69 living in ancient rome

L I V I N G I N …

ANCIENTROME

L I V I N G I N …

Series consultant editor: Norman Bancroft Hunt

ANCIENTROME

LIVING IN ANCIENT ROME

Text and design © 2009 Thalamus Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact:

Chelsea HouseAn imprint of Infobase Publishing132 West 31st StreetNew York, NY 10001

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bancroft-Hunt, Norman.Living in ancient Rome / Norman Bancroft-Hunt. — 1st ed.

p. cm. — (Living in the ancient world)Includes index.ISBN 978-0-8160-6340-6

1. Rome—Civilization—Juvenile literature. I.Title.DG77.B33 2008937--dc22

2008009490

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For Thalamus PublishingSeries consultant editor: Norman Bancroft HuntContributors: Nick Constable, Roger Kean,Angus Konstam,Warren LapworthProject editor:Warren LapworthMaps and design: Roger Kean

Printed and bound in China

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1This book is printed on acid-free paper

Picture acknowledgmentsAll illustrations by Oliver Frey except for – Jean-Claude Golvin: 58 (below), 67 (above); John James/Temple Rogers: 88-89 (left); RogerKean/Thalamus: 14–15 (all), 52 (all), 53 (below), 65, 74 (above), 75 (with Oliver Frey), 91 (above), 92 (inset); Mike White/Temple Rogers: 29(panel, both), 38, 43 (top), 48, 51, 53 (top), 54–55, 56–57 (below), 62–63, 67 (below), 72, 82.

Photographs – Corbis: 8–9;Araldo de Luca/Corbis: 38, 46–47, 50, 51, 75, 93 (all); Mimmo Jodice/Corbis: 33 (below right), 39 (center);Roger Kean/Thalamus: 2, 12 (both), 29 (above), 34-35 (center), 48, 49, 61, 65, 74 (below), 77.

CONTENTS

Introduction

Place in History 6

What Rome Did for Us 7

Italy’s Landscape and Climate 8

A Brief History of Rome, 753 BCE–CE 476 10

Table of Major Dates 14

Chapter 1:The Roman Family at Home

The Paterfamilias and Marriage 16

Children in the Roman Home 18

Education for the Wealthy and the Middle Classes 20

Roman Books and Literature 22

Medicine, Illness, and Death 24

A Roman Domus 26

The Matron’s Role and Slaves 28

Daily Roman Meals 30

In the Kitchen of a Wealthy Domus 32

High-Rise Living 35

Roman Clothes and Fashion 36

Life in the Country 38

Chapter 2: A Working Life

Date and Time—Roman Punctuality 40

Coming of Age 42

A Senator’s Day 44

Shops and Shopkeepers 46

The Major Crafts 48

Builders and Building 52

Farming 54

A Life Under Arms 56

Chapter 3: Economy and Roman Law

The Amazing Roman Road Network 61

Along a Roman Road 62

Military and Merchant Shipping 64

Ports and Warehousing 66

Money, Banking, and Treasuries 68

The Roman Legal System 70

Crime and Punishment 72

The Roman Water Supply 74

Chapter 4: Religion and Relaxation

Spirits, Deities, and a State Religion 76

Gods and Goddesses 78

The Major Religious Festivals 80

In the Arena 83

A Day at the Races 84

The Theater and Domestic Games 88

A Day at the Baths 90

Glossary 94

Index 96

Place in History

6000 BCE

4000 BCE

3500 BCE

2340 BCE

1900 BCE

1600

BCE

1100

BCE

539

BC

E

3100 BCE

2686 BCE

2200BCE

2040BCE

1782

BCE

1570

BCE

1070

BCE

747

BCE

332

BC

E 30B

CE

2600 BCE11

00BC

E

800

BC

E

500

BC

E 146B

CE

753

BC

E

509

BC

E 27B

CE

7

In a history of over 1200 years,

Rome grew from a primitive

settlement on the Tiber’s banks

into the most powerful empire of

the ancient world. Rome provided

Europe, much of the Middle East,

and North Africa with a unified

social, legal, and administrative

system, as well as a common

language that was the basis of many

European tongues thereafter.The

Romans quantified time and the

calendar, they gave Europe a

superb road network, concrete

bridges, a postal system, central

heating, piped fresh water,

enormous public baths, and

monumental civic buildings. In the

Roman world, we see the

culmination of ancient Eurasian

culture in about every respect that

can be imagined.

476C

E

800CE

1200 CE

1350 CE

1450 CE

1000 CE

1600

INTRODUCTION

What Rome Did for Us

In some respects, Italy shares manygeographical similarities with Greece.

As a peninsula, it has a great deal of coastlinerelative to its total area. Unlike the Greeks,however, the Roman never became happyseafarers. Italy is also a mountainous place—only about one-fifth of the land is classifiedas plain, much of which is concentrated inthe valley of the River Po.

To the north, Italy is cut off from the restof Europe by the barrier of the Alps, whilethe Apennines running down the center splitthe peninsula into two unequal halves.Running closer to the eastern seaboard, theApennines reduce the coastal plain to anarrow strip, poor for agriculture.

Add to this the few and small rivers thatrun into the Adriatic Sea, which often dryup in the hot summers, and it is easy to seewhy ancient settlements were few and farbetween to the east of the mountains.

By contrast, the wider plains of theTyrrhenian coast west of the Apenninesregion, especially in the Campania, werecapable of supporting a greater concentrationof agriculture.Two respectably sized rivers—the Tiber and Arno—provided a plentifulwater supply and a means of navigationinland.

The farming land supported a wide rangeof livestock and market gardening, but therewas less land for growing cereals.As thepopulation increased, Italy came to rely onalternative sources for grain to mill for breadflour, first Sicily, then North Africa and—most importantly—Egypt.This reliance onoverseas sources posed a threat to Romewhen, for one reason or another, the supplywas interrupted.A failure of the grain supplyinevitably led to riots in the streets.

In ancient times, while the Po valley was afertile region, most of the eastern half wassubject to heavy flooding in the winters andmarshy for much of the year.As a result,civilizations grew up on the western side, asthey did in the center.

To the south, theCalabrian region ismountainous, and theeastern Apulian area isarid through lack ofrainfall, so neither wassuited to nurturingcivilization.

The main lines ofcommunication in central Italyfrom the coast to the interior werealong the rivers, especially the Tiber.Themost strategic point on the river, the highestpoint for heavy river traffic to reach and thelowest crossing point to connect with thenorth-south coastal traffic, was wherelegendary Romulus plowed a sacred furrowand founded his tiny settlement.

Here, too, were plenty of resources, goodpine and beech trees for timber, stone forbuilding, and clay pits for making tiles,bricks, and pottery.

8


Italy’s Landscape and ClimateAt its peak, the Roman Empire spanned from Scotland toIraq, from Romania to Morocco. But it is the geography ofItaly that dictated Roman culture and civilization.

13

1. Cerveteri (Caeare)2. Veii3. Fidenae4. Ostia (Antiqua)5. Rome6. Tibur (Tivoli)7. Lavinum8. Ardea9. Alba Longa10. Lanuvium11. Velitrae (birthplaceof Augustus)12. Antium (birthplaceof Caligula)

13. Tyrrhenian Sea14. Site of Portus, thenew port for Rome builtby Claudius and laterextended by Trajan (nowRome’s internationalairport).15. Lake Bracciano16. River Tiber(artificially enhanced tomake its course morevisible).17. Western edge of theAppenine Mountains18. Lake Alba

9

INTRODUCTION

Rome

Naples

Genoa

I T A L Y

Po Val l ey

SARDINIA

T Y R R H E N I A NS E A

CORSICA

SICILY

AD

RI A

TI C

SE

A

A P P E

NI N

E

S

14

15

16

17

18

C

C

E

45

12

10

8

11

9

6

1

2

3

7

Area of photograph

Long before the Romans, a great part ofthe western seaboard was occupied by

the Etruscans.This mysterious people hadalready developed a sophisticated civilization,with substantial cities, paved roads, sewagesystems, and complex religious and funeraryrites.The Romans later borrowed heavilyfrom the Etruscans.

Other tribes coexisted with theEtruscans—Samnites, Umbrians, Sabines, andLatins. In its earliest phase, the area aroundthe small settlement of Rome was sharedbetween these tribes, and Rome’s kings weredrawn from among the Latins, Sabines, andEtruscans.Tradition states that Romulus

created the institution of a Senate to be theking’s advisors.

Birth of a RepublicAt about the same time that Athensexperimented with democracy, the senatorstired of the tyrannical reign of Etruscan kingLucius Tarquinius II and threw him out. Inhis place they created a government calledrespublica, meaning “a matter for the people”.

As Rome’s “luck” drew in more of theneighboring villages, so the pressure on landincreased and Rome began competing withmore distant settlements. Following theGreek example, Roman expansion took the

10


A Brief History of Rome, 753 BCE–CE 476Rome’s history is one of increasingly sophisticated administrative and politicalinstitutions controlling a “citizen-army” that dominated the known world of the West.

1 23

4

5

6 7

89

11

12

13

13A

B

C

Rome c.500 BCE

1. Sublican bridge overthe Tiber.

2. Portus (harbor).

3. Forum Boarium(beef market).

4. Circus Maximus.

5. Tarpeian Rock(traitors are thrownfrom it).

Ri v

e rT i b e r

Eventual route ofthe Appian Way

Rome c.500 BCE

form of founding colonies at the edges ofothers’ territory, and then taking it over.Between 499 and 290 numerous warsbrought Rome the control of Latium, theApennines, and most of Campania.

Between 280 and 272, the Greek coloniesto the south were brought to heel, despitethe aid of King Pyrrhus of Epirus, whobrought over an army to help the Greeks.He won battles but lost more men than theRomans and finally Pyrrhus returned home.

War with CarthageIn the next stage of expansion, Romanambitions turned toward the Greek-Carthaginian island of Sicily, which sparkedoff the three Punic Wars. Romans called theCarthaginians of North Africa Poeni,meaning Phoenicians, and the First PunicWar raged in 264–241. Carthage was a navalpower, and for the first time the Roman

military machine had to cope with the seaand ships. Innovation won out over sailors’fear and inexperience, and Carthage wasforced to sue for peace.

However, before long Carthage had builtan empire in Spain, and it was from here thatthe nobleman Hannibal took the war backto Italy in 218, famously marching his armyover the Alps during winter and taking theRomans by surprise. Hannibal raided almostfreely throughout Italy for the next 15 years,defeating one Roman army after anotherand almost capturing Rome.

Rome’s growing empireRome fought back by invading Spain andeventually threatening Carthage itself.Hannibal was recalled from Italy and hisarmy finally fell before the military skill ofthe Roman general Gnaeus Scipio. Helanded in Africa in 203 and defeatedHannibal’s army at Zama the following year.

For their part in supporting Carthage, theMacedonians were the next to feel Romanmight. Springing from a beachhead on theIllyrian coast obtained between 229–219,Macedon was humbled in a series of wars,and by 146 all of Greece was a part of theexpanding Roman Empire. In the same yearCarthage was wiped out in the Third Punic

11

INTRODUCTION

10

13

D

E

F

G

6. Capitol hill withTemple of Jupiter.

7. Arx with Temple ofJuno Moneta.

8. Palatine, later filledby the imperial palaces.

9. Forum Romanum,subject to flooding fromthe gulch between theCapitol and Palatine.

10. Subura district

11. Cemetery

12. Field of Mars

13. Servian Wall

Geographic features:A Caelian HillB Aventine HillC Lake CamenarumD Quirinal HillE Viminal HillF Esquiline HillG Oppian Hill

Roman territorial gains by:

500 BCE

290 BCE

272 BCE

218 BCE

Greek-colonized area

RomeTarquinia

Ariminum

Aquileia

Genoa

CORSICA

SARDINIA

SICILY

A F R I C A

T Y R R H E N I A N

S E A

The unification of Italy

Capua

Naples

SyracuseCarthage

AD

R I A T I CS E A

War.The site remained desolate until JuliusCaesar founded a Roman colony there.

By the start of the 1st century BCE, thepower of the legions and whoevercommanded them had become thedominant factor in Roman politics. Newmen, often opposed to the Senate, foughteach other for control. First Gaius Mariusbecame dictator in 87 BCE, then LuciusCornelius Sulla in 82.After him, Pompey“the Great,” Crassus, and the young JuliusCaesar vied for power. Caesar’s military skills,honed during his astonishingly successfulconquest of Gaul in 58–52, eventuallybrought him to the dictatorship in 47.

The imperial eraBut Caesar’s ambitions made him manyenemies in the Senate and when a group ofSenators assassinated him in 44, it began aseries of bitter civil wars.These lasted until31 BCE, when Caesar’s adopted son Octaviandefeated his rival Mark Antony in a navalbattle at Actium. It left Octavian undisputedruler of the Roman Empire.

Because of his dominant position and aclever use of his power, in 27 BCE, Octavianwas effectively handed the right of perpetualrule by the Senate, and given the titleAugustus.The Julio-Claudian dynasty thatAugustus founded ended with the suicide ofthe mad emperor Nero in 68CE.

From this point on,Rome’s history is one ofsucceeding dynastiesconquering ever moreterritory, but also realizing alimit to expansion.Theempire’s very successattracted more and more“barbarian” tribes to gatherenviously on its borders.

Later emperors provedunequal to the task ofkeeping the barbarians at bay,and the destruction by Goths of two-thirdsof the Roman legions at Hadrianople in 378CE paved the way for the eventual collapse ofthe Western Roman Empire in 476.Theeastern half went on to become the GreekByzantine Empire, which lasted until almostthe end of the medieval period.

Rome’s social and political structureThe social and political systems that grew upduring the period of the Republic (from 509to 27 BCE) continued into the early imperialera. However, since this book is about the“ideal” Roman period CE 100–235, many ofthe famous institutions known from the lateRepublic had fallen into disuse by this time.It is, therefore, useful to look at how thingshappened in earlier time periods.

The Roman classesThe people who live within the empire fallinto two broad groups: cives (citizens) andperegrini (foreigners). In an earlier age

“citizen” meant a free man wholived in the city of Rome orwhose parents were bothRomans, but by the time ofAugustus (27 BCE–14 CE) manyprovincials were citizens.

Only citizens were allowed tovote in elections. Provincials didnot have the full rights ofcitizens, but were expected topay the taxes that citizens didnot.This changed in the 3rdcentury CE, when citizenshipwas given to every free man inthe empire.

In the early imperial era, three classes ofcitizens are recognized. Patricians aredescended from the “original” families ofRome, in effect the wealthy landowners andpolitical leaders. Members of the EquestrianOrder (knights) are called equites.They aredescendants of the first Roman cavalry and

12


Dressed in their togas,Senators parade in afrieze on the Ara PacisAugustae (Altar ofRoman Peace), whichcelebrates the peacethat Augustus Caesar,the first emperor, hasbrought to the world

Front of the SenateHouse or Curia Julia,built by Julius Caesar (K in the pictureopposite). Standing inthe Forum, it can holdall the Senators.

represent the middle class of businessmenand civil servants. Plebeians, or plebs, are themass of poor citizens, descended fromfarmers and traders.

Republican governmentThe original Senate was a body of a hundredmen of patrician families. Later, the numberof Senators increased until it reached 600.Tobe admitted to the Senate a man has toqualify by having a minimum income.Senators are forbidden to engage in trade, sotheir wealth comes from the ownership ofland and the profits from agriculture.

Each year, the citizens in an electionknown as an Assembly, select certain senatorsto be government magistrates (officials).

Plebeian powerIn the 4th century BCE, the plebs challengedthe patricians to be allowed to becomesenators and set up the concilium plebis tributa,or Popular Assembly. Each year the Assemblychose officials called “tribunes” to protect

their interests.Tribunes had the right to veto(stop) any law passed by the Senate that didnot suit the plebs. In time, even plebs gainedthe right to become Senators and get electedas a consul—if they met the incomequalification.

Imperial governmentAs the first emperors gathered the variousfunctions of government to themselves,many of the old institutions and magistraciesfell into disuse.The tribunes were abolished(the emperor called himself the “people’stribune”). Consuls were chosen by theemperor, who also appointed his ownprovincial governors.The offices of praetor,aedile, and quaestor were incorporated withinthe imperial bureaucracy, and the Senatebecame little more than a debating club toadvise (or hinder) the emperor.

Although toward the end of the RomanEmpire the Senate had no real power togovern, it continued to exist until even afterthe fall of the Western Roman Empire.

13

The Forum in the 3rd century CEF. = Forum T. = TempleA. = Arch

A Forum BoariumB CapitolC ArxD TabulariumE T. Castor & PolluxF Basilica JuliaG T. of SaturnH T. of VespasianI T. of ConcordJ A. of Septimius

SeverusK Curia (Senate house)L F. of Julius CaesarM F. of NervaN Basilica AemiliaO T. of Julius CaesarP A. of AugustusQ T. of Vesta

A

E

F

G H I

J

K

NO

PQ

B C

L

M

D

14

PEOPLEANDCULTURE

MAJORTIMEFRAMES

MILITARYANDPOLITICS

• Rome founded byRomulus, centered onthe Palatine Hill,April 21, 753• Primitive huts onthe Palatine• Roman Forum laidout in the swampbetween Palatine,Capitoline, andQuirinal Hills• First stonebuildings in Rome• Ancus Marciusbuilds the first bridgeacross Tiber, c.620

• The Sabine NumaPompilius succeedsRomulus, 715–673• Ancus Marciusexpands Rome’spopulation withpeoples of conqueredcities, 640–616 • Reign of Tarquin I,616–579

• Temple of Saturn(housing the treasury)is built in the Forum,497• Temple of Castor,484• Laws of the TwelveTables, a codificationof Roman law, aredrawn up, 450

• Servius Tulliusreorganizes army,tribes, and createsthe ComitiaCenturiata, 579–534• Start of RomanRepublic with oustingof Tarquin II, 509• Romans defeatneighboring Latins atLake Regillus, 499• Magistrates andtribunes appointed tocare for the city ofRome, 494• Rome joins Latin League, 493

• Walls aroundRome’s seven hillsrebuilt and madestronger, 387• First military road,the Appian Way, isbegun, 312• First aqueduct, theAqua Appia, is builtby Appius Claudius,c.310

• Ten-year siege ofVeii ends as Romanstake the Etruscancity, 396• Gauls defeatRomans at Allia andthen sack Rome, 387• Patricians andplebeians share theconsulship, 367• Rome dissolvesLatin League afterdefeating itsmembers in the LatinWar, 340–338• Roman conquestand colonization ofItaly begins, 334• Second SamniteWar, 327–304

• Extensive buildingof temples in Rome

• Rome defeatsSamnites (ThirdSamnite War), andgains mastery ofcentral Italy, 298–290• Committees ofPlebs allowed tomake laws withoutSenate approval, 287• Pyrrhus of Epirusinvades Italy,280–275• First Punic War withCarthage, Rome gainsSicily, 264–241• Gauls invade Italy,defeated at Telamon,255• Second Punic War,218–202• Rome sides withAchaean League inGreece during theFirst Macedonian War,214–205

• Porcius Cato theElder constructs theBasilica Porcia in theRoman Forum, c.184• Basilica Aemiliaand Aemilian Bridge,179

• Romans defeatPhilip of Macedon,ending SecondMacedonian War, 197• Rome defeatsGreek Seleucids atThermopylae, drivingthem from Europe,191• Third Punic Warends with destructionof Carthage,149–146• Rome defeatsAchaean League,destroys Corinth, andadds Greece to theempire, 146• Southern Gaul isadded to empire, 123• Gaius Mariusdefeats Numidians inNorth Africa, 106• Against tradition,Marius is a consulseven times, 107,104–100, and 86

Table of Major DatesBCE 800 600 400 300 200

Early Republic509–c.280

Archaic Period, Age of Kings753–509

Middle Republicc.280–146

The Lapis Niger stone,

Rome’s oldest public

document, dates from

c.500 BCE.

A section of the Aqua

Appia, built in 310 BCE,

which brought fresh

water to Rome.

Statuette of a lictor

official of the 3rd

century BCE.

15

INTRODUCTION

• Theater of Pompey,55; Forum of JuliusCaesar, 46; Arch ofAugustus, 21; Bathsof Agrippa (first majorpublic baths), 19;Theater of Marcellus,17; Ara PacisAugustae (peacealtar), 9; Forum ofAugustus, 2• Writers: Sallust,Livy, Virgil, Horace,Ovid

• Gaius Marius isdictator of Rome, 87• Social War, 91–89• Civil War betweenMarius and Sulla,88–86• Sulla is dictator ofRome, 82–80• Revolt of slaves ledby Spartacus is putdown by MarcusCrassus, 73–71• Caesar, Pompey,and Crassus formFirst Triumvirate, 60• Caesar’s armyconquers Gaul, 58–52• Caesar is dictatorof Rome, 49–44• Second Triumvirateis formed, 43• Octavian defeatsMark Antony atActium, 31• Octavian takescontrol of Rome, 27,becomes Augustus

• Flowering of latinliterature: Lucan,Senecca, Martial,Pliny the Elder, Plinythe Younger, Tacitus,Josephus• Christians areblamed for the Fireof Rome, 64• Eruption ofVesuvius buriesPompeii andHerculaneum, 79• Colosseumdedicated, 79

• Julio-Claudianemperors,27 BCE–68 CE

• Conquest of Britainunder Claudius, 43• First Jewish revolt,66–73• Rebellion of Vindexin Gaul, 68• Flavian emperors,69–96• Temple of Solomonin Jerusalemdestroyed, 70• Dacian Wars,86–92

• Trajan’s Forum andMarket, 112• Pantheon rebuilt,118–128• Hadrian’s Villa atTibur (Tivoli) 126–134• Juvenal (satirist),Seutonius (historian),Apuleius (novelist)• Hadrian codifiesRoman Law, c.129

• Nervo-Trajanicemperors, 96–138• Trajan invadesDacia, 101, adds it tothe empire, 106• Nabataea becomesthe Roman provinceof Arabia, 106• Second Jewishrevolt, 132–135• Antonine emperors,138–192• Germanicbarbarians invadeDanube frontier, 167• Civil war bringsSeptimius Severus tothe throne, 193–197

• Severus enhanceshis birthplace in NorthAfrica, Leptis Magna• Baths of Caracallabuilt at Rome, 216• Aurelian builds newwall around Rome,271• Cassius Dio,Herodian (historians);Eusebius (Christiantheologist)

• Severan emperors,193–235• Reorganization ofthe army furtherremoves senatorialcontrol 200–211• Caracalla extendscitizenship to all freeinhabitants of theprovinces, 212• Breakaway GallicEmpire, 259–273• Queen Zenobia’sPalmyrene rebellion,266–272• Aurelian abandonsprovince of Dacia tothe barbarians, 272• Rebellion in Britain,287–296• Establishment ofthe Tetrarchy (rule offour) by Diocletian,293

• Persecution ofChristians, 303–305• Edict of Milantolerates Christianityin the empire, 313• Constantinopleconsecrated as newimperial capital, 330• Julian “Apostate”fails to revivepaganism, 361–363• Claudian (poet);Lactantius (theologistand commentator);AmmianusMarcellinus (historian)

• Tetrarchic civil warsend with Constantineas sole ruler,311–324• Valentian dynasty,364–392, later underdominion ofTheodosian dynastyafter 379• Goths allowed tosettle inside Danubefrontier, 376• Goths defeatRoman army ofValens atHadrianople, 378• Goths invadeGreece, destroySparta, 395• Division of theempire into East andWest, 395

• Ravenna becomesWestern imperialcourt, 402• Last Roman forcesleave Britain, whichsoon falls prey toAnglo-Saxoncolonizers, 408• Theodosian lawcode compiled, 429,and extended, 437

• Massed tribes ofGermans cross Rhineand overrun Gaul,406–407• Vandals enterSpain, 409–428• Alaric’s Visigothssack Rome, 410• Toulouse becomescapital of Gothickingdom in Gaul, 418• Vandals cross toNorth Africa, 428, setup kingdom, 439• Vandals of NorthAfrica under Gaisericsack Rome, 455• Regime of “puppetemperors” in Italy,455–476• Last emperor of theWest, RomulusAugustus, is deposedby Odoacer, 476• Barbarian kings atRavenna, 476–540

100 CE 100 200 300 400 500

Late Republic146–30

Imperial Period Western Empire

Eastern Empire

Left: Head of Sulla. Coin of Constantine.

Colosseum, 79.

Coin of Odoacer,

King of Italy, 476.

At the head of every Roman family is the paterfamilias (father of the

family).The family includes his wife,their children, his sons’ wives andchildren, any unmarried sisters, aunts,grandmothers, and all their property andslaves.The paterfamilias is responsible forthe welfare of his family, ensures everyoneobserves the Roman virtues, and is head ofthe household worship (see page 76 ).

The typical paterfamilias can trace hisancestry back for generations, even to thefounding of Rome according to thosewho like to boast. In the same way, heexpects his sons to continue the family nameinto the unknowable future.To this end,people are encouraged to marry young andhave as many children as possible. For achildless couple, there is sometimes thechance to adopt (see page 18 ).

16

CHAPTER 1

The Roman Family at HomeThe Paterfamilias and MarriageWithin the Roman family, there is much greater intimacy between a husband andwife than in Greece, where men and women see relatively little of each other. To theRomans, the concept of family is very important—it is the cornerstone of society.

The wealthy senatorMaximus Valeriusstands with hisyoungest son, Quintus,his wife and daughter,at the head of hisextended family, whichincludes his older sonsand their families, andmembers of the oldergeneration.

Getting engaged to be marriedMarriages are usually arranged betweenfamilies for business, political, or socialreasons—the feelings of the young couplefor each other are rarely taken into account.Although in theory the wife is subject to herhusband’s will, in practice Roman matronsexercise great influence over the householdand have their say over a child’s futurespouse. Girls may be betrothed at birth andallowed to marry at the age of 12, but mostwait until they are 14.

The financial arrangement betweenhusband and wife depends on the marriagecontract made. In some cases the bride’smoney will become the property of herhusband’s father, but in imperial times this israrer and women often retain control oftheir own belongings.

A feast is held to mark the betrothal, andthe marriage contract agreed between thetwo fathers and written out. On the nightbefore the wedding, the bride offers all herchildhood toys and belongings to the gods atthe household shrine (see also page 76).

After the fathers-in-law have signed thecontract, the chief bridesmaid takes thebride’s hand and joins it with the groom’s.He places a ring on the third finger of thebride’s left hand, over which she pledges herloyalty to him and promises to follow himin all things.

After the ceremony, it is customary forthe families and their guests to enjoy afeast at the house of the bride’s fatherbefore the newlyweds lead a processionto the groom’s home.Torch-bearerslight the way and flutists play cheerymusic.When they arrive, the bridesmears the doorposts with fat andoil, and adds wreaths of wool.Thenher husband lifts her up and carries herover the threshold in an act of ritualabduction (see “The Sabine Women”).

Roman divorceIn early Rome, divorce was rare and onlyhappened if the husband desired it. By theend of the Republic, divorces had becomemore frequent among the patricians andwealthier equestrian class of citizen.

In the imperial period anyone—husbandor wife—may divorce without giving areason, so long as he or she shouts,“I divorceyou!” three times in front of a citizen actingas a witness.

17

CHAPTER 1: THE ROMAN FAMILY AT HOME

The wedding ceremonyWedding days must be carefully chosen toavoid the many unlucky days in the Romancalendar (see pages 40–41 ).The bride’s houseis decorated with garlands of flowers andcolored ribbons.When the guests arrive, apriest takes the “auspices” and asks the godsif the day is favorable.The bride wears awhite tunic and a vivid orange veil over hertraditionally braided hair.

The Sabine WomenIn legend, Romulus broke away fromothers of his tribe and, with a band ofoutcasts, founded Rome on the PalatineHill. He became concerned that therewere insufficient women to ensure thesurvival of the new state, so he arranged afeast for the neighboring tribe of Sabines,who lived on the Quirinal Hill, the mostnortherly of the seven hills of Rome.

The “Romans” plied the Sabine menwith alcohol, and when they werethoroughly drunk, Romulus and hissupporters seized their wives anddaughters. Fortunately, the women fell inlove with their captors and ultimatelyforced their men to make peace betweenRomans and Sabines.

The bridegroom carrieshis new wife across thethreshold of his home, atradition dating back toRome’s earliest dayswhen the largely malesettlement stole womenfrom the neighboringSabine tribe.

After her marriage, the teenaged wifelooks forward to having children with

some fear—and for good reason. Childbirthis a dangerous process, the infant death rate ishigh (as many as one in every three), andmany unfortunate girls die while giving birththrough the lack of proper medical care.

Although the parents want to see theirsons and daughters having lots of offspring,most families must be content with two orthree children—among which ideally thereshould be at least one son.

In a family where no male heir arrives, itis customary to adopt one.This might beeither from near or distant relatives who arenot capable of providing for their son, orfrom another family lucky to have severalboys, and for whom an alliance will besocially useful.The adopted son takes hisadoptive father’s name and receives all therights that a natural son would enjoy.

The naming daySoon after the successful birth of a son, theproud father takes the baby in his arms andlifts him up before the members of thehousehold to prove his paternal bond.A fewdays later comes an occasion almost asimportant as the birth—the dies lustricus, ornaming day.The custom of handing downnames to children is of great significance toRomans.

A boy’s name is normally composed ofthree parts.The praenomen (given name),nomen (family name, referring to the gens, orclan), and cognomen (nickname, although itmeans more and often describes theparticular branch of the family, see “Namingconventions”). Girls are not usuallydistinguished by a cognomen, and often takethe praenomina of their fathers or mothers,even if three girls should end up withidentical names.When that happens, theeldest is referred to as Major, the younger asMinor, and—if there is a third—she is calledTer tia, which means “Third.”

18


Children in the Roman HomeMost parents take their responsibilities very seriously and tryto make sure their children grow up to be respectful sons anddaughters—model citizens of the future.

Fact boxEmperorAugustus adoptedno less than five“sons” in hisefforts to obtainan heir. Onlyone—his stepsonTiberius—survived tobecome emperorafter him.

Rome’s first emperor,Caesar Augustus, whoencouraged his citizensto have many children,only had a daughter byhis first marriage. Hebecame the stepfatherof his second wife’s twosons by her firstmarriage. Sadly, theelder, named Drusus,died early, leavingTiberius (below), whoAugustus did not like.

To the proudfather, the infantson cradled inhis arm is theprospect of abright future forthe family clan.This figure is from asarcophagus. Many days mother is

happy to leave the careof the baby to a maid.

Unruly boys are neverfar from the wrath oftheir stern father.

Romans rarely spell out a person’s fullname. It is not necessary because not manyfirst names or praenomenina are used. Sinceeveryone knows them, they are written asonly the capital letter or an abbreviation.This list contains the most popular names.

A. = Aulus N. = NumeriusApp. = Appius P. = PubliusD. = Decimus Q. = QuintusC. = Gaius Ser. = ServiusCn. = Gnaeus Sex. = SextusK. = Kaeso Sp. = SpuriusL. = Lucius Ti. = TiberiusM. = Marcus T. = Titus

There are more nicknames, or cognomina inuse.This is useful because if only praenominawere used people would get confused as towhom anyone was referring! These rangefrom honorifics voted for military victories,such as “Africanus,” to personalcharacteristics. Latin is a robust languageand some cognomina are unflattering—rude,sarcastic, or witty.The list on the rightcontains some common nicknames.

19

After the joyous naming ceremony, thefather hangs a good-luck charm, known as abulla, around the child’s neck.This will wardoff the numina (evil spirits) and is wornthroughout childhood. Boys only give uptheir bulla when they take up the toga ofmanhood (see pages 42–43 ), girls on theirwedding day.

Early educationUntil it is time for serious education tobegin, young children are looked after bytheir mothers, or by a household slave girl.For boys, games such as blindman’s buff,leapfrog, and knuckle-bones are popular.Children build toy houses, use whips andspinning tops, roll hoops, and play on swings.Rag and clay dolls are favorites with girls.

For boys, schooling might begin at home,under father’s stern eye or under the tutelageof a litterator, a hired slave to act as a teacher.But by the time they reach the age of seven,education begins in earnest.


Latin English Africanus conqueror of AfricaAgelastus never smilesAhenobarbus bronze (red)-beardedAlbinus white-skinned or paleBestia a beastBritannicus conqueror of BritainBrocchus buck-toothedBrutus animal stupidityCaecus blindCaepio onion sellerCaesar fine head of hairCalvus baldCaprarius a goatCarbo a cinder, burned outCato shrewd/highly strungCatulus pup, or cubCicero chickpeaCotta splash of wineCrassus thickCunctator one who holds backDives heavenlyFlaccus big earsGalba potbellyGermanicus conqueror of GermanyLentulus tardy, or slowLepidus wonderful man

Latin English Mactator butcherMagnus greatMaximus greatestMetellus a mercenaryMus mouseNasica nosyNepos grandfatherNerva stringy, or toughPiso I grind downPius loyal sonPorcella pigletPostumus born after father’s deathRavilla talked himself hoarseRufus red-hairedRuso country bumpkinScaevola left-handedScaurus swollen feetScipio a ceremonial rodSilanus ugly flat faceSilo flat-nosedStrabo cross-eyedTubero hump-backed, or

immoralVarro bandy-leggedVatia knock-kneedVerrucosis wart-covered

How Romans are named

Above: A child’s good-luckcharm: thebulla.

The boys are intent on about of knuckle-bones,

like the ones seenhere.

Tired of their dolls,these girls play an

energetic gameof ball.

Agirl concentrates on what she will needto know to become a good wife and

mother. However, the ancient tradition ofthe Roman matron training to be like herGreek counterpart, sitting at home spinningand weaving, has largely disappeared.

The wealthy Roman wife has plenty ofslaves to do her domestic chores, and plentyof stores selling clothes, bed linen, andfurnishings.Therefore old, virtuous matronlyskills are rarely learned.This allows for timefor girls to concentrate on learning from aprivate tutor how to read and write.

Boys may also be tutored at home, butmost are sent to a school once they areseven, where they have a harder time than

their sisters at home.There is no publiceducation system as in Greece.The Romanludus or primary school is fee-paying, usuallyonly a single room in a house, or a part of ashop curtained off from the street.The bestludi magistri or school masters are Greeks,who teach classes of up to 12 boys.

Lessons start with learning the alphabet,and to read and write in Latin and Greek.Exercises are done with a metal or bonestylus to write on a wooden tablet coatedwith wax.When the space is used up, thewax can be scraped off and a fresh layerquickly applied. Some tablets have severalwooden “leaves,” attached with cord on oneedge, to make a sort of book.

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Education for the Wealthy and the Middle ClassesAmong the privileged classes, both boys and girls go to schools of their own,although for girls the education is more basic and ends at around the age of 12,when they might be expected to marry.

A new arrival takes aworried peek into thecramped classroomlocated at the rear of agrocery store. Whilesome of the pupilsscribble exercises ontheir tablets, one boyeagerly recites a poemhis teacher has givenhim to memorize.

Secondary educationAt about the age of 11, some boys go to agrammaticus (secondary or high school), wherethey learn philosophy, history, geography,higher mathematics, music, and astronomy.Romans respect the knowledge of the Greeksso learning Greek is an important part of thegrammaticus curriculum.

One purpose of secondary education is toprepare the student for study with a teacherof public speaking called a rhetor.The sons ofsenators, state officials, or senior military menstart this training for their future political lifeat about the age of 14.

Speak up or be ignoredAnyone who wants to become a politicianor a lawyer must be able to speak well inpublic, otherwise they will remainunnoticed…and unelected to office.Thevery wealthy send their sons to Athens tolearn from the best Greek teachers inrhetoric (the art of speaking in public).

Training in rhetoric can take manyyears—the famous orator Cicero continuedhis studies until he was almost 30. But theexpense of secondary education means fewpoor people become politicians or lawyers.

Children of the poorest citizens may notreceive any education at all, because theirparents need them to go out to work as soonas they are able.The best will becomeapprenticed to craftsmen, but the laziest willbecome part of the “mob,” the rabble thatthrongs Rome’s streets, fed by the corn dole(see page 31,“Food for the poor” ).

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The writing stylus has a flat scraper at oneend for erasing small errors.When an exerciseis finished and checked by the teacher, thepupil can erase the whole work bywiping a warmed cloth over the waxsurface, making it ready to use again.

Discipline is harsh, and slackersrisk frequent thrashings with the cane, leatherthong, or eel-skin strap. Fathers expect no lessof the hired teacher—endurance of pain isgood training for the future soldiers of theempire. Richer families send a specializedservant called a litterator along to the luduswith the boy, to make sure he behaves welland applies himself to his lessons.The litteratorcan also apply the rod if his pupil slacks.

Left: Wax tablets areused for taking notes,quick dictation, ormilitary messages.For writing on paper orparchment, ink andpens of sharpened reedare used.

The young man whoeither fails in hisrhetoric lessons orwhose family lacks themoney to educate himwill end up as part ofthe Roman mob.

School discipline isharsh. Stern fathersexpect the teacherto lay on the rodwhen their sonsmisbehave.

Educated Romans are fond of reading, andmost cities have numerous publishers and

book stores supplying wealthy individuals’private shelves. Larger temples and publicbaths often contain libraries, usually one forGreek books and one for Latin.The booksare long scrolls made from papyrus in theEgyptian method (see “Paper-making” ). Insome cases, parchment made from washedanimal skins is used, but its weight makes ascroll cumbersome and heavy.

Books take a long time to produce,because each copy is written out by hand.A publisher’s workshop is a busy place, filledby scribes—usually Greek slaves—makingendless copies of an author’s original script.The text is written in columns, working fromleft to right along the length of the scroll.This might be as much as 30 feet in length.Completed scrolls are kept in leather caskets.

The copying process is one of mass

production. In each work group of anythingbetween three or four to as many as tenscribes, a hired man sits and reads aloud theauthor’s text.The scribes then take down thedictation.When there is a rush job to bedone, scribes work in shifts throughout thenight, but the copying can often becomesloppy, resulting in furious authorsthreatening to take their work elsewhere.

Rome’s famous writersRoman authors are famous for prose stories,poetry, histories, plays, military handbooksand memoirs, and satires. Julius Caesar’sCommentaries are memoirs about the Gallicand Civil Wars, but he is known for otherbooks, including one on jokes.

Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horace, 65–8BCE) is Rome’s greatest poet and satirist.Decimus Junius Juvenalis (Juvenal,c.50/70–127 CE) is known for his satires on

22

Roman Books and LiteratureAlthough Romans up to the mid-Republican era regarded literary writing withsuspicion as an effeminately Greek habit, they soon threw caution to the wind andhave since made up for lost time with an outpouring of great poetry and prose.

Finished book scrollsare kept in a leatherbook casket.

the follies of Roman society.Titus Livius(Livy, c.59 BCE–17 CE) is regarded as the firstauthoritative Roman historian.

Publius Ovidius Naso (Ovid, 43 BCE–17CE) was a prolific poet whose rudenessresulted in his banishment by Augustus.TitusPetronius Niger (Petronius the Arbiter, 27BCE–66 CE)—another irreverent writer—isfamous for his Satyricon, a tale of disreputableyouths, vulgar wealth, and over-eating.

Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (c.70–140 CE)is a lawyer and author of the biographies ofJulius Caesar and the first 11 emperors, fromAugustus to Domitian. Gaius CorneliusTacitus (c.56–117 CE) is another historian ofthe same period, best known for his workabout his father-in-law Agrippa’s campaignsin Britain.

23

Paper-makingThe Romans import great quantities of Egyptian papyrus reed formaking paper.The outer fibers of the reed are peeled away and thecore of the stalk sliced into very thin strips (A).These are thensoaked in water to remove the sugar content, pounded, the excesswater removed, and placed side by side in rows, slightly overlapping.

A second set of strips is placed above the first at right angles andthe starch from the strips glues them together (B).After a furtherpounding, the raw papyrus sheet is left to dry out for about sixdays (C).After drying the sheet’s surface is polished to a smoothfinish with a shell or piece of smooth ivory. Single sheets are thenglued together to form a longer sheet (D). In the best qualitypapyrus, the joins are barely noticeable.Wood or ivory rollers arefitted to either end of the scroll to make it easier to handle (E).

Fact boxThe first true books appear in the 4thcentury. Called a codex, instead of a long,single scroll, smaller pages are securedalong one edge to make separate pages.The result is a book that can containmore information than a scroll, and iseasier to carry around and read. Codices arealso more convenient for storage onlibrary shelves.

Writing LatinThe Latin alphabet was generally usedthroughout the Roman Empire, althoughit coexisted with Greek in the East. Itconsisted of 23 letters and later in theMiddle Ages the Roman “I” was split intoi and j; and their “V” became u, v, and w.In this way, Romans spelled Julius Caesaras IVLIVS CAESAR.Through the laterinfluence of the Christian Church, Latinbecame the common language of Westerncivilization among educated people.

Surviving fragmentsRoman authors wrote on papyrus orwaxed tablets, only fragments of whichhave survived the centuries.This meansthat most authors’ works in Latin todayare the result of copying during themedieval period, and of course muchremains lost.Those who wrote more inGreek have survived better, because theclimate in the East was better suited topreserving papyrus manuscripts. `

Livy

Julius CaesarCicero

Scene in a busy Romanpublishing house, wherethe mass production ofan author’s books istaking place. While oneman reads from theauthor’s original, a teamof scribes copies thetext on papyrus scrolls.They may have torepeat the processseveral times for a bookin popular demand.

AB

C

D

E

There is a powerful belief that the godscan help heal a sick person, particularly

Aesculapius, the god of healing (this is theRoman spelling of the Greek god Asclepius).There are temples to Aesculapius throughoutthe Roman world.As do the Greeks, sickpeople spend a night in the temple, believingthat their dreams will tell them how to curetheir illnesses.

A scientific studyThose doctors who prefer to followthe example of Hippocrates tend tolook at the natural, rather than thesupernatural, world for cures.Thereare several great books written onthe subject of herbal remedies.One of these books, De MateriaMedica, was written by a Greekphysician named Discorides, anarmy doctor. It catalogs almost600 plants and over a hundred

drugs he had tested on his patients.Doctors like Discorides believe that

24


Medicine, Illness, and DeathMost Roman medical knowledge has come from the Greeks, particularly theteachings of Greek healer Hippocrates. However, doctors still rely on religiousrituals as well as their scientific treatments.

Romans follow Greek beliefsIf medical science fails the patient and deathoccurs, a sacred funeral ritual begins.Romans share some customs with theGreeks, such as placing a coin under thedeceased’s tongue to pay the ferryman torow the soul across the Styx to theunderworld.There, the spirit will be judgedand, depending on the verdict, sent on toElysium (heaven) or Tartarus (hell).

Romans are also very practical and followthe Greek rituals just in case they mighthelp, even though few Romans really believein an afterlife in any heaven or hell.Theythink the soul exists only while family andfriends remember them.This is why ancestorworship is such an important part of dailylife (see pages 76–77).

When a rich person dies, their body is

washed and rubbed with costly oil. It is thenlaid in state at home, covered by flowers andwreaths, and surrounded by candles andlamps, so that the family, clients (see pages44–45), and friends may pay their respects.

Funerals, burial, and cremationOn the day of the pompa or funeralprocession the body is placed on a litter andcarried by household slaves to the Forumaccompanied by mourners. In the Forum aspeech is made, usually by the eldest son, inpraise of his father. From here, the processionmakes its way to the prepared grave.

By ancient law, this must be outside thecity’s pomerium, the sacred boundary. Somany of the main roads leaving Rome arelined with tombs, ranging from the modestto the magnificent, sometimes for more than

Army surgeons receivethe most training indealing with seriousinjuries to soldiers.

Many cemeteries havegrown up along themajor roads just outsidecity gates. These areprime spots and cost agreat deal. Many finemausoleums line theAppian Way for severalmiles. Slaves and thepoor are buried withlittle or no ceremony inthe city necropolis(cemetery), althoughmost workers belong toa “funeral club” towhich they pay a part oftheir salary in order toobtain a good funeralwhen their time comes.

hooks

bonelever

25

what people eat plays an important part inhow they feel, and advise their patients toalter their diets.They recommend regularexercise, fresh air, and visits to the manygreat public baths (see pages 90–93 ).

Army doctors also make the bestsurgeons, because they have so muchopportunity to study human anatomy whenattempting to repair the damage done tosoldiers in battle. Scalpels, forceps, hooks,scoops, needles, and tongs make up theirsurgical kits. Unfortunately, the appallingpain suffered during major operations andamputations generally kills the patient.

Free hospital treatmentThe richest Romans have personalphysicians to look after their families.Wealthy people can afford to pay a doctor tovisit them at home, but the common folkmust attend a surgery or hospital. Here, theyare looked after by a number of doctors whoare exempt from tax. In return, while theycan accept fees, they must treat the poor freeof charge.

The first public hospital started life as theTemple of Aesculapius on an island in theRiver Tiber. It was used to house elderly ordisabled slaves who could no longer work.During the reign of Emperor Claudius, thetemple became a hospital for the poor.


a mile. For the very poor and convictedcriminals, there is a public cemetery beyondthe Esquiline Hill.

In older times, Romans buried their dead,often placing the body in a stone coffincalled a sarcophagus, but now cremation ispreferred. For a simple ceremony, a pit is dugand filled with wood, over which the body isplaced for burning,When the flames havedied down, the ashes are covered with earth,and later a small headstone might be erected.

For the wealthy, elaborate ceremonies takeplace around a large fire known as a pyre.Relatives throw food and clothes onto theblaze. Later, the ashes are collected in aspecial funerary urn, which might be placedin the family’s mausoleum or in anunderground chamber called a columbarium,shared with many other families.

Tools for healing:Roman doctors have awealth of bronze andiron instruments at theirdisposal.

Below: The publichospital by the templeof Aesculapius, on anisland in the River Tiberin central Rome.

scoops

instrumentcase

scalpels

tongs

needles

Most Romans live packed tightlytogether, like sardines in cans, in

apartment blocks called insulae (see pages34–35 ). Only very wealthy people can afforda domus or private house.The statistics provethe point—one survey shows 1790 privatehouses to 46,602 apartment blocks in Rome.

Inside a wealthy domusThe typical domus is built on one floor.Although a few houses boast a second level,this is usually confined to one or two rooms,perhaps a study for the paterfamilias.ARoman home is much more sturdily builtthan a Greek house, using fired clay brickssecured by mortar, as shown on page 52.

The tiled or stone-slab flooring is oftenlaid over a depth of concrete, a constructionthat allows for cellars underneath (althoughsome districts of Rome are prone toflooding).The wealthiest houses—especiallyin the colder northern provinces—boast anunderfloor central heating system called ahypocaust (see pages 90 and 92 ).

The family rooms are kept separate fromthe public areas, such as the atrium, wherethe paterfamilas greets his clients eachworkday morning.There is unlikely to be abalneum or bathroom, because the custom isto use the many smaller and monumentalpublic baths every day.

26


A Roman DomusAs you walk along a street in Rome, it seems that there areno houses, only small shops lining its edges. This is becausemost better off homes rent the front rooms to tradespeople.Behind the shops, the luxury begins.

1. The janitor greets acaller at the front door.Beyond, the vestibulaleads to the atrium.

2. Rooms at the front,open to the street, arerented out as shops orcaupona (taverns).

3. Guests are receivedin the atrium, an areaopen to the sky. Theroof slopes down to anopening called thecompluvium, which canbe covered with canvasin cold weather.Rainwater is collectedin a small pool, theimpluvium. The watercan be piped to acistern in the cellar if itrises too high.

4. The family livingrooms are locatedaround the atrium andon the upper floor.

5. The dining room iscalled a tricliniumbecause it containsthree reclining couchesfor diners (see pages30–31).

6. The paterfamiliashas his tablinum (study)in the back, overlookingthe garden.

7. The kitchen andlatrine (see pages32–33 ). Steps rise tothe slave quarters.

8. Toward the rear ofthe domus is theperistylium, a walledgarden planted withdecorative trees andshrubs, and sometimesvegetables.

9. A shrine called alararium houses thehousehold gods andancestor busts (seepage 76 ).

2

27

Fact boxKeen gardeners, the Romans loveroses. Their petals are used inwine-making, and dried rose petalsare used for powdering the body. Inthe south of Italy, rose petals areused for stuffing mattresses—hence the saying “a bed of roses.”

1

3

5

7

6

98

4

4

Poorer women who need to earn a wageoften work in the markets, serve in

stores, do needlework, or work as bathattendants. Because Roman women havemuch more independence than their Greekcounterparts, some women below thewealthy senatorial and equestrian classes runtheir own businesses, such as laundries, cloth-making factories, perfumeries, or—at theother end of the smell scale—leathertanneries, which utilize urine from the foricae(public lavatories) in the tanning process.

Organizing the slavesHowever, the wealthy matron has analtogether more comfortable life. She directsthe work of the household slaves, organizesthe running of the home—and is expectedto have children.

In general, slaves working in rich homeslead a relatively comfortable existence andare even treated affectionately by the familiesthey serve. Greek slaves are considered to bethe smartest and so they are the mostexpensive to buy.They work as doctors,tutors to the children, and secretaries to thepaterfamilias. Other slaves work as butlers,hairdressers, personal maids, serving girls andboys, and cooks.

Loyal service can even lead to their mastergranting them their freedom, aprocess calledmanumission.A freed male slave usuallyremains associated with his former master asa client (see pages 44–45 ).

28


The Matron’s Role and SlavesIt is not thought appropriate for a rich matron to go out towork—her function is to run the household and direct theslaves. Just as is the case everywhere in the empire, athome nothing happens without slaves.

Poor women must workto support themselvesand their families.

A visit to the marketThe matron goes out to do her shoppingaccompanied by a maid and a male slave asprotector. Her shopping includes ready-madeclothes or cloth for her slaves to make up thefamily’s clothing needs, food, and luxurygoods.

Around the Roman Forum there arenumerous small macella (markets).A macellumwas originally a meat market, but the termnow covers any market hall housing shopsand stalls selling such provisions as fruit,vegetables, pork, beef, fish, and solid waressuch as pottery, jewelry, furniture, and otherhousehold goods.

The largest is Trajan’s Market, a vast,purpose-built shopping mall on severallevels, with over 150 individual shop units,many boasting handsome marble fronts.Here you can buy almost anythingimaginable, from Greek antiques to wildanimals for the arena, from expensiveleather goods to oriental lamp stands.

The shopkeepers’ slaves will deliverwhatever goods the matron’s ownservants cannot carry home with

them.The household butler, ormajor-domo, is responsible for

seeing to their safe deliveryand replacement of anydamaged items.

29


The unlucky slaveSlaves in towns fare much better thanthose who are put to work in the fields,where the work is unrelenting. Lashingsfrom their overseers are the norm, drivenon by the bailiffs who manage the hugesenatorial estates, called latifundia. On thefarm, profit is everything, and field slavesare cheap labor, easily replaced when theyfall dead over their hoes.

Worse still is the fate of slaves sent towork in mines digging out lead, iron,sulphur, copper, and silver. Barely fed andwatered, living for months out of the sightof sun or sky, these slaves are nothingmore than human digging machines.A mine slave’s life is brutal and short;they are literally worked to death.

On a busy shoppingday, the householdslaves are laden downwith goods.

Two levels of Trajan’smarket surrounding hisforum. The uppermostlevels date from theRenaissance of the14–15th centuries CE.

The Romans in general eat three meals aday. Breakfast and lunch are very light

for most people, from everyday citizens tothe wealthy.The very poor might be glad toenjoy even one meal a day, which for themost part consists of cereal in the form ofbread or puls (porridge), occasionallysupplemented by vegetables or a little meat.

Ientaculum (breakfast) is usually simplybread dipped in watered-down wine.Sometimes a little honey is used, and perhapsa few dates or olives might be added.Prandium (lunch) is a similar meal of bread,or leftovers from the previous day’s mainmeal. Many Romans skip their prandiumaltogether.

Cena (dinner) is the main meal of the day,generally served in the late afternoon wheneveryone has returned from the baths. Forthe lower classes, cena is a simple meal ofvegetables with olive oil, but the well-to-doenjoy elaborate feasts consisting of threecourses called ab ovo usque ad mala (from theegg to the apples).

An elaborate dinnerThe first course, known as gustus, consistsof such appetizers as salads, radishes, eggs,mushrooms, oysters and other shellfish, andsardines. It is followed by a drink of mulsum(wine sweetened with honey).

The main course, known as lena or primamensa (main table) might contain as many asseven dishes, including pork, poultry, fish,game, and exotic birds.These are served withsauces and vegetables.

The final course is the secunda mensa(second table), so called because rather thanclear the dishes of the first two courses, theslaves remove the table and replace it withanother one.This course offers fruit (plain,stuffed and in sauces), honey cakes, and nuts.

The food is served with plenty of wine,from a choice of more than 200 varietiesfrom all over the empire.


Daily Roman MealsWhile the poor are sustained chiefly by bread and a wheatmeal porridge known as puls, with meat a rare luxury, the rich of imperial Rome have turned dining into something like an artform.

The tricliniumThe dining room of a Roman house iscalled the triclinium because traditionally ithouses three reclining couches for thediners, arranged around a low, centrallyplaced table.At formal banquets, each couchseats three guests, although the paterfamiliasmight allow more of his family to crowd inat a family dinner. In very rich homes, thetriclinium may be very large and have roomfor two or more sets of couches and tables.

In early Republican times, only menreclined to eat.The household’s women satopposite the men on chairs, but in theimperial period both men and women sharethe couches.The three couches are namedsummus, medius, and imus (top, middle, andbottom). Diners are seated according to theirsocial status, with the most honored guestseated at medius 3.The host often sits next tohim at imus 1.

Waited on hand and footBanquets commonly last for several hours,with acrobats, dancers, poets, and musiciansoffering entertainment between courses.Slaves take care of the guests’ every need—removing their shoes and replacing themwith sandals, waving off flies with peacock-feather fans, washing guests’ hands withperfumed water, and serving the food. It iscustomary to have only the most handsomeslaves to cut up and serve the food or pourthe wine.

31


Fact boxRoman hosts don’t provide napkins and expecttheir guests to bring their own with them. Themiserly guest might arrive at a dinner without anapkin but contrive to leave with one stolen froma fellow guest or with one of his host’s.

Romans do not useknives or forks. Mostdishes are eaten withthe fingers, orsometimes with spoonsfor sauces. Slaves areon hand to wash greasyhands with rose-petalwater and dry them onsoft cloths.

Fact boxIn mythology Cupidgave Harpocrates,boy-god of silence, arose to thank him fornot talking about theindiscretions ofVenus. This has ledto the custom ofhanging a roseabove the table toindicate that gossipexchanged duringthe dinner is not tobe repeated; hencethe Latin phrase subrosa (under the rose)meaning somethingsaid in confidence.

Food for the poorThe poor in the countryside have access to awider variety of food than the urban lowerclasses. Rome is crowded, housing poor, andunemployment widespread.To preventcontinual rioting, the state subsidizes grainprices and even gives it away free to verypoor registered citizens on a monthly basis, asystem known as the corn dole.

Since almost everyone lives in rentedaccommodation in an insula apartmentwhich has no cooking facilities, people haveto take their wheat to the local pistor (baker),who bakes their loaves for them. Other hot

and cold food can be purchased from themany local food shops and taverns (seepages 46–47 )

The fourth side of thetable is left clear forslaves to serve.

Medius

Imus

Summus1

1

1

2 2

2

3

3

3

The Roman cook has a wide variety ofcooking utensils. Unlike the elaborate

glass, metal, and pottery utensils used in thetriclinium for serving meals, cooking pots aresimply and strongly constructed to stand upto continual use and temperature changes.

The kitchen has several stoves.A largebrick-built stove is used for cooking food inbronze or earthenware pots over charcoal.The pots—some open, some with close-fitting lids—are placed on metal tripods orpottery stands so that they do not restdirectly on the fire, which might cause themto crack.

A fireplace burning a mixture of woodand charcoal and fitted with a rotating spit isused for roasting larger cuts of meat.Wholepigs or large birds can be cooked in thismanner.A portable earthenware oven firedby charcoal is used for baking bread, pastries,and cakes.

The luxury of fresh waterSince this house is connected to the publicwater supply, the kitchen slaves have theluxury of fresh water for cleaning fruit andvegetables, as well as cleaning pots, pans andknives. However, the latrine next to thekitchen, making use of the running water, isreally only reserved for family use; the slavesmust make do with the nearest public latrine.

A collection of amphorae and jugs sits inone corner awaiting use.The jugs have thicksides and narrow necks with small openingsto keep liquids cool in the summer heat.Beside them are sacks containing groundwheat, chickpeas, and such dried fruits asdates and grapes.

Although the cook has a variety of herbalflavorings available, the most popular Romanseasoning is liquamen, also called garum. Madeby allowing fish entrails and small whole fishto rot and ferment in salted vats under thesun for anything up to three months, garumsounds horrible, but it goes into manydishes, including desserts.

32


In the Kitchen of a Wealthy DomusA senator expects to hold many dinner parties for importantguests, and wants to display his wealth by serving luxuriousmeals. His kitchen, therefore, is large and well equipped.

This busy kitchen hasthe benefit of runningwater from the publicsupply, useful forwashing up—and forflushing the home’sadjacent latrine.

A portableearthenwareoven.

33


Fact boxRoman food had littlein common withmodern Italian food.Rice, pasta, andtomatoes were notyet known, andRomans had littleliking for garlic.

A cooking potsits on an ironstand to avoiddirect contact withflaming charcoal.

Below: Commonly usedpottery vessels.

34

1. Woodburningbraziers are the onlyform of heating, butthey are a great firerisk, and there are nochimneys.

2. Insulae have nointernal drains, sopeople throw waste intothe streets below.

3. Rich people canafford comfortableapartments with manyrooms. These are on alower floor of thebuilding.

4. Few apartments inan insula have theirown bathrooms. Peopleuse the public bathsand latrines (see pages90–93 ).

5. Wealthy homes areoften connected to thepublic water supply (seepages 74–75 ), butthere is no runningwater in the insula.Instead, people fetchtheir water from themany public fountains.

6. Rooms at streetlevel are rented out bythe landlord for use asshops or caupona(taverns).

7. A narrow staircaseconnects the differentfloor levels.

2

3

7

4

5

6

1

35

The majority of Rome’s population ishoused in rented rooms packed into

insulae (apartment blocks or tenements)owned by a handful of wealthy landlords.Built around a courtyard, an insula has severalfloors raised above shops fronting the street.

Typically, insulae are of three or fourstories. Emperor Augustus limited the heightof insulae to a maximum of five floors, butunscrupulous landlords often get away withcheating, and in Rome’s Subura district theymight rise to six or seven floors.

Unsafe and dangerousInsulae have a reputation for being unsafe.Fire from cooking and woodburning braziersin winter is a continual hazard. Insulae areconstructed from timber frames and cheapbut perishable mud bricks, which means thatthey burn easily, and their height makesthem prone to disastrous collapse.All toooften the hapless victims of lower floors areburied under tons of burning debris.

In a better ordered town, such as Rome’sport at Ostia, insulae (like the model of theone pictured below) are more soundly builtfrom concrete and fired bricks. But theyremain as cramped inside and lack the basicamenities a domus owner takes for granted,such as private toilets and running water.

The vigilesThe fire service that Augustus created forRome in about 27 BCE has seven brigades,called vigiles (watchmen), each with athousand men and responsible for two ofcity’s 14 districts.The districts are under thecontrol of magistrates elected annually by lot.The districts are further divided into wardsunder locally elected supervisors.

The fire fighters use wheeled fire enginesequipped with hand pumps, but they can onlydeliver a small quantity of water. Buckets andsponges are used to dampen undamagedwalls to prevent the fire from spreading, butin most cases the blazing building has to beleft to burn out, while adjacent ones arepulled down to make a fire-break.


High-Rise LivingUnlike the strictly ordered provincial towns and cities, Rome has expanded over the centuries without any town planning. To create living space in the cramped area, most apartments rise to several stories.

Reconstruction of aninsula at Rome’s port ofOstia, with small storesand taverns at street level.

Before Augustus created a permanent fire fightingservice, unscrupulous businessmen often employedhenchmen to hinder people trying to put out a fire.Once the building had crashed into cinders, thebusinessman stepped in and bought the lot for nextto nothing. In this way, the rich grew richer, buyingup whole quarters of the city.

Most people wear clothes made fromwool or linen, and garments are made

from large uncut pieces of cloth.These arefolded and pinned with pins called fibulae, ortied around the waist with belts.Tailors andclothing stores that sell ready-made garmentsdo a little needlework, but clothes that needa lot of sewing are rare because the needlesare made of bone and therefore clumsy.

Fine cotton cloth is imported from Indiaand silk comes from the Far East via thetraders of the eastern Mediterranean coast.Both are expensive, with silk costing three tofour times its weight in gold.

Men’s clothesThe loincloth is the universal undergarment,which also acts as nightwear. Over aloincloth, a man wears a short-sleeved tunica(tunic), made from two rectangles stitched atthe sides and belted around the waist. Itextends from the shoulders to the knees.

Children and slaves commonly wear atunic, but the senatorial and equestrianclasses generally wear a toga over the tunicwhen out of doors.A senator’s tunic has abroad purple stripe, and a member of theequestrian class has a narrow purple stripe,running from the shoulder to the hem, frontand back.

Charioteers wear tunics dyed the color oftheir team (see pages 84–85 ).

In rural areas and the northern provinces,people wear cloaks, especially in winter. Butthe Celtic-style trousers are considered to bebarbarian attire. In Rome, if it gets cold, mensimply wear two or more tunics—althoughthey never have long sleeves, which isconsidered to be effeminate.

36


Roman Clothes and FashionMen and women’s clothing is very similar, and fashions havechanged very little over the centuries. Children tend to wearsmaller versions of adult clothing.

The basic Romangarment is the tunic,knee-length for men,longer for women. Thepopular stola worn bythe matron (front left)can be complementedby a palla (front right).The two men headingfor a party (left) sport afashionable synthesis.The senator and his sonin the background aredressed in formal togas.

The togaThe toga is a heavy, awkward item of men’sclothing, but the toga distinguishes a Romancitizen and so emperors insist on their beingworn.They are of fine white wool, andrequire frequent cleaning by a fuller.

The toga virilis is a plain white and wornby all ordinary men.The toga praetexta(bordered toga) has a purple stripe and isworn by magistrates. Until the age of about15 or 16, boys also wear the toga praetexta.Asenator’s toga has a broad purple stripe (latusclavus), while an equestrian’s has a narrowpurple stripe (clavus angustus).An emperor’stoga is entirely purple.A toga made of pureblack wool, called a toga pulla, is worn atfunerals and by those in mourning.

In the country, men usually wear a morepractical cloak over a tunic, and for formalevening meals a smart, loose gown called asynthesis is popular.

Women’s clothesWomen also wear loincloths (and sometimesbreast bands) and tunics.Two-piece garmentsresembling a bikini are popular when takingexercise at the baths. Married women(matrons) wear a stola over the tunic, a long,full dress gathered up by a girdle, usuallywith a colored border around the neck.

The palla is a large rectangle of cloth thatcan be draped around the stola in manyways. Out of doors, women also wear acloak.

FootwearRomans wear a wide variety of shoes—hobnailed boots, slippers, and sandals madefrom leather. Cobblers make ready-to-wearand made-to-measure shoes ranging fromthe plain calcei (heavy boot) to elegantlydesigned, open-weave ladies’ sandals.

MakeupWomen use various perfumes and facialcosmetics.A pale skin is always fashionable,and the face is whitened with powderedchalk or white lead.

Eyelids are darkened with ash or antimony(a dark-colored metal). Cheeks and lips areblushed and painted red by using thesediment of red wine, or a plant dye calledfucus.

HairstylesMen favor both the severity of theRepublican no-nonsense short hair cut,with closely shaved face, and the slightlylonger dressed locks and full beard ofimperial times. In any case, most morningsstart with a visit to the tonsor (barber) for ashave and trim, or a clean-up.

Women have their hair done at home byslaves who style elaborate creations fromtheir mistresses’ hair, or by the addition ofhairpieces and wigs.Wigs made from theblond hair of Germans captured in battleare very popular.The whole construction

is held in place by a veritable scaffoldof pins, combs, and braided hairnets.

37


A toga is roughlysemicircular in shape,about 18 ft in lengthby 7 ft deep. Drape theleft-hand end over the

left shoulder. Gatherinto a roll a large foldfrom the middle of theright-hand section andthrow over the left

shoulder. Take the restof the left-hand sectionand pull it up underthe front of the right-hand section.

Alarge country house is called a villa, asopposed to the domus of the town. Each

land-owning family prides itself on its villa.Far larger than the domus, the country villa ispart residential holiday home, part smallpalace for entertaining long-stay guests inthe hot summer months, and part farm.Many of the larger agricultural estates, calledlatifundia, also have large farm complexesseparate from the villa (see pages 54–55 ).

Most Romans spend only a part of theyear at their villas.At other times a managerand a team of slaves run the estate.Thetypical country house is called a peristyle villa,a complex of buildings surrounding a largegarden courtyard.The family and publicrooms are lavishly decorated with mosaicfloors and elaborately painted rural scenes onthe walls.There is almost certainly a spaciousbathhouse for the use of the family, theirguests, and at times by the domestic workers.

38

Life in the CountryFor wealthy Romans, the countryside isa source of income and a place to rest.Much of Italy is owned by rich city-dwellers, broken up into giant estates,at the center of which sits the villa.

1. The villa urbana iswhere the family liveswhen in residence. Therooms are veryluxurious and may beheated by a hypocaust(see page 92 ), whichalso supplies hot waterto the baths.

2. The public receptionrooms take the place ofthe atrium of thedomus. Here the masterof the house canreceive his clients,many of whom willtravel for miles out ofthe city to visit.

3. Unlike the manyrooms of the largepublic baths in Rome,the baths consist of ahot room and a simplecold plunge pool.

12

4

5

39

4. The gardencolonnade faces ontothe large formalgardens in front of thevilla.

5. The working part ofthe villa is called thevilla rusticana. Itincludes a cow shed,granary, grape-pressingand fermentationrooms, andaccommodation for thefarm overseer and hisassistants. Slaves live inseparate quartersnearby.

Right: Mosaic floors arean essential part of anyaspiring Roman’s home.Scenes of gods andheroes are suited to thecity domus, but for awell-to-do rural villaimages of wildlife arepreferred.

Left: Wall paintingdepicting a calm, quiet,rural scene—the verything for a villa’s diningroom to help theguests’ digestion.

1. Nero’s new palaceon the Palatine Hill.

2. Eastern end of theRoman Forum.

3. The Sacred Way(Sacra Via).

4. Nero’s colossalstatue.

5. Porticoes along theNew Way (Nova Via).

6. Temple of the DivineClaudius.

7. The Great Lake(where the Colosseumwill be constructedafter Nero’s death).

8. The Golden House(Domus Aurea)

9. The Subura district.

15

6

7

8

9

2

3

The most lavish villa ever built in Romecovered a ground area of 125 acres, all landcleared by the Emperor Nero after theGreat Fire of 64 CE that damaged a greatpart of the city. Nero’s villa stretchedbetween the Palatine and Esquiline Hills.laid out like a country park, with a lake,woodlands and fields. Even the recentlyconstructed platform for the Temple ofClaudius was “stolen” to become a formalgarden for the mad emperor.

A villa gone mad…

3 4

Before Julius Caesar reformed the Romancalendar, it was the job of the priests to

keep the human calendar in line with thesolar year. Unfortunately, they were not verygood at doing this, randomly adding “leap”days until the seasons were about 80 days outof kilter with the calendar months.

With the help of a Greek astronomerfrom Alexandria, Caesar corrected this in 46BCE by making the year 445 days long,which made summer and winter where theyshould be.And then in the next January, heintroduced a year of 365 days, divided into12 months.To adjust for the extra quarter ofa day in the solar year, Caesar allowed for aleap year by adding an extra day betweenFebruary 23 and 24 on every fourth year.

The leap day, known as bisextilis, is notnumbered, so to Romans it does not reallyexist.This makes it the unluckiest day in theRoman calendar, when no activity ispermitted and all sensible Romans stay safelytucked up in their homes.

The days in a monthThe days (dies in Latin) are not numberedfrom the beginning of a month but fromthree special days called the Kalends (first ofthe month), the Nones (ninth day), and theIdes (13th day, or 15th in a month of 31days).The Roman month is very organizedand days are divided between four maintypes, with citizens told what activity maytake place on each type of day.

On a dies comitalis citizens can vote onpolitical matters. On a dies fastus the lawcourts operate and legal matters are handled,including marriages. On a dies endotercisuslegal matters take place in the morning andvoting in the afternoon. On a dies nefastusneither voting nor legal matters are allowed.

Market days (dies nundinae) occur everyseven days, whatever its type unless it is

reserved for religious purposes. On marketdays agricultural produce is taken to markets.It is also a day for men of leisure to meetand exchange news in the Forum.

Special daysIn addition to the four basic types of day,there are days on which activity is restrictedfor religious reasons (dies religiosi or feriae,holidays), or prohibited altogether becausethey are unlucky. Such “black days” (dies atri)are not usually marked on calendars.Theyare tainted by the anniversaries of pastdisasters in war, when Romans rememberand mourn the dead.

In the Roman year, a great many days areset aside for the major religious festivals (seepages 80–81 ).The chart below shows howthe type of days work in the month ofMarch, including festivals (in italics).

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CHAPTER 2

A Working LifeDate and Time—Roman PunctualityThe Roman Empire runs on efficiency in everything. To thisend, managing the calendar, dates, and the time of day isessential to the well-being of civilization.

1 Kalends, Matronalia* dies religiosus

2 dies fastus

3 dies comitalis

4 dies comitalis

5 dies comitalis

6 dies comitalis

7 Nones dies fastus

8 dies fastus

9 dies comitalis

10 dies comitalis

11 dies comitalis

12 dies comitalis

13 endotercisus

14 Equirria* dies religiosus

15 Ides, Anna Perenna* dies religiosus

16 Agonalia* dies fastus

17 Agonalia dies religiosus

18 dies comitalis

19 Quinquatria dies religiosus

20 Quinquatria dies comitalis

21 Quinquatria dies comitalis

22 Quinquatria dies nefastus

23 Tubilustrium* dies religiosus

24 dies fastus

25 dies comitalis

26 dies comitalis

27 dies comitalis

28 dies comitalis

29 dies comitalis

30 dies comitalis

31 Luna dies comitalis

* (see pages 80–81 for these festivals)

The days of Martius (March) and festival days

Sundials are simple tobuild, but suffer if theday is cloudy.

The hoursThe day is divided into 12 night hours and12 daylight hours.The first hour of the dayis the hour after sunrise, and the 12th hour isthe last hour before sunset.This means thatthe length of an hour continuously alters asthe seasons move between summer andwinter. In midwinter a daylight hour is about45 minutes, and in midsummer 90 minutes.

Midnight and midday (meridies) are fixedat the sixth hour of night or day. Romansrefer to the morning as ante meridiem (AM,before midday) and the afternoon as postmeridiem (PM, after midday).

Clocks or horologiaThe shadow clock, or sundial (solaria) is issimple to build. However, it needs goodsunlight, different scales depending on hownorth or south it is, and seasonal adjustmentto account for the changing length of hours.

At home, people use candles calibrated bymarks representing the hours. In theory,depending on the time of year, it should takean hour for the flame to burn downbetween two marks. In practice, they arevery inaccurate. Hourglasses suffer from thesame problem of constantly changing hourlengths during the year.

Water clocks, or clepsydrae, are more usefulbecause they work at night as well, andseasonal adjustment is achieved by a clevermechanical system, as shown below.

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CHAPTER 2: A WORKING LIFE

A continuous supply of water enters the clepsydra by

pipe A, filling the hollow cone B. By exerting pressure

on lever C, solid cone D presses down on hollow cone

B, restricting the water flow. Surplus water flows out

through pipe E. Altering the pressure on the solid cone

regulates the water flow through pipe F into the

chamber. This alters the rate at which the float rises,

and the rate at which the ratchet turns the clock’s

hand, accounting for unequal length of Roman hours.

A

F

chamber

float

ratchet

E B

D

C

Fact boxThe calendar reformintroduced by JuliusCaesar is called theJulian Calendar. Thisreform lasted until1582, when PopeGregory XIII made aslight adjustment tothe calendar to itscurrent form (heordained that threedays be left out inleap years every 400years).

Roman inclusive counting systemRomans count dates inclusively. Thisexample, where we say “Let’s meet on thethird day from today…” shows how itworks.

Modern today tomorrow meet1st day 2nd day 3rd day

Roman today tomorrow meet(inclusive) 1st day 2nd day 3rd day

Fact boxWeddings often take place in June, which isconsidered to be a particularly lucky monthbecause of the number of public festivals held.

Above: A candle withcarefully calibratedmarks is an expensiveand uncertain way oftelling time. A glance atthe sun’s position ismost people’s guide.

Below: A publiccalendar.

The cuttings from a boy’s first shave arecarefully preserved in a glass phial and

offered to the household’s gods inthanksgiving for his having reachedmanhood.

At the age of 15 or 16 he may also takeoff his childhood bulla (see page 19 ), discardhis toga praetexta and put on the toga virilis ofan adult. Dressed thus as a man, his fatherleads him into the Forum amid muchceremony to introduce the young Roman tohis colleagues and the senior magistrates.

A critical decisionA youth’s future is in the hands of his father.Among the lower classes it is traditional for ason to follow in his father’s trade. But amongthe better families, a political career isconsidered essential.And in Rome the lawand politics are almost one and the samething. However, nothing is easily achievedwithout first showing a degree of typicallyRoman prowess in the army.

Before starting on a political career, youngmen are expected to have spent atleast ten years in the army, firstas a military tribune orjunior officer and thenpossibly as adjutant to a

42


Coming of AgeA young man’s first shave is a religious occasion. It marks his approach toadulthood and the time when he must begin to shoulder the responsibilities ofbeing a Roman citizen.

For a Roman youth, hisfirst shave is a religiousevent. Here MaximusValerius honors his sonQuintus by performingthe ceremony himself.Soon, he will introducethe youth to hiscolleagues in the Forumand start Quintusproperly on the cursushonorum.

The senior magistratesThe two consuls are themost senior officials.They manage the affairsof the Senate and thearmy. After their year inoffice they becomeproconsuls (governors) inthe provinces.

Eight praetors are electedto be judges in the law courts.

Four aediles are selected to look after civicaffairs—the grain supply, markets, publicbuildings, and streets. They also organize and payfor public games.

Twenty quaestors look after financial matters.Although elected, they are not necessarilysenators. The office is an important step on thepolitical ladder—anyone elected as a quaestorautomatically becomes a senator.

Every five years two censors are chosen fromamong former consuls and serve for 18 months.They revise the Senate’s membership, removingundesirables and enrolling new senators.

legate (see page 58 ). However, there are someexceptions.When a student of rhetoricshows great aptitude as a legal apprentice, hemight find himself put on the first steps ofthe cursus honorum without having done anymilitary service.

The cursus honorumIt means “course of honors” and describesthe traditional career path of a senator.Thereare five political offices on the cursus honoruma candidate may aspire to, each tougher toachieve than the last.They are quaestor, thenaedile, praetor, consul, and finally censor—few men ever reach this distinguished office.

But in the imperial period, there areseveral more intermediate steps, the first ofwhich is a place on the board of 20 minormagistrates known as the vigintivirate.Amongthis board’s duties lies the responsibility forkeeping Rome’s streets in a clean state—noeasy task.

The imperial civil serviceMen of the equestrian order make up thebulk of Rome’s middle class. Unlikesenators, equestrians may engage in businessor, at a lower social level, even trade. But formany, the imperial civil service offers a finecareer. In earlier, simpler Republican timesadministrative offices were held on an annualbasis by a senatorialmagistrate. In the imperialera most magistracies arehonorary and the real work isdone by equestrianbureaucrats.

For instance, thefunctions of the aedilesare really handledby officials such asthe praefectusannonae—an equestrianin charge of the grainsupply.There are alsovarious curatores (boards)to look after the roads(curatores viarum), the watersupply and aqueducts(curatores aquarum), andpublic buildings (curatoresoperum publicorum).

The ultimate prize is to

govern a province.This function only goesto a senator who has been either a praetor ora consul. However, the post of his assistant incharge of finances, the procurator, is filled byan equestrian.This office provides plenty ofopportunities for financial gain and often realpower whenever the governor is absent orhas been recalled.

The two highest equestrian offices arethose of praefectus praetorio (PraetorianPrefect) and praefectus Aegypti (Prefect ofEgypt).The first is one of two commandersof the Praetorian Guard, the soldiers whoprotect the emperor and the imperial family.The second is appointed by the emperor togovern “Rome’s granary”—Egypt. Bothposts are therefore only given to dependablemen—and the emperor rarely trusts anysenators since most want to curb his powerswhenever they can.

Minor bureaucratsApparitores are public servants, such asscribes, who attend magistrates.They receivea salary from the state, and are generallyfreedmen or the sons of freedmen.

Lictores attend magistrates, walking in frontin single file carrying the fasces, as a sign ofthe magistrate’s imperium.The fasces are abundle of rods. Originally they surroundedan ax as a symbol of the king’s right to whipand execute people, but now only theemperor’s lictors carry the ax as well.

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Grain silos on the banksof the Nile: Egypt’sgovernor—thepraefectus Aegypti—has one of the mostresponsible jobs in theEmpire, for it is fromhere that most ofRome’s bread graincomes. Any disruptionto the supply quicklyleads to famine in thecity—and riots soonfollow.

The more importantthe magistrate, themore lictors he has inattendance. Consuls

have 12 lictors each,and praetors whenoutside Italy have sixlictors each. Theemperor is preceded by24 lictors. They carry afasces as a symbol ofauthority.

Maximus usually prefers to take hisbreakfast at the shop of his favorite

tonsor, just around the corner, while beingshaved and having his hair tidied up.There isa handy thermopolis (cookshop, see page 47 )next door—and he never knows what usefulgossip he might pick up while seated in thebarber’s chair. But today is a law-courtday, a dies fastus, and Maximus mustdefend one of his clients against acharge of theft. So he contents himselfwith being barbered at home by hisbody slave, Eumolpus.

Then there is barely time toswallow some bread dipped in wateredwine before he must don his senatorialtoga, amid much fussing over byEumolpus, to be ready for his clients.They are waiting for him in the atrium.

The patronage systemRoman society is centered on patronage.People without the legal protection of afamily—newcomers to Rome, for instance,freed slaves, or perhaps a young man whohas had to leave his family—can attachthemselves to the paterfamilias of an existingfamily.They are known as clientes (clients),and their protectors as patroni (patrons).Thecliens gives his patronus social and politicalsupport in return for financial and legalprotection.

A patron’s social stature is judged by thenumber of his clients. In turn, he mayhimself be a client to a more powerful

patron, in a chain reaching up to theemperor, the ultimate patron.

The patronage system is vital inorder to make headway in Romanbusiness—particularly for senators.They are prohibited from engagingin trade, so to supplement incomederived from their country estates,they use their clients to runbusinesses for them in their name.

In its most complex form,patronage extends to whole cities oreven nations.A family might act aspatron to a provincial city, advisingit on administrative matters andlobbying on its behalf in the Senate.In return, the client-city provides

the family with financial gifts,recognition, prestige, and—when

necessary—troops.

44


A Senator’s DayDawn’s light cuts through the shadows cast by the city’sseven hills. Daylight hours are precious, so even before thesun has risen above the roofs, Maximus Valerius, a busysenator, begins his day.

The clients of Maximusarrive. It is the dailyduty of a client to go tohis patron’s home in themorning and be inattendance, even ifthere is no specificpurpose to his visit.

Forum business and gossipMaximus listens to his clients’ petitions. Oneneeds only a new cloak, another requires asubstantial loan to further a business deal.Some are angling for a dinner invitationtonight. In turn, Maximus tells them what hewants them to do for him.

Then there is just time to check in on hisyoungest son (who is fretting over somecomposition problem with his tutor) beforesetting out for the Forum. His retinue ofclients accompanies him, and soon they aremingling with other senators and theirclients, exchanging views on the variouspolitical matters before the Senate.

Leaving the clients either to go abouttheir daily business or to lounge around inthe Forum, Maximus enters the Curia(Senate House), top right, to hear a debate onthe merits of a new law the emperor hasproposed.There is little doubt about theoutcome—what the emperor wants theemperor usually gets.

In the basilicaMaximus cannot stay to the end of thediscussion because it is time to walk acrossthe Forum—clients back in attendance—tothe Basilica Julia, where the law court issitting today to hear cases of petty theft (seepages 72–73 on Roman law).

In defense of his client accused of stealing,his excellent rhetoric he learned as a youngstudent in Athens sways the jury and winsthe day.The presiding praetor absolvesMaximus’s young client of any wrongdoing.

A bath before dinnerAfter a wearing morning’s labor, Maximusretires to his favorite bath complex forexercise, a massage, and a cleansing bathbefore returning home in the mid-afternoonto prepare himself for the planned banquet.

Yesterday, he dined out at a fellowsenator’s domus, but this evening there areseveral guests invited, and the revelry maywell go late into the night. Just as well thattomorrow is a public festival—he can stay inbed a little longer than usual.

45


A daily visit to theForum gives senatorslike Maximus theopportunity to exchangecurrent political gossipwith their fellowsenators and glance atthe Daily Gazette, whichis posted in a prominentposition.

A busyworking dayends with a visitto the baths to relaxas well as get clean,ready to return homefor dinner.

The width of city streets variesenormously, from wide thoroughfares to

the narrowest alleyways negotiable only onfoot. In the more prosperous areas, the streetsare paved with stone and edged withcrepidines, raised walkways that protectpedestrians from dirt during the day and theconstant stream of wheeled traffic at night(see “Sleepless in Rome” ).At intervals,stepping stones enable pedestrians to crossfrom one side to the other withoutdescending into the dusty roadway.

46

Shops and ShopkeepersNo civilization before has provided itscitizens with so many amenities. Everystreet is lined with small shops offeringall kinds of goods and services.

TabernaeRegardless of its size, every street is linedwith workshops or small store units. Fewshopkeepers or craftsmen own the premiseswhere they work, since almost all property inRome and the major provincial cities is inthe ownership of the senatorial and wealthierequestrian families.

Shops are usually a single room at thefront of a private domus, or several in a rowunder an insula.These are called tabernae.Larger tabernae have a second room behindfor storage. Many shops have a solid masonrycounter for the display of goods, and in thecase of a caupona (tavern), large ceramic jarsare built into the counter’s surface, which areused for serving wine and foodstuffs.You canbe certain that every city block has severalsuch taverns.

As in Greece, intersections of streets havea religious significance and there will alwaysbe a shrine to some ancient guardian deityon the corner. Intersections are also apopular site for a caupona. It is said that whena Roman gives a stranger directions, you cantell what sort of person he is if he directsyou either by the shrines or the signs of thetaverns.

A daily trip to the pistorThe city’s poor (as well as any citizens whorent an apartment) have no cooking facilitiesat home, and must rely on others to cook forthem.As numerous as cauponae are thethermopolii.These cook shops are found onevery block, serving hot sausages, hot meatpies, stews, bread, cheese, figs, dates, nuts,cakes, and wine.The huge demand for thesecook shops and snack bars is such thatRome has close to 10,000 of them.

Grain prices are subsidized by the state forthe poor, and some is even given away freeto the very poorest people on a monthlybasis. Bread is the Roman’s staple diet, andevery day people take their wheat to thelocal baker, or pistor, who bakes their loavesfor them.

An unpleasant tradeFor passersby and those unlucky enough tolive close to one, a dyer and fuller’sworkshop is the least popular on the block.The stench is often terrible, especially in theheat of summer. Fulling is a form of dry-cleaning process in which cloth is trod in atub containing a solution of decayed urine.This is collected regularly from the publiclatrines (the emperor Vespasian taxed it).With so many togas needing frequentcleaning, fullers are busy tradespeople.

In its raw form, the purple dye so lovedby Romans also has an unpleasant smell,since it is derived from shellfish.The rottingpiles of discarded fish parts add to theunpleasant odor.

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Sleepless in RomeThe noise and clamor in Rome is terrible.The cries of vendors selling sausages andpease pudding mingle with the shouts ofpeddlers and street entertainers, thehammering of metalworkers, and drunkensoldiers on leave. Even at night there is nopeace, for wagons—forbidden by JuliusCaesar to enter Rome during the daybecause of the appalling congestion—rattle constantly along the streets in everyhour of darkness. Only those who canafford a country villa ever escape the noiseon the few occasions they can get away.

A typically busy streetcorner in Rome. At theleft, a man eats his freeload of bread, ignoringthe street seller behind.A beggar lies beside apublic fountain, torturedby the smells of hotfood coming from thethermopolium next tohim. On the other sideof the street, a cauponadoes a roaring tradewith thirsty customers.

Below: A carved reliefdepicts a shopkeepershowing customers hiswares in a fabric store,with lengths of clothand cushions hangingfrom an overhead rail.

Romans make no distinction between acraft and industry, and across the

Roman world workshops range from small,localized businesses to large-scale massproduction centers whose wares travel theempire.The commonest craft is the potter’s.

PotteryThe main pottery-making centers are basedin Gaul and northern Italy. Some coarsepottery for local use is handmade, but mostis wheel-made.Very fine pots such as terrasigillata (Samian ware) are made in molds.Immense quantities of Samian ware are madeand exported to every corner of the empire.Terra sigillata is usually a glossy red, madefrom a clay so fine that it needs no glaze togive the finished pot a shiny surface. Potsusually have raised decorations of fine detail,thanks to the mold system.

The red color is obtained by firing in theoxygen-rich atmosphere of a kiln. By closingthe kiln’s vents toward the end of the firingprocess, the reducing (oxygen-starved)atmosphere turns the pot a deep black,similar to the process used by the Greeks inblack- and red-figure ware.

Some potteries specialize in making thin-walled vessels as drinking beakers, others inmortars used for food preparation.These arelarge and made strong by incorporating gritinto the clay.

But the biggest sector of the industry isinvolved in making building materials andamphorae, the universal means oftransporting liquids and free-flowingcommodities such as grain (see also page 65).

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The Major CraftsWith a mania for organization, Romanbusinesses are efficiently run at everylevel. Many tradesmen—such asarmorers, brick-makers, and bakers—are so important to the economy thatthey run under a form of state control.

Milling grain to make flour and baking bread areoften done on the same premises. The miller usesdonkeys to turn his rotary mill to grind the wheat.

LampsRoman houses are lit at night by means ofoil lamps, made from bronze or morecommonly clay.A lamp consists of a chamberfor the oil (preferably olive oil), a hole forfilling, a short spout to hold the linen wick,and sometimes a handle. Lamps aremanufactured almost everywhere.

GlassThe invention of glassblowing in the 1stcentury BCE has raised the making of glass toa high art form.The glassblower dips a longiron tube into molten glass and then blowsdown the tube to form a bubble. Byreheating, the bubble can be shaped by manymeans—spinning, twirling, rolling it along aflat surface—to any desired shape.

Before glassblowing, glassware was tooexpensive for any except the rich, but now itis a low-cost item, and many householdsboast a range of drinking, serving, anddecorative glass utensils. Expensive piecesproduced for wealthy owners havedecoration formed by cutting shapes (facets)or by grinding the surface into rough-and-shiny images.

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WoodworkingWood is used extensively in the constructionof furniture and carvings, buildings, ships,wagons, tools, barrels, and fortifications.The Roman carpenter attains a highstandard of workmanship with his range ofexcellent hand tools.Axes, adzes, chisels, files,and saw blades are made from iron, andallow for very fine work.

Planes are used for smoothing wood.Some have the iron blade set in a woodenbody, while more expensive ones are all ofiron. Planes with an iron sole are more hard-wearing and accurate.

Lathes are used for turning wood to makebowls, chair and table legs, and small tabletops. Holes are made with a bow-drill, andpieces of wood are joined with mortise-and-tenon or dovetail joints. Iron nails, woodenpegs, and animal skin glue are also used tojoin pieces, but the Romans do not havescrews.


Left: The bow saw hasa blade fixed to theends of a piece of woodbent into a semicircle.The stress in the woodkeeps the blade taut.In the H-frame saw,the blade is fixedacross the bottomof the H, while a cordacross the top keepsthe saw blade taut.

Lamps comein many sizes,

from tall bronzelampstands (1) tohumble earthenwareportable lights (2).

3. Glassware for therich is beautifullycrafted.

4. An earthenware cup.

Far left: Carving of abutcher’s shop. Left: Afarmer uses oxen to pulla cart laden with meatfor the market. Theguilds (collegia ) of meatwholesalers have theirown markets. Guildsdealing in foodstuffs areusually under statecontrol, since theirgoods are vital to thewellbeing of citizens.

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MetalworkingGold and silvermiths’ workshops turn outjewelry including necklaces, earrings,bracelets, and pendants. Most objects aremade from sheet metal formed byhammering the ingot on an anvil, althoughstrand wire is used in chains and earrings.Silver is also used to make plates, decoratedby engraving, chasing, and gilding.

Copper is most commonly used as analloy with tin to produce bronze or withzinc to produce brass. Bronze is used fortableware, coins, armor and some weapons.

Large hollow statues are made by castingbronze using the “lost-wax” method.A roughly shaped clay core is made with abeeswax model around it.This is covered byclay and bronze pins are inserted to keep theinner core in place when the wax is meltedin the firing. Molten bronze is poured intothe gap left by the wax.The outer clay moldis carefully removed in pieces so it may bereused, and the inner core taken out throughthe base of the finished figure.The hole issealed over with bronze, or covered by a

pedestal.This enables the mass production ofobjects such as portraits of the emperor.

Lead is used to produce weights, but mostimportantly, sheets of lead are used inplumbing—for lining water tanks, makingguttering, water pipes, and bath linings.

LeatherLeather is important because it’s used in arange of articles—shoes, saddles, harnesses,bags, tents, buckets, jugs, some clothing, doorhinges, and military shields. Leather isprocessed at tanneries—those working undercontract to the army are huge.

After being treated to prevent bacterialdecay—by salting or sun-drying—animalhides are washed and then soaked in a limesolution to make them more receptive to thetanning liquids.The lime also loosens anyhair or wool, which has to be scraped off byhand.The hide is then tanned in a solutionof wood bark before being sent to a leather-maker for finishing, coloring, and cutting.

Guilds and trade associationsMost trades are regulated by a guild or tradeassociation known as a collegium (collegia inthe plural).A collegium sets out standards thatits members must maintain and in somecases even dictates minimum and maximumprices. It also deals with industrial issues likenegotiating state contracts, running politicalcampaigns, lobbying the government,providing legal aid for its members, andsocial activities for their families.

Almost every aspect of Roman commerceis covered by a collegium. For instance, thecollegium pistorum looks after millers andbakers, while butchers have three collegia—suariorum (pork), boarii (beef), and pecuarii(mutton). Even river boatmen, or nautae,who operate barges along the empire’s rivers,have their own collegium.

Not all associations are commercial innature.The most august is the collegiumpontificum, or college of priests. Many poorerRomans belong to funeral societies, calledcollegia funeraticia, to ensure a proper burial.In return for regular payments, the collegiumcovers the cost of funerals for its members.It also guarantees a place in a columbarium, amass tomb where ashes in urns are placed insmall niches, usually marked by memorial

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A knife-maker andmerchant namedCornelius Atimetus(standing on the right)shows a customersamples of his cutlery.

plaques and portrait sculptures.The tombresembles a dovecote, hence its name—columba is Latin for “dove.”

Although trade associations have manybenefits for their members, there is adisadvantage, especially in industries vital tothe security of the empire. It is very easy forthe emperor to regulate a collegium’s activitiesand make a voluntary association into acompulsory one.This is particularly true forthe mining and building trades (especiallythose involved in fortifications), and that ofarms manufacturers and armorers. In manycases, compulsion extends to enforcing that a son follows his father in trade.

Quarrying and miningSince the beginning of the imperial era,Rome has stepped up the quarrying of goodstone enormously. Quarries producing thefinest travertine and marble are underimperial control.Their output is used forfacing public buildings, columns, andsculptures. Nearly all of the major quarriesare near rivers or the sea for ease of transport.

Stone blocks are cut from their beds bydriving iron wedges.The blocks are roughlydressed at the quarry face using picks andadzes.A massive, multi-bladed saw may beused where a strong water flow is available topower the machine.This is particularly usefulfor cutting thin slices of travertine used infacing brick buildings.

With the exception of agriculture, mining


is the largest industry of the Roman Empire.Gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, and iron are themajor metals mined. In both quarries andmines, slaves provide the labor, but in themines the slaves have a terrible and oftenvery short life.

In most cases, the raw ore is smelted orrefined at the mines and then formed intoingots for transportation to manufacturingcenters to be made into artifacts. Metals areused for the production of coinage, to makearms and armor, and many householdutensils and luxury goods.

A pharmacy offers thepublic all kinds ofmedicinal potions, aswell as ladies’cosmetics. Thepharmaceutical tradeemploys women as wellas men. Found on manystreets, they providehealth care to people—something that slavesworking in appallingconditions in thequarries can never hopefor. Their lives aremiserable and short.

The development of concrete in the late3rd century BCE has allowed Roman

architects to design stronger, taller, and muchlarger buildings than ever before. Concrete,known as opus caementicium, is made with anaggregate of stone, brick, or tile set in mortarmade with lime, water, and a volcanic sandcalled pozzolana, which gives extra strengthand is even hydraulic (hardens under water).

Foundations are laid by digging a trenchand raising layers of wooden shuttering,filling in each course with concrete until thedesired height is reached.This might be asmuch as 16–20 feet for a large temple.

Raising wallsConcrete walls are constructed with stone orbrick facings, and known by their style.There are three main styles, as shown in theillustrations.

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Builders and BuildingAugustus boasted that he found Rome built of brick and lefther clothed in marble. However, with a few grand exceptions,most buildings are of concrete, brick, and timber.

Making a concretefoundation with woodshuttering.

Right: Opus testaceum is a facingmade of fired bricks cut intotriangles; rectangular bricks arealso used. An outer facing of thintravertine or marble panels coversmany public buildings.

Left: Opus incertum is afacing made of small,roughly shaped stones.

Right: Opus reticularumis a facing made ofpyramid-shaped stonesor fired bricks, makingan attractive diagonaldiamond pattern.

While the lower floor of an insula isusually built with one form or other of facedconcrete wall, the upper floors have wallsconstructed from a timber frame filled inwith rubble and mortar. It is a cheapmethod, but a terrible fire hazard.

concrete

concrete

concrete

travertine

back

tegulaimbric

front

RoofingRoofs are made of wooden frames coveredwith flat tiles made of terracotta, a claystrengthened with coarsesand.The mainrectangular tile is calleda tegula; the half-roundtile that covers thegaps between tegulaeis called an imbric.Imbrices are also usedas ridge tiles wherethe two slopes of aroof meet.

This form of wall calledopus craticum is liableto catch fire andcollapse unexpectedly.

Roofing tiles

Right: Men belonging tothe collegia fabrorum(the builders’ guild) areconstructing a barrelvault, one of severalforming a new basilica.

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Arches and barrel vaultsConcrete makes it possible to build largerarches than ever before.The most commonform is called a brick barrel vault.The arch isformed from wedge-shaped bricks arrangedin several rows.At intervals, a longer brickties the individual arch rows together.Thespaces in between are filled with concrete.

Precise carpentry is required duringconstruction.The centering or formwork issupported by scaffolding, over which thebricks are placed and mortared together.Once the concrete has cured (set solid), thecentering can be removed and the inside ofthe arch may be faced with plaster,travertine, or marble.

wooden centering

concretewall

scaffolding support

concretewall

wedge-shaped bricks longer tie brick

hollows are filledwith concrete

During the Punic War s with Carthage,many owners of small farms had to

leave their land to join the army.The farmsfell into neglect and many were devastatedby Hannibal’s Carthaginian army.When thewars ended in Rome’s victory, the smallfarmers could not afford to repair the

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FarmingMost farming land is owned by aristocratic Romans. Despising trade,business, and manufacture, it is beneath a Roman man’s dignity to be anythingexcept a warrior, a magistrate, or a farmer—with slaves to do all the work.

damage and their land was bought up byrich landowners, who soon turned much ofItaly into giant farm estates called latifundia.

Despite several attempts since to returnland to small farmers (see “The alimenta ofNerva”), the latifundia still dominate Italy and many other parts of the empire.

1. A wooden-framedplow with an iron bladeis used for turning overthe fields ready forplanting. Because ofItaly’s mild winters,seed is sown in the fall,and may be again in thespring.

2. Olive oil stored in jarsburied in the ground isused for a form of soap,in cooking, and as fuelfor lamps.

8. Pigeons are apopular dish, so mostfarms have a dovecoteand keep pigeons forfood in the winter.

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3. Most farms have asmall vineyard forgrowing grapes, and agrape press.

4. The estate overseerhas a modest butcomfortably appointedhouse, where the ownerstays overnight on avisit. However, theowner is more likely toremain at his nearbyvilla (see page 38 ).

5. The threshingfloor, where horsesare driven over grain toseparate the wheatfrom the stalks andchaff.

6. The “winnowed”grain is then milled tomake flour for bread.

7. Romans havebrought many usefulinventions to farming,such as the harvestingmachine.

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12. Market gardening isa profitable source of asenator’s income. Manykinds of vegetables andfruit includingcabbages, lettuces,radishes, carrots, leeks,beans, onions, figs,pears, and apples aregrown on the plots.

13. Chickens, ducks,and geese are kept inlarge numbers for theireggs and meat.

14. Sheep are kept fortheir milk and meat, butespecially for theirwool, used in makingtogas.

15. Goats provide milk,and their hair is usedfor making rope andsacking.


The alimenta of NervaThanks to Emperor Nerva (96–98 CE),small farmers now receive state aidthrough a program called the alimenta.Under this plan, small farmers pledgetheir land as security and are allowed toborrow up to a 12th of its value from thestate treasury, at a rate of 5 percentinterest on the loan. However, this interestis not paid to the treasury but to thefarmer’s local township.The town thenuses the money to support the children ofpoor parents.

The alimenta has been a great success.It has helped to rid Italy of poverty tosome extent and also caused an upsurgein farming.Wealthy nobles now followthe emperor’s example and form similarplans of their own.As a result, severalthousand children are being provided forin Italy, and more in the provinces as theconcept spreads.

An imperial farmAgriculture is the primary industry of theRoman Empire, and the typical imperialfarm produces a variety of goods. Cereals aregrown, but not to a great extent, since largeareas of arable land are scarce in Italy. Grain isimported in vast quantities from Egypt, NorthAfrica, and Sicily. Local grain is mostlygrown to provide the livestock with feedthrough the winter.The main commoditiesare cattle, oil, wine, and vegetables.

Given the perishable nature of mostproduce, farms are usually dedicated togrowing food for the inhabitants of nearbytowns.Those sited close to a major roadleading to Rome can make a lot of moneyfrom selling luxury items, rapidly transportedin the cool of the night to the city, whencarts are allowed inside the walls.

11. Cattle are kept morefor plowing than fortheir milk or meat.Romans prefer the milk

of water buffalo,which is used to

make cheese.

10. Horses are not bredfor farming, but for thearmy, which pays well.

9. The farm has severalbeehives to providehoney, the onlysweetener Romanshave for their food.

Hundreds of slaves areused for every task.Privileged slaves havesimple quartersattached to the mainfarm buildings, but mostfield laborers have tomake do with sharingthe cattle sheds,stables, or just a ditch.

Although he only ruledfor a short time, Nervawas one of Rome’s bestemperors.6

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Aristocratic sons and those of rich fatherslook to military service as an important

first step in their future political careers, andtheir life in the army is very different fromthat of the ordinary soldier.A legionary signson for a minimum of 25 years, which oftenbecomes a much longer term.

Despite this major commitment, the armyis not short of volunteers. Men join for thepay, the thrill of battle, and the chance totravel and see the world (although most ofthis will happen by marching for hundredsof miles). If he does well, a simple farmboymight rise through the ranks to become acenturion with 80 men under his command.He will not, however, become an officer—those ranks are only for the aristocracy.

TrainingA centurion wielding a vine staff, the symbolof his rank (1), puts recruits through theirpaces on the parade ground. Centurions—promoted for their experience andfearlessness in battle—are always loud andfrightening, but those in charge oftraining are worse.A new recruit cando nothing right, and often feels the lashof the vine staff.

Recruits use double-weight shields andpractice swords to strengthen their bodies (2),attacking 6-foot high wooden stakes withtheir shield boss and sword.The recruit istaught to thrust with his short sword andnever to use a slashing motion, which wouldcause harm to the man standing next to himin a real battle. He also learns to throw anoverweight pilum javelin at a target (3).

Three times a month there are routemarches of 18 miles at a forced pace of 5miles per hour, carrying the full complementof equipment (see page 58 ).Also wearing fullkit, the recruit is required to run, jump, andvault over wooden horses (4). He is taughthow to build a defensive camp for the night.He is given training in stone-slinging,swimming, and riding, learning how tomount and dismount (5) fully armed fromeither side—without the aid of stirrups (see“Fact box”).

The legionary’s kitThe Roman legionary has to pay for hisuniforms and its cost is taken out of hiswages.Throughout his militarycareer, all new garments andarmor will have to bepaid for, as well as hisfood.


A Life Under ArmsNo one before has taken the profession of soldiering more seriously than theRomans. From the dry shores of the southern Nile to the rain-soaked moors ofnorthern England, legionaries keep the pax Romana, the Roman peace.

The new recruitA potential recruit needs a recommendationfrom someone connected with the army.An accepted recruit is given funds to covertraveling expenses to his legion—whichmight be anywhere in the empire.

At the camp, he takes the military oath toserve the emperor, which the whole legionrenews every New Year. He is then posted toa century and starts the unrelenting trainingthat will be a daily feature of his life fromthis point on.

Above: Recruits withskills in carpentry andengineering may beposted to a legion’ssapper unit, responsiblefor building roads andbridges. Here, they builda trestle bridge across ariver, driving piles intothe river bed.

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Fact boxStirrups were unknown at this time.Theywere first introduced from southernRussia by the barbarian hordes toward theend of the 4th century CE and adopted bythe Roman cavalry. By that time theRoman army was largely composed ofbarbarians anyway.

perimeter ditch andwooden palisade

Praetoriangate

Quintongatemain gate

officers’ tents

centurions’ tentslegionaries’

tentscohort on

parade groundPraetorium

(command center)with general’s tent

guard houses(stationes)

guard houses(stationes)

auxiliaries’tents

Legionaries are floggedif they misbehave, butfor mutiny thepunishment isdecimatio, when everytenth soldier isexecuted and fromwhich the word“decimation” is derived.

Above: When the Roman army is marching throughenemy territory, it sets up a camp every night, whichis dismantled in the following morning beforemarching on. The process is highly organized, andevery soldier knows his part. Each soldier carriestwo pale, wooden stakes. When all the soldier’sstakes are put together they form the defensivepalisade. Camps are always laid out in the sameway, based on a square with two intersecting streetsrunning at right angles to each other between thefour gates. Each century has its own allocatedspace, and colored marker pegs are placed so thateach cohort knows exactly where to pitch its tents.

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Organization of the 28 legionsEach legion numbers about 5,000 soldiers,divided into 10 ‘cohorts.’A cohort isorganized into six ‘centuries’ of about 80men, under the command of a centurion.The centurion’s second in command iscalled an optio.The legion also has severalstandard bearers.The most senior, theaquilifer, carries the legion’s eagle standard,while each century has a signifer, who alsoacts as the century’s banker.

Above the centuriate there are sixtribunes, drawn from the wealthy equestrianclass.These are temporary postings, held as astep on their political careers.Althoughsenior to any centurion, the sensible youngtribune pays attention to his centurions’experience.

Above the tribunes the legatus (legate) isusually a senator appointed to command alegion by the emperor. He is supported bythe praefectus castrorum (camp prefect), anolder man who has been promoted to officerclass from the rank of leading centurion(primus pilus).The legate has a considerablestaff of professionals under his command,including guard commanders, intelligenceofficers, torturers and executioners,veterinary surgeons, doctors, clerks andengineers, and 120 horsemen to act as scoutsand dispatch riders.

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1. Cross-shaped pole tocarry loose kit.

2. Bronze mess tin.

3. Bronze cook pot.

A soldier is expected to carry all the essentials heneeds with him. In addition to his weapons andarmor his kit includes many other items.In all, this kit weighs about 90 pounds.

4. Sack to carry personalpossessions, cloak, andcleaning kit.

6. Net bag to carry up to15 days’ food rations.

7. Pale, two woodenstakes to be tied toothers to form part of thecamp’s palisade.

8. Strong case to carrytools (chains, sickles,saws, and rope).

9. Pickax for diggingramparts.

10. Turf cutter for diggingrampart ditches.

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5. Leather cover for shield.

Food and retirementSince most soldiers are from the poorerclasses and meat is rare in their diet, theycope well with the basic campaign diet.Thisis usually only hard biscuits and a porridgeof cereal or chickpeas, supplemented bybacon, cheese, and a sour wine called posca.Preserved foods are easier to carry.A jerky ofdried game or beef can stand in when saltedpork is unavailable.

When a legionary reaches his full term, hemay be discharged with the option of takinga sum of money or a land grant, originallyItalian farmland. Now discharged veteransusually settle in the place where they haveserved and live in colonia (colonies).

Below: Reconstructionof Timgad in NorthAfrica (now in Algeria),the colony for Africanveterans. Like a militarycamp, it has two mainroads between thegates. Instead of thegeneral’s Praetoriumthere is the forum. Thetown has all theluxuries of civilized life:a theater, library, anarena (outside thepicture), temples, andmany public baths.

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A centurion’s armor issilvered. He wears legprotectors, or greaves,and has a semi-circularcrest on his helmet. Hewears his sword on theopposite side to thelegionary.

1. Red-dyed tunic ofwool or linen. A woolencloak for cold weatherand sleeping in.

2. Strong, well-ventilated caligae (half-boots) are laced byleather loops across thefoot and up the ankle.The hob-nailed soleswithstand hundreds ofmiles of marching. Onthe other hand, they canslip on hard, shinypaving.

3. Articulated bodyarmor (lorica segmenta )is made of severalmetal plates attached toeach other by brasshooks, hinges, andleather straps.

4. Metal helmet toprotect the skull, ears,and back of the neck.Its projecting brow iseffective in head-butting.

5. Leather belt to hold asword scabbard and agroin guard of leatherstrips with rivettedmetal disks.

6. Curved, rectangularshield—about 4ft byjust over 2ft—madefrom plywood coveredin leather. A metal bossprotects the handholdand adds batteringpower. The shield’sbronze rim is used forthrusting up under anopponent’s chin orslashing down on anunguarded shin or foot.

7. Short stabbing sword(gladius) made ofhardened iron. Its sharpsides are parallel,rapidly tapering to awicked point. Thescabbard is made ofwood and leather, heldtogether with bronzestraps.

8. Each soldier carriestwo pila. These javelinshave a wooden shaftjoined to the longspearhead by a sectionof soft iron. This isdesigned to bend onimpact with the groundso that the enemycannot throw the pilumback.

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1. Drainage ditch(sometimes lined wihdressed stone).

2. Compacted sand.

3. Large stones set incement.

4. Crushed stone.

5. Stone slabs.

6. Curb stones anddrainage gaps.

BRIGANTIUMCorunna

TOLETUMToledo

CORDUBACordoba

MALACCAMalága

CARTHAGO NOVACartagena

CARTHAGOCarthage (Tunis)

PANORMUSPalermo

SYRACUSAESyracuse

RHEGIUMReggio

ROMARome

HADRUMETUMSousse

LEPTISMAGNA

CARALESCagliari

ALERIA

VALENTIAValencia

VALENTIA Latin nameValencia modern name

TARRACOTarragona

CAESARAUGUSTAZaragoza

NARBONarbonne

GENUAGenoa

PLACENTIAPiacenza

COLONIAAGRIPPINACologne

MOGUNTIACUMMainz

AUGUSTA VINDELICORUMAugsburg

VINDOBONAVienna

AQUINICUMBudapest

AQUILEIA

VINDINISSAWindisch

AUGUSTATREVERORUM

Trier

ARIMINUMRimini

BONONIA FELSINA Bologna

SALONAESplit

DYRRACHIUMDurazzo

CYRENEShabatHADRIANOPOLIS

Benghazi

CRETACrete

SICILIASicily

SARDINIA

CORSICA

BALEARESBalearic Islands BRUNDISIUM

Brindisi

TARENTUMTaranto

CORINTHUSCorinth

ATHENAEAthens

THESSALONICASalonica

BONONIAGESORIACUMBoulogne

TOLOSAToulouse

VESUNNAPérigeux LUGDUNUM

Lyons

LUTETIA PARISIIParis

CAESARODUNUMTours

EBURACUMYorkLINDUMLincoln

CAMULODUNUMColchester

LONDINIUMLondon

DEVAChester

VIROCONIUMWroxeter

ISCAExeter

LIMONUMPoitiers

BURDIGALABordeaux

CAESAREACherchell

ITALICA

TINGITangier

GADESCadiz

EMERITA AUGUSTAMeridá

Major road network

Building a road

M E D I T E R R A N E A N S E A

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The Romans developed out of militarynecessity.As the Republic expanded,

military surveyors marked out the quickestroutes from one place to another so that thelegions could march from the city to thefrontier in a few hours.They were the firstall-weather routes in operation.Today thenetwork stretches over 50,000 miles andreaches every corner of the empire.

CHAPTER 3

Economy and Roman LawThe Amazing Roman Road NetworkRome has brought civilization to western Europe, Asia Minor, the Middle East,Egypt, and North Africa—and most of its benefits arrive by road. Along the roadsystem comes trade and prosperity, as well as civil law and justice.

Building a roadThe most noticeable aspect of Roman roadsis the directness of their routes. Surveyorsquite simply build from one sighting pointto the next. Building work starts by diggingtwin trenches 25–30 feet apart and 3–4 feetdeep.The trenches provide drainage andmaterial excavated from them forms part ofthe foundations or raises the road’s height.

Several layers of foundation are rammeddown, sometimes bound in cement, beforedressed stone blocks are cemented in place.The surface is built with a raised curve calleda camber to aid drainage through gaps in thestone curb (umbro).

At every mile, measuring from Rome,stand milestones.These small markers givethe distance and name of the nearest townsand indicate their directions, as well ascommemorating the emperor of the day.

Back down the roads toward Rome comemany goods, such as wild animals fromAfrica, silks and spices from China, glass fromSidon, and tin and wool from England. Inthis way roads help unite the different partsof the empire, as well as helping to keep theprovinces under control.

Below: The ViaOstiensis, connectingRome to its port ofOstia, demonstrates thetypical straightness ofRoman roads.

BYZANTIUMIstanbul

SINOPESinop

TRAPEZUSTrabzon

MELITENEMalatya

PALMYRATadmur

DAMASCUS

ALEXANDRIA

MEMPHIS

CAESAREA MARITIMA

BERYTUSBeirut

PHILADELPHIAAmman

AILIAEilat

THEBAE(Thebes) Luxor

PETRA

HIEROSOLYMAJerusalem

TYRUSTyre

SERIANE

ANTIOCHIA(Antioch) Hatay

ODESSUSVarna

PERGAMUMBergama

CYPRUS

SELEUCIASilifke

TARSUSEPHASUS

B L AC K S E A

Using concrete andadvanced archtechnology, Roman roadengineers have littletrouble in spanningrivers and steep valleyswith multi-archedbridges, or viaducts.

Most Roman vehicles are built to astandard gauge (the width along the

axle between the wheels) of 5 feet.Thegauge is not enforced, but the ruts in thestone paving formed by centuries of wheeledtraffic make for an uncomfortable ride ifonly one wheel runs in a rut.

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Along a Roman RoadThis illustration combines many of thefeatures a traveler encounters whenjourneying from one town to another.

1. State-controlledguesthouses calledmansiones are built atintervals of about 15Roman miles in civilizedregions. Even thoughsome are quite large,they are not verycomfortable. However,mansiones are oftenbetter than local inns.

2. Enterprising peopleoperate small food anddrink shops (tabernae)and sometimes offeraccommodation toguests. Unfortunately,many inns are dirty, thefood terrible, and theirowners little more thanbandits. Inns tend toattract local craftsmento set up workshopsand take advantage ofthe passing trade to selltheir goods.

The carpentum (A) is atwo-wheeled carriage,often covered, andmostly used in townor in the suburbs.

The raeda (C) is a four-wheeledwagon, large enough to carrya whole family.

The carruca (D) is anotherfour-wheeled vehicle usedfor long-distance journeys.It acts as a coach tocarry severalpassengersand theirgoods, andhas room tosleep in.

The cisium (B)is an openand lighter

version of thecarpentum.

Theplaustrum (E)

is a heavy-dutytruck-type vehicle,drawn by oxen, for

transportingheavy goods over

long distances.

A

C

B

3

3. Milestones areplaced on the roadside.The Roman mile isabout 5000 feet long,based on a thousandpaces (mille is Latin fora thousand).

4. Post stations are setup along main roadsbetween 6 and 15Roman miles apart.They are run by thecursus publicus, thegovernment postalsystem, which operatesthroughout the empire.Official messengers onstate business canchange horses at a poststation, or hand theirmessage on to a relayrider at the end of theirshift.

5. The military haspriority over everyoneon the roads. Civiliantraffic gets out of theway as quickly aspossible to allow a

century of soldiers tomarch past.

1

D

E

E

2

34

5

When it is not engaged in open warfare,the Roman navy—which is under the

control of the army—spends much of itstime fighting the many pirates who threatenmerchant shipping, especially in the easternMediterranean.

Naval ships are based on theGreek trireme, but the heavybattleship of the Roman fleet iscalled a quinquereme. Its name comesfrom the five (quinque) oarsmenmanning each bank of three oars.The ship carries a complement of 300oarsmen, 120 marines, and 50 crew toman the sail and steering oars. Under fullmanpower, a quinquereme can travel atabout 12 miles per hour.

Battle tacticsThe Greeks tended to ram and sink enemyvessels instead of boarding them, butRomans prefer to treat a sea battle like oneon land.Although the warships are equippedwith armored beaks for ramming, they alsohave a corvus.

The size and weight of a quinqueremeequipped with a corvus makes the shipunstable, and so for general naval campaignsthe lighter, more maneuverable trireme is still widely used.

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Military and Merchant ShippingUnlike their seafaring neighbors the Greeks, Romans have never liked the sea.Nevertheless, Rome boasts a vast merchant fleet to serve the empire’s trade anda large navy to keep the seas safe from pirates.

The frame of amerchant ship’s hull ismade of oak, and theplanking cut from pineor elder. The ship iscompletely decked toform a cargo holdbelow, and usually hassmall deckhouses nearthe bow and toward thestern. Four sails powerthe ship—two top sails,the main sail, and aforward steering sail,which assists the twosteering oars at thestern.

The corvusA stout pillar of woodsupports a boardingbridge on a rope pulley.At the end of the bridgeis a penetrating metalspike called a corvus,named for itsresemblance to araven’s sharp beak.When the bridge israpidly lowered, thecorvus slams into theenemy’s deck, hitchingthe two ships togetherand allowing themarines to swarmaboard the enemy ship.

The cargo shipUnlike warships, merchantmen rely more onsail power than on oars.They are generallybuilt to a standard pattern, but vary greatlyin length and width, depending on thepurpose for which they have been designed.A small vessel might measure 60 feet long by17 wide, but larger ships can be as much as100 feet long by 30 feet wide.

Cargo ships carry all kinds of goods overgreat distances, usually stored in the all-purpose clay jars called amphorae.With a highneck, two handles, and a pointed bottom, theamphora is designed for speedy and securestacking. Amphorae contain every essentialfood item, including olives, olive oil, wine,grain, and pickled fish.

NavigationThe ship’s captain has no instruments to helphim find his way across the open sea, butRoman merchantmen do not hug the coastas did the Greeks.They have several books toadvise them of the best routes across theMediterranean Sea and the various kinds ofweather to expect at different times of theyear.To calculate where he is, a captain looksat the heavenly bodies—the sun, and at nightthe moon, stars, and planets—to judge hisposition, knowing the speed and direction ofthe wind.

Financing a voyageSome captains own their own ship, but mostwork in the employ of rich Romans of theequestrian class.Although senators areprohibited from engaging in trade, they canuse their wealth indirectly to finance fleets ofships through a client of non-senatorial rankand make a healthy profit from the proceedsof a successful round-trip.

Merchant shippers also employ agents atvarious ports around the empire to makesure there will be a cargo to collect for thereturn voyage to Rome.The agent also takesa cut of the profits.Transfers of money aremade simple through the banking system (seepages 68–69).

Life onboardThe crew’s provisions—stored in containerssuch as amphorae, baskets, or sacks—are kepteither below the deck or in the smallforward cabin.The supply for a voyageincludes liquids (water, wine, oil, and the fishsauce called garum), and solid foods (cereals,olives, fresh or dried fruit, dried beans andlegumes, smoked or salted meats).

Personal objects belonging to the crew orto passengers are also stored in the cabin.These include clothes, shoes, rings, and playingdice to help while away the time. Coins anda lever scale are carried for commercialtransactions, once dry land is reached.

Mariners are among the most superstitiousof Romans, and small portable altars andimages of the gods are set up onboard ship.When not manning the sails and steeringoars, the crew are busy repairing sails withbone needles, or fishing to enrich themodest food supply with fresh produce.

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CHAPTER 3: ECONOMY AND ROMAN LAW

The crews of Romannavy ships row hard inthis section of carvedrelief from the famousColumn of Trajan.Galleys are crowded,cramped, anduncomfortable vesselsand, like their merchantcounterparts, navalcrews spend theirnights ashore wherethey can safely lightcook fires and stretchout to sleep.

The amphora is one ofthe commonest itemsmade by potters, sincethey are used totransport a wide rangeof goods. The shape ofthe amphora allows formany to be stacked in aship’s hold, severallevels deep, and heldsecurely against themotion of a rough sea.

Ostia lies close to the mouth of theTiber. In the late Republic, its single,

long quay was sufficient for the amount ofships calling in to unload, but in the earlyimperial period the enormous growth insea-borne trade outstripped capacity.The siltcarried downriver by the Tiber has alsoclogged up the estuary, making it hard forany but the smallest vessels to dock there.

During his 41–54 CE reign, EmperorClaudius constructed a new harbor on thecoast about a mile north of Ostia. It is simplycalled Portus.This has led to a decline in oldOstia’s commercial fortunes, but the townthrives as a pleasant retirement center and aplace for Romans to have second homesaway from the bustle of the city. Ostia has allthe amenities necessary for comfortableliving, such as shops, a forum, temples, publiclatrines, and plenty of baths.

Portus has since been enlarged by Trajan(97–117) with a six-sided second basin, newwarehouses, and a canal linking the harbor tothe Tiber beyond the silted up stretch of theriver. From Portus, along the canal, and upthe river, the bargemen transport goods towarehouses in Rome, ready for distribution.

Like all Roman harbors, Portus has alighthouse for night navigation.The largestlighthouse in the Roman world is the Pharosat Alexandria. Standing over 100 feet high,this wonder of the world uses huge, polishedmetal plates to reflect the light of a fire.

Temporary storage of goodsWarehouses (horrea) stand alongside the port’squays. Built of wood or stone with tile roofs,some of them are huge.The HorreaGalbana, which stands in Rome near to theTiber, covers over 25,200 square yards. Manywarehouses consist of rows of secure roomsaround a central courtyard, although pressureof space often means the courtyard gets filledin with more rooms.

Warehouses are used for storing goodsfrom all over the empire, from buildingmaterials to foodstuffs, especially grainfrom Egypt and North Africa. Grainwarehouses have raised timberfloors to keep out vermin andto allow a good circulation ofair beneath to control thetemperature andhumidity.

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Ports and WarehousingTrade is the lifeblood of the empire. If the roads are theeconomic arteries, the ports are the valves through whichcommodities pour into the markets. The Roman world has

many large harbors, but the greatest of them is Rome’sport at Ostia.

slavestextilesbrass/bronzepotteryglasswaremarbletimber

wineolive oilgrainirontinleadcoppersilvergold

Rome

S P A I NB A L K A N S

A S I AM I N O R

Byzantium

Alexandria

Tyre

Carthage

Lyons

London

Marseille

perfumeand spicesfrom India

silk from China,spices from India,wild animals from Asia

ivory, ebony, wild animalsfrom Africa

animalhides

Commodities tradedwithin the Roman Empire

M E D I T E R R A N E A N S E A

B L A C K S E A

AT

LA

NT

I C

OC

EA

N F R A N

CE

Customs dutyGoods being imported or exported aresubject to a portorium, a customs tax.The taxis levied at all frontiers, but the great portsare the busiest places for customs officers,and there may be as many as a hundredfunctionaries checking ships’ cargo manifests.The tax, which goes straight to the emperor’streasury, or the fiscus, is usually levied at arate of 2 to 2.5 percent of the goods’ value.But some luxury commodities attract muchhigher rates, sometimes as much as 25percent.


Above: Rome’s harbor, Portus at Ostia, was built byEmperor Claudius (the left basin) and enlarged byTrajan with a six-sided basin. A canal links the portto the Tiber (at extreme top right) and Rome.

Below: At Ostia, goodsfrom seagoing ships aretransferred to bargesthat are then towed upthe Tiber to Rome’sbusy docks by teams ofoxen. There, vast tractsof warehouses awaitthe imported wares.

The Romans adopted coins relatively late,in about the middle of the 3rd century

BCE, accepting the system from theGreek cities of southern Italy. EarlyRoman coins did not carry portraitson the obverse (front).The first to doso was struck in 197 BCE tocommemorate the victory of TitusQuinctius Flaminus over theMacedonians. Portraits on coinsdisappeared again until the time ofJulius Caesar, some 150 years later. Now, allcoins carry a portrait of the emperor on theobverse.

Roman coins are derived from a standard-weight bar of bronze known as an as (pluralasses).The initial as weighed a Roman pound(just under 11.5 ounces), but was laterreduced in weight until by 217 BCE an asweighed only 9.5 ounces.

The highest denomination coin of theempire is the gold aureus. However,the coin most commonly used isthe silver denarius. Both areminted under the emperor’sdirect control. Only bronzeand copper coins, which areless valuable, may beproduced by provincialmints.The most widelycirculated coin of the empire,and also the largest in size, isthe brass sestertius.

Rampant inflationDuring the reign of Nero, who spent moneylavishly, prices rose alarmingly, so peoplecould buy less and less with their coins.Tocompensate, Nero dropped the weight andquality of the denarius, a cost-cutting practicethat has continued under successiveemperors. Often, gold and silver coins aremade from cheap copper, with only a thincoating of precious metal.

BankingRome controls a huge trading network.Merchants and businessmen who needmoney to fund trading expeditions go to amoney-lender, or banker.Wealthy equestriansrun most of the banks.They are sometimessupported by the wealth of their senatorialpatrons, who avoid business itself as beingbeneath their dignity.

Valuables and money are deposited with abanker. He pays a small rate of interest onthe deposit in return for lending the moneyat a higher rate of interest to a merchantwho needs funds.The rate of interest isgenerally 6–10 percent, although it is muchhigher in the outlying provinces where theinvestment risk is greater.

There are money-changers (argentarii) andbankers all over the empire. Some arecontrolled by the government, but others areallowed to operate individually. Using bills ofexchange between banks, payments can bemade from one side of the empire to the otherwithout the physical exchange of money.

The state treasuriesAt one time, like the Greeks, Romans keptthe state treasury (aerarium) in a temple. InRome it was the temple of Saturn, so thetreasury is known as the aerarium Saturni. Itis administered by quaestors (officials)under the control of the Senate.The aerarium is used fordepositing cash and archives ofthe Roman state, but its functionas a state treasury has fallen intodecline under the emperors.

The imperial treasury is known asthe fiscus, which is controlled by theemperor and run by fiscal administrators ofthe imperial civil service. Over the decades,more public money has been diverted to the

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Money, Banking, and TreasuriesAs in all other matters Roman, coins, weights, and measuresare strictly controlled, with special government departmentsto look after them.

By 55 BCE, coins stillfeatured scenes insteadof portraits. This one,showing a femalewarrior leading a horse,was minted by thetriumvir Publius LiciniusCrassus. It was soon tochange: in the imperialera most coins show aportrait of the reigningemperor.

The first Roman coin tofeature a portraitdepicts the generalFlaminius, but for a longwhile after, coins likethe one belowcontinued to avoidportraits.

Roman coin equivalentsCoin name Metal Equivalent

to aureusaureus gold 1denarius silver 25sestertius brass 100dupondius brass 200as bronze 400semis brass 800quadrans bronze 1600

fiscus and away from the aerarium. In addition,the emperor owns vast estates all over theempire which are collectively called thepatrimonium principis.Administered by theemperor’s procurators on his behalf, thisbrings in enormous imperial revenue.

From these two sources, the emperorfinances the army and any wars, as well aspublic building programs, such as new baths,forums, or law courts, and finances themaintenance of theempire’s roads,bridges, andaqueducts.

Weights and measuresWeights and measures are based on naturalunits, the smallest for measuring theweight of barleycorn. Roman weight isbased on the pound or libra, which means“balance.” Balances are used to weigh barsof bronze asses (same as the coins), and sothe term as is also used for a Romanpound in weight.

Because the bars are a Roman foot inlength (11.65 modern inches) and dividedinto 12 units, the term as also means 1foot, or 12 inches, and so both ounces andinches (unciae, from which we derive“ounce”) have the same names.Two otherterms are familiar from those used for coins.The subdivisions of the pound/foot are:

as or libra = 1 pound = 12 unciaedeunx = 11 ounces = 11 unciaedextans = 10 ounces = 10 unciaedodrans = 9 ounces = 9 unciaebes = 8 ounces = 8 unciaeseptunx = 7 ounces = 7 unciaesemis = 6 ounces = 6 unciaequincunx = 5 ounces = 5 unciaetriens = 4 ounces = 4 unciaequadrans = 3 ounces = 3 unciaesextans = 2 ounces = 2 unciaeuncia (ounce) = 1 ounce = 1 uncia (inch)

69

Making moneyIn ancient times, the Roman mint waslocated in the temple of Juno Moneta onthe Capitol, from which we derive the

word “money.” In the imperial period afar larger mint was relocated topremises on the Caelian Hill.

MonetaryequivalentsEquating Romanmonetary valueswith modernones is not easy,since mostmoderncurrencies are nolonger related tothe gold standard.However, as arough estimate,the gold aureus isequivalent toabout $75.Thesilver denarius, isworth about $3.

The Roman treasury islocated under theTemple of Saturn in theForum. Using templebasements to storemoney dates back tothe Greeks.

The Twelve Tables cover laws regardingmoney, property rights, family

inheritance, and public behavior. Since itspublication Roman law has become farmore complex, but the Tables’ basicprinciples remain in force.

Making new lawsIn the Republic, the Senate and variousAssemblies made new laws, but theirinterpretation was down to praetors, themagistrates who judged trial cases, as theystill do. On taking office, a judge publishes adocument called an edictum perpetuum listinghis interpretation of each law.This fixes howthe laws will be interpreted from that pointon. In earlier times, his successor in officewas not bound by this “perpetual edict.” Itwas only after 67 BCE that a praetor was evenobliged to honor his own edict, let alonethose that came before him.

Now, the emperor devises most new laws,and even those issued by the Senate requirehis approval.As jurists say,“What pleases theemperor has the force of law.”

The cost of bringing a caseTrials are set in motion by individuals, sincethe government itself does not prosecutepeople. However, seeking justice for theindividual living in Italy has not always beeneasy. For centuries, cases could only be triedin Rome, meaning that many people livingfar away in the north or south had to travelfor days to reach the city, and then spend afortune on food and accommodation for theduration of their stay.

Emperor Hadrian changed this state ofaffairs.According to his edict, four men ofconsular rank are givn two or three districtsof Italy each to look after.They are circuitjudges, known as the quattuorviri consulares.This innovation has reduced the often-crippling costs of bringing an appeal toRome and also relieved pressure on the city’sovercrowded courts.

The flexible lawRoman civil law allows great flexibility inadapting legal principles in the complexsociety of the empire. Old laws are rarelyreplaced, but jurists often develop alternativeprocedures to allow for greater fairness.

For example, a Roman is allowed by lawto make his will as he wishes, but if he doesnot leave his children at least 25 percent ofhis property a magistrate may let them havethe will declared invalid as an “irresponsibletestament.”

A day in courtIn the provinces, governors act as trialjudges, while in Rome praetors manage thecourts.These men decide whether or not acase is worthy of trial, then choose a judgeor try the case themselves. In Rome, jurytrials are held in the great basilicas near theForum.The jury may vary in number, but inimportant cases up to 75 citizens will becalled to serve.

There is a division between public law(see page 72 ) and private law, which accountsfor most trials. Because there is no stateprosecution service, it is up to the aggrievedperson or family to arrest the perpetratorand bring him to court, as well as anymaterial witnesses.This usually means thatthe plaintiff and the defendant make theirown cases before the judge and jury.

If the matter is serious, the accused mayhire an advocatus (attorney) to speak on hisbehalf, usually his patron (see pages 44–45 ).Attorneys do not receive fees but getpolitical help instead.This is why it isimportant for aspiring politicians to provideassistance to as many people as possible.

If the advocate’s rhetorical oratory isunable to persuade the jury, perhaps theaccused’s family can help. It is common forwives, aunts, grandparents, and children togather before the jurists in a weeping mass,hoping to make them feel sorry for him. Ifinsufficient family members are available,

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The Roman Legal SystemIn 450 BCE a document called the Twelve Tables was published. From this list of rules and statutes Roman civil law is derived.Romans rely on civil laws to address a variety of issues.

there are always professionals ready for hire.Once everyone has had their say, the jury

decides by voting whether the accused isguilty or innocent.Then the judgeannounces the verdict and decides thepunishment.

71

Actions are louder than intentionsThe basis for Roman law is the idea thatthe exact form, not the intention, of wordsor of deeds produces legal consequences.Ignoring the intention (or motive) of aperson seems unfair from a modernperspective, but the Romans recognizethat there can be witnesses to someone’sactions and words, but not to theirthinking and intentions.

Under the beady stareof the prosecutor,Maximus Valeriuspleads for the accused,whose pitifullydistraught family addsdrama to proceedings.

Punishment depends on the social statusof the convicted person. Judges place the

accused into one of two categories: honestioresand humiliores.The first category, the morehonest men, includes senators and equestrians,while the humiliores are usually poorer, andtherefore considered less honest.The severityof the punishment reflects their status.

Private and public punishmentCivil offenses are dealt with by private law.These crimes include non-payment of debts,not fulfilling contracts, committing fraud,theft, or assault.The punishment is usuallythe payment of a fine or compensation tothe injured party.

Public crimes—effectively crimes againstthe state—include treason, electoral bribery,embezzlement of state property, adultery, andmurder by violence or poison. Separatetribunals are set up to deal with these, andthe punishments are severe, with humilioresgetting the worst of it.

Capital punishment is carried out in anumber of ways, depending on thecondemned person’s status: beheading with asword (for military personnel), burning alive,crucifixion, exposure to wild animals in thearena, or drowning in a sack.

Punishments also include flogging, admetallum (condemned to the mines ),banishment to a gladiatorial training school,

a life sentence as an oarsman in the navygalleys, and partial or total confiscation ofproperty.

In the case of public punishment, there isno attempt at rehabilitation of the damnati(condemned), so Rome has no real prisons.The public prison is reserved as a measureagainst those disobeying a magistrate’s order,and the imprisonment is usually short.

ExileWhen a rich person or a senator is foundguilty of a public crime, his punishmentmight be banishment from Rome. Butwhere humiliores will find themselves in themines or the arena, honestiores are treatedwith greater laxity.

If the wealthy man is condemned to deaththe magistrate often delays his arrest to givehim time to escape into voluntary exile(exilium) before his sentence is passed.Nevertheless, he loses his citizenship and hisproperty is confiscated by the state.

In certain cases, the sentence may berelegatio, a temporary banishment to aplace—often one of the small islands off theItalian coast—without loss of citizenship orestates. Departatio is permanent exile tosomewhere horrid, with loss of citizenshipand confiscation of property. No personwithin Italy may give aid or shelter to aperson who has been exiled

72


Crime and PunishmentPunishment in the Roman legal system distinguishes between public and privatecrimes, reflecting the division between public and private law. In each case, thepunishment is designed to fit the crime.

Below: For a wealthycitizen, banishment toa remote place farfrom the hustle andbustle of beloved Romeis like having theirlifeblood cut off.

Right: Men condemnedto death may provideentertainment in thearena by being thrownto wild animals forexecution.

Center right: A womanconvicted of adultery issewn into a sack andtossed to a waterydeath in the Tiber.


Right: A life sentenceas an oarsman in thenavy galleys is adifficult fate.

Crucifixion is as cruel aform of execution asany. The victim, tied byhis hands or nailedthrough the palm to a T-shaped cross, diesslowly of asphyxiation—the loss of breath. Thispunishment is usuallyreserved for slavesconvicted of a crime.The largest masscrucifixion took place in73 BCE when slaves inCapua revolted underthe leadership of thegladiator Spartacus.

Torture and slavesMost Romans look after their slaves well buta master may punish his slaves as he sees fit.A harsh owner may have them beaten,mutilated, or branded. If a slave shouldmurder his master or any of his family, all theother slaves in the household are put todeath, usually by crucifixion.This is intendedto deter possible slave revolts and toencourage slaves to report misdeeds.

During criminal proceedings, any slaveordered to give evidence in court isroutinely tortured first. It is believed thatthe slave would not otherwise tell thecourt the truth.Although thetorture of citizens used to be rare,in the imperial period it hasbecome much more common, incivil cases as well as public.

Waterproof concrete has made possiblethe miracle of constant running water

for almost all of Rome. Since 312 BCE, whenthe first aqueduct, the Aqua Appia, was builtby the censor AppiusClaudius Caecus, no lessthan nine other majoraqueducts have beenconstructed. Betweenthem, they dischargesome 298,000 gallons of water every day.

Only about 10percent of the aqueductsrun above ground, withthe rest routed atground level or below.But it is the gracefularcades that everyonemost admires.

The waters of theRiver Anio from the Apennine foothills tothe east of Rome feed all but two of theseaqueducts.The Aqua Marcia, completed in144 BCE, is renowned for the purity of itswater. It was the first to be carried acrossthe plain from Tivoli to Rome on anarcade, and cost a great deal of money tobuild. Money was saved on two laterchannels, the Aqua Tepulia (125 BCE) andthe Aqua Julia (33 BCE), by building themon top of the Aqua Marcia—a triple-deckerstriding across the plain.

Two aqueducts are fed by the lakes to thenorth of Rome, and serve the northwesterndistricts of the city, including the newest, theAqua Traiana, built by Emperor Trajan,which supplies the region on the west bankof the Tiber.

How an aqueduct worksAn aqueduct relies on gravity, so it is builton a carefully calculated downhill gradientfrom its source to the city. If necessary, ariver valley is crossed by carrying thechannel on a bridge.When a long, shallowvalley gets in the way, the water is divertedin a series of closed pipes.The pipes passdown one side of the valley and up to alower point on the other side and back into

the aqueduct channel.This works on what isknown as the “inverted siphon” principle,since water always finds its own level.

The aqueducts require a great deal ofmaintenance to keep them running.This isthe responsibility of the Cura Aquarum orWater Department. It employs hundreds ofengineers, overseers, and slaves. Inspectionchambers are built at regular intervals forchecking water levels, purity, and flow.Obstructions can be removed and limescalecleaned from the channel.

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The Roman Water SupplyThe Romans are not the first to bring water from a distance in aqueducts, but

they have turned it into a science. As a consequence Roman citizens havecontinuous access to clean, fresh water for drinking and washing.

A cross section throughthe Aqua Claudia,carrying the moremodern Aqua AnioNovus above it, as itapproaches Rome on anarcade across the plain.

Aqueducts approchingRome meet in a tangle.These two arcadesactually carry threewater channels each,the most recent at thetop. The line of trees atthe top marks the routeof the Via Appia.

A domestic drain withtiled top (see opposite)at Rome’s port of Ostia.

Water for bathing and drinkingThe principal purpose of the aqueducts is tosupply water to public baths. But thanks tothis continual supply, there are plenty ofpublic drinking fountains to supply the vastpopulation that does not enjoy a waterconnection at home, and to flush the publiclavatories or foricae (see also page 93 ).

An aqueduct arrives in the city at thehighest point, where the water enters a seriesof settling tanks to remove any sediment,before passing into a large distributioncistern known as a castellum. From here, thewater is distributed through the large leadpipes that supply various parts of the city.

While the water gushing from Rome’smany fountains is free, householders have topay for a connection.They are chargedaccording to the pipe diameter entering theirhouse, the standard measuring unit being thecalix, or nozzle. Calices come in several sizes,depending on how much water thehouseholder requires.

Taps or valves are rare, and the watersimply runs 24 hours a day, overflowing froma cistern into the drain.This is usually placedin the kitchen area of a town house andprobably runs under the nearby latrinebefore falling into the civic sewerage system.

Sophisticated sewersWhile a 24-hour water supply is wonderful,the fact that it never stops running meansthat adequate provision for drainage isessential. Underground sewers, usually builtbeneath the streets, carries overflow waterand waste from the latrines.

In Rome the sophisticated system of localsewers connects to larger channels andeventually to the cloaca maxima, or maindrain.This flows out into the Tiber. Outsidethe city, private houses and the larger innsdischarge their overflow water and wasteinto a large soakaway called a cesspit.

The sewers are equipped with manholesat regular intervals that provide access for themunicipal slaves to carry out regular cleaningand repairs.

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Inverted siphonWater at (A) is divertedfrom a channel intopipes (B). They run downone side of the valleyand across a bridge (C).

Because the pipeat (D) is at a lower

height than (A), thewater flows up the pipe(E) and back into thechannel (F).

A

B

C

D

F

E

Bottom right: Publicfountains stand at mostintersections. There isno faucet, and thewater flows into thebasin and then into thedrain. One runs underevery major street,eventually joining thecloaca maxima—thegreat drain. Lead pipescarry fresh water andbranch pipes supplyfountains, and privateand public buildings.

The state religion grew from the rituals ofearly farming families who asked the

numina (natural spirits) to give them healthychildren, favorable weather, good harvests,and protect them from enemies.As thefarming community expanded priests beganto organize these requests on behalf of all thepeople. In time, the early Romans adoptedthe more sophisticated Greek gods, builttemples to them, and so the state religionemerged.

Worship at homeRomans believe that their homes are stillunder the influence of the ancient divinenumina.Among these ancient spirits the lareslook after the whole household, the penatesprotect the stores, the family’s guardian spiritis called a genius, and manes are the ancestors.

Some numina are shared between allpeople, such as Vesta, goddess of the hearth,and Janus, god of the doorway, who can lookin different directions with his two faces.

Public worshipRitual prayers and sacrifice are a part of dailylife.The sacrifice—of food offerings oranimals—is to please the god, the prayers toask for good things to happen. Romanpriests have no sacred writings other thanprayers, so people are free to think andbelieve what they want about their gods.However, the rituals must be performedcorrectly.The smallest mistake in a priest’sperformance ruins the ritual because thedispleased god will refuse the sacrifice.

A Roman temple is usually a single room(cella) to house the god’s cult statue. Ritualceremonies take place outside on an altar infront of the temple’s steps.Temples alsocontain treasures won in battle or donated byindividuals as offerings to the god.

The priestly collegesMost priests in Rome are elected from thearistocracy, and it is their honorable duty toserve the state. Priesthoods are arranged incollegia (like the commercial trades) ofwhich there are many—only the mostdistinguished are listed here.

Pontifices (pontiffs)The collegium pontificorum controls the statereligion under the guidance of the pontifexmaximus (chief priest). Pontiffs decide thedates of the year’s religious days as outlinedon page 40 and festivals, preside at formalceremonies and are also responsible for theflamines and the Vestal Virgins.

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CHAPTER 4

Religion and RelaxationSpirits, Deities, and a State ReligionRoman deities fall into two groups. Spirits protect places and are worshipped athome, while gods are worshipped in public and form the state religion.

Each house has ashrine to the larescalled a lararium, wherethe family prays everyday, and offers smallgifts of food and drink.

Statue of Augustus inthe apparel of pontifexmaximus. His head iscovered as sign ofreligious respect.

Opposite: In this relieffrom Trajan’s Column, aboar and a ram are ledtoward the altar to besacrificed. As emperorand pontifex maximus,Trajan (extreme topright) presides over theceremony with his headtraditionaly covered. Apriest on the left holdsthe sacrifical hammerready. In the ritual nomistakes are allowed,or the whole ceremonymust be restarted toavoid bad luck. After thesacrifice Augurs willexamine the beasts’entrails for signs ofgodly approval.

FlaminesA flamen, identified by his apex (a whiteconical leather hat) is appointed to serve aparticular god.There are 15 flamines.

AuguresThese priests interpret signs—known as“auspices”—from the gods, observed invarious ways, such as the feeding habits ofsacred chickens or the flight patterns ofbirds.Augurs don’t predict the future, theydiscover if the gods approve a proposedcourse of action.

HaruspicesThe word haruspex means “gut-gazer” andthe priests of this college rival the augurs indivining the will of the gods. However, theydo so by examining the entrails of sacrificedanimals, as well as the effects of lightning,which comes from Jupiter, king of the gods.

Vestal VirginsThe pontifex maximus selects Vestals from girlsof high birth aged between six and ten.Theyserve for 30 years, living in the Atrium Vestae(Vestal House) in the Forum.Their dutiesinclude tending the sacred fire on the hearthin the temple of Vesta and holding theinheritance wills of citizens.They also guardthe Palladium, an image of the Greekgoddess Pallas Athena, which protects Rome.

SaliiThe salii (“leapers”) are the 24 priests ofMars, god of war, whose duty is to dance inprocession during his festivals.They dress inarchaic military uniforms and carry sacredshields as they dance, singing the ancienthymn called carmen saliare.

FetialesA college of priests selected for life fromamong noble families, the fetiales areresponsible for the rituals involved indeclaring war and making treaties.

AugustalesThis imperial college of priests looks afterthe worship of the emperor. In the East thepeople find it natural to worship the livingemperor as a god, but in the West he isusually only made a god after his death.

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The major gods, known as the TwelveGreat Gods, known as the Di Consentes,

are the Olympians.They are derived directlyfrom the major gods of the Greeks and havethe same relationships to each other.The Di Consentes are celebrated in a colonnadedporch which stands at the end of the Forum

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Gods and GoddessesThere are well over 200 Roman gods and goddesses. Some developed fromancient Roman spirits, others have been absorbed from other cultures andmerged with Roman gods.

Juno (Hera), Jupiter’swife and sister, goddessof childbirth and women.

Jupiter (Zeus), king ofthe gods, and god of

thunder and lightning.

UranusFatherHeaven

CronusTime

RheaMother ofthe gods

GaeaMotherEarth

Neptune (Poseidon),god of the sea.

Vesta (Hestia),goddess of the

hearth.

Ceres (Demeter),goddess of agriculture

(not one of the Twelve ).

Dis or Pluto (Hades),god of the Underworld.

=

=

=

Apollo (Apollo),god of the sun,

music, andprophecy.

Bacchus(Dionysus), the

god of wine,originally formed

part of the RomanOlympians, but

was later replacedby Vesta.

Diana (Artemis),goddess of the

moon and hunting.

Minerva(Athena), goddessof crafts and war.

Mercury (Hermes),god of trade, thieves,the gods’ messenger.

Roma

Vulcan(Hephaestus),

god of craftsmenand forges.

Venus (Aphrodite), goddess of love.

=

Mars (Ares),god of war.

under the Capitoline Hill. Of these, the threemost senior—Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva,known as the Capitoline Triad—also share atemple on the Capitoline Hill.The RomanOlympians are shown in this chart, withtheir original Greek equivalents in brackets.

There are many lesser gods. Several lookafter fertility and growth, such as Flora andFaunus. Others, such as the god Quirinusand the goddess Bellona, are responsible forwar. Cupid, the god of love, has similaritiesto the Greek Pan, and the goddess Roma isthe divine spirit of the city of Rome itself.

Oriental religionsTraditional Roman cults were concernedwith basic issues—relationships betweenpeople, with the land, and ancestors. Littleattempt was made to explain the mysteries oflife and death or offer ways of being good.This is why “mystery cults” from the Easthave gained ground.They have not replacedthe traditional state religion, and most peoplepractice the new teachings while stillworshipping the old Roman gods.

Their popularity lies in revealing thesecret of life after death for initiates.Themystery cults listed below also require peopleto take part in ceremonies, in contrast to thestate religion where people stand and watch.

CybeleThe cult of Cybele, also known as the GreatMother (Magna Mater) came from AsiaMinor in 204 BCE after a prophet warnedthat without her help Rome would lose thePunic Wars. Mother of all living things, herrites include wild music and dancing, andher priests castrate themselves with flintknives, since only eunuchs may serve her.

IsisIsis is the Egyptian mother goddess, whoseson Horus avenged the death of his fatherOsiris.The cult became fashionable in Romeafter Julius Caesar brought Cleopatra to thecity for a year in 45 BCE.The story of Horusand Osiris is one of death and resurrection,and the cult’s mysterious rites have attractedmany people.

MithrasOne of the most popular new cults,Mithraism originated in Persia. It offers lifeafter death and asks initiates to treat otherpeople with respect and kindness. Mithras—sent down to Earth by the Zoroastrian godAhura Mazda to struggle against evilAhriman—has to hunt and kill a divine bull,from which all living things spring. It is asecret, men-only cult that holds particularappeal for charioteers and soldiers.

JudaismThe ancient religion of the Jews holds anappeal for those Romans who desire thedepth of a mystery cult. However, its belief

in and worship of only one god isconsidered intolerant by many Romans, andeven dangerous, since it refuses worship ofthe divine emperor. Some view this aspect ofthe religion as treasonous.

ChristianityThis offspring of Judaism has gainedpopularity among a large number of Romancitizens, usually of the poorer classes, and alsoamong slaves. Its teaching that earthly life isonly a test for a far better life in Heavenafter death appeals greatly to the wretchedand downtrodden.

Unfortunately, its observance requires theinitiates after baptism to worship the onetrue god and accept no others, soChristianity suffers from the same problemsas Judaism. Under Emperor Nero, manyChristians were blamed for the Great Fire ofRome in 64 CE and put to death in terribleways, such as being used as human torches tolight his celebratory games.

StoicismGreek stoicism is a philosophy not a mysterycult, but it has been adopted by many in thesenatorial class who prefer common-sense tothe mysteries of faith religions.This may be areaction to their loss of political power underthe emperors.

Stoicism places man at the center of theuniverse, and stoics accept that cause haseffect, that a person’s misfortunes are broughtabout by themselves or their fellows, not asthe result of a capricious god’s interference.

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CHAPTER 4: RELIGION AND RELAXATION

Isis

Cybele

A statue of Mithraswrestling with thesacred bull.

There are three types of Roman feriae orfestival. Feriae stativae are annual festivals

which occur on fixed days, feriae conceptivaeare those with dates that are set yearly bypriests or magistrates, and feriae imperativaeare irregular holidays proclaimed by consuls,praetors, or the emperor to celebrate militaryvictories.This list only gives some of themore important festivals.

JANUARYKalendis Ianuaris (January 1)New consuls are sworn in and bulls aresacrificed to Jupiter.The Anno Novo (NewYear) is dedicated to two-headed Janus, wholooks back at the old year and ahead to thenew. People give gifts and make vows (theorigin of New Year resolutions).The day isalso sacred to Aesculapius, god of healing,whose temple was dedicated on this day.

Compitalia (early January)This celebration of the lares compitales (godsof the crossroads) takes place on a single day,between the 3rd to 5th, when farmersdecorate altars on their boundaries. In Romethe 265 district chiefs place altars at allcrossroads.The city festival lasts three days.

Iuturnae (January 11)Festival of Iuturna, goddess of fountains andprophetic waters, celebrated at her temple,where the Aqua Virgo enters the suburbs.

FEBRUARYParentalia (February 13–21)The manes are honored (see page 76 ). Peoplevisit cemeteries with offerings for the hungrydead. No marriages may be performed.

Lupercalia (February 15)Two teams of noble youths are smearedwith the sacrificed goats’ blood.Wearingthe goats’ hides, they run through thestreets, whipping spectators with stripsof goatskin to promote fertility.

Equirria (February 27)Established by Romulus in the early days ofRome, this is a festival of horse racingdedicated to Mars, god of war andagriculture. It is also held again on March 14.

MARCHMatronalia (March 1, ancient New Year’s Day)In the Matronalia (festival of Juno Lucina)husbands give gifts to their wives.The 1st to23rd is the festival of Mars.The salii (see page77 ) dance through the streets and again onthe 9th and 23rd.

Anna Perenna (March 15)Anna Perenna, goddess of the year, iscelebrated by men and women with dancingand drinking—as many cups of wine as thenumber of years they hope to live.

Agonalia (March 17)Also celebrated in December, January, andMay, the Agonalia in March is a popular dayfor young boys to put on their adult togasfor the first time.

Tubilustrium (March 19–23)As the salii dance, the sacred trumpets of war(tubae) are purified to bring success in thecoming battle season.

APRILLudi Magalenses (April 4–10)The Megalesia, dedicated to Cybele (see page79 ), is celebrated by games.

Ludi Ceriales or Cerealia (April 12–19)The Cerealia celebrates Ceres, goddess ofcorn, with eight days of games. On the lastday foxes are ritually released into the Circuswith flaming brands attached to their tails.

Fordicidia (April 15)To promote the fertility of cows and fields,30 pregnant cows are sacrificed.The unborncalves are burned and their ashes are takenby the Vestal Virgins for use in the Parilia.

Parilia (April 21)An ancient festival for the purification ofsheep and shepherds, it is celebrated all over

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The Major Religious FestivalsWith so many gods to honor, Romans celebrate as many as200 festival days a year. Some are solemn, but most are anexcuse for having a good time.

Compitalia in thecountryside and in thecity of Rome.

The Lupercalia

Rome as the city’s birthday. Large bonfiresare lit and offerings of food thrown onthem.At the priestly fire, the ashes of theFordicidia calves are sprinkled on the flames.

Vinalia Prioria (April 23)In the first of two wine festivals (the other ison August 19), the first jars of wine from theprevious year are offered to Jupiter beforemen may taste the vintage.

Ludi Florales (April 27–May 2)The festival of Flora, goddess of flowers andspring, lasts six days, with carnival and games.

MAYLemuria (May 9, 11, and 13)The Lemuria is a three-day ritual held inevery house to pacify the lemures, spirits ofthe household dead.As even-numbered daysare unlucky, it is held on odd-numbered days.

Mercurius (May 15)Festival of Mercury, celebrated by traders.

JUNECarna (June 1)Festival of Carna, goddess of door hinges.She wards off stirges (vampires) from babieswho are left unattended in their cribs.

Vestalia (June 9), the festival of Vesta.

Matralia (June 11)The festival of mothers is held in honor ofthe goddess Mater Matuta.

JULYLudi Apollinares (July 3–13)Originally a one-day festival of Apollo, thishas become extended and is now an excusefor theatrical shows, games, and races.

Ludi Victoriae Caesaris (July 20–30)A festival of games in honor of Julius Caesar.

AUGUSTVinalia Rustica (August 19)This festival celebrates the start of the grapeharvest, in which the first grapes are picked.

Volcanalia (August 23)The festival of the god Vulcan.

SEPTEMBERLudi Romani (September 5–19)Also called the ludi magni because of theirimportance and extent, these games are heldin honor of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, themost senior form of Jupiter. On the 13th acow is sacrificed at Jupiter’s temple and theSenate eat a banquet there, in company withdressed statues of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva.

OCTOBERMeditrinalia (October 11)A festival to celebrate the new wine vintage.

Fontinalia (October 13)In honor of the god of springs, Fons,garlands are thrown into springs and placedon wells.

Armilistrium (October 19)The festival of purification of arms is held inhonor of Mars.The salii dance in processionas the arms are purified and put away at theend of the army campaigning season.

NOVEMBERLudi Plebeii (November 4–17)Theater, games, and races mark this feast ofthe Plebeian Games to Jupiter. On the 13tha banquet is held for senators and magistrates.

DECEMBERBona Dea (December 3)This festival in honor of the “GoodGoddess” is not held in her temple, but inthe house of a consul with only womenpresent. Men are strictly forbidden to see anyof the secret rites.

Agonalia (December 11)Also the Septimontium, a festival in honor ofthe seven hills of Rome.

Saturnalia (December 17–23)This important festival honors Saturn, god ofseed sowing. On the first day, after a sacrificeof pigs at the temple of Saturn, work ceasesand the feasting begins.

Gambling in public (otherwise banned) isallowed, and everyone wears holiday clothes.Slaves are given the day off and may even beserved by their masters. In time, this festivalwill be replaced by Christmas.

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The Ludi Florales

Masters serve theirslaves on the first dayof the Saturnalia.

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From obscure beginnings as a religiousrite, the gladiatorial games (ludi munera)

are the most dramatic aspect of the Romantaste for entertainment. Men fight for theirlives before baying crowds, their blood rakedover in the sand before the next combatantsenter the amphitheater.The very word arenameans “sand.”

The gladiatorial tradition started amongRome’s ancient neighbors, the Etruscans andSamnians, as a funeral rite.The first recordedgladiatorial combat in Rome took place in264 BCE, when three pairs of gladiators (usersof the gladius, or short sword) fought to thedeath in the Forum Boarium at the funeralof Decimus Junius Pera. From this point, thescale and frequency of games increased andnow they are exported around the empire.Many provincial towns boast their ownamphitheater in which to host games.

Recruiting gladiatorsGladiators are generally drawn from amongthe lowborn—criminals, prisoners of war,slaves, and persecuted minorities.A few jointhe profession by choice, desperate men withno place to go, others enjoy the prestigeattached to the games.A gladiator’s career isusually brutally short, but the few thatsurvive, such as Publius Ostorius—a veteranof 51 clashes—become national heroes andearn their freedom from the emperor.

Gladiators undergo a lot of training, andthere are many state-owned schools,particularly in Campania.The most famous isat Capua, and it was here in 73 BCE that theslave Spartacus led an uprising that grew intoa nationwide slave rebellion.

The combatantsThere are four main types of gladiator.TheThracian is armed with a curved scimitar andsmall round shield, the Samnite has a shortsword, oblong shield, and visored helmet, theretiarius is lightly armed with a net andtrident or dagger, and the murmillo has a fish-crest helmet, oblong shield, and sword.

The fun for the spectators comes frompitting fighters of the different traditionsagainst each other, so that a murmillo mightfight a retiarius.

Games frequently include wild animals inthe morning session, usually faced bycondemned criminals rather than expensivegladiators.

The Roman world’s largest and mostfamous venue is the Flavian Amphitheater—the Colosseum—started by EmperorVespasian and completed c.80 CE by hissecond son, Domitian.A superb example ofpublic building design, it seats 50,000 andpermits the grandest of spectacles. One eventin Trajan’s reign lasted for 117 days andinvolved 4941 pairs of gladiators.

In the ArenaThe ludi, or Roman games, combine gladiatorial combat with chariot-racing andtheatrical shows. The games have religious origins, but for most Romans they arenow an excuse for a good day out.

Thracian

Samnite

Retiarius

Murmillo

The Circus Maximus is the Romanworld’s largest racetrack.There has been

a racing circuit on the site between thePalatine and Aventine Hills since the city’searliest times, and the races (ludi circensis) arethe most popular spectator sport of all.

From obscure religious beginnings, racingchariots has become a professional sport.

All the charioteers belong to factiones orteams. Once, there were several, but nowthere are four teams in Rome—the albata(whites), russata (reds), veneta (blues), andprasina (greens), named after the colors theywear. Each team has its fans, andunfortunately street brawls between them arecommon and often very violent.


A Day at the RacesFor Romans, the greatest spectacle is chariot-racing. It is even more popular thangladiatorial combat and—for the charioteers—no less dangerous. Romans demandspills and thrills, and they get them in the Circus Maximus.

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This reconstructionshows the CircusMaximus in about 300 CE. The imperialpalace overlooks thearena on top of thePalatine Hill at thepicture’s top left.

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Out for a good timeDuring the morning the stands begin to fill.Unlike the Colosseum and most othervenues, in the Circus men and women maysit together, and so a day’s racing is anopportunity for the entire family to enjoythemselves.The senator Maximus Valeriusarrives early, so that his son may enjoy thepreliminary events—religiousrites, mock battles,some wild animalchases—before themain events ofthe afternoon’sracing.


centralvictory

arch

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The Circus Maximusmeasures almost 2000by 670 feet, and seatsapproximately 250,000spectators.

1. Triumphal Arch ofTitus. His fatherVespasian built it tocelebrate his son’svictory over the Jews atJerusalem in 70 CE.

2. All that is left of theCircus Maximus todaystands here, just

stumps of the archesthat held up the

seating stand.

3. The two metae, orturning posts. Skilledcharioteers always cutin close to the metae totake the shortest routearound the corners.This is also where mostaccidents occur. Eachmeta is topped by threetall bronze cones.

4. Finishing line withthe referee’s box above.

5. The imperial box forthe emperor. It is calledthe pulvinator, from thename given to acushion, or pulvinar, onwhich divine objectswere placed in atemple. Many emperorsbelieve themselves tobe gods.

6. The long masonryrib that runs down thecenter of the circus iscalled the spina. It is1100 feet long andangled to narrow theapproach to each turn,making it moredangerous. It isdecorated by statuesand trophies of war.

7. Obelisk of theEgyptian pharaohRamesses II dating fromthe 13th century BCE. Itwas taken from Egypt

by Augustus after hedefeated Mark Antonyand Queen Cleopatra in30 CE.

8. A raised racksupported seven bronzedolphins and sevenlarge eggs to count theseven race laps. Adolphin is turned headdown and an egg raisedafter the leading chariotcompletes the turn andcrosses the start line.

9. The alba linea (whiteline) or start line.

10. The first third of theright-hand stand anglesinward to give an equalbreak from the startinggates to the start line.

11. The 12 carceres, orstarting gates. Thecurved line of arches isnot at right-angles tothe circus track. This,combined with theangle of the start lineand the narrowing ofthe right-hand stand,gives all 12 charioteersan equal chance toarrive at the start linetogether, no matterwhich of the carceresthey start from.

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The anticipation growsThe packed spectators buy hot and coldsnacks and drinks from numerous rovingvendors, who pace up and down the steeprows. Soon, the Circus is full and everyoneeager for the afternoon’s racing to begin.

The ceremonies begin with a procession(pompa) of the charioteers (aurigae), teamstablehands, musicians, dancers, and priestscarrying statues of the gods in whose honorthe games are being held.There are 24 racesscheduled for the day, and the 12 charioteersdraw lots for a position in the starting gates.

This is the moment for last bets.Althoughgambling in public is forbidden, at the gamesbetting is not only allowed but is a passion,one which Maximus Valerius shares. Menplace bets between themselves or with themany agents of the four teams, who runmost of the on- and off-track betting.Theresults of Circus Maximus race meetings arefollowed around the empire.

The start of a race is signaled when thegames’ sponsor drops a white cloth (mappa).The gates spring open and the 12 teams ofhorses thunder onto the track.

The strategy is to avoid running too fastat the beginning of the race, since there areseven full laps to be run, but to try to hold aposition close to the spina and around themetae as closely as possible withoutrunning—or being pushed—into them.

Thrills and spillsRaces are split into two groups, for two-horse chariots called bigae, and four-horsequadrigae.The biga has a central pole, or“tree,” fixed at its lower end to the light

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Vendors selling hotand cold snacks and

drinks make a lot ofmoney.

Although most racecharioteers are slaves,successful drivers canmake their fortunes andbuy their own freedom.For most, however,serious injury and evendeath is common.

Betting becomes furiousas the race start nears.

framework on which the rider stands abovethe rotating axle.The horses’ necks are heldby a solid yoke, attached by a pivot to thefront of the tree. In a quadriga the centerhorses are also yoked to the tree, and theoutside horses are attached to the two innerhorses by strong traces (straps).

Races are run counter-clockwise. Outsidehorses run a half-stride ahead of inner horseson the straightaways and are trained to pulloutward to keep the team in line.The horseclosest to the spina—the outside-left—has tobe the best trained, especially in quadrigaraces, where it has to drop back a half-strideand pull the others around the corners.However, the outside-right horse should be

strongest, since it runs farther and fasteraround the turns.

The chariots provide little protection forthe charioteer, who basically has to balancehimself on the axle as he drives. He windsthe reins around his chest and waist, andcarries a knife to cut through them in casehe is thrown from the chariot.This is afrequent occurrence, especially as severalteams compete for the inside place at themetae.

The noise is deafening, the thunder offlying hooves and wheels competing withthe roar of the crowd, each person shoutingencouragement and advice at their color andcursing the opposing teams.

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Race winners, with agolden palm or wearingthe victor’s crown,become popular idolsand are mobbed bytheir hysterical fans.

Before the late Republic, virtuousRomans thought theaters were a

decadent luxury, and permanent theaterswere banned. Increasing Greek influencecreated a greater interest among educatedRomans for literature and dramaticperformance, and the flimsy woodenstructures erected temporarily for a festivalbecame replaced with stone theaters.

Roman theaters are similar to the Greeks’,except they are of concrete and stone, farmore elaborate and usually much larger. Oneof the first to be built in Rome, by Pompeythe Great, has a seating area (cavea) 525 feetin diameter, and it can seat 27,000 people.Some provincial towns, with more spacethan Rome, boast even larger theaters.

Where the Greeks built into a hillside tocreate the rise of the cavea, Roman architectsraise vast substructures to two or three levels.People can enter and exit very quicklythrough the intricate network of stairs andcorridors of the substructure.

Actors, masks, and playsAs in Greece, the actors wear grotesquemasks so their expressions can be easily seenfrom the back of the theater.The large openmouths of the masks also help to amplifytheir voices. Most actors are slaves orfreedmen—many, in fact, Greek—and theprofession is considered to be disreputable.As a result, a professional actor may not holdpublic office. In contrast to Greece, womenare allowed to perform on stage, substitutingheavy make-up for a mask.

Comedy and tragedy in the traditionalGreek form—once popular—have beenovertaken in popularity by mime,pantomime, and bawdy farces. Mime showsare undemanding tales of adventure spicedup with plenty of violence. Pantomime is alittle more sophisticated. It typically involvesa single pantomimus (“one who imitates allthings”) miming the story’s action with theaid of several masks, accompanied by

musicians, a chorus, and dancers.Romans also enjoy music concerts, which

are held in smaller, covered versions oftheaters called Odeons.These are also venuesfor lectures and business conferences.

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The Theater and Domestic GamesRoman drama is Greek in origin, and dramatic performances, ludi scaenici, were originallystaged in honor of a particular god. Over time, like games in the arena or Circus, thetheater has become pure entertainment.

Each part of theauditorium is reservedfor a different class ofpeople. The poorerpeople sit higher up.

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The Greek skene iscalled scaenae frons ina Roman theater. It isfar more elaborate, withtwo or three stories andup to a hundredcolumns.

Operators suspendrealistic painted scenerybackdrops from theupper floor of thescaenae frons. Thesecan be changed rapidlyfor different scenes.

Actors appear on thepulpitum (stage).Audience participationis noisy, especially infarces. Booing, hissing,and clapping arecontinual—fights breakout sometimes.

Thrill of the throwGambling in public on the street isforbidden, but Romans are passionategamblers anyway. Large sums of moneyare recklessly wagered on a throw of thedice at home, in taverns, or tucked awayprivately in the baths.

A similar game called tali is played withknucklebones made from bone or pottery,and bets are placed by both players andonlookers on the outcome of a boardgame played with colored counters.Among others, the emperor Augustusloved such games.

The first private and public baths werecalled balnea, small suites with individual

baths filled and emptied by slaves.Theinvention of hypocaust heating (see “Heatunder the floor” on page 92 ) in the 1st centuryBCE rapidly led to the development of bathswith hot and cold rooms, and bathingbecame a communal activity.

Building the bathsAgrippa built the first large public baths inRome in 25 BCE.The term thermae (hot orthermal baths) was coined to describe them.In 33 BCE, there were 170 small baths inRome; this number has grown to over 850,including the imperial thermae of Titus,Trajan, and Caracalla.These are among themost ambitious buildings in the empire.

The water is supplied from purpose-builtaqueducts, which also serve local domesticusers.The Aqua Traiana supplies the Baths ofTrajan, filling a great reservoir known as theSette Sale. Caracalla’s baths, known as theThermae Antoninianae, draw water from aspecially built extension of the Aqua Marcia.The water is stored in a massive cistern tofeed the various parts of the complex.

A series of poolsAll the great thermae share a similarity oflayout.After entering the complex free ofcharge (privately owned baths charge a smallentrance fee, except for children), bathersmake their way through the frigidarium (coldroom) to the tepidarium (warm room). Hereare found the apodyteria (dressing rooms) formen and women.The tepidarium does notalways have a bath and acts as a generalrelaxation area and insulates the hot roomsfrom the cold. It is also a warmingpreparation for the caldarium (hotroom).Caldariae are capable of achievingtemperatures as high as 100ºF and are madehumid from the hot plunge pools alongside.

Romans do not use soap for washing

themselves. Instead, bathers rub oil into theirskin and then scrape the residue away with astrigil (scraper).Wealthy people bring theirown slaves to perform this for them, orattendants are on hand to do it for a smallfee.The next step is to wash in the hot poolof the caldarium.The process is completed byreturning to the large frigidarium pool for arefreshingly cold plunge.

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A Day at the BathsFor the Romans, bathing is a luxury as well as a necessity.The great baths provide a convivial place to socialize, holdbusiness meetings, read a book, take vigorous exercise, relaxin beautiful gardens… and get clean.

1. Four entrances,divided between menand women, leading to the main doorways.

2. The apodyterium(changing room).

3. The frigidarium(open to the natatio,or cold pool).

4. The tepidarium,or warm room, wherepatrons enjoy acleansing session ofoiling and scraping of the skin.

5. The caldarium,or hot room, with 12steaming hot plungebaths.

The Baths of Caracalla

6. Massage rooms.

7. Relaxation andprivate function rooms.

8. The palaestrae oropen-air exercise yards.

9. Covered cistern.

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Formal gardens

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Southeasttemple complex

Shops under front rampart

ceremonial entrance

Shop

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Shops under front rampart

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Right: Wealthier patronstake along a slave toguard their clothesagainst the risk of theftfrom the apodyterium.

Right: A flask of scentedoil and two strigils.

A slave vigorouslyapplies a strigil to hismaster’s oiled back.

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Library

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Stadium, with seating built against cistern wall

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Heat under the floorThe relaxation and enjoyment availableabove the bath floors is not echoedalongside and beneath, where a slave forcetoils to provide warmth for the customers.

Heat to the warm and hot rooms issupplied by a hypocaust system, whichintroduces hot air (and steam for somerooms) under the suspended floor from apraefurnium (furnace) that also heats thewater.The floor is supported on numerouspilae (small brick pillars) around which theheated air circulates. So efficient is this thatthe floor needs to be thick to make itbearable to walk on, although woodensandals are commonly supplied.

The walls are also heated by continuousflues of hollow box-tiles called tubuli,fastened to the interior wall behind theplaster or marble facing.The hot air in theunderfloor area naturally rises up the tubuli.Holes in the sides of each tubulus connectthem and allow air to circulate sideways,ensuring even heating.The praefurnium is a fiercely hot, smoky

environment for the slaves who stokethe fires.They must work in crampedconditions, with small holes in thelow passageway ceiling the onlymeans of letting in some light andallowing the thick smoke to escape.The hypocaust is a dreadful place towork for others’ enjoyment.

interior wall

heated airrises up tubuli

holes in the tubuli conducthot air sideways

marble or mosaic coveringover thick concrete floor

marble-faced or paintedplaster wall

brick pilae supporting the floorallow heat to circulate

A leisure centerThe imperial thermae provide space for hugenumbers of people—up to 1600 at a time inthe Baths of Caracalla—so there are severalhot rooms and others for massage. Largerbaths have a laconicum (hot dry room), asudatorium (hot room to induce sweating),and a natatio (outdoor pool). From thetepidarium, bathers can walk out into thepalaestra, a porticoed open-air exercise areasimilar to those of the Greek gymnasium

In addition to the water features andexercise facilities, the imperial thermae offerbeautifully arranged and tended gardens forwalking and contemplation, one or twolibraries (Latin and/or Greek), temples andshrines, and sometimes a small sports area.At the Baths of Caracalla, there is even amodestly sized stadium, with seating forspectators built up the sides of the hugewater cistern, which is fed by its ownaqueduct.With the further addition ofconference and meeting rooms for hire,shops, and food stalls, the Roman baths are acomplete leisure center complex.

Left: Among theyounger bathers, thepalaestra is a popularplace for “letting offsteam” with a goodwrestle before bathing.

Below left: Romansanitary facilities arethe envy of the civilizedworld. In colder regions,a person wishing to sitdown will send in aslave ahead to warm upthe cold marble seat.

Right: Three beautifulwall paintings featuringthe ever popular subjectof countryside scenes.Note that ruins arealready in fashion!

Amenities for reliefPeople often spend the entire day in thethermae, so foricae (public latrines) are basicfacilities in all the great baths. Rome ishardly short of them—about 144 foricae exist.

They have an open design, with people ofboth genders seated side by side. Latrines areflushed with waste water from the baths,running in a deep channel under the stoneseating.A gutter in front of the seats runswith fresh water for cleaning hands and thecommunal cleaning sponges.

A bucolic reminder of the pastMore than any other institution, the publicbaths remind Romans of their origins.Thebeautiful mosaic floors contain imagery ofplants, trees, wild animals, and fish of therivers and seas.The walls are decorated withpaintings depicting rural scenes ofagriculture and idyllic hillsides. Even outside,in gardens both formal and artfully natural,Roman citizens can wander among theplants and shrines to ancient spirits of gladeand spring and be reminded that they aredescended from their honest, hard-working,and virtuous farming communities of old.

aedile One of four magistrates incharge of public amenities in Rome,who can be promoted to the officeof praetor.

alimenta A financial service wherea farmer or landowner can borrowmoney based on the value of hisland.The interest he is charged onthe loan is used to help the poor.

Assembly Or General Assembly,where plebeians elect officials calledtribunes who could vote againstlaws proposed by the Senate.

atrium A courtyard with a high,open ceiling where people aregreeted, the most important room ina domus.

augur a priest who interprets signs,called auspices, from the gods innatural events such as the flightpatterns of birds.

Augustus The title given to rulersof the Roman Empire.The firstemperor, Octavian, was knownsimply as Augustus when he gainedcontrol of Rome in 27 BCE, and itcame to mean ruler of the empire.

aureus Made of gold, the highestvalue coin.The silver denarius andbrass sestertius were morecommonly used.

bulla A good luck charm given to achild to keep evil numina at bay.

castellum A large water cistern,filled from aqueducts. Pipes takewater from the castellum to publicand private buildings.

caupona A street-side tavern.

censor The position above a consul,which monitors membership of the

Senate and equites, and holds a censusof Roman citizens to determinetaxing and voting levels.

centurion The senior non-commissioned officer of a century—a company of about 80 legionaries.A centurion is assisted by his optio.

circus A place where chariot racesare held; in the Greek-speaking areathe word hippodrome is used.

cognomen A nickname. Due tothe limited number of praenomina,people are often referred to by theircognomen.

cohort Each legion, or army isdivided into ten cohorts, and eachcohort consists of six centuries, eachled by a centurion.

collegium A guild or tradeassociation, including the fabrorum(builders), pontificum (priests), andpistorum (bakers), among many.

consul One of the two seniormagistrates, who in the RomanRepublic were elected and servedfor a year at the head of thegovernment. During the empire, itwas an honorary title given by theemperor for as little as two months.

corvus A sharp metal “beak” onthe end of a bridge lowered from aquinquereme into an enemy ship so itcan be boarded.

cursus honorum The “successionof magistracies,” the career path of aRoman politician, beginning as asenator.

dies comitalis A type of day whencitizens voted in the Assembly.Apraetor holds a law court on diesfastus; both courts and votes areheld on endotercisus. Dies atri is abad day when neither votes, courts,nor market days (nundinae) are

held; they are restricted on diesreligiosus—religious days.

domus A city or townhouse,usually of a single floor, owned by awealthy citizen.

equites The middle class of Romancitizens; originally cavalry knights(the name is taken from the Latinfor “horse,” equus ).

fasces A bundle of rods carried bya lictor as a symbol of a magistrate’simperium.

fiscus The imperial treasury; inLatin a basket or a purse.

freedman A slave who has beengranted manumission by their master.

gladius A type of short sword usedby a legionary or centurion, fromwhich the word “gladiator” isderived.

grammaticus Secondary or highschool, where boys from wealthyfamilies are educated. Grammaticusalso refers to a teacher of grammarand language.

honestiores Criminals of highstatus, such as senators, equites, andpatricians who are only punished bybanishment, though they may losetheir property.Accused members ofthe lower classes, humiliores, maybe, flogged, enslaved, or crucified.

imperium A magistrate’s authorityor power.

insula A city block. Because multi-story apartment buildings forplebeians usually occupy a wholecity block, these are also calledinsulae.

latifundia Agricultural estatesusually owned by senators andworked by many slaves.

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Glossary

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legatus A senator or consul at thehead of a legion;“legate” in English.

legionary A member of a legion,or army—a soldier.

lictors Assistants to magistrates;apparitores are scribes or juniorassistants.

litterator A servant or slave whoeducates his master’s sons andensures they work hard at a ludus.

ludus A primary school.At the ageof 11, some boys went to grammaticus.

mansiones Roadside hostels runby the state where travellers onofficial business may spend the night.

manumission “Send from thehand”—granting a slave theirfreedom. However, they usuallycontinue to serve their old master insome way.

nomen A person’s family name, orsurname; also gens, or tribal clan,from which the word “genus” isderived.

numina Spirits or ghost thatprotect different parts of the lives ofRomans who honor them.

pale A wooden stake. Each legionarycarries two and uses them as part ofa defensive fence, or palisade, whenan army sets up camp.

palla A garment draped over a stolaor used as a cloak.

paterfamilias “Father of thefamily,” the man at the head of ahousehold—the Roman version ofGreece’s kyrios.

patrician A member of Rome’supper class of citizen.

pilum A heavy javelin used by a

legionary, designed to break onimpact so enemies cannot throwthem back.

plebeians Or plebs, the lower classof Roman citizen, descended fromfarmers who gradually gained civilrights and independence frompatricians.

pomerium The sacred boundaryof Rome, not necessarily marked bya wall.Anything outside it could beRoman territory but not part of thecity.

praenomen A person’s given orfirst name.

praetor A senior senator withjudicial powers, or magistrate, whomay become a consul.

Praetorian Guard Originally thebodyguard of a praetor, they defendedthe emperor and his family.

quaestor A senior senator workingfor the empire in a financial role,who may be promoted to aedile orpraetor.

quinquereme A warship with fiverows of men on each side;depending on the type, the menhandled one or two rows of oars perside.

rhetoric The skill of speaking wellin public, essential for those wishingto be a lawyer or politician.

Senate The ruling body of 600men, from whom magistrates areelected by the Assembly.

stola A floor-length dress madefrom a single rectangular piece ofcloth; the female version of a toga.

synthesis A comfortable gownworn by the upper class men duringdinner and parties.

taberna A shop along the outeredge of a domus or other citybuilding.

thermae Large public bathcomplexes, divided into frigidarium,tepidarium, and caldarium area forcold, medium, and hot temperatures.Heat is provided by the furnaces of ahypocaust underfloor system.

toga A garment for men made asingle piece of fine white woolencloth, draped around the body.

uncia The basic unit of weight, andalso the basic unit of length.

vigiles Watchmen of the city whofought fires and also acted as policewhen they patrolled.

villa A countryside home of thewealthy, larger than a domus.Theresidential part is the villa urbana,while any agricultural section is thevilla rusticana.

Types of Roman roadsRomans have several names todescribe roads and streets.Theseare the most common.

agger raised road or causewayover low-lying, marshy groundangiportus narrow street oralleyclivus town street on a slopecrepido sidewalklimes road or track acting as afrontier boundarypervium throroughfareplatea streetsemita narrow path or lanestrata embanked road; after the3rd century it replaced theword viavia road or street for vehiclesvicus common word for a citystreet, lane, district, or small townserving a military camp.

GLOSSARY

Adriatic Sea 8aediles 13Africa 9, 11, 55, 61agriculture 8, 54–55, 58; see also grainAgrippa, Marcus Vipsanius 90alphabet 23Anio river 74Appenine mountains 8, 11, 74aqueducts 74–75, 90arenas/amphitheaters 83, 92; see also

circusesarmies 25, 42, 56–59Arno river 8art 49–50, 93Asia Minor 79Assembly 13, 70Athens 21authors 22–23

banking 68baths/bathing 26, 38, 45, 75, 90–93boats see shipsbooks 22–24building 52–53, 61buildings see homes, temples, tombsByzantine Empire 12

Caecus,Appius Claudius 74Caesar, Julius 12, 22–23, 40–41, 47,

68, 79Calabria 9calendar 40–41Campania 8, 11, 83Capua 83careers 28, 42–43Carthage 11–12, 79cavalry 57cemeteries 25chariot racing 84–87children 18–19, 42, 70China 61Christians 79Cicero 21circuses 84–87citizenship 12, 72class system 12–13Cleopatra, queen 79climate see weatherclocks 41clothes 36–37, 42coinage 68colleges 50–51, 77Colosseum 83consuls 13cooking 32cosmetics 37crafts 48–51Crassus 12crime and punishment 72–73customs duty 67

death 24dining 31, 45Discorides 24–25divorce 17

Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine) 12education 19–22Egypt 9, 43, 55, 79emperors:

Augustus (Octavian) 12, 18, 35Claudius 25, 66Domitian 83Hadrian 39, 70Nero 12, 68, 79Nerva 55Tiberius 18Trajan 83Vespasian 83

England 61entertainment 31, 47, 83–89Epirus 11equestrian rank 43Etruscans 10, 83

families 16–17, 26, 76farming see agriculturefestivals 76, 80–81fire 35Flaminus,Titus Quinctius 68food 29–33, 44, 47, 58, 65, 86footwear 37Forum 13, 78France (Gaul) 48funeral ceremonies 24–25, 50furniture 49

gambling 86, 89gladiators 83glassmaking 49gods 76, 78–79

Aesculapius 24, 80Apollo 78, 81Bacchus 78Bellona 78Carna 81Ceres 78, 80Cupid 31, 78Cybele 79–80Diana 78Flora 78, 81Fons 81Harpocrates 31Isis 79Iuturna 80Janus 76, 80Juno 78, 81Jupiter 77–78, 80–81Mars 80–81Mater Matuta 81Mercury 78, 81Minerva 78, 81Mithras 79Neptune 78Pluto (Dis) 78Quirinus 78Roma 78Saturn 68, 71Venus 78Vesta 76–78Vulcan 81

Goths 12government 13, 43, 68–70grain 9, 43, 47, 55Greece 8, 11–12, 20–21, 24, 76, 78, 88guilds 50–51

Hadrianople, battle of 12hair 37, 42Hannibal of Carthage 11heating 92Hippocrates 24historians 22–23homes 26–27, 34–35, 38–39, 47Horace 22–23horses 57, 86–87

Illyria 11India 36Italy 8–9, 48, 55, 70

jewelry 50Jews 79

kings: Lucius Tarquinius II 10,Pyrrhus 11

language 20, 22Latins 10Latium 11law 42–45, 70–72leatherworking 50legionaries 56–59lighting 49, 66Livy 23

Macedon 11–12, 68magistrates 12, 43Marius, Gaius 12markets 29, 40marriage 17, 41meals 30medicine 24–25metals/metalworking 29, 50–51, 68mining 29, 51money 68–69mountains 8

names 18–19navies 11, 64

Olympian gods 78Ostia 35, 66Ovid 23

paper/papyrus 22–23paterfamilias 16, 26, 28, 44patronage 44–45Pera, Decimus Junius 83Persia 79Petronius the Arbiter 23politicians 42–43Pompey the Great 12, 88pontiffs 77Po river/valley 8–9ports 35, 66–67pottery 32, 48

praetors 13, 43, 70priests 76–77public speaking see rhetoricPunic Wars 11–12, 54

quaestors 13, 68quarries 51

religion 40, 47, 76, 79; see alsofestivals, gods, priests, temples

rhetoric 21, 42, 70roads/streets 46–47, 60–63Roman Empire 12Roman Republic 10, 12, 60, 70Rome 9–11, 17, 31, 35, 51, 61,

65–66, 70, 72, 74–84Romulus 10, 17, 80

Sabines 10, 17sacrificial offerings 76Samnians 83school see educationScipio, Gnaeus 11scribes 22Senate/senators 12–13, 43–45, 70, 72sewers 75ships 64–65shoes 37Sicily 9, 11, 55Sidon 61slaves 28, 31, 38, 73, 79, 83, 92Spain 11Spartacus 83sports 83–87, 92statues 50, 76, 81Stoicism 79stores 29, 35, 46–47Sulla, Lucius Cornelius 12

taxes 67temples 69, 76, 92theater 88–89Tiber river 8–9, 25, 66Tibur (Tivoli) 39, 74time 40–41togas 37, 42, 47tombs 24trade 29, 46–47, 50–51, 61, 65–67transport/travel 47, 55, 61–65Tranquillus, Gaius Suetonius 23Twelve Tables 70

Valerius, Maximus 44–45, 85–86villas 38–39

warehouses 66water supply 26, 32, 34–35, 74–75weather 9weights and measures 69Western Roman Empire 12–13wine 30, 65women 17, 28–29, 37woodworking 48, 53writing 20–21

Zama, battle of 11

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Index

69 living in ancient rome

Documents