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PENYERAHAN DAN PENILAIAN TUGASAN

ASSIGNMENT SUBMISSION AND ASSESSMENT

FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND LANGUAGES

SEPT / 2011

OUMH1203

ENGLISH FOR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

MATRICULATION NO : 750620126206001

IDENTITY CARD NO. : 750620-12-6206

TELEPHONE NO. : 0135571200

E-MAIL : rohanajukarna@yahoo.com.my

LEARNING CENTRE : SANDAKAN BRANCH

NAME : ROHANA BT HJ JUKARNA

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1.0 INTRODUCTION 3

2.0 CONTENT 42.1CLASSIFICATION OF CYBER CRIMES 4

i. Cyber crime against individual 6ii. Cyber crime against property 6

iii. Cyber crime against organization 6iv. Cyber crime against society 7

2.2 COMPARISON OF CYBER CRIMES IN MALAYSIA AND USA 8

i. Cyber crime act and law 8ii. Cyber crime agency 10

iii. Cyber crimes cases and report 11

2.3SUGGESTIONS 14

3.0CONCLUSION 15

4.0REFERENCES 16

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1.0 INTRODUCTIONCyber crimesharmful acts committed from or against a computer or networkdiffer from most

terrestrial crimes in four ways. They are easy to learn how to commit; they require few resources

relative to the potential damage caused; they can be committed in a jurisdiction without being

physically present in it; and they are often not clearly illegal. This growing danger from crimes

committed against computers, or against information on computers, is beginning to claim attention in

national capitals. In most countries around the world, however, existing laws are likely to be

unenforceable against such crimes.

To begin answering these questions, it would be helpful to briefly look at the components of

crime in general. Traditionally, crime has been defined as an intentional violation of the legal code

that is punishable by the state. Central to this definition is the premise that crime occurs within the

boundaries of some physical reference point, that is, a location that constitutes a specific jurisdiction.

Some definitions of cyber-crime are relatively narrow in focus. In some cases, only hacking behavior

would fall under the definition of what constituted cyber-criminality (Thomas et.al., 2010). For

example, the Council of Europes Cybercrime Treaty refers to only those offenses that involve

damage to data or to copyright and content infringements. However, most experts would agree that

this definition is much too narrow and needs to take into account more traditional crimes, such as

fraud and stalking that make use of computers (Gordon and Ford, 2006). Below are suggested best

definitions in describing cyber crimes.

i. Cybercrime is criminal activity done using computers and the Internet. This includes anythingfrom downloading illegal music files to stealing millions of dollars from online bank accounts.

Two of the most common ways this is done is through phishing and harming

(http://www.techterms.com/definition/cybercrime).

ii. Cybercrime is defined as crimes committed on the internet using the computer as either a toolor a targeted victim. All cybercrimes involve both the computer and the person behind it as

victims (http://www.crime-research.org/articles/joseph06).

iii. Cyber crime encompasses any criminal act dealing with computers and networks (calledhacking). Additionally, cyber crime also includes traditional crimes conducted through the

Internet. For example; hate crimes, telemarketing and Internet fraud, identity theft, and credit

card account thefts are considered to be cyber crimes when the illegal activities are committed

through the use of a computer and the Internet

(http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/cyber_crime.html).

http://www.techterms.com/definition/cybercrimehttp://www.techterms.com/definition/cybercrimehttp://www.techterms.com/definition/cybercrimehttp://www.crime-research.org/articles/joseph06http://www.crime-research.org/articles/joseph06http://www.crime-research.org/articles/joseph06http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/cyber_crime.htmlhttp://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/cyber_crime.htmlhttp://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/cyber_crime.htmlhttp://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/cyber_crime.htmlhttp://www.crime-research.org/articles/joseph06http://www.techterms.com/definition/cybercrime

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iv. Cyber crime as any activity in which computers or networks are a tool, a target or a place ofcriminal activity. More precisely cyber crime as computer-mediated activities which are

either illegal or considered illicit by certain parties and which can be conducted through global

electronic networks (Hale, 2002).

v. The term cybercrime is used to describe a range of offences including traditional computercrimes, as well as network crimes. As these crimes differ in many ways, there is no single

criterion that could include all acts mentioned in the Stanford Draft Convention and the

Convention on Cybercrime, whilst excluding traditional crimes that are just committed using

hardware (Brenner, 2004).

vi. Cyber crimes is the use of any computer network for crime or any criminal offence committedagainst or with the help of a computer network (Council of Europe, 2001).

Among above definitions, the best description in my perspective is from Council of Europe (2001)

in their Convention Cybercrime in United Kingdom. The definition given is simple and easy too

understand yet completely describe computer and network as a tool in the crime and anyone can be

the victim such as individual, society or even organization.

2.0 CONTENT2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF CYBER CRIMES

The classification of cybercrime which is an important step to fighting it, has been grossly limited to

whether these crimes are computer-assisted or computer-focused or simply by directly naming

these crimes (Audit Commission, 1998). Furnell (2001) attempted a classification based on a different

view motivation. However, his categorizations of hackers only addressed a small subset of

cybercrimes. He does a good job in reviewing past classifications as far back as twenty years into the

categorizations put forth by the United Kingdom (UK) Audit Commission on computer crimes.

Below are the categorizations and organization responsible for them as reviewed by Furnell.

i. UK Audit Commission (1998) Classification Fraud

Theft

Use of unlicensed software

Private work

Misuse of personal data

Hacking

Sabotage.

Introducing pornographic material.

Virus

ii. FBIs National Crime Squad (Fraser, 1996)

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Intrusions of the Public Switched Network (the telephone company)

Major computer network intrusions

Network Integrity violations

Industrial espionage

Pirated computer software

Other crimes where the computer is a major factor in committing the criminal offense

iii. Computer Security Institute (CSI) (CSI, 2001) Theft and proprietary information

Sabotage of data or networks

Telecom eavesdropping

System penetration by outsider

Insider abuse of net access

Financial fraud

Denial of Service

Spoofing

Virus Unauthorized insider access

Telecom fraud

Active wiretapping

Laptop theft

Gordon and Ford (2006) also classified cybercrimes into two major group called Type I and

Type II cybercrimes. Type I cybercrime has the following characteristics:

i. It is generally a singular, or discrete, event from the perspective of the victim.ii. It often is facilitated by the introduction of crime-ware programs such as keystroke loggers,

viruses, root kits or Trojan horses into the users computer system

iii. The introductions can, but may not necessarily be, facilitated by vulnerabilities

The characteristics of Type II cyber crime are:

i. It is generally facilitated by a program that does not fit under the classification crime ware. Forexample, conversations may take place using IM (Instant Messaging) clients or files may be

transferred using the FTP protocol

ii. There are generally repeated contacts or events from the perspective of the user.

According to many classification on cyber crimes, there are four major types of cyber crimes

based on Lawyers Club India (2009) and my research also shows that this classification is completely

needed in our modern network nowadays and to guarantee human basic right. The 4 major categories

are cyber crime against individual, cyber crime against property, cyber crime against organization and

cyber crime against society. This classification also used by Report Cyber Crime Centre,

(http://www.reportcybercrime.com/classification.php) an online assistance under IT act in India.

http://www.reportcybercrime.com/classification.phphttp://www.reportcybercrime.com/classification.phphttp://www.reportcybercrime.com/classification.phphttp://www.reportcybercrime.com/classification.php

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i. Cyber crime against individualCybercrimes committed against persons include various crimes like transmission of child-

pornography, harassment of any one with the use of a computer such as e-mail. The trafficking,

distribution, posting, and dissemination of obscene material including pornography and indecent

exposure, constitutes one of the most important Cybercrimes known today. The potential harm of

such a crime to humanity can hardly be amplified. Examples of cyber crime against individual are:

Email spoofing Spamming Cyber Defamation Harassment & Cyber stalking

For example in cyber chat case, a minor girl in Ahmedabad was lured to a private place

through cyber chat by a man, who, along with his friends, attempted to gang rape her. As some

passersby heard her cry, she was rescued. This case is one of example under harassment and cyber

stalking. Another example wherein the damage was not done to a person but to the masses is the case

of the Melissa virus. The Melissa virus first appeared on the internet in March of 1999. It spread

rapidly throughout computer systems in the United States and Europe. It is estimated that the virus

caused 80 million dollars in damages to computers worldwide.

ii. Cyber crime against propertyThese crimes include computer vandalism (destruction of others' property), transmission of harmful

programmes. Two best examples under this type of cyber crime is credit card fraud and intellectual

property crimes intellectual property crimes include software piracy, illegal copying of programs and

distribution of copies of software.

iii. Cyber crime against organizationCyberterrorism is one distinct kind of crime in this category. The growth of internet has shown that

the medium of cyber space is being used by individuals and groups to threaten the international

governments as also to terrorize the citizens of a country. This crime manifests itself into terrorism

when an individual cracks into a government or military maintained website. A few example of this

type are:

Unauthorized accessing of computer - a) Changing/deleting data, b) Computer voyeur: Computer contamination / Virus attack - a computer virus is a computer program that can

infect other computer programs by modifying them

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Email bombing - Sending large numbers of mails to the individual or company or mailservers thereby ultimately resulting into crashing.

Salami attack - when negligible amounts are removed and accumulated in to something larger.These attacks are used for the commission of financial crimes.

Logic bomb - its an event dependent programme, as soon as the designated event occurs, itcrashes the computer, release a virus or any other harmful possibilities

Trojan horse - an unauthorized program which functions from inside what seems to be anauthorized program, thereby concealing what it is actually doing.

Data diddling - This kind of an attack involves altering raw data just before it is processed bya computer and then changing it back after the processing is completed.

In recent cases in Malaysia, about 51 governmentss website have been hacked on 15 June 2011

(Utusan Malaysia, 16 June 2011). The hackers group named themselves, as Anonymous are

targeting website that have .gov.my suffix. Among website that involved waswww.malaysia.gov.my,

www.politeknik.gov.my,www.upm.edu.myand more. Cracking is amongst the gravest cyber-crimes

known till date. It is a dreadful feeling to know that a stranger has broken into your computer systems

without your knowledge and consent and has tampered with precious confidential data and

information. The recent denial of service attacks seen over the popular commercial sites like E-bay,

Yahoo, Amazon and others are a new category of Cyber-crimes which are slowly emerging as being

extremely dangerous.

iv. Cyber crime against societyThese crimes not only affect individual or any organisation but the society at large. They include

pornography (especially child pornography), polluting the youth through indecent exposure and

trafficking. Some examples are:

Forgery - currency notes, revenue stamps, mark sheets etc can be forged using computers andhigh quality scanners and printers

Cyber terrorism - use of computer resources to intimidate or coerce others Web jacking - hackers gain access and control over the website of another, even they change

the content of website for fulfilling political objective or for money.

Besides these classifications, Malaysia Lawyers (http://malaysia-lawyers.com) has found that

cyber crime can be divided into three major categories:

http://www.malaysia.gov.my/http://www.malaysia.gov.my/http://www.malaysia.gov.my/http://www.politeknik.gov.my/http://www.politeknik.gov.my/http://www.upm.edu.my/http://www.upm.edu.my/http://www.upm.edu.my/http://malaysia-lawyers.com/http://malaysia-lawyers.com/http://malaysia-lawyers.com/http://malaysia-lawyers.com/http://www.upm.edu.my/http://www.politeknik.gov.my/http://www.malaysia.gov.my/

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i. against individualsii. against property

iii. against government

2.2 COMPARISON OF CYBER CRIMES IN MALAYSIA AND USA

Generally speaking, computers play four roles in crimes: They serve as objects, subjects, tools, and

symbols. In this topic, I will make a comparison of cyber crimes in Malaysia and USA based on this

point of view:

i. Cyber crime act and lawsFor Malaysia to be a world leading country in ICT development and be a global centre and hub for

communication and multimedia information and content services, a law needs to be formed to

promote a high level of consumer confidence and to protect the information security and network

reliability and integrity. Therefore, the first important step that is taken by the government of

Malaysia to combat this new type of crime is by introducing a new legal framework to facilitate the

development of ICT systems by countering the threats and abuses related to such systems called

Cyber Laws of Malaysia.

MalaysiaThe Malaysian cyber laws consist of Computer Crime Act 1997, Digital Signature Act 1997,

Telemedicine Act 1997, Communication and Multimedia Act 1998 Copyright (Amendment) Act

1997, Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission Act 1998 and Optical Disk Act 2000.

There are other existing laws that will be used in conjunctions with these acts. They are the Official

Secret Act Act 1976, Patent Act 1983, Prison Act 1995, Akta Arkib Negara 44/146 and other relevant

legislations. This set of Acts has made Malaysia as one of the first countries to enact a comprehensive

set of cyber laws. The above Acts were formed for safeguarding consumer and service providers

besides on-line businesses and owners of intellectual property.

USAThe first federal computer crime statute was the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1984 (CFAA).

The fact that only one indictment was ever made under the original CFAA before it was amended in

1986 shows how difficult it is to write effective computer crime legislation. CFAA is the most

important computer crime statute in the U.S. because almost every other statute that deal with

computer crime modifies the CFAA.

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Cyber Security Enhancement Act (CSEA) was passed together with the Homeland Security

Act in 2002, it granted sweeping powers to the law enforcement organizations and increased penalties

that were set out in the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act

(DMCA) was enacted in 1998. The basic purpose of the DMCA is to amend Title 17 of the United

States Code and to implement the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Copyright Treaty

and Performances and Phonograms Treaty, which were designed to update world copyright laws to

deal with the new technology. The DMCA prohibits circum venting a technological measure

designed to protect a copyright. DMCA also prohibits the manufacture or sale of devices or programs

whose primary purpose is to circumvent access control technology. Table 1 shows all countries with

cyber law (McConnell, 2000).

Table 1: Countries with cyber law (McConnell, 2000).

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ii. Cyber crime agencySecurity measures such as two factor authentication, that many online banking services rely on, are no

longer as secure as was first thought. The challenge is enormous because cybercriminals are

unfettered by national boundaries, while law enforcement agencies' efforts are limited to local

jurisdictions. In the face of an onslaught from highly organised criminal organisations, are under-

resourced law enforcement agencies fighting a losing battle? Most agree that law enforcement alone

does not have the financial, technical or manpower resources that it would take to make any real

impact on cybercrime. With the law enforcement and act, an agencies to handle the cyber crimes

report should well organized in every countries. Strong working relationships between authorities in

countries around the world can help to solve cyber crimes cases quickly. For example, The Malaysian

Parliament website that was hacked on December 2000 was traced to IP addresses in Brazil and

France. The relevant authorities in those countries were contacted for assistance in the investigation.

MalaysiaCyber Security Malaysia is not an enforcement agency but it is an agency under Ministry of Science

Technology and Innovation (MOSTI). Cyber Security Malaysia only provided support to enforcement

agencies such as police and victims, in ensuring that justice will prevail regardless of the "space"

where a particular crime is conducted. This agency also assist in cyber forensics and analysis -such as

analysing evidence and providing expert witnesses for relevant cases. Most of the cases handled by

Cyber Security Malaysia.

USAThe primary federal law enforcement agencies that investigate domestic crime on the Internet include:

theFederal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), theUnited States Secret Service, theUnited States

Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) , theUnited States Postal Inspection Service, and

theBureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF). Each of these agencies has offices conveniently

located in every state to which crimes may be reported. Contact information regarding these local

offices may be found in local telephone directories. In general, federal crime may be reported to the

local office of an appropriate law enforcement agency by a telephone call and by requesting the "Duty

Complaint Agent." Each law enforcement agency also has a headquarters (HQ) in Washington, D.C.,

which has agents who specialize in particular areas. For example, the FBI and the U.S. Secret Service

both have headquarters-based specialists in computer intrusion (i.e., computer hacker) cases.

http://www.fbi.gov/http://www.fbi.gov/http://www.fbi.gov/http://www.ustreas.gov/usss/index.shtmlhttp://www.ustreas.gov/usss/index.shtmlhttp://www.ustreas.gov/usss/index.shtmlhttp://www.ice.gov/http://www.ice.gov/http://www.ice.gov/http://www.ice.gov/http://www.usps.com/postalinspectors/http://www.usps.com/postalinspectors/http://www.usps.com/postalinspectors/http://www.atf.gov/http://www.atf.gov/http://www.atf.gov/http://www.atf.gov/http://www.usps.com/postalinspectors/http://www.ice.gov/http://www.ice.gov/http://www.ustreas.gov/usss/index.shtmlhttp://www.fbi.gov/

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A number of international organisations work constantly to analyse the latest developments in

cybercrime and have set up working groups to develop strategies to fight these crimes.

The G8772In 1997, the Group of Eight (G8) established a Subcommittee773 on High-tech Crimes dealing with

the fight against cybercrime.774 During their meeting in Washington D.C., United States, the G8

Justice and Interior Ministers adopted Ten Principles and a Ten-Point Action Plan to fight high-tech

crimes.

United Nations788At the 8th Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders (held in Havana,

Cuba, 27 August7 September 1990), the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution dealing with

computer crime legislation.789 Based on its Resolution 45/121 (1990), the UN published a manual in

1994 on the prevention and control of computer-related crime.

International Telecommunication Union802The International Telecommunication Union (ITU), as a specialized agency within the United

Nations, plays a leading role in the standardization and development of telecommunications as well as

cybersecurity issues. Among other activities, the ITU was the lead agency of the World Summit on

the Information Society (WSIS) that took place in two phases in Geneva, Switzerland (2003) and in

Tunis, Tunisia (2005). Governments, policymakers and experts from around the world shared ideas

and experiences about how best to address the emerging issues associated with of the development of

a global information society, including the developmentcompatible standards and laws.

iii. Cyber crimes cases and reportAccording to the Computer Emergency Response Team Coordination Center (CERT/CC), the number

of reported incidences of security breaches in the first three quarters of 2000 has risen by 54 percent

over the total number of reported incidences in 1999.1 Moreover, countless instances of illegal access

and damage around the world remain unreported, as victims fear the exposure of vulnerabilities, the

potential for copycat crimes, and the loss of public confidence. The proportion of identity theft/fraud

facilitated online is expected to increase throughout 2007 as a result of the increasing technical

sophistication and organization of fraudsters and the increasing amount of identity information that

may be gathered from online sources.

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MalaysiaIn 2008, Cyber Security Malaysia handled a total of 2,123 incidents more than 100 per cent increase

compared with 2007. But that rate was an increase in incidents and it may not correlate with cyber

crime rates. Malaysia saw the number of reported cyber crimes rise to 5,181 year 2010 from 2,642 in

2009 (New Straits Times Press, 27 October 2010). In the first quarter of 2011, 3,563 incidents were

reported to the Cyber 999 Security Incident Help Centre and of those, 400 phishing sites targeting

Malaysian banks were reported. Figure 1 and 2 shows reported based on cyber crime in Malaysia in

2010 (modified fromwww.mycert.com.my).

Figure 1: Reported based on cyber crime incidents in year 2010.

Figure 2: Reported by total number based on Figure 1.

http://www.mycert.com.my/http://www.mycert.com.my/http://www.mycert.com.my/http://www.mycert.com.my/

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Table 2 shows percentage derived from the statistic according to types of cyber crime in

Malaysia. Fraud percentage is 27.34 % and spam percentage is 15.67 % in Malaysia record.

CASESPERCENTAGES

(%)

Content related 0.48 %

Denial of service- 0.82 %

Cyber harrassment- 5.18 %

Fraud 27.34 %

Intrusion 26.70 %

Intrusion attempt 8.47 %

Malicious codes 14.82 %

Spam 15.67 %

Vulnerabilities report 0.52 %

USAThe Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in collaboration with the Internet Crime Complaint Center

(www.ic3.gov)have again published its annual report that shows cybercrime continue to be on the

increase.Complaints received by IC3 cover many different fraud and non-fraud categories, including

auction fraud, non-delivery of merchandise, credit card fraud, computer intrusions, spam/unsolicited

email, and child pornography. All of these complaints are accessible to local, state, and federal law

enforcement to support active investigations, trend analysis, and public outreach and awareness

efforts.

Figure 3 shows the top 10 most common report in USA (2009). Based on the figure, fraud

percentage is 32.7 % and spam percentage is 6.9 %. Fraud in the USA are in various types such as

overpayment fraud, credit card fraud, auction fraud, advance fee fraud and miscellaneous fraud.

Comparison between fraud and spam percentage between in Malaysia and USA.

Malaysia: Fraud - 27.34 % and spam - 15.67 % USA: Fraud - 32.7 % and spam - 6.9 %

http://www.ic3.gov/http://www.ic3.gov/http://www.ic3.gov/http://www.ic3.gov/

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Fraud percentage in USA is higher than in Malaysia. While spam percentage is higher in Malaysia

than in USA. This means, fraud cases or complaints in developed country is higher than non

developed country. However, spam cases is a beginning to fraud cases.

2.3 SUGGESTIONS

As accessibility to the internet grows, many people are becoming victims to cybercrime (Fafinski &

Minassian, 2008). Technology and crime in recent history have known an unhealthy cohabitation. In a

global environment plagued by an ever-growing community of ill-intentioned cyber criminals whose

deleterious effects are obvious on affected people and organizations, every contribution to a fuller and

more comprehensive understanding of the determinants and components, and how these components

relate is critical.

In our country, extending the rule of law into cyberspace is a critical step to create a

trustworthy environment for people and businesses. Because that extension remains a work in

progress, organizations today must first and foremost defend their own systems and information from

attack, be it from outsiders or from within. They may rely only secondarily on the deterrence that

Fi ure 3:Fi ure 3:Fi ure 3:

Fi ure 3:

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effective law enforcement can provide. To provide this self-protection, organizations should focus on

implementing cyber security plans addressing people, process, and technology issues. Organizations

need to commit the resources to educate employees on security practices, develop thorough plans for

the handling of sensitive data, records and transactions, and incorporate robust security technology

such as firewalls, anti-virus software, intrusion detection tools, and authentication servicesthroughout

the organizations' computer systems.

These system protection tools--the software and hardware for defending information systems

are complex and expensive to operate. To avoid hassles and expense, system manufacturers and

system operators routinely leave security features turned off, needlessly increasing the vulnerability

of the information on the systems. Bugs and security holes with known fixes are routinely left

uncorrected. Further, no agreed-upon standards exist to benchmark the quality of the tools, and no

accepted methodology exists for organizations to determine how much investment in security is

enough. The inability to quantify the costs and benefits of information security investments leave

security managers at a disadvantage when competing for organizational resources. Much work

remains to improve management and technical solutions for information protection. To conclude,

there is need for the emergence of well defined framework of Malaysian cyber laws which should

include:

i. Create and implement a minimum set of guiding rules of conduct that would facilitate efficientcommunications and reliable commerce through the use of electronic medium

ii. Formulation of new laws and amendment of existing laws by nations within their presentterritorial boundaries thereby attempting to regulate all actions on the internet that have any

impact on their own population

iii. Nations may enter into multi-lateral international agreementiv. Define punishment and prevent wrongful action that attack the electronic medium or harm the

other

v. To meet the challenge posed by new kinds of crime made possible by computer technologyincluding telecommunication, various cyber laws should be reviewed

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3.0 CONCLUSIONIt is not possible to eliminate cyber crime from the cyber space. It is quite possible to check them.

History is the witness that no legislation has succeeded in totally eliminating crime from the globe.

The only possible step is to make people aware of their rights and duties (to report crime as a

collective duty towards the society) and further making the application of the laws more stringent to

check crime. Undoubtedly the act is a historical step in the cyber world. Further I all together do not

deny that there is a need to bring changes in the Information Technology Act to make it more

effective to combat cyber crime in the world. As one nation, it is not impossible for us to fight the bad

hackers and all the cyber crimes record as long as we have the awareness and the platform such as

Cyber Security Malaysia and other government ministry to support us handling the scenario.

4.0 REFERENCESAghatise E. Joseph, 2006. Cybercrime definition. Computer Crime Research Center

Brenner, 2004. Cybercrime Metrics: Old Wine, New Bottles?, Virginia Journal of Law and

Technology, Vol. 9

Council of Europe Convention Cybercrime (ETS No. 185), 2001. UK Cybercrime report.

Fafinski, S. and Minassian, N., 2008. UK Cybercrime Report 2008. New York: Garlik

Hale, 2002. Cybercrime: Facts & Figures Concerning this Global Dilemma, CJI 2002, Vol. 18.

McConnell, 2000. Cyber Crime and Punishment? Archaic Laws Threaten Global Information.

www.mcconnellinternational.com

Thomas A. Petee, Jay Corzine, Lin Huff-Corzine, Janice Clifford and Greg Weaver, 2006.Defining

Cyber Crime: Issues in Determining the Nature and Scope of Computer-Related

Offenses.

http://www.techterms.com/definition/cybercrime).

http://www.crime-research.org/articles/joseph06).

http://www.mcconnellinternational.com/http://www.mcconnellinternational.com/http://www.techterms.com/definition/cybercrimehttp://www.techterms.com/definition/cybercrimehttp://www.crime-research.org/articles/joseph06http://www.crime-research.org/articles/joseph06http://www.crime-research.org/articles/joseph06http://www.techterms.com/definition/cybercrimehttp://www.mcconnellinternational.com/

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