byzantium 304Postal Logothete, Byzantine imperial official 305

pottery 140, 608African Red Slip ware (ARS) 129, 614, 625

distribution 615trade in 629, 632, 636

imported, to Celtic kingdoms 234, 622, 642,643

and regional exchange networks 619–20types

A and B wares, in Britain 642‘Bading’/‘Tating’ (Germany) 652Charnwood Forest 279nGlazed White ware 620, 633hand-made, Slavic 528Illington-Lackford 279, 279n, 285, 286orange/grey stamped DSP wares 620PhocaeanRedSlipware (PRS) 620, 629, 633Roman wheel-thrown 286, 535Slavic, on Danube 535

see also African Red Slip ware (ARS) (above)see also amphorae; pottery assemblages;

pottery productionpottery assemblages 608, 619, 625, 632

Crypta Balbi (Rome) 634–5pottery production

Central Europe 528changes in eastern Mediterranean 633Germany 652La Londe (Rouen) 651and local exchange networks 619North Africa 612, 615, 631, 633Tunisia 614, 631

Poundbury, Dorset, Roman cemetery 426poverty, and economic demand 615Powys, kingdom of 252, 254, 463Praetextatus, bishop of Rouen 224Pragmatic Sanction (554) (Justinian) 151, 158, 740Prague, Jewish community 554Prague Culture

pottery 535, 542Slavic 529, 534

prayer, rules and role of 700–1preaching 676, 745

by missionaries 731–2, 733sermons 701–2

prefectsRoman 14urban 158, 305

prefecturesByzantium 303, 304, 306Roman 18

priests 689, 728introduction of 676pagan Germanic 723role of 687, 690

primogeniture 199see also inheritance






Index 961

Primosus, bishop of Carthage 130‘principate’, Roman 14, 17Prior Metz Annals 371, 391, 393Prisca (or Itala), collection of ecclesiastical law

696Priscian, grammarian 119, 120Priscus, historian 100Priscus Attalus, prefect of Rome (410) 667Priscus, Jewish merchant 559Proclus, Neoplatonist 104Proconnesos (Sea of Marmara), imperial quarries

762, 764Procopius 123

on bubonic plague 111Buildings 99, 101, 777, 779on empress Theodora 98on Germanic kings 669on Gothic war 133, 148, 149, 158on Hagia Sophia 102on Heruli 503, 531, 593as historian 65, 97on Justin I 97on Justinian 580, 581on kings 592on long boats 644Secret History 98, 99, 134, 524on Slavs 524, 532, 534, 536Wars 95, 102, 524

production, Roman industrial 49, 286production sites 286

Central Europe 528on estates 657monasteries 235at ports 647Scandinavia 520see also pottery production

pronoia system (land for military service)307

propertychurch 696–9confiscated (Spain) 350, 365

by Chindasuinth 359, 360from Jews 351law on 360, 362, 363, 365

papal management of 679property law, Roman 32, 696property rights, English ceorls 491Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire 601Proterius, patriarch of Alexandria 95Proto-Bulgars 543proto-Slavic language 526protoasekretis, Byzantine official in charge of

records 305Provence

Frankish 209, 672Lombards in 379

monastic movement 439paganism 724pottery type 620under Ostrogoths 177, 200under Visigoths 142, 170

provincial governorsByzantium 303, 304Islam 342

Prut river valley, Prague culture 529psalmista, status of 690Pseudo-Maurice

Strategikon 114, 583on Slavs 524, 530, 584

Pseudo-Methodian Apocalypse 315Ptolemy

Geographica, on Scandinavia 500on Venedi (?Slavs) 527

public buildingfinanced by bishops 216late Roman Empire 28, 43by Merovingians 213by Theoderic in Italy 145by women benefactors (Roman Empire) 30

public works, administration (Byzantium) 304Puento Castro, Jews in 552Pyrrhos, former patriarch of Constantinople

299, 302pyxides, ivory boxes 784

Qadisiyya, battle of (636) 327, 338, 343Qataban, Arabian city-state 317Qaynuqa, Jewish clan in Medina 332, 333Qayrawan, Tunisia, Arab garrison town 339Quadi, in Pannonia 533quaestor, Byzantine head of judiciary 305quarries, Proconnesian 762, 764Queenford Farm, Oxon., Romano-British

cemetery 264Quentovic

mint 672trade links 650trading interests of church 655–6wic 647, 654

Quillebeuf, port 656Quimper, bishop of 443Quintanilla de las Vinas, church 762,

765Quirico, metropolitan of Visigothic Spain 361Qur’an 320

on early Islamic community 333early manuscript 330early Meccan chapters (suras) 332inscriptions on Dome of the Rock 329and role of caliph 582as source 327–8, 335

Qurayza, Jewish clan in Medina 332, 334






962 Index

Quryash tribe, Arabia 320, 331, 344Qusayr ‘Amra 583qu’sur (Umayyad desert lodges) 582, 583

Rabbula, Syriac scribe 782Rabbula Gospels 782Radbod, king of the Frisians 573, 720, 726, 731,

732Radegund, wife of Chlothar 200, 714

founder of convent in Poitiers 137, 227–30,708

Rado, mayor of palace in Austrasia 231, 375Radulf, duke of Thuringia 385Rædwald, king of East Angles 465, 473, 474,

484, 715Sutton Hoo 645, 723

Ragnachar, Frankish king at Cambrai 197, 596Ragnemod, bishop of Paris 225Rahtz, Philip 79Ramiro I, king 775ransoms, paid by bishops 216Ratchis, king of the Lombards 765Ratiaria, on Danube 539Rauching, Frankish duke 217Ravenna

ancient schools 740, 742besieged by Theoderic 143as capital of Western Empire 19, 142, 160cathedral and baptistry 762church building in 761–2churches

S. Apollinare in Classe 762, 768–9S. Apollinare Nuovo 762, 767, 768S. Giovanni Evangelista (basilican) 761, 768S Vitale 130, 154, 762, 768

exarch in 136, 758Gothic capital 125, 147

Theoderic’s mausoleum 147, 762Gothic clergy in 144Greek texts in 119, 150Jews in 549metropolitan see, synods 688mint 661, 664, 665

silver coins 662, 663, 664mosaic decoration 767–9occupied by Belisarius 149occupied by Narses 128survival of papyri at 72

Ravenna Cosmography, on homeland of Slavs 527Rebais, monastery 383Reccared I, king of the Visigoths 137, 186, 189,

190, 205, 346–50and Catholicism 192, 347–8, 602, 747and power of Church 349relations with Franks 347use of name Flavius 348

Reccared II, king of Visigoths 352

Reccesuinth, king of the Visigoths 356, 359–60church at San Juan de Banos 762coinage 670gold votive crown 775law code 181, 357, 598

Reccopolis (Celtiberia), founded by Leovigild186, 190, 191, 763

Rechiarius, king of the Sueves 163, 164Arian Christianity of 166coinage 668

Rechila, king of the Sueves 163Rechimund, king of the Sueves 165, 166Recimer, king of the Visigoths 353reforestation, lowland Britain 268Regensburg 717

diocese of 721Jewish community 554

Regula Benedicti, monastic rule 704, 743Regula Coenobialis (Columbanus) 709Regula Fereoli, monastic rule 708Regula Magistri, monastic rule 704Regula Monachorum (Columbanus) 705, 709Regula Orientalis, monastic rule 704Regula Quattuor Patrum, monastic rule 704Regula Tarnatensis, monastic rule 708‘reiks’ (‘king’, Gothic) 591relics

Byzantium 309and cult of icons 780and popular religion 488St Andrew (in Ravenna) 129of saints 227True Cross captured by Persians (614) 295,

296religion

for public reassurance 110see also Christianity; Islam

religious artin Byzantine church 314, 315see also iconography; icons

religious conflict 94religious ideology, and imperial authority 582religious writings

apocalyptic texts 315as sources 75, 238–9theological commentaries 75see also saints, Lives of

Remigius, bishop of Rheimsbaptism of Clovis 206, 207letters 74

Remismund, king of the Sueves 166, 167attack on Lusitania 167embassy to emperor 168

Rennes 235, 258Breton raids 379diocese of 442

rents, rural (late Roman) 26






Index 963

Reparatus, bishop of Carthage 130Repton 466Requila, Visigothic general 352Responsa, Jewish rabbinical writings 548, 568

references to landownership 557references to merchants 560

responsalis (apokrisiar), as papal ambassador679

revenuescollection by Merovingian kings 210Italy 144from justice 210land as source of 210, 395–6see also taxes

rex (derivation and definition) 571rex fidelis, title 581Rhaetia, province of 680Rheged, British kingdom 247, 254, 464rhegon, Slav rulers 584Rheims, bishopric of 392rhetoric 577rhex

used by Ostrogoths 592used of Slav chieftains 584

Rhigyfarch, Life of St David 441Rhine delta 648, 649

ship developments 651Rhineland

barbarian settlement in 51wine trade 657

Rhineland Franks 198see also Austrasia

RhodesArabs in 298, 301

Rhodian Sea Law (Byzantium) 293Rhos, kingdom of 252Rhun, a Briton 447Rhydderch Hen (the Old), king of Strathclyde

247rı, Irish term for ‘king’ 240, 586Ribe, Jutland

‘hall’ settlement 519trade links 652wic 649, 654

Riby Cross-Roads, Lincs., settlement site 279Richborough (Rutupiae), Roman fort and port

427, 642Riche, Pierre 735Ricimer the Patrician, general 166, 193,

713Riedones, Roman civitas 258Rigunth, Merovingian princess 189Rimbert, bishop of Hamburg-Bremen 719Rimini 549, 567Rimoaldus, mintmaster at Dorestad 648Ripon, monastery 707, 764Ripuarian Franks, law code 71

Rivenhall, Essex, settlement site 267nrivers, names of 526Riwal, founder of Dumnonia 260Roccones (Runcones) people 188, 352Roderic, last Visigothic king of Spain 368–9Rodulf, king of the Ranii (Norway) 501Roman army 16, 20, 27

barbarians in 594buckles and brooches 774Franks in 193legions 13political power of 16, 20, 24, 575recruitment from provinces 17size of 46

Roman citizenship 17, 42for Jews 565

Roman civilisation, rapid collapse of (north ofLoire) 49

Roman Empire 397, 572and barbarians 163, 191

foreign invasions 19–20gift exchange and tribute system with 47,

774influence in Free Germany 48view of barbarians 38–9, 45

and commercial exchange networks 616‘crisis of 3rd century’ 16–17, 41East and West divergence 19, 23, 24economy 636

fragmentation 42, 140reforms (Diocletian) 20

extent of 41, 118fall of 14, 25–6, 35, 37, 735Golden Age 15government

bureaucracy 20, 42, 43prefectures 14, 18‘Quaestor of the Sacred Palace’ 577

historical writing tradition 64and legacy of kingship 48, 575–6and Scandinavia 499transition to early medieval society 18, 25–6,

159–61see also Roman Empire, Eastern; Roman

Empire, WesternRoman Empire, Eastern 24, 93–4, 100,

572continuance (after 500) 118cultural divergence from West 757–8historical writing tradition 65–6place of Church in 675sources (6th century) 95–6and survival of ancient culture 735view of loss of Western Empire 119–20view of successor states in West 120–2, 137–9western antagonism to 132–4see also Byzantium






964 Index

Roman Empire, Western 25–6, 41–5, 93and Chalcedonian controversy 132continuing links with Byzantine East 118–19,

137economic recession 86local political structures 51, 233place of Church in 675, 676regionalisation 738relations with barbarian confederations 46–8subservience to Eastern emperors 119and survival of ancient culture 735

Roman law 578adaptation of 32, 173, 356and Christianity 675in church courts 695and church property 696dual nature of 308influence on Lombardic codes 598supplanted by Visigothic codes 598

RomanitasChristianity as conferring 484and trappings of kingship 474use of term 40

Romanos I Lekapenos, emperor 314Romanos, count, Lepcis Magna 43–4Romanos the Melodist, Christian poet 104

kontakion 109–10Romans

apparent disappearance of 53as conquerors 13definition of 39–40relations with Franks in Gaul 216–17, 221relations with Goths in Italy 143–5, 148see also senatorial aristocracy

Rome, city of 27, 133ancient schools 740buildings

Colosseum, refurbished by Odovacer 142Pantheon (transformed into church of S.

Maria ad Martyres) 160, 761secular 160theatre of Pompey 160

burials within city walls 150churches

adapted from public buildings 761, 770new 761S. Adriano (senate building) 761S. Agnese 761, 764, 769S. Cecilia 769S. Marco 770S. Maria Antiqua (Palatine) 770St Peter’s 761, 770S. Prassede 769S. Pudenziana 766S. Stefano Rotondo 770SS Cosmas and Damian 160, 761, 769, 770

Crypta Balbi excavations 614, 634–5famine (under Lombards) 153, 156,

746games 159in Gothic Wars 150, 151

besieged by Totila 127, 128, 150taken by Belisarius 125, 149taken by Narses 128

Jews in 555, 563, 566mint 142, 661, 663, 664

bronze coinage 664Byzantine 665

panel-paintings 771and papacy 676sack of (410) 39, 49, 120, 140sacked by Vandals (455) 162status of 18, 140trade

exchange networks 637grain supplies 621

under Theoderic 146Rome, metropolitan see 680

parish organisation 686synod 688

Romulf, bishop of Rheims 217Romulus Augustulus, emperor (last) 25, 93, 118,

119, 120, 141Rona, island, hermitage site 459Rosimund, wife of Alboin 152, 153Rossano Gospels, Greek illuminated manuscript

782Rostovtzeff, Mikhail 25Rothari, king of the Lombards 503n, 714

Edict of (law code) 71, 598Rotomagus (Rouen) 642Rouen 221, 642

bishopric of 392as capital of Neustria 202mint 646, 672port 656trade links 650

royal estates (patrimonium)Theoderic the Great 176, 176nVisigothic Spain 358

Rufinus of Aquileia, continuation of Eusebius’Ecclesiastical History 68

Rugi tribe, Arian Christians 714runic script 497runs (secret, occult), Iceland 498rural areas

Christianity in 383, 430North Africa, in decline 631Syria and Asia Minor, economic vitality 624,

631western Mediterranean, contraction of

economy 632






Index 965

RussiaJewish merchants 558trade with 659

Rustam, Persian commander 327Ruthwell stone cross 494, 766

Saba’Arabian city-state 317Marib dam 317, 340

Sabaria (Zamora) (Spain), Leovigild takes 184,186

Sabinus, bishop of Canosa di Puglia 150Sabiri tribe 536sacellarius, administrator in Roman church 679sacramentaria (prayers for mass) 699Sacramentarium Gelasianum, liturgy 699Sacramentarium Gregorianum (Hadrianum and

Paduense) 699Sacramentarium Leonianum (Veronense), liturgy

699sacrifice, pagan 726Saeberht, king of Essex 480Sahagun, Jews in 552Sahin, Persian general 296St Albans, British cult site 447, 486St Blaise, Provencal hillfort, archaeology of 612St Denis, church and monastery of 375, 393

annual fair 656royal tombs at 231

St Hubert, monastery of 392S. Lorenzo in Pallacinis monastery, Rome 634St Bertin monastery 654, 655St Germain-des-Pres monastery 656St Josse-sur-Mer monastery 444, 445, 655St Martin-de-Fontenay, Normandy, Saxon

settlements 643St Maximin monastery, Trier 657St Meen monastery 444St Pierre et Saint-Bavon monastery, Ghent 654St Pol-de-Leon, bishop of 443St Vaast abbey 655St Wandrille monastery (Fontenelle) 392, 654,

655, 726, 756nsaints

British ascetics 444cults of 213, 214, 231, 487, 488

Byzantium 309English 488Irish founder-saints 403, 407patron 215, 226of Ravenna 769royal 485sacred portraits (iconic) 780tombs of 488Welsh founder-saints 440, 444

saints, Lives of (vitae) 69, 95

Breton 443British 463Celtic 238, 259and evidence of Christian missions 719–21and evidence of trade routes 650Irish 642Merovingian 372Northumbrian 494

sakellarios, Byzantine imperial official 305, 306‘sal’ (hall) 517, 519

high seats in 518, 519place name 517

Salerno, Jews in 550Salian Franks 199, 202

law-code 71, 283settled in Toxandria 193

Salla, Visigoth dux 168, 181Salona, capital of Dalmatia 540salt, trade 621, 621nSalvian, Christian priest of Marseilles 31, 39Salzburg, diocese of 721Samaritans 310

revolt (529) 105Sami people (Lapps), northern Scandinavia 511n,

521described by Jordanes 501

Samo, Frankish leader of Wends (Slavs) inBohemia 378, 532, 540, 584

Samo, ‘state’ of 532, 540and Carantania 544

Samson, Saint 256, 437, 439, 440, 445, 450founder of Dol monastery 443and King Childebert 259, 443Life of 238, 256, 259, 260, 432, 443

evidence of British church 437San Juan de Banos, Spain, church 762San Pedro de la Nave, church 762, 765sanctuaries

holy Bedouin 320pagan (Britain) 483

Sandwich, Kent 648trading station 287n, 650

Sappos people (Zamora, Spain) 184Sarachane, Constantinople, excavations 614Saragossa (Caesaraugusta)

besieged 180, 201, 359chronicle 67Frankish attack on 200Jews in 552occupied by Visigoths 169

Sardinia 123, 550Sarmatians, on Danube 533Sarre, Kent, trading station (wic) 287n, 644, 648Sava valley, Slavs in 538Savoy, Burgundian settlements 49Saxnot, god, equated with Mars 722






966 Index

Saxo Grammaticus, Gesta Danorum 499, 522Saxon shore, coastal defences 642Saxons 45, 203, 263, 268

Boniface’s mission to 718and concept of kings 573, 593, 604ethnic identity of 469forcible conversion to Christianity 733Franks and 377invited to Britain 50with Lombard invasion of Italy 152migrations 641as traders 656tribute to Theuderic 200

Saxonycremation cemeteries 48Lebuin’s mission to 719, 731under control of Austrasian Franks 202

ScandinaviaAnglo-Saxon links 470, 475animal art 504–8Christian missions to 719decorative styles 277early literature in 497–9emerging kingdoms 520–3exploitation of resources 521historical accounts 499ideology (central cognitive structures) 508–14pre-Christian belief systems 498–9research 496stone monuments 89tribal organisation 514warrior elites 506, 514, 521, 522warrior-followers (‘hird’) 514

Scandzadescribed by Jordanes 500origin myth 502–4

Scania, Sweden 516Scarapsus de Libris Singulis Canonicis 723, 728,

731sceattas, silver coins (Anglo-Saxon) 493Schleswig-Holstein

Heruli in 503homeland of Angli 268, 644

scholarsChristian late Roman 34clericalisation of 160in Constantinople 131medieval 34movement between East and West 119pagan late Roman 34status of in Ireland 246, 398, 405, 417see also manuscripts

scholarshipof Cassiodorus 747–8French Ashkenazic 554Irish 246, 398, 753

schoolsancient 735, 740

Plato’s academy, Athens 32, 104Canterbury 483, 707for clergy 692late Roman Empire 33monastery 736, 743

England 707Spain 692

in parishes 687see also education

Scilly, Isles of 642Sclaveni (Slavic group) 134, 524

in Balkans 536see also Slavs

Scone (fortress), besieged 251Scoti (Scots) (Dalriadan Irish) 451, 642

Northumbrian expedition against 466Scotland 451

Dal Riada in 244, 246, 251inscribed stones 237Irish in 244, 249, 262Lowlands, British kingdoms 246–7Pictish symbol stones 89, 249Roman legacy in 233settlement of Ulster families in 235, 642source material 237Ulaid expeditions 243see also Britain, Northern

scribes, additions and emendations in copyingtexts 61

scrinarii, officials in church of Rome 679Scriptores Rerum Merovingicarum, omitted from

Monumenta Germaniae Historica 57scrolls 60, 776sculpture 764–7

architectural 776carving 764, 765

column capitals 764early English 494, 766–7figure 765friezes 765late Roman Empire 28Lombard school of 764monumental 776sarcophagi 765see also architecture; stones, inscribed

ScythiaBulgars in 533, 536, 543deputation of monks from 98as Slav homeland 527

ScythiansRoman view of 38, 583see also Avars; Turks

Sebeos, bishop of Armenia 293Secundinus, missionary to Ireland 403






Index 967

Secundus, bishop of Trent, history of Lombards154

Segermes, Africa 631seiðr, shape-shifting power 511sekreta, Byzantine administrative departments

305Seleucia, outport for Antioch 624, 630Senate, Roman 14–15, 16, 576

extinction of 159honestiores 17and Odovacer 142, 159senators allowed to live in Constantinople

130, 151and Theoderic 147

senatorial aristocracy, late Roman 93, 576, 595Auvergne 170based in countryside 29in Byzantium 580collaboration with Visigoths 169, 174and development of Frankish aristocracy

216–18and fall of Rome (476) 142flee to Constantinople 159Frankish bishops as descendants of 216,

682and Franks 196, 208and Gothic Wars 151, 159and government of Theoderic 600and political instability (after 455) 162relations with barbarians 52relations with Sueves 164, 165, 188in southern Gaul 52, 162, 169in Spain 52, 169, 182–3, 349

and Catholic church 346, 347survival of 31, 52

‘seneschal’, title of 601Seniofred of Toledo 368Septem see CeutaSeptimania 178, 179, 184

Burgundian invasion 189, 205, 347church councils 552Frankish raids on 379, 380, 390Jews in 366, 551Muslim occupation of 370plague (694) 368uprising against Wamba 361

Septimius Severus, emperor 16, 17Serbs (Surbii)

arrival in Balkans 542in ‘state of Samo’ 532, 540

Serenus, bishop of Marseilles 771Sergiopolis, Syria (R’safah) 777Sergius, patriarch of Constantinople 292, 295,

302, 581negotiations with Monophysites 296

Sergius, pope 313, 678

sermons and homilies 75, 700nuses of 701–2, 745

Servitanum, monastery 705settlement patterns

Scandinavia 516, 517–20and central places 519–20

study of 79settlements

Anglo-Saxon 273–6, 278–9and communal cemeteries 270extensive craft production, Central Europe

528multiple estates 489planned 275, 278–9prominence of halls in Scandinavia 517, 519Slavic

in Central Europe 529defended strongholds 532

settlements, ruralAnglo-Saxon 267, 489archaeological excavation of 76, 83–5fenced enclosures 84fortification of 84Francia 383Romano-British 267, 267n

Seven Clans (of Slavs) 543Severs (Siewierzanie), Slav tribe 543Severus Alexander, emperor 16Severus, bishop of Malaga 741Severus (Libius Severus), emperor 166, 167nSeverus, patriarch of Antioch 98, 105Seville, Council of (619) 741Seville (Hispalis) 180, 182, 183

Hermenigild’s rebellion in 186, 187, 670Jews in 552mint 670, 671Muslim conquest 339papal vicariate in 684siege of 187, 188

Shabbetai Donnolo, Jewish physician 557Shahanshah, title of 575Shahrvaraz, Persian general 295shamanism

among Bedouin 320in Scandinavian belief system 511, 511n,

513shape-shifting, in Norse mythology 498, 511Shari’a (Islamic Revealed Law) 327Sheba, Queen of 317Sheppey, royal nunnery 488Sherborne, British church at 447Shetland Islands 459shipowners, Jewish 556shippers (navicularii) 629shipping

church interests in 627






968 Index

commercial 630dues 630, 655hazards 617see also boats

shipwrecks, evidence from cargoes 614shire (scir)

administrative unit 477relationship to estates 489

Shropshire, Welsh kingdom in 252, 255Sicily 128, 628, 758

Arab raids 339Belisarius takes control of 125Jews in 548, 549, 555, 557mint, Byzantine 665under Vandals 142

Sidonius Apollinaris, Gallo-Roman senator 170,174, 736n

letters 552, 597on long boats 644

Sigibert I, son of Chlothar, king of Rheims 201,202, 203, 213

assassination (575) 219, 229coinage 671marriage to Brunehild, daughter of

Athanagild 183, 186and Nicetius of Trier 219support for Gregory of Tours 226see also Brunehild

Sigibert II, king of Burgundians 230Sigibert III, king of Franks 376, 384–6,

596Sigibert, king of East Anglia 473, 476, 596Sigibert, king of Rhineland Franks 198Sigismund, king of the Burgundians 119, 121,

199, 602coinage 668

Sigivald, Frankish duke 208Silchester, ‘church’ building 427Silesia, Poland 531silk, Byzantine 783Sıl nAedo Slaine 241Silvanus, Frankish general (emperor at Cologne)

193silver

Anastasius dish 774Byzantine 781–2

control stamps 781in gift exchange 515, 774plate

Byzantium 781Heraclius’ ‘Life of David’ 576, 581, 781

see also coinsSilverius, pope 125, 126simony 314, 682

and church property 697Simplicius, pope 684n, 698

Sinai, Mtfortified monastery 777, 780St Catherine’s church 768

Sind, northern India, Muslims in 340Sindered, bishop of Toledo 370Singidunum (Belgrade) 115

siege of 115Sinilis of Bangor, monastic scholar 413Sinope Gospels, Greek illuminated manuscript

782Siponto, Jews in 550Sirmium (Pannonia) 18, 112

ceded to Avars 114coinage 666taken by Ostrogoths 121, 145taken by Slavs 539

Sisbert, bishop of Toledo, rebellion 365, 368Sisebut, king of the Visigoths 351, 747, 752

anti-Jewish laws 351–2campaigns against Byzantium 352

Sisenand, king of Visigoths 353, 379and Fourth Council of Toledo 354

Sistan, Persian frontier 323Sixtus, British martyr 486, 710skaldskapur (poetry), Iceland 498Skandia 500Skandiai, islands of Jutland 500Skellig Michael, hermitage site 411, 414,

654Skirnismal, Edda Poetry 519Skjoldung dynasty, Denmark 522Sklaviniai (Slav settlements) 114, 299Skye, conversion of Picts on 458slave trade 658

England 490, 493, 646Jewish dealers 555, 558, 559, 563

slavery, as judicial penalty 492slaves

and conversion to Judaism 563in England 490, 491–2Jewish ownership of 559, 565, 566

Christian 351, 366, 562trained as missionaries 731in Visigothic Spain 357, 357n

in bureaucracy 358fugitive (Spain) 368, 370

Slavs 524, 527, 532and advance of Avars 114, 378, 537advance on Thrace 115in Balkans

invasion (581) 134, 291, 536settlements 114, 116, 540–3

and Bulgars 301Christian missions to 717and Danube frontier 112, 114, 532–5, 537

expansion south of Danube 536






Index 969

Slavs (cont.)emperor Maurice and 115expansion to north-west 531–2mixed cultures on Danube 535origins and probable homelands of 525–30population growth 530–1and population of Istria 542relations with Byzantium 301–2, 542–3, 572relations with Rome 530resettled in Anatolia 299, 302state organisation 532, 584political culture and leadership 584in Thessalonica 301, 302, 538see also Antes; Sclaveni; Wends

Sleaford, Lincs., cemetery 285Sletty, episcopal church of 422Sliaswich (Schleswig) 650, 652, 654Sligo, Ireland 245Sloinge, Sweden, ‘hall settlement’ 519Slovakia 528, 537Smyrna, taken by Arabs 301Snape, Suffolk, cemetery 277Soca (Isonzo) river valley 538social structure

age grades 271in Anglo-Saxon England 270, 276–7, 280,

287, 489–92, 495Bedouin 319–20Celtic 235evidence from funerary inscriptions 89evidence from furnished burials 82–3,

270–3Ireland 397, 417in Jewish communities 569Roman Empire 20Scandinavian warrior society 506, 514, 521Slavs 524in Visigothic Spain 357, 370see also aristocracy; elites; hierarchies;

marriage; senatorial aristocracysociety

effect of barbarian invasions on 51–5late Roman (transitional) 26–34militarisation of (under Lombards) 157strength of provincial identity 54–5

Socrates, ecclesiastical historian 68, 712Soissons 171, 375

arena 213, 600church of St Medard 213Frankish principality at 196, 202, 209

Soissons, Council of (744) 724Solomon, praetorian prefect in North Africa 124Sophia, empress, wife of Justin II 111, 113, 137Sophronius, abbot, patriarch of Jerusalem 297,

298, 299, 310and Arab conquest of Palestine 338

Sorte Muld, Gudhjem, Denmark, ‘hall’settlement 519

sources 56attitude to 56–7Byzantium 292–4for Celtic kingdoms 237–9coins as 86–8, 328–9compared with Bede 463for Irish kingship 588–90for Islam 325–31Jewish 548, 561for Jews (external/Christian) 547–8, 552–3,

557–8and kingdom formation in Britain 282law-codes as 70–3for Mediterranean trade 605–8for Merovingian period 371–3, 380for northern maritime trade 642Old Norse 497see also annals; Bede; Gregory of Tours;

historiography; saints, Lives ofSouthampton see HamwihSozomen, ecclesiastical historian 68Spain 50, 54, 162

architectural sculpture 765Byzantine influence in 136, 137coinage 665

mints 661, 670cultural (‘Isidorian’) renaissance 739, 740–2,

746, 750, 752–3Jewish populations in 550–2, 563Justinian’s reconquests in 101, 129, 139latifundia 43, 51nlegal documents (pizarra) 72Muslim conquest of 337, 339, 369–70, 758peasants 185regional exchange networks 632senatorial aristocracy in 52, 358Spanish Era (measurement of time) 90Sueves 49, 118, 162Visigothic attacks on Byzantines 112withdrawal of Ostrogoth army from 177see also Spain, Visigothic kingdom of;

Theoderic; Visigothic churchSpain, Visigothic kingdom of 118, 120, 162–7,

172, 572and annexation of Sueve kingdom 188–90architecture 762–3civil administration 175–7, 357–8civil wars 182–3, 369, 370coinage 667consolidation and reorganisation 190–2division of lands between Goths and Romans

181end of (Muslim conquest) 368–9, 370Hispanisation of 178–82






970 Index

kingsdynastic succession 367, 573laws to protect royal family 367

law-codes 70, 181, 356–8, 598letters 74national church councils 689; see also Toledonature of Visigothic settlement in 180–1praetorian prefecture under Theoderic

176royal administration 358social structure 357, 370under Leovigild 183–92see also Chindasuinth; Visigothic church;

VisigothsSpanodromoi (Spanish merchants) 627nSpeyer, Jews in 554, 566spices

pepper (adulterated) 622trade in 622

Spoletobishopric of 157Lombard duchy of 153, 154, 156

Spong Hill, Norfolk, cremation cemetery 270,271, 277

Squillace (Bruttium), castrum 158Statuta Ecclesiae Antiqua 690, 692, 696, 701Stavanoi tribe (?Slavs) 527Stavelot-Malmedy, monastery of 392Stefanus, praefectus Hispaniarum 177, 178steles, Gotland 651Stentinget, Denmark, ‘hall’ settlement 519Stephen of Ripon, Life of Wilfrid 463, 647, 648,

650Stilicho, adviser to Honorius 40n, 49Stirling 250Stoicism 33stone carving

Iona 455see also sculpture

stone crossesEngland 766Holy Land 766Ireland 766

stone-masons, Gallic, in England 763stones, inscribed

Cornwall 237, 256Ireland 237in Latin 89, 237, 431, 451memorial stones 429ogham alphabet on 89, 237, 256, 431Pictish symbol stones 89, 249, 457as source material 237Wales 237, 429, 431western Britain 88, 429see also inscriptions

Strasbourg, trade links 657

Strategikon military treatise (Pseudo-Maurice)114, 583

on Slavs 524, 530, 584strategos (Byzantine military governor) 303, 306,

308Strathclyde, British kingdom of 244, 247, 261,

574Christianity in 434

Sturluson, SnorriEdda 498–9Heimskringla 499

Stylites, hagiographies of 96Suartus, king of the Heruli 504subdeacons, status and role of 689, 690, 693Suchava-Sipot Culture, Moldavia 535Sudovians, Baltic tribe 527Suebi tribe, eastern Europe 527Sueves 49, 162, 164

coinage 668conversion to Arian Christianity 166conversion to Catholicism 188, 192, 714expansion of territory in Spain 163–4, 168invasion of Gaul (406) 49, 712kingdom annexed by Leovigild 185, 188–90nature of kingdom 165relations with Gallo-Roman provincials 164,

165submission to Visigoths 162–7, 168

Suinthila, king of the Visigoths 350, 352–3as first king of all Hispania 353

Sullectum, Africa 619Sulpicius, bishop of Bourges 383Sulpicius Severus

Easter dating 415Life of Martin 69, 439

Sunday, as day of rest 702Suneric, Gothic comes 165Sunna, Arian bishop of Merida 347Sunna (Islamic model of conduct) 327superstition and magic

condemnations of 727–8list of (Indiculus) 724–5natural religion 725persistence of 723–5within Christian church 729

Surrey, kingdom of (South Gwyre) 463, 468suspension, from ecclesiastical office 695Sussex, kingdom of 280, 463, 574

Tribal Hidage assessment 468Wilfrid’s mission in 482

Sutton Courtenay, Anglo-Saxon site 76Sutton Hoo, Suffolk 81, 278

coin hoard 645, 647, 673royal burial ground 81, 277, 278, 280n, 465,

474, 484ship-burial 504, 512, 651






Index 971

Sutton Hoo, Suffolk (cont.)treasures 137, 773, 774warlord burial 594

Svealand, Sweden, burial mound site 521Svear tribe, Sweden 500, 501, 522Svintuna, Sweden 519Sweden

burial mound sites 521Christian mission to 719gold hoards 516‘hall settlements’ 519, 522ship-burials 277, 504trade 659Ynglinga kings of 499see also Birka; Helgo; Vendel

Swedes, described by Jordanes 501Syagrius, Gallo-Roman (‘king of the Romans’)

172, 196, 197, 202, 669Symmachus, pope 677, 679, 769

and church property 698Symmachus, Roman senator 147, 148, 160Synod in Trullo see Constantinople, Quinisext

SynodSyracuse, Sicily 550

Constans II in 300Syria 323, 608

Arab attacks on 297economic vitality 624, 631expansion of Islam into 334Monophysitism (Jacobitism) in 95, 97, 296,

322Muslim conquest of 337, 338, 343Persian invasion (572) 113Persian wars in 108, 294urban decline 323, 777

Syriac language 96, 322illuminated manuscripts 782

al-Tabari, ‘Abbasid historian 326, 342Tabuk, Syria 334Tacitus 527

Germania 39, 499on Germanic kingship 592–3

Tain Bo Cualnge (‘The Cattle Raid of Cooley’)240

Talas, battle of (751) 340Talmudic academies, Babylon 548, 550, 568

European Jews’ independence from 554, 555Tamar, river 255Tamworth 466tapestry, sacred portraits in 780Tara, ‘feast of ’ 401Tara, kingship of 241, 243

kinglists 239, 243Uı Neills and 243–4

Taranto, Jews in 550

Tarbat (Portmahomack), Pictish monastery 459Tarbert, Scotland, Dal Riada site 244Tarif, Muslim general 369, 370Tariq ibn Ziyad, Berber general 369Tarraconensis 170

conquered by Euric 169rebellion of Burdenellus 172sacked by Franks 180subdued by Wamba 361

Tarragona 169, 670Jews in 550, 552

taxes and taxationByzantium 304, 626of church 210, 211, 648of clergy, Francia 696in coin 618direct (disappears under Merovingians) 371,

395, 601ecclesiastical 697evasion 26exemptions for traders 629, 648, 656as form of oath of allegiance 210grants of immunity 53, 211of Jewish merchants 567jizya (Islamic poll tax) 334, 342Merovingian 210payment in kind 20, 27Roman Empire 20, 26, 616Visigothic Spain 359, 363see also annona (land tax)

Teltown, Uı Neill assemblies at 399Terence, Vatican illuminated manuscript of 771Tergeste (Trieste) 542Terracina, Jews in 550tertiae (units of revenue) (Italy) 144Tertry, battle of (687) 391, 395, 758Tertullian, on early Christian church 675Tervel, khan of the Bulgars 303Tervingi see VisigothsTestament of Morann, on kingship 586Tetta, abbess of Wimborne 708Teurnia (St Peter im Holz) 538textiles

Byzantine 783Jewish craftsmen 556trade in 615

textscopying of 61critical analysis of 58–9later compositions 62nature of early medieval 59–60original 61–2production of 60–1, 63scholarly editing of 62

Thamugadi (Timgad), fortifications at 124themata, Byzantine army jurisdictions 303, 306–8






972 Index

Theobald, king of Thuringians 720theocracy

of Constantine (Christian) 21Roman imperial 20

Theodahad, king of Ostrogoths 125, 148–9, 200coinage 664

Theodemir, king of the Sueves 188Theodemir, Visigothic comes 368Theoderic the Ostrogoth 118, 119, 146, 175–7, 712

adherence to Arianism 146and church property 698coinage 663, 664, 667death (526) 125, 177‘Edict’ of 144, 597nand the Franks 173government of 145–8, 592, 600links with Scandinavia 501marriage alliances 121, 145, 160, 172, 175mausoleum (Ravenna) 147, 762military successes 145mosaics 767and Odovacer 142–3, 533and Pope Gelasius 677and relations between Goths and Romans 143,

144relations with Byzantium 119, 121, 122, 146, 663and Visigoths 175

administration of Visigothic territories175–7

visit to Rome 146Theoderic II, king of the Visigoths 165, 166

assassination (466) 167campaign against Sueves 164–5, 165n

Theodisclus, king of the Visigoths 179–80, 182Theodora, empress 98, 126, 149, 581

churches 778, 779protection of Monophysites 106

Theodore, bishop of Mopsuestia 106, 131Theodore, brother of Heraclius 296Theodore, pope 770Theodore the Studite 294Theodore of Sykeon, Saint, life of 96Theodore of Tarsus, archbishop of Canterbury

388, 416, 449, 707, 755and Greek culture 758and synods 688and transformation of English church 482–3

Theodoret, bishop of Kyrrhos, ecclesiasticalhistorian 68, 106, 131

Theodosian Code (438) 32, 173Theodosius I, Emperor of the East 19, 24, 48Theodosius, son of Maurice 138Theodosius, Count of Africa, military

expedition (373) 44Theodosius, Monophysite patriarch of

Alexandria 101, 107, 297

Theofrid of Corbie 753theology, Byzantine 293, 310theopaschism, doctrine of 105, 107Theophanes the Confessor, chronicler (9th

century) 95, 139, 293on Constantine III 298on Empress Sophia 113on Heraclius 294on Justinian’s heresy 111on Muhammad 331, 333, 334, 338

Theophanes Homologetos 543Theophylact Simocatta

on Avars 115on Droctulf 154nas historian 65, 95, 292on Slavs 532

Therapeutica (treatise on medicine, 6th century)119

Thessalonica 536, 780besieged by Slavs 115, 539papal vicariate 685Slavs in 301, 302, 538

Theudarius, penitentiary priest 703Theudebald, king of the Franks 135, 201, 218Theudebert I, king of Austrasian Franks 199,

200, 201, 207, 218coinage 88, 135, 218, 662, 669and Danish raid (515) 501death 212and Gothic War 126, 135and Justinian 218relations with aristocracy 218–19remission of church taxes 211

Theudebert II, king of Austrasian Franks 202,229–30, 373

Theudebert, son of Chilperic 203Theudechildis, abbess of Jouarre 765Theudelinda, wife of Lombard kings 155, 378Theuderic I, son of Clovis, king of Rheims 199,

201, 218and Clermont 208, 215and Thuringians 200

Theuderic II, king of Burgundians 229–30and reunification of Frankish kingdoms 230,

373–4Theuderic III, king of the Franks 389, 391Theuderich, Breton leader 259, 260Theudis, Ostrogothic military administrator 175,

177–8as king of the Visigoths 129, 179–80, 182as legislator 180

Theudoald, grandson of Pippin II 394Thirlings, Northumberland, settlement site 279Thiudigoto, wife of Alaric II 172, 174thiufadus, military and judicial functionary 358Thomond, Munster 245






Index 973

Thor, god 722Thorismund, Visigothic king 774Thrace

Byzantine control over 543Slavs in 114, 115, 524, 536, 538, 542

Thracians 533Thrasamund, king of Vandals 121Thrasekion thema 307, 308‘Three Chapters’, 106–7, 131–2, 139, 677thrones 130, 600Thule (Scandinavian peninsula) 503Thuringia

Boniface’s mission to 720rebellion of Duke Radulf 385under control of Austrasian Franks 202Wend raids into 378

Thuringians 200, 714dukes of 573Franks and 377, 531

‘thyle’ (zhur), skald or storyteller 517Tiberius II, emperor 113–14

and Chilperic 137foreign policy 113–14, 135marriage alliances 137

Tiberius, son of Maurice 138Tiberius Apsimar, Emperor of the East 303Tigernomaglus, bishop 443Tigris–Euphrates valley, as boundary 291,

296time

dating customs 137measurement of 90

Tintagel, Cornwall 622, 642Tırechan

Irish annalist 412, 419, 422, 423Life of Patrick 238

Tiree, monasteries on 455, 456Tissø, Denmark

‘hall’ settlement 519place name 520

Tisza river, Hunnic empire on 533Toftegard, Denmark, ‘hall’ settlement 519Toldot Yeshu (Jewish Life of Jesus) 561Toledo 370, 678, 681

cultural centre 752Jews in 552metropolitan see of 179, 351, 681mint 670, 671national church councils in 346, 354, 354n,

598, 599as Visigothic capital 368, 600see also Spain, Visigothic kingdom of

Toledo, Arian synod of (580) 192Toledo, Second Council of (531) 179, 744Toledo, Third Council of (589) 137, 347–8, 602,

750

abandonment of Arianism 346, 693, 747and power of king 689regulations against Jews 351

Toledo, Fourth Council of (633) 352, 353, 354,355, 694, 750

Toledo, Fifth Council of 354Toledo, Sixth Council of 355Toledo, Seventh Council of (646) 359Toledo, Twelfth Council of (681) 351, 362, 363,

364Toledo, Thirteenth Council of (683) 363Toledo, Fifteenth Council of 365Toledo, Sixteenth Council of (693) 365Toledo, Seventeenth Council of (694) 366–7

measures against Jews 366–7protection of royal family 367

Toledo, Eighteenth Council of 368Tomi (on Black Sea coast) 116Tongres-Maastricht, bishopric of 392tonsure 205

as disqualification for kingship 355, 362to differentiate ‘Roman’ and ‘Irish’ factions

416, 459Torhthelm, Frankish abbot 763Tortona, castra 158Tortosa (Spain) 172

Jews in 550, 552Totila, king of (Ostro)Goths 127–9, 149, 150, 151,

664and Roman games 159

ToulouseCharibert’s base 379Frankish duke of 209

Toulouse, Visigothic kingdom of 167–71, 174Arianism 167coinage 667Roman law-code 71treasure seized by Clovis 197

Touraine, the 728Frankish duke of 209

Tournaigrave of Childeric I 76, 196, 595Jewish community in 553

Tours 85, 203, 216British bishop in 258church of St Martin 763, 770Jews in 553, 556relations with Merovingian kings 225–7,

228Synod (461) 442Synod (567) 442, 693

Tours, ecclesiastical province of 441towns

archaeology in 76, 77, 85–6emporia (trading centres) 85, 492England 492–3






974 Index

Islamic garrisons 341, 342lack of in Celtic kingdoms 234medieval walled 28, 779Roman, decline of 49, 85, 234, 267, 492use of space in 86see also cities; settlements; wics

Toxandria, Salian Franks in 193trackways, in Anglo-Saxon settlements 278tracts, Celtic 238, 586

on kingship 588, 589see also law tracts, Ireland

tradearchaeology of 85–6between Britain and Europe 435, 441between East and West 137, 138between Roman Empire and barbarians 47in Celtic kingdoms 234commercial 622, 629, 630England 492–3finance for 627, 629, 629nlong-distance 659

throughout Mediterranean 118, 621–3Mediterranean (Roman), with Britain 435and money economy in northern Europe

652–3networks of 284, 285, 493

interregional 628, 633–4, 636–7local 618–19regional 619–20, 632, 633, 636

non-currency (northern Europe) 644North Sea 493patterns of exchange 612problems of inland communities 617revival in Northern Seas area 646, 651–2slaves

England 490, 493, 646Jews as dealers 555, 558, 559, 563

as state redistribution of resources 615‘tied’ 626in wics 493see also Mediterranean trade; merchants;

transporttrade goods

in northern markets 658untraceable 610

trade instruments, weighing scales 643, 644trade routes

in Britain 279, 285, 285nnorthern Europe 650–1

trading posts, beach markets, Northern Seas 644trading stations (‘emporia’) 47, 284, 285, 287

see also wicsTrani, Jews in 550transport

Byzantine imperial 626

inland from ports 656overland 617relative costs 617–18by river 617by sea 617, 618, 621

Transylvania, Slav colonisation of 542Traprain Law, Iron Age site 47, 452Trent, battle of (679) 466, 471Treviso 549, 567Tribal Hidage 282, 284, 467

and evidence of English kingdoms 468–9system of assessment 477

Tribonian, quaestor to Justinian 32, 100, 109, 578tribute

food renders 477, 588forms of, England 477and trade 493see also gift exchange

Tricamarium, battle of (533) 123Trier 196, 657

bishopric of 217, 392capital of Roman prefecture 18, 48funerary monuments 89, 429Jews in 554mint 661, 672sacked by Franks 196

Trim, Ireland 408Trinity, doctrine of 311Tripolitania, Lepcis Magna 43–4Trisagion (liturgical chant) 97, 98triumphs, Roman imperial 575Trondheim, Norway, ‘hall’ settlement 519Troy and Trojan heroes, origin myths 502Trullanum Council see Constantinople,

Quinisext Synodtuatha, Irish political units 240, 261, 397, 587

bishoprics based in 402, 418and church organisation 412, 418grouped into provinces 421, 422

Tubersent, Ponthieu 655Tucci, Spain, mint 670Tuda, bishop of Northumbria 481Tulga, king of the Visigoths 356Tuluin, general to Theoderic 145, 148Tunisia

Albertini Tablets 72pottery production 614, 631

Turks, Central Asia 536Tuscany, coinage 666‘Twelve Abuses of the World’, ‘On the’ (Irish

tract) 239, 586Tyr, in Norse myth 510

Uhud, battle of (625) 333Uı Ailello dynasty 245






Index 975

Uı Bairrche dynasty 422Uı Briuin dynasty, Connacht 245Uı Cheinnselaig, Leinster dynasty 244, 417Uı Dunlainge, Leinster dynasty 244, 411, 417Uı Echach Cobo dynasty 241Uı Fiachrach dynasty, Connacht 245Uı Mail dynasty 417Uı Maine dynasty 245Uı Neill family, Ulster 240, 241–3, 587, 588n

and Armagh 411assemblies 399and Dal Riada 455and kingship of Tara 243–4, 401northern and southern branches 241

Uinniaus, author of earliest penitential 450Ukraine 528

as Slav homeland 527, 529, 530, 532Ulaid, people of Ulster 240, 241–3

conflict with Uı Neill 241expeditions to Man and Scotland 242overkings 244

Uldida, bishop of 347Ulfila, bishop (Visigoth) 711

translation of Bible into Gothic 591, 711Ulster 574

annals 238, 240, 587migration to Scotland from 235, 262politics of 241–3

‘Umar, second caliph 298, 337, 338, 341, 342, 343Umayyad dynasty 299, 343, 344–5

caliphate 341, 343, 582Umayyad Empire 291, 292, 345, 572

ceramic styles 633Damascus (as capital) 582–3economy 635Jewish merchants in 556military administration 329

Uppakra, Sweden, ‘hall settlement’ 520Uppsala, Sweden 517urban prefects (praefectus urbis Romae) 158, 305Urien, British king 247‘Uthman, third caliph 298, 338, 342, 343–4Utrecht 717

bishopric of 392, 729cathedral 649, 655

Utrigurs 536Uzes 553, 672

Va, Sweden, ‘hall settlement’ 520Vaison-la-Romaine, Council at (529) 744Valence, Alans settled in 49Valencia, council held in (546) 180Valens, Emperor of the East 24, 711Valentinian I, emperor 43Valentinian II, Emperor of the West 24, 193

Valentinian III, emperorassassination (455) 140, 162, 164and barbarian coinage 667

Valerian, emperor, capture of 17Valı al-Hurr, Muslim governor of Spain 370Valluk, prince, in Carantania 544Valsgarde, Sweden

‘hall settlement’ 520ship-burial 504, 512, 522

Vandals 169, 533Arian Christians 120, 712coinage 661, 662, 664–5and Gesalic the Visigoth 174invasion of Gaul (406) 49, 712Justinian’s war with (533–4) 122–4North African kingdom 49, 72, 118, 120, 124,

162, 602sack of Rome 140in Spain 52, 165

Vannes 235, 258church council (465) 552diocese of 442episcopal council (462–8) 441

Varnii, land of (Schleswig) 503Vascones, dukes of, and Merovingians 222Vastergotland, Sweden 516Velzen, church at 720Venafro, Campania, Jews in 550Venantius Fortunatus 36, 57, 74, 742

and Byzantium 137funerary inscriptions 89

Vendel (pre-Viking) culture, Sweden 78Vendel, Sweden

‘hall settlement’ 520ship-burial 504, 512, 522

Venerando, Frankish general 353Veneti tribe, Brittany 259Veneti/Venedi/Venethi people, identified with

Slavs 527Venetia, province of 680

Franks in 128, 135occupied by Lombards 112, 152trade 621, 621n

Venosa, Jews in 550Verdun, slave trade entrepot 559Vergil

commentaries on 455illustrated manuscripts of 451, 771on Morin tribe 639

Vergilius Romanus 771Vergilius Vaticanus 771Verona 129, 549Verruca, Italy, castra 158Versio Isidoriana, collection of ecclesiastical law

696






976 Index

Vestfold, Norway 521Vetus Romana, collection of ecclesiastical law

696vicarius comitis, Visigothic administrator 358vici see wicsVictor of Tunnuna, chronicler 131, 170nVictor of Vita 123Victorius of Aquitaine, Easter dating tables 415Vienna Dioskourides, medical handbook 782Vienna Genesis, Greek illuminated manuscript

782Vienne

church of 684Jews in 552, 553–4

Vigilius, pope 106, 126, 130, 132, 685, 700narrest and excommunication 132, 677and papal vicariates 685and Pragmatic Sanction (554) 740

Vikings 659explorations 659piracy 641, 659raid on Hamburg 719

Vilaine, river, as Frankish–Breton boundary 236,258

villa life, Roman 26, 29collapse of in northern Gaul 49

villas, Roman 77post-Roman occupation 84, 267, 287

Vincent, Visigothic dux Hispaniarum 169Vincent, bishop of Saragossa 192Vincentius, Saint 213Vindolanda, Northumberland, Roman tablets

from 71Vinitharius (Gothic leader), wars with Antes 530Vipava river valley 538Virnum (near Klagenfurt) 538Visigothic church 346

Amalaric’s relations with 178Arian 120, 711–12baptism in 702and Chalcedonian controversy 132conversion to Catholicism 191, 192, 347–8,

550, 681, 684, 714, 741local churches 686monasticism 705–6parish organisation 687political power in Spain 346, 349, 359relations with Rome (papacy) 678relations with Sueves 164see also Toledo

Visigothscoinage 661

pseudo-imperial 667–8, 669defeat of Valens (378) 712

and Franks 178, 183, 197, 230, 379defeat by (507) 52, 121, 135, 145, 174

in Gaul 118, 120and Gothic War 129kingship 191, 600, 602Ostrogothic support for 174–7relations with Byzantium 180, 741relations with Empire 167sack of Rome (410) 140and subjugation of Sueves 162–7, 168see also Leovigild; Reccared; Spain, Visigothic

kingdom of; Toulouse, Visigothickingdom of; Visigothic church

visitator, diocesan administrator 683Vita Anskarii 650Vita Patrum Emeritensium (hagiography of

Merida bishops) 346nVita Prima, Life of Brigit 238Vita Sancti Desiderii (Sisebut) 351Vita Patrum 705

see also saints, Lives ofVitalian, magister militum, rebellion against

Anastasius 97, 121Vitalian, pope 700Vitoria (Victoriacum) 185Vivarium, monastery of 705, 745, 747–8Viviers, mint 137, 672Vivilo, bishop of Passau 721Volturno, villa 151Vortigern (Gwrtheyrn), Romano-British leader

50, 252Votadini people, Wales 252, 452‘Vouille’, battle of (507) 52, 145, 174, 197, 197nVron, Ponthieu, Saxon cemetery evidence

643

Waddo, Frankish count 223Wadi Lakka (Guadelete or Barate rivers), battle

of (711) 369Walcheren/Domburg

harbour 646pagan idol at 723, 732trade routes 651wic 647

Waldebert, abbot of Luxeuil 717Wales 251–5

Annales Cambriae 238annals 238, 441border established 255British church in 440

ascetic saints 444Christianity in 432and Easter 448genealogies 239Irish in 235, 235n, 642kingdoms and kingship 252, 253, 261, 282,

574monasticism 434






Index 977

Wales (cont.)place names 432Roman legacy 233, 252source material 237stone inscriptions 237, 429,

431use of ogham alphabet 89vernacular poetry 239n

Wallachia, Slavs in 534, 537Wallia, king of the Visigoths 166wall-painting 770

sacred (iconic) 780Wamba, king of Visigoths 360–2

deposition of 362Wando, abbot 726Wansdyke, frontier earthworks 476Waratto, mayor of the palace in Neustria

391warfare

acquisition of booty 209and authority of kings 46, 592Byzantine use of icons on banners 295in Ireland 246Slavic 524use of cavalry 114, 323see also armies; navies

Warnachar, mayor of Burgundian palace 230,231, 375

Warni tribe, on middle Elbe 531Waroch, Breton count 258, 260, 262warrior-followers 596

of Germanic kings 592Scandinavia 514

Wasperton, Warwicks., cemetery 265Wayland smith 773, 775wealh (status) 265wealth

of Anglo-Saxon leaders (portable) 273, 276,284, 287, 474

of barbarian kings 47, 521of Frankish aristocrats 217of Frankish royal women 227–8and gift-exchange (Scandinavia) 515and grave goods 273, 276, 284of Jewish elite 567–8of Merovingian kings 212, 395

weaponsas male grave goods 272, 276ntraded (Frisia) 652

Wearmouth monastery 686, 763art 766, 770see also Jarrow monastery; Wearmouth-Jarrow

monasteryWearmouth-Jarrow monastery 247, 453, 461,

495, 654choir building 763

literature and arts 494, 707, 755Codex Amiatinus 772

parish duties 686Wells

British church at 447wells, holy, Ireland 402Welsh language, Primitive 232

Latin words borrowed into 235Welsh (Wealas), legal discrimination against 492Wends (Slavs)

in Bohemia 378, 532, 584Dagobert’s campaign against 376, 377and Merovingian Franks 532

wergildapplied to clergy 694for ceorls (Wessex) 491compensation 490

Wessex, kingdom of 280, 463, 467British church in 447, 487Frankish bishops in 473literature (7th century) 494Merovingian gold coins found 285monastic Christianity in 481multiple kings in 468, 475shires 477Tribal Hidage assessment 468

West Heslerton, Yorks., settlement site 274nWest Stow, Suffolk, settlement site 274, 274nWhitby, monastery (double with royal nunnery)

488, 654, 708and influence of Iona 457Latin culture 755and parish duties 686

Whitby, Synod of (664) 448–9, 459–60, 473,481, 602

and independent Anglo-Saxon monasticism707

WhithornLatinus stone 434, 451Ninian’s church at 431, 434–5, 452

wic-gerefan, wic officials 655wics (trading centres) 285, 492, 647

chief sites 647–8, 649–50officials 655royal interest in 654–5see also ‘emporia’

Widsith, Saxon poet 152Widukind, leader of Saxon revolt 733Wiggonholt, Sussex, Roman Christianity at

427Wight, Isle of, kingdom of 463, 467

kings of 475Wihtgara province 282Wilfrid’s mission in 482

Wihtred, king of Kent 478, 484, 574laws of 490






978 Index

Wijnaldum, Frisia, trading post 644Wilfrid, Saint, bishop of Northumbria 391, 448,

473, 481as bishop of York 487, 707buildings 764and Dagobert II 473Life of 69, 388, 463mission to Frisia 717rivalry with Theodore of Canterbury 482–3slaves freed by 492writings (lost books) 494

Willebad ‘the patrician’, in Burgundy 385Willehad, Northumbrian missionary to Bremen

719, 733Willibald, Life of Boniface 573, 650, 720Willibrord, Saint 573, 719, 773

Life of 720mission to Denmark 731, 732as missionary to Frisia 717, 723, 726, 732peregrinatio of 649

Winchester, bishopric 467wine, from Gaza 612, 624wine trade 608

long-distance 618northern Europe 656–8regional 620

Wini, English bishop 487Winnoch, ascetic in Brittany 444Winwaed, the (Leeds), battle of (655) 466Winwaloe, founder of Landevennec monastery

444Witigis, king of Ostrogoths 125–6, 149

plea to Chosroes 108, 126Witiza, king of the Visigoths 367–8Witmen, moneyer 673Witteric, king of the Visigoths 230, 350Woden, god 722

cult of 475, 488, 722, 724as progenitor of Anglo-Saxon kings 283, 474see also Odin

Woerden, church at 720Wogastisburg (Bohemia) 378, 540

Slav stronghold 532women

abbesses of double monasteries 708conhospitae (assistant priests) 442as deaconesses 442, 690in Irish society 397legal rights 30position in late Roman society 30royal Frankish 227–30and royal nunneries 488wives of bishops 693

wool cloth, decorated, Byzantine 783Worcester, St Helen’s church, British origins of

447

WormsJewish community 554, 563trade links 657

Wreocensaete, Tribal Hidage assessment 468writers

sophistication of 63, 451, 739and transition from ‘ancient’ to ‘medieval’ 738use of genre 63–4

writinghistorical 64–8, 95, 238majuscule script (Greek) 783minuscule script, ‘translations’ into 783as monastic activity 706religious 75survival of 736teaching of 757

Wuffa of East Anglia 283Wuffingas family, East Anglia 475, 504Wulfhere, king of Mercia 466Wulfoald, mayor of the palace in Austrasia 386,

389, 390Wulfram of Sens, Life of 720, 726–7Wurzburg

Christian mission to 717diocese of 729

Wylfingas (Wulfings), Scandinavian people 504Wynfrith see Boniface

Xanten, trade links 657xenodochia (hostels) 581, 603

al-Yaqubi, ‘Abbasid historian 327Yarmuk, river, battle of (636) 297, 338Yathrib oasis 318; see also MedinaYazdagird III, king of Persia 324, 338Yeavering, Northumberland, settlement site 275,

278, 284, 287, 474evidence of paganism at 434as royal vill 474, 477, 600theatre building 600

Yemen, early copy of Qur’an from 330Ynglinga kings of Sweden 499, 521‘Ynglingatal’, skaldic poem 521York 464

metropolitan diocese of 480Roman bishopric 426Roman town 492, 642trading centre 285, 649, 652as wic (Eoforwich, Jorvik) 649

Yusuf As’ar, king of Himyar (Dhu Nuwas) 322

Zacharias of MytileneChurch History 96saints’ Lives by 96

Zacharias, patriarch of Jerusalem 295Zacharias, pope 603, 604, 729






Index 979

Zamora province, Spain 184Zarubintsy Culture, Slavic 529Zayd, adopted son of Muhammad

334Zeno, bishop of Seville, as papal vicar

684Zeno, emperor 95, 580

and Odovacer 142, 171, 663

and Ostrogothic coinage issues 663and Theoderic 120, 121

Zoroastrianism 323, 340imposed on Armenia 113in south Arabia 322

Zosimus, Roman historian 40Zotto, Lombard duke of Benevento 153Zulpich, battle of (613) 373






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