6th Grade Science Review

Astronomy

Phases of the Moon

Phases of the Moon Key Terms:

Waxing – Getting larger – the right side of the Moon is becoming bright. Waning – Getting smaller – the right side of the Moon is becoming dark. Gibbous – Between full and half.

Eight Key phases of the Moon.

New Moon Waxing Crescent First Quarter Gibbous Waxing

Full Moon Gibbous Waning Last Quarter Waning Crescent

The position of the Earth, Moon, and Sun at each lunar phase. New Moon

(Note – the Moon is always between the Earth and Sun at New Moon.) Waxing Crescent

(Note – the Moon is always revolves around the Earth counterclockwise.)

First Quarter Gibbous Waxing

Full Moon

(Note – the Earth is always between the Sun and Moon at Full Moon.) Gibbous Waning Last Quarter Waning Crescent

Key points to remember when determining the phases of the Moon.

We see phases of the Moon because the Moon revolves around the Earth. New Moon always occurs when the Moon is between the Sun and the Earth. Full Moon always occurs when the Earth is between the Moon and the Sun. The Moon always moves counter-clockwise as it revolves around the Earth. 1st Quarter occurs when the Moon has revolved ¼th of the way around Earth. Last Quarter occurs when the Moon has revolved ¾th of the way around Earth. Waxing means the Moon is getting larger (between New Moon and Full Moon). Waning means the Moon is getting smaller (between Full Moon and New Moon). Waxing Crescent occurs between New Moon and 1st Quarter. Gibbous Waxing occurs between 1st Quarter and Full Moon. Gibbous Waning occurs between Full Moon and Last Quarter. Waning Crescent occurs between Last Quarter and New Moon.

Reason for the Seasons

Reasons for the Seasons Notes

Key Terms You Need to Know Axis of Rotation - An imaginary line going from the north pole to the south pole. The earth spins on this line.

Earth’s Tilt The earth’s axis is not straight up and down, instead it leans at a 23.5o angle. Orbit - The path that a planet travels as it goes around the sun.

Source: http://indianpolitics.wordpress.com/2006/08/

Revolution - The circling of one object around another object in space. A planet revolves around the sun. A moon revolves around a planet.

Rotation - When a planet or moon turns all the way around or spins on its axis one time.

Seasons - Due to the tilt of earth as it travels around the sun, we have spring, summer, fall, and winter.

The Earth rotates counterclockwise on its axis. It rotates once every twenty-four hours (one day).

Axis Source: 6th Grade Sci-Ber Text, USOE

o

Picture source: http://www.opencourse.info/astronomy/introduction/03.motion_earth/

Source: PhysicalGeography.net

Source: http://www.learner.org

Source: PhysicalGeography.net

The Sun, Moon, and stars appear to move in the sky. They are not moving. The Earth is rotating. That is why they look like they are moving.

The Earth revolves around the Sun. It takes 365¼ days (one year) to revolve once around the Sun.

(Source: Open Course – Astronomy – Lesson 3)

The Earth is tilted 23.5o.

(Source: 6th Grade Sci-Ber Text, Utah Science - State Office of Education)

The axis is always pointing to the North Star (Polaris in the handle of the Little Dipper).

Source: skyandtelescope.com

We have seasons because of the Earth’s tilt. Here is the Earth’s orbit over one year:

(Source: National Weather Service, http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/global/global_intro.htm) When the Earth is tilted towards the Sun, it is summer in Utah. When the Earth is titled away from the Sun, it is winter in Utah. Where the Earth is located as it revolves (orbits) the Sun determines the season.

(Source: National Weather Service, http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/global/global_intro.htm)

When the Earth is at the Summer Solstice, it is tilted towards from the Sun. This affects the heat energy we receive from the Sun. The heat energy we receive is called “direct heat energy”.

This diagram shows direct heat energy in the summer. It is concentrated and covers a small area.

(Source: Office of Naval Research)

Six months later, the Earth is tilted away from the Sun. We receive the same amount of heat energy in winter. Because it is indirect, it covers a larger area. This diagram shows that.

(Source: Office of Naval Research)

The larger the area the heat energy covers, the cooler it is.

(Source: http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/S/Seasons)

Pretend you make a fire in the middle of a classroom (direct heat energy). It keeps the room warm. Now imagine knocking down a wall between two classrooms. The fire stays the same size (indirect heat energy). Now the area it tries to heat is twice as large. Will it be as warm? No. Even though the heat energy is the same, it has to heat twice the space. Seasons are reversed in the Northern and Southern Hemisphere. Look at this chart.

Summer Winter Autumn Spring Winter Summer Spring Autumn

(Source: http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/S/Seasons) Many people think it is warm in summer because the Earth is closer to the Sun in the summer. In the winter, Earth is farther away from the Sun. Is this correct? The answer is no, uh-uh, wrong, incorrect, mistaken, untrue, false, bogus, made-up, fiction … Well, you get the point. The distance

between the Earth and the Sun has absolutely nothing to do with why we have seasons. Tattoo this on your forehead! (Just kidding!) If we have summer when we are closest to the Sun, why is it winter in Australia? Why don’t they have summer? Come on. Give me an answer. I’m waiting. Ha! I didn’t think you could give me an answer! Here is what the Earth looks like when we are titled towards the Sun. It is summer in Utah.

Look at the North Pole. You will see it has twenty-four hours of sunlight. In summer, the farther north you are from the Equator, the more hours of sunlight you will have. Here is what the Earth looks like if we are titled away from the Sun. It is winter in Utah.

Look at the North Pole. You will see it has twenty-four hours of darkness. In winter, the farther north you are from the Equator, the fewer hours of sunlight you will have. The tables and graphs below show how the tilt affects the number of daylight/evening hours throughout the year.

North Pole

North Pole

Savissivik, Greenland/76o North

Savissivik, Greenland (near the North Pole)

Sunrise Sunset Hours Daylight Sunrise Sunset

Hours Daylight

1-Jan 0 0 0 1-Jul 0 0 0 1-Feb 0 0 0 1-Aug 0 0 0 1-Mar 12.4 20.8 8.4 1-Sep 17 23 6 1-Apr 8.87 24 15.13 1-Oct 12.12 27.42 15.3 1-May 0 24 24 1-Nov 0 24 24 1-Jun 0 24 24 1-Dec 0 24 24

Touch a scientist and you touch a child. -Ray Bradbury

Quito, Ecuador

Sunrise Sunset Hours Daylight Sunrise Sunset

Hours Daylight

1-Jan 11.23 22.37 11.4 1-Jul 11.25 23.37 12.12 1-Feb 11.4 23.5 12.1 1-Aug 11.28 23.4 12.12 1-Mar 11.4 23.5 12.1 1-Sep 11.18 23.28 12.1 1-Apr 11.25 23.35 12.1 1-Oct 11 23.17 12.17 1-May 11.13 23.23 12.1 1-Nov 10.9 23.03 12.13 1-Jun 11.13 23.25 12.12 1-Dec 11 23.13 12.13

Quito, Ecuador/0o (Equator)

Somewhere, something incredible is waiting to be known.

-Carl Sagan

Salt Lake City, UT

Sunrise Sunset Hours Daylight Sunrise Sunset

Hours Daylight

1-Jan 7.87 17.18 9.31 1-Jul 5 21.05 16.05 1-Feb 7.63 17.75 10.12 1-Aug 5.4 19.72 14.32 1-Mar 7 18.32 11.32 1-Sep 5.9 19 13.1 1-Apr 6.18 18.87 12.69 1-Oct 6.4 18.1 11.7 1-May 5.42 19.4 13.98 1-Nov 7 17.45 10.45 1-Jun 5 19.88 14.88 1-Dec 7.5 17 9.5

Salt Lake City, UT/41o North

Solar System

Solar System Notes

The Rocky Inner Planets

(Called rocky planets because they are made of… Rocks!)

(Source: http://rationalwiki.com/wiki/Image:Rocky_Planet.jpg)

Planet Order from Sun*

Size** Distance from Sun

(kilometers)

Diameter (kilometers)

Weight on planet***

Mercury 1 8 58,000,000 4,900 38 pounds

Venus 2 6 108,000,000 12,100 86 pounds

Earth 3 5 150,000,000 12,800 100 pounds

Mars 4 7 228,000,000 6,800 38 pounds Notes: *Order from Sun: 1 – closest; 8 – farthest **Size: 1 – largest; 8 – smallest ***Weight on planet: assumes the person weighs 100 pounds.

The Outer Gas Giants

(Called gas giants because… [you’re ahead of me!] they are made of gas and they are very big!)

(Source: http://rationalwiki.com/wiki/Gas_giant)

Planet Order from Sun*

Size** Distance from Sun

(kilometers)

Diameter (kilometers)

Weight on planet***

Jupiter 5 1 230,000,000 143,000 287 pounds

Saturn 6 2 1,400,000,000 120,000 132 pounds

Uranus 7 3 2,900,000,000 52,000 93 pounds

Neptune 8 4 6,000,000,000 49,000 123 pounds Notes: *Order from Sun: 1 – closest; 8 – farthest **Size: 1 – largest; 8 – smallest ***Weight on planet: assumes the person weighs 100 pounds.

Comparing the Sizes of the Planets

Gravity, Mass, Weight, and the Solar System

What is gravity? A force that pulls on you. Right now, you’re being pulled towards the center of the Earth. Gravity’s why you have weight. Anything made of matter has gravity. The more mass (amount of matter) something has, the more gravity. Jupiter has more mass than the Moon. You would weigh more on Jupiter than on the Moon. You would weigh almost three times what you do on Earth. On the Moon, you would weigh 1/6 of your weight on Earth. What would you weigh on other worlds? If you weigh 100 pounds, you would weigh…

(Source: http://www.exploratorium.edu/ronh/weight/index.html) The smaller the planet, the less you would weigh. The larger the planet, the more you would weigh.

“In order to fly, all one must do is simply miss the ground.”

-Douglas Adams

Distances from the Sun and Length of Year (One revolution [orbit]) Around the Sun

The closer to the Sun, the shorter the planet’s year. The farther from the Sun, the longer the planet’s year. Why? The farther a planet is from the Sun, the planet has to travel a longer distance to complete one revolution.

Planet Distance from Sun (kilometers)

Length of Year

Mercury 59,000,000 88 Earth days

Venus 108,000,000 225 Earth days

Earth 150,000,000 365¼ days

Mars 228,000,000 2 Earth years

Jupiter 230,000,000 12 Earth years

Saturn 1,400,000,000 29 Earth years

Uranus 2,900,000,000 84 Earth years

Neptune 6,000,000,000 165 Earth years

Comets Composition (what comets are made of)

Frozen water, dry ice, frozen ammonia, dust, dirt, and small rocks. Also called a “dirty snowball.”

Made up of three major parts. Nucleus – the “dirty snowball” Coma – The vaporizing ice and dirt that surrounds the nucleus.

Tail – Gas and dirt being pushed away from the comet.

Always points away from the Sun.

(Source: http://whyfiles.org/011comets/index.php?g=6.txt)

Comets are found in the Oort Cloud – a “cloud” of “dirty snowballs” that orbit the Sun. The Oort Cloud is 6,000,000,000,000 (one light year) from the Sun.

(Source: http://library.thinkquest.org/04apr/00533/Astronomy%20Web%20Site/oort_cloud.htm)

Asteroids What are the asteroids?

“Asteroids are material left over from the formation of the solar system … asteroids are material that never coalesced into a planet. In fact, if the estimated total mass of all asteroids [were] gathered into a single object, the

object would be less than 1,500 kilometers (932 miles) across -- less than half the diameter of our Moon.”1

Most asteroids are found between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Composition (what asteroids are made of)

Rocky worlds Diameters range from 520 kilometers to meters.

Asteroids are irregularly shaped objects. There are probably over 100,000 asteroids.

(Source: Astronomy Picture of the Day, April 22, 2007)

Meteoroids, Meteors, Meteorites Meteoroid – Dust particles to rocks. These are found in space. Meteor – Dust particles to rocks that have entered the Earth’s atmosphere. Meteorite – When the meteor is large enough to land or hit the Earth’s surface. It may or may not make a crater, depending on its size. Barringer Meteorite Crater

1 Asteroids Introduction, Views of the Solar System, http://www.solarviews.com/eng/asteroid.htm, accessed February 5, 2009.

Meteoroid

(Source: http://www.eipcscreensavers.com/screenshots/ast1.jpg)

Not only is the universe stranger than we imagine, it is stranger than we can imagine.

-Arthur Eddington

Meteor

(Source: NASA Stock Photograph)

Meteorite

Part of the Canyon Diablo Meteorite (impact made Barringer Meteorite Crater)

The Telescope For the last 400 years, astronomers have used the telescope to learn about the Solar System. Amateur astronomers use telescopes in backyards and away from the city lights.

All over the world, large observatories continue to explore the Solar System. Three of the five dwarf planets were discovered by astronomers using observatories. The Hubble Space Telescope has orbited the Earth over 100,000 times, photographing the Solar System.

(Clipart Source: Discovery Education, http://school.discoveryeducation.com/clipart/category/scie.html)

NASA has sent satellites into Earth orbit and space probes to the planets. Space probes have visited every planet, asteroids, comets, and studied the Sun.

New Horizons will fly-by Pluto in 2015 and continue on to study the Kuiper Belt; Dawn will visit the asteroid Vesta in 2011 and then fly on to the dwarf planet Ceres.

(Source: JPL Dawn)

(Source: JPL Mars Rovers Mission)

(Source: JPL Jason 2)

Communicating With Earth How does a satellite or space probe communicate with Earth? A radio signal is sent, containing information. It is received by a radio telescope.

JPL Mission Control (Source: JPL)

The information is sent to a receiver. A computer takes the information and processes it. The last step is the processed information being sent to a terminal, sent as a file, or displayed as a picture, graph, etc. This illustration shows the process how information is received from space.

(Source: Dr. James Schombert’s website; http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/glossary/radio_telescope.html)

Size of the Universe &

Constellations

April's Topic:

Galaxies and the Distant Universe When Galileo first recorded his telescopic observations of the heavens, he

started us on the road to better understanding the structure of the universe. The subsequent discoveries included the sizes and distances of the planets in our Solar System, the stars of our Galaxy, and the rest of the galaxies in our universe.

Many people are still not clear about the difference between our Solar System,

our Galaxy, and the Universe. This month’s theme and activity will help clarify this. Let’s start with some basics.

Our Solar System consists of our star, the Sun, and its orbiting planets, along

with numerous moons, asteroids, comet material, rocks, and dust.

Our Sun is just one star among the hundreds of billions of

stars in our Milky Way Galaxy. If we shrink the Sun down to smaller than a grain of sand, we can imagine our Solar System to be small enough to fit onto the palm of your hand. The diagram at the left is about the right size.

On that scale with our Solar System in your hand, the Milky Way Galaxy, with its 200 billion stars, would span North America (see the illustration on the right). Galaxies come in many sizes. The Milky Way is big, but some galaxies are much larger.

us nt

The universe is all of the galaxies – billions of them! NASA’s telescopes allowto study galaxies beyond our own in exquisite detail, and to explore the most distareaches of the observable universe. The Hubble Space Telescope and made the deepest image of the universe called the Hubble Ultra Deep Field. Soon the James Webb Space Telescope will also be exploring the most distant edge of the universe, and

ow galaxies form and evolve.

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Learn more about our Universe from NASA. Find more activities featured during IYA 2009.

See wha nomyt else is planned for the International Year of Astro . Be s tion

100 Hours of Astronomyure to take part in the worldwide celebra

from April 2-5.

How Big is Your Universe?

The Moon is 384,000 kilometers from Earth.

The Sun is 150,000,000 kilometers from Earth. (391 times the distance from the Earth to the Moon.)

The Solar System is 11,850,000,000 kilometers in diameter. (79 times the distance from the Earth to the Sun.)

The nearest star to Earth (Proxima Centauri) is 4.2 light-years away. (3,207 times the diameter of the Solar System.)

The Milky Way Galaxy is 100,000 light-years in diameter. (3.8 times the distance to the Sun to the center of the Galaxy.)

The Sun is 26,000 light-years from the center of the Galaxy.

(6,200 times the distance to the nearest star.)

The Andromeda Galaxy is 2,200,000 light-years from the Milky Way Galaxy. (22 times the diameter of the Milky Way Galaxy.)

Basic Facts:

Space is huge! Space, is made up mostly of empty space. Even when you think about all the matter in the galaxy, the galaxy is mostly empty space.

If two galaxies collided, there is so much space between the stars, no stars would collide.

The Solar System is very, very small compared to the Milky Way. The Milky Way is very, very small compared to the Universe.

The Virgo Supercluster of Galaxies (nearest supercluster) is 65,000,000 light-years from the Milky Way Galaxy. (30 times the distance to the Andromeda Galaxy.)

The Universe is 27,000,000,000? in diameter. (415 times the distance to the Virgo Supercluster.)

(12,273 times the distance to the Andromeda Galaxy.)

(270,000 times the diameter of the Milky Way Galaxy.)

(1,040.000 times the distance from the Sun to the center of the Milky Way.)

(6.500,000,000 times the distance to Proxima Centauri.)

(15,900,000,000,000 [trillion] times the diameter of the Solar System.)

(54,000,000,000,000 [trillion] times the distance from the Sun to the Earth.)

(54,000,000,000,000,000 [quadrillion] times the distance from the Earth to the Moon.)

Constellations Notes Definition

Imaginary picture in the sky. Represent people (Andromeda, Boötes

[herdsman]). Represent animals (bull, ram, swan). Represent things (dipper, lyre, scale).

Who Created Constellations

Farmers Identify seasons.

Know when to plant crops. Know when to harvest crops.

Religious Leaders Emphasize religious teachings by naming

constellations after the gods, their actions, stories, etc.

Important Constellations

Circumpolar constellations Found around the North Pole (circumpolar). Can be seen all year. Constellations:

Little Dipper (Ursa Minor) Brightest star is Polaris (North

Star). Big Dipper (Ursa Major)

Big Dipper not a real constellation. o It is an asterism.

Has also been known as: o Plough o Charles’ Wain o Wagon

Cassiopeia Cepheus Draco (Dragon)

Constellations of the Zodiac

Twelve (thirteen really!) constellations that show the path the Sun and planets move through the sky.

Constellations: Aries (ram) Taurus (bull) Gemini (twins) Cancer (crab) Leo (lion) Virgo (maiden) Libra (scales) Scorpius (scorpion) Sagittarius (archer) Capricornus (water goat) Aquarius (water bearer) Pisces (fish) Ophiuchus (serpent bearer)

Lucky #13! Extends into the Zodiac between

Sagittarius and Scorpius.

Constellations Everyone Should Know

Circumpolar (visible all year)

Little Dipper (North

Star) Big Dipper Cassiopeia, the

Queen A Summer Constellation

Scorpius, the Scorpion (second most beautiful constellation)

Fall Constellations

Perseus, the Hero Auriga, the

Charioteer

Cassiopeia

Winter Constellations

Orion, the Hunter (the most beautiful constellation)

Gemini, the Twins

Spring Constellations

Leo, the Lion Boötes, the Herdsman

Leo

Boötes

Orion

Scorpius

Gemini

Perseus

Auriga

Microorganisms

Microorganisms

Microbes

Bacteria Protozoans

Fungi Algae

Bacteria (Bacterium singular)

All bacteria are single-celled organisms (something that’s alive). Can belong to Kingdom Bacteria or Archae.

Archae live in nuclear reactors, geysers, and hot pots found at Yellowstone, etc.

Bacteria are found everywhere.

Sources: Pictures 1 & 2 - University of California at Davis; Picture 3 – New Zealand Electronic Tech Center

Come in three shapes. Round (coccus [plural cocci]) Rod (bacillus [plural bacilli] ) Spiral (spirillum)

Some bacteria are consumers.

Consumer – must find and consume food to survive [animal-like].

Some bacteria are producers. Producer - a living thing that makes

its food from simple substances and sunlight [plant-like].

Beneficial uses of bacteria.

Provides nitrogen for plants. Fixes the soil (changes the nitrogen to a form the plant can use). Get minerals from ores. Used to make plastics and laundry detergents. Help make antibiotics. Food production.

Yogurt Sauerkraut Pickles Olives Chocolate Cheese Soy Sauce

Harmful effects of bacteria.

Cause Diseases (<1% of bacteria cause diseases) Three ways to get disease.

Through air (breathe in). Through touch. Eating contaminated food.

Examples of bacterial diseases.

Dental caries (cavities). Strep throat. Salmonella. Typhoid fever.

Source: Learning with Online Exercises in Soil Science

Causes disease in farm animals. Causes metal to rust and wear away.

How to treat/prevent diseases.

Vaccinations. Antibiotics. Wash hands after using bathroom or whenever dirty. Cook food properly. Store food properly. Cover mouth when sneezing, coughing.

Protozoans (Protozoa/Protista)

All are single-celled organisms. Found in water. Can be consumer or producer.

Major types of protozoan.

Amoeba Is the simplest form of protozoan.

Moves using psuedopods (False feet). Has no set shape. Clear. Is a consumer. Eats algae, bacteria, other protozoan, dead plant or animal matter.

Euglena Oval shaped. Is green.

Is a producer. Can also be a consumer. Moves using a whip-like flagellum

(flagella plural). Paramecium

Oval shaped. Translucent. Moves using cilia (hair-like structures

around body) Consumer. Eats algae, bacteria, other protozoan, dead plant or animal matter.

Source: DK Images

Source: DK Images

Source: Biology Teaching & Learning Resources

Spirogyra Simple plant. Producer. Free-floating

(go-with-the-flow). Has no form of movement. Only moves with the flow of

the water.

Harmful effects of Protozoans. Cause diseases

Example – giardia (diarrhea and abdominal pain) Don’t drink untreated water.

Algae Plant-like

Primarily green Can also be brown or red.

Produce 50% of the oxygen we breathe. Primary source for organisms living in

water. Free-floating (go-with-the-flow). Range from single-cell to 100 meters long. Live in water.

Benefits of algae.

Used in … livestock feed. cosmetics. prescription drug production. identifying possible environmental problems. food production.

Sushi. Ice cream. Pudding Salad dressing. Syrup.

Primarily used as a thickener.

Harmful effects of algae. Algal blooms.

Certain types of algae grow rapidly. Grow large enough to form visual patches.

Source: Biology Teaching & Learning Resources

Source: Minnesota State Legislature Youth website.

Can deplete oxygen in water. Blocks sunlight. Can release toxins dangerous to animals and humans.

Fungi (fungus singular)

Consumer. Eat by absorbing food.

Get food from soil, wood, decaying organic (once living) matter, and living plants/other organisms.

Can be from single-celled to largest organism alive. Can’t move. Decomposers.

Feeds on and breaks down dead plant or animal matter. Examples.

Mushrooms. Truffles.

A mushroom like fungus that grown underground; primarily found in Europe; a highly valued food.

Lichen Fungus often found as white or yellow patches on old walls, etc.

Benefits of fungi.

Used to make chemicals used in manufacturing. Produce antibiotics (example – penicillin). Clean the environment. Food production.

Cheese Mushrooms Yeast Truffles Soy sauce

Harmful effects of fungi.

Causes 70% of all crop diseases. Diseases in humans.

Respiratory (lung) diseases (example – pneumonia). Athlete’s foot. Ringworm (makes a raised round circle that looks like it was caused

by a worm).

Highlights in the History of the Study of Microorganisms

Microorganisms not known until 1670’s.

Had to have a microscope first. Invented in 1595 by Zacharias Janssen

Was considered a toy for the rich.

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek 1670’s Improved the microscope so much he’s considered the

father of the microscope. First looked at water under a microscope Discovered small animals.

Called them “animalcules” (small animals) Probably were bacteria

Edward Jenner 1790’s

Developed the first vaccine Noticed that milk maids who had cowpox did not get smallpox

Injected cowpox in volunteers They did not get smallpox

Ignaz Semmelweis and Oliver Wendell Holmes 1840’s

Women were dying after giving birth from Child Bed Fever Semmelweis and Holmes suggested washing hands between

patients When hands were washed, Child Bed Fever almost

vanished.

Joseph Lister 1860’s Many patients got sick and died after operations. Lister proposed disinfecting operating room and instruments

between operations.

Louis Pasteur 1860’s People believed life arose “spontaneously.”

Mice came from grain bags. Pasteur proved that life had to come from existing life. Proposed that germs caused disease.

Develop pasteurization. Rapidly heating something to kill germs.

Robert Koch 1880’s

Germs cause disease

Sir Alexander Fleming 1928 Discovered the “miracle drug” penicillin

(Picture sources: Janssen – Math/Science Nucleus; van Leeuwenhoek – Mrs. Zell’s Website; Jenner – BBC; Semmelweiss – Human Disease and Conditions; Holmes – http://www.general-anesthesia.com; Lister - http://telem.openu.ac.il/courses/c20237/listeria-g.htm; Pasteur – Wikimedia Commons; Koch – http://raw-milk-facts.com; Fleming – http:// www.xtec.es) "Doctor, doctor, will I be able to play the violin after the operation?" "Yes, of course..." "Great! I never could before!"

Doctor: Did you take the patient's temperature? Nurse: No. Is it missing? Doctor: Does it hurt when you do this? Patient: Yes. Doctor: Well, don't do that. Nurse: Doctor, there is an invisible man in your waiting room. Doctor: Tell him I can't see him now. Next.

Heat, Light, and Sound

The Principles of Heat Conduction, Convection, Radiation

Key Terms Conduction - Heat moving between two objects because they are touching. Conductor - A substance that is able to transfer heat energy easily. Convection - Heat transfer in liquids and gases as molecules circulate in currents. Insulator – Something that prevents the transfer of heat. Radiation - The transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves.

(Source: Mabryonline.org)

Example of Conduction (bar making direct contact with heat) Examples of Conductors:

Metals Graphite

Water

Examples of Insulators:

Plastics Styrofoam® Paper

Rubber Glass Dry Air

(Source: The Physics Classroom Tutorial)

Heat flows from something hot to something cold.

(Source: http://www.heatcoolandinsulate.com/)

(Source: University of Arizona Physics Department)

Example of Convection in air (hot air rises, cold air falls)

(Source: University of Arizona Physics Department)

Example of Convection in a fluid (the fluid nearest the heat source gets hot and rises;

the colder fluid falls, heats up and rises, etc.

(Source: Wycoff Public Schools, Wycoff, NJ)

Example of Radiation. The Sun gives off heat energy in the form of radiation

(electromagnetic waves). No heat is felt until waves hit an object.

The Principles of Light Key Terms Angle of incidence – The angle at which light strikes a surface. Angle of reflection – The angle at which light bounces off a surface. Prism – A clear glass or plastic triangular shape that breaks light into the color spectrum. Reflection – When rays of light or heat are reflected, or bounce off other objects. Refraction – When light bends as it travels from one medium to another. Spectrum – The colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet, arranged in order of their wavelengths and seen when white light passes through a prism. (ROY G. BIV [Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet).

Examples of Sources of Light:

Sun (very bright/intense, travels in all directions) Light bulb (can be bright or faint; can travel in all directions or directed in one

direction; can be bright if you are near – faint if you are far away)

(Source: BBC KS3 Bitesize)

Example of Reflected light. Angle of light hitting the mirror – angle of incidence. Angle of light leaving the mirror – angle of reflection. Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection.

(Source: http://www.colormatters.com)

We see color because of reflected light. The apple is red because it reflects red light.

(Source: BBC KS3 Bitesize)

When light hits a smooth surface, it reflects evenly. When it hits a rough surface, the light is scattered. This can result in a loss of light.

(Source: BBC KS3 Bitesize)

When light travels through a window or water, it is refracted (bent).

Outside of a dog, a book is man's best friend. Inside of a dog it's too dark to read.

-Groucho Marx

(Source: DiscoverySchool.com)

When white light passes through a prism, the light refracts and is broken into the spectrum. The colors of the spectrum are red, orange, yellow, green blue, indigo, and

violet (ROY G. BIV).

(Source: FunDraw.com)

When light hits an object, and all the light is reflected off the object, we call this object opaque.

(Source: PhotoFlex)

When light hits an object, and the light passes through, but is not clear (diffuse), we call this object translucent.

(Source: Animation Factory)

When light hits an object, and the light passes through, and you clearly see something, we call this object transparent.

The Principles of Sound Key Terms Medium – Any substance through which a wave is transmitted. Pitch – How high or low a musical note sounds. Vibration – A rapid back and forth movement.

(Source: Integrated Publishing)

Sound is produced by vibrations. When you hit a tuning fork, the tines vibrate back-and-forth rapidly, producing a sound.

(Source: http://dailyapple.blogspot.com/2006/06/apple-178-how-cats-purr.html)

Your larynx (vocal chords) produces sound (your voice) by vibrating when you speak.

To produce sound, there must be a medium. The medium is something through which the vibrations travel. Examples of a medium:

Air Water Metal

Wood Brick

Pitch is how high or low a sound is. The shorter/tighter the guitar’s string, the higher the pitch. The longer/looser the string, the lower the pitch. The larger the object, the lower the pitch. The smaller the object, the higher the pitch.

(Source: http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/c/m/cmc5040/about%20me.htm)

(Source: http://www.billingsbagpipe.us/)

A snare drum is a small drum. It has a high pitch.

A bass drum is a large drum. It has a low pitch.

(Source: About.com Guitar)

(Source: DragonPhysics)

The more energy used to make a sound, the louder the sound (bottom waves). The less energy used to make a sound, the softer the sound (top waves).