DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 276 956 HE 019 854

AUTROR Schomberg, Steven F., Ed.TIWJE Strategies for Active Teaching and Learning in

University Classrooms. A Handbook of TeachingStrategies.

INSTITUTION Minnesota Univ., Minneapolis.SPONS AGENCY Northwest Area Foundation, St. Paul, Minn.PUB DATE 86NOTE 100p.; Developed by the University of Minnesota

faculty.PUB TYPE Collected Works - General (020) =- Guides =

Non-Classroom Use (055) Repoi:ts - Descriptive(141)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC04 Plus Postage.DESCRIPmORS *Classroom Techniques1 Cognitive Ability; *College

InstructionT Debate; Group Activities; HigherEducation; High Risk Students; Large GroupInstruction; *Learning Activities; Microcomputers;Prinary Sources; Problem Solving;_Role Playing;School Community Relationship; Simulation; *StudentParticipation; Teaching Assistants; *TeachingMethods

IDENTIFIERS *Active Learner; Cooperative Learning; University OfMinnesota

ABSTRACTMethods developed by faculty to involve_students in

the classroom are described in 13 articles,_based on the experienceof University of Minnesota faculty in the Northwest Area Program onActive Learning. Each article considers: how to get started, sampleapplications of the method, challenges and how to deal with them,rewards, and where to get help. Article titles and authors are asfollows: "Using Primary Sources in the Classroom" (Elaine Tyler May);"Introducing Active Learning: Conceptual and Practical Problems"(William R. Charlesworth);_"Cooperative_Learning Groups" (Karl A.Smith); "Introducing_Simulation and Role_Pley"_(Terrie M. Shannon);"Structuring Controversy in the Classroom" (Deborah Deemer); "UsingActive Learning in Large Classes" (Thomas F. Brothen); "TrainingTeaching Assistants to Use Active Learning Strategies" (Donald Ross);"Teaching Problem-Solving Skills" (Bert E. Fristedt); "OrganizingCommunity Studies" (Peggy Sand)L "Teaching Cognitive skills toUnderprepared Students" (Diane Chambers); "Personal Computers inEducation" (Alan Wassyng, Karl Smith,_Sam Sharp); "Questions andAnswers_about Active Learning" (Gloria Christopher); and "NorthwestArea Program on Active Learning: History and Projects" (RussellChristensen). Four pages of references and a list of advisorycommittee members and staff for the program are included. (SW)

***********************************************************************Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made

from the original document.***********************************************************************

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ACTIVE TEACHINO AND,LEARNiNGItj italipmetqlw ift A inSriertTM/ MW NNW S

A handbook ofleachrng strategiesdeveloped byUniversity of Minnesotafaculty wiih supportfrorn the NorthwestArea Foundatiori

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u_docurrent nes Sewn reproduced esreceived fican the person or orpankation_ chokedamp it

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PC)4_ol view cropiniens stated in thil_docwmeant ilo_nOt_necesserity represent officed_ DERI position or policy.

'7

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Steven F. Sii:hombeto..,

Editor

Foreword by.

John R WallaceA

.Contriniftors.

Thomas F. Br9then

'Diane 'ChambersI.

Willia4 R. Charles worth

Russell Christenen

'Gloria Christopher

Lgehorah Deemer

Pert Fristedt

Elaine Tyipr May

Donald moss

,:peggy Sand

Terrie M. Shannon

Sam Sharp

Karl A. S.Illith

Alan Wassyng

4.16

STRATEGIES FORACTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNINGIN UNIVERSITY CLASSROOMSSteven F. Schomberg, Editor

A handbook ofteaching strategiesdeveloped byUniversity of Minnesotafaculty with supportfrom the NorthwestArea Foundation

Designed andproduced byCommunication_Services;Continuing Educationand Extension;University of MinnesotaISTI

Foreword by:

John R. Wallace

Contributors:

Thomas F. Brothen

Diane Chambers

William R. Charlesworth

Russell Chrtstensen

Gloria Christopher

Deborah Deemer

Bert E. Fristedt

Etatne Tyler May

Donald Ross

Peggy Sand

Thrift:, M. Shannon

Sam Sharp

Karl A Smith

Alan Wassyng

Copyright c 1986:University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota

Send comments or correspondence to: Steven F.Schornberg, Assistant Dean and Director ofSummer Session, University of Minnesota, 135Johnston Hall, 101 Pleasant Street S.E.,Minneapolis, MN 55455.

The University of Minbesota is committed to thepolicy that all persons shall have equal access toits programs, facilities, and employment withoutregard to race, religion, color, sex, national origin,handicap, age, or veteran status.

Table Of Contents

Foreword 1

John R. Wallace

IntroductionSteven F. SchombergArticles:

Using Primary Sources in the Classroom 4Elaine Tyler May

Introducing Active Learning: Conceptual and Practical Problems 11

William R. Charlesworth

Cooperative Learning Groups 18

Karl A. Smith

Introducing Simulation and Role Play 27Terne M. Shannon

Structuring Controversy in the Classroom 35Deborah Deemer

Using Active Learning in Large Classes 40Thomas F. Brothen

Training Teaching Assistants to Use Active Learning StrategieS 47Donald ROSs

Teaching Problem-Solving Skills 51

Bert E. Fristedt

Organizing Community Studies 56Peggy Sand

Teaching Cognitive Skills to Underprepared Students 63Diane Chambers

Personal Computers in Education 68Alan Wassyng, Karl Smith, Sam Sharp

Questions and Answers about Active Learning 79Gloria C.iristopherNorthwest Area_Program on Active Learning: History and Projects 85RusselL Christensen

Appendix:References 91

List of Advisory Committee Members and Staff 9;

Foreword

John R. Wallace

The_Northwest Area Program onActive Le_amirig tvas Made adifterencein the_quality of

undergraduate education at the Universityof Minnesota. It has shown us theexcitement and intellectual ene-gy thatactive ;earning modes bring out in studentsarid fatuity. It has projected the imaginationand_sense of collective accomplishment thatconferences and workShops on topics inondergraduatezducation taster in_facultyand administrators: Because the structure ofthe program required that departmentsmake a collective commitment to projectssubmitted for funding, it involved groups offaculty, not only individuals, and creatednew opportunities for colleagues toexchange ideas. PerhapS MOSt irriportantly,ithas grvert new life_and_meaning to theterm "active learning:" John Dewey wouldbe proud of us.

These are lasting .changes that we arebuilding on through the EducationalDeVelbprrient_Peogeaeh, the BUSh SabbaticalPrOgrarn, arid the_Recrurtineht Etjett. Iwish to thank Professor Wiliam

John R. Wallace is professor of ,ohiiosophyand assistant vice president for AcademicAffairs at the University of Minnesota.

Charlesworth, the chair of the NorthwestArea Program onAttive !Learningcommittee, and_Steven Schomberg, thedirector of_the project for their _deft andcreative leadership. I wish to thank themembers of the committee and the staii ofthe project for their commitment and theirthoughtful contributions. Especiolly, I wantto thank the faculty members and studentswho actively taught and learned_and so gaveconcrete_proof Of a dimension along whichthe_University_can improve itsundergraduate program.

Introduction

Steven F. Schomberg

The idea for this handbook grew outof the work by University ofMinnesota faculty in the Northwest

Area:Programori Active Learning Facultyassociated_with_this_project developed andtested strategies to combat the passivityevident in our University classrooms. Over athree7year period i,198271985), they tried out20 methods of involving students ininstructional activities, and trained morethan 200 faculty to use one or more aCtivelearning strategies. This handbook presentssome-of the methods developed by facultyto involve students in the classroom: Anannotated list of the other projects can befound in the final chapter on the history oithe Northwest Area Program on ActiveLearning.

The strategies in this handbock describehow to structure a course so as to leadstudents out of a passive:note-taking roleinto an active:thinking role. 1 am remindedof a visit to a University of Minnesci'aclassroom where] founcithestudemsworking in groups of three, intenselyengaged in a project. The faculty memberinteracted first with one group and thenanother: answering a question, volunteeringa remark, sometimes just listening. Whenthe bell rang, many of:the groups continuedworking. This was quite a contrast to sleepystudents,reading the Minnesota Daily,waiting to stampede for the door:

Steven F; Schomberg specializes_ineducational development and supervisedthe Ncrthwest Area Program on ActiveLearning. An assistant dean of ContinuingEducation and Extension, he directs SummerSession at the University of Minnesota.

Ourconcept cif active learning involvesstudents both in acquiring informationandin _interpreting or_transforrning it Studentswo;k with the subject first-hand: exp'oringprimary materials, organizing data; makingobservations; solving problems; orconducting experiments. Usually_workingmthin grouos of peers, students arerequired to produce some type of_preductby interpreting information through analysis,synthesis; evaluation or some other form ofreflection.-The product may be a paper,report, debate; role play, problem solution,or model.

Faculty who conduct a course in an activemode usually have to make cnanges in iheirrole. Whereas they previously may have :

focused their attention on organizing andinterpretinginforrnation through lectures,they now concentrate on designingassignments, exercises; and tasks throughwhich students will learn from_first-handexperiences with the subject. Faculty act asmentors: guiding students through thesubject matter, responding to Studentquestions,encouraging_student_investigation: Onefacully member reportedon the invigorating effect of such a class:"The students and I both feel full ofintellectual energy and ready for more as wenear the end of the quarter; we hate to see itend."

he Strategies described in this__handbook complement ltures _which also have an important place

in an active learning environment. Subjectsneed to be introduced; illustrations and

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Instructions need to be given; unpublishedinfOrmation may be available only through alecture. One type Of lecture appropriate toactive leaming_derivesfrom classroomactivities, student_questions,_and_projectresults: By mixing lectures; student projects,recitation, and laboratory sessions; facultyenrich the learning experience.

In this_ handbook the articles are writtenfrom the point of view of practice. EachauThor briefly introduces the strategy andthen_addresses five aspects: how to getstarted; sample apdlicationschallenges andhow to deal with them, the rewards. andwhere to get help. Elaine Tyler Maysuggests how to use primary sources inundergraduate classes. Bill Cht.rlesworthdiscusses the conceptual and practicalproblems of introductng active learning.Three faculty_present general strategies:Karl Smith (cooperative learning groups),Terne Shannon (simulation and role play),and Deborah Deemer (structuringcontroversy). Torn Brothen tells ht.

uses several active strategies in a large classWith the aid of teaching assistants. DonRoss discusses the training of teachingassistants. Several_faculty describe specificteaching strategies: Bert Fristedt(mathematical problem solving skills);Peggy Sand (organizing communitystudies), Diane Chambers (teachingcognitive skills to underprepared students),and Alan Wassyng, KartSmith and SamSharp (personal computers in education).Finally, Gloria Christopher provides theev_Pluation_information_COlUected fromfaculty and students as answers to some _

often asked questions about active learningand teaching; and Russell Christensenpresents the history of tne provram.

This handbook appears at a ;ime whenseveral national reports (e.g. invoivement inLearning: Realizing the Potential ofAmerican Higher Educahon, Nationallnstitute_o_f_Education, October, 1_984) arguefor classroom environments much iik_ethosediscussed by the authors of these chapteis:The recent reports by University ofMinnesota faculty and students on thestudent experience and the quality ofundergraduate learning signal renewedenthusiasm forimproving teaching andlearning_Both_the niitionafand local reportsas_well as_theexpenmental_ work af theNorthwest Area Program on Active teamingrecognize that for classrooms to change; thefaculty must adopt new teaching strategies.Resisting the inertia of the status-quo, theycan work to constructively engage studentsIn the 1960s we could count on the studentsthemselves to Challenge-us toward moreactive_teaching.in the 1_980s,_the facultymust challenge students_towardmore activelearning. Using active teaching strategiessuch as those described in this handbook isone way of achieving this goal.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSMany people have collaborated on thishandbook. Gloria Christopher and RussellChristensen helped design and edit i;.Members of the advisory committee_ for theNorthwest Area Program on ACtive Learnir g

provided invaluablesupport. We areespecially grateful to theNorthwest iitteaFoundation and the Office of EducationalDevelopment Programs at the University ofMinnesota for helping make possible theprinting of this handbook.

Using Primary Sourcesin the ClassroomElaine Tyler May

steachers; we tend_tapresent. .

material to ou; classes in_the formof the results of our discipline's..

work..We collect the data; do the reading,and synthesize the material into a finishedproduct. Students,:in their assignments andexams, are-generally exp3cted to :

demonstiate that they have learned what weas_scholars_navalready found_outParelyare they _provided with the opportunity tomake those discoveries themselves. And yetit is potentially_ very rewarding to offerstudents the opportunity to use rawmaterials themselves, giving them "handson" experience dOrng:the work of the :discipline. For example, in my own field ofhistoryJt is one_thing to tell_students whatwe have discovereclin_the_ process of ..

research: It is quite another to invite them io"do history" with us. I remember well myown first experience using primarydocuments for a research project. Pulling offthe library shelves ancient documents fromanother era-was like entering a timemachine_. Attempting to make_ sense of thoserich materials was a far different experiencethan listening to a historian lecture aboutsomebody else's findings. Few studentsactually delve into primary source materialsuntil:quite late in their col:ege years, if at ail.Much can be gained, however, by using:primary sources in the classroom, even inintroductory courses.

Elaine Tyler May is an associate professor inthe Program in American StudieS at theUniversity of Minnesota.

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Primary sources are the materials scholarsuse to construct their research projects. Forclassroom use, a primary source can beanything that has not been interpreted forthe student already. The types of primarysources available vary greatly,_of course,depending on the discipline._ Census data,voting records, public opinion pollsurveyquestionnaires, orcourt case records areexamples of primary sources used by socialscientists; novels, poems, paintings orphotographs, songs or musicalcompositions, letters, diaries, or even familyartifacts can be used by teachers in thehumanities. Students in the sciences ormedicine can work with raw substances orcase records. Primary sources_can_be foundin_ books; archives, or in the world aroundus. Students can; with appropriate guidancefrom the instructor, learn to find, study andinterpret primary source materials forthemselves. The possibilities for classroomuse are truly limitless.

How la Get StariedIn order to get started; instructors mustthink through the class project orassignment very thoroughly. It is easy toforget basic steps because we tend to takecertain parts of the process for granted. Forexample, I made a serious error when Iassigned students in an introductory_class avery basic and simple researth task, butfailed to explain to_thern how louse the_library: Many_ of th_e students did not evenknow where the library was located, muchless how to find anything in it. A brief

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orientation would readily solve that problem.I! is essential, therefore, to anticipate theneeds of the students. Never assume thatthey have prior experience that would equipthem fol the task at hand.

1. Choose the sources students will beusing Decide whether you shouldprovide the students with the rawmaterials, or whether it is practical forthem to find theirown sources. If theyWill be searching for sources themselves,be sure to provide detailed instructionson how to locate and choose am:), opnatematerials:

2. Plan the assignment with a view to theoverall results. Begin by thinking of thetotal project, notsimply the kind ofmaterial you wish to use. Think about theprocess. What question_or sorts of_questions do you want thestutlentstopursue? What kinds of materials andmethods should be used to accomplishthe task? Keep the task very simple, yetallow for the greatest possible discoveryon the part of the students.

The types of assignments can vary agreat deal, from in-class group projectsto short individual assignments to termpapers. Once you have determined thenature of the task, t is useful to break itdown into components. How should thestudents work with the materials? Spendsome class time discussing _the concernsof the discipline and what scholars in thefield do when they pursue their research.Give the students ideas of the kinds ofthings they should look for in thematerials they use. It is often helpful todiscuss your own work in this coNext.Professor Mary Dietz, in the POlitt-dal

Science Department, was quoted in arecent issue of Update saying that sheincorporates descriptions of the processot her own work not just the resultsinto her class lectures. This can be ahelpfulandAlluminating way_to involvethe students in the task at hand white atthe same time sharing your own trialsand tribulations as well as yourdiscoveries. Students will be less likely tofeel discouraged if they realize that thistype of work does not come easily evenfor scholars in the field.

Along with specifics_as to lengtn, format,etc., it is important to provide thestudents with a strong sense of what theycan discover for themselves. Unlike manyexarns or homework assignments,working with primary sources usuallyprovides more possibilities felt'interpretation and creativity Encouragestudents to explore,_use_theirimaginations, and develop some of theirown questions. At the same time, theyshould be given clear guidelines so theydo not flounder while trying to figure outwhat is expected of them.

3. Allow students lo Share results. Resultscan be submitted irt either written or oralform. It is rewarding for the_students topresent their results to the class. This canbe done as a mock professional meeting;with mini-papers and workshops, or asoral reports,cr in small groups workinginformally with each other. It is wellWOrth at least one class session, or more,for the students to share the proceSs aswell as the results of their work:

1 0

is one Ihing totell students what wehave discovered in theprocess of research. Itis quite another toinvite them to 'dohistory' with us."

Sample ApplicationsIn_American_Studies, my_colleague LaryMay and I developed a classroom exercisethat would help students identify withAmericans who lived at a different time andin a different social and cultural context. Wewanted students in the introductory courseto have the chance to roll up their sleevesand dig into primary sources for themselves.We also wanted to expose them to th0process of "doing history:"

To achieve this, we experimented withseveral different types of assignments. Oneinvolved having students explore aparticular topic by choosing a journal forexamination at two points in time fifty yearsapart_ Each_studentwas required to examinehow a particular social issue underconsideration was discussed or portrayed ineach instance and to describe how views onthe issue had changed in the samepublication over five decades. Theassignments yielded some exciting resultsand exposed some_of the students to anentirely_new way_of perceiving the past andthe process of historical change.

: ne particular example stands out inmy mind. A student chose theMinnesota Daily as her periodical

ahd the issue of women's work and politicsas her focus. She went to the archives andselected issues from the years 1918 and1968: As she wrce in her paper; sheselected those years intentionally: expectingto find few references to women; their workopportunities, or their political organization

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in the dusty issues from 1918: and evidenceof substantial gains for women by 1968. Toher astonishment, the progress she:e-xpec'ed to find was not there. In 1918, theDaily waStilled with announcements,abOutfob opportunities forwornen, politica"organizations_for wontenstudents, sulf rageclubs, meetings: articles and editorials. .

written by women; and a flurry of evidenceindicative of a rich and lively feministcommunity on campus. By 1968, thatactivity seemed to have vanished. Therewere plenty of articles focused,en campuspOlitics, the anti-war movement, andeditorials abouttheNew Left. But wOmu:iwere virtually_absent frarr.thepages; exceptin the.job listings for secretaries andbabysitters. The discovery dramaticallyaltered her vision of progress in wornen'semancipation and the politics of the 1960sbefore the !eloirth-of feminism. Thediscovery was vivid and exciting becausethestudent made it in the course of her ownresearch in primary sourcematerials; in thiscase our own campus newspaper:

In another class we set up a seiles of ,cle-playing panels in which each student on thepanel came to classes a particular historicalfigure and participated in a discussionfocusedaround a concern that would haveoccupied_thethoughts and energies of his_or her character To do the research for thepanel; students were required to investigateavailable primary sources cencerning theindividual each was to portray, as well as theissue under discussion. If thesubject wasslavery, forexample, one student might readthe diaryiof a plantationimistress,_enother amemoir of art escaped-slave:_another_thewritings_of a northern abolitionist: and so _

on. Stucris thus had the opportunity to dig-- 1

into the materialthemselves, and then toattempt taget inside the mind_ of _a_ particularhistorical character: The panel was set up ina "Meet the Press" forum, with the rest ofthe class acting as the press corps. (Overthe course 01 the quarter, everyone in theclass served as a panelist.)

The panels_worked_very_well, sometimeseven too welt Along with_spontaneous andsometimes carefully researched costumesand deep involvement in the charactersportrayed, we also had some dramaticevents we did not anticipate. There was, forexample, the day when "Meet the Press"fOcused on the questicn, "Can nativeAmen. -.an Indians and white settlers coexiSton the_frontier?" The_ class_shifted into the_nineteenth century and near the end of thepanel discussion; Chief Crazy Horseassassinated General Custer right in front ofthe class. Or there was the day we movedinto the ante-bellum South toOiocussiSlavery, and a young slave girl (played byerathertarge- male student) crawled out Of theroom on_ hands andRnees _to escape_hercruel and lustful mastet% Despitethesedramatic excesses; or perhaps because ofthem, the students did manage to do a veryserious job of researching their characters.During the "Meet the Press" sessions, the"press_ corps"iasked questions that wouldyield thernost _useful information since theyknew that the class_was responsible for thepanel material in papers andexams: In thisway; the instructors provided the guidanceand back-up; but it was the students whowere literally responsible for developingclass matenals and learning from eachother.

nother strategy that provedeffective was tu have students inialarge_class work togethei in small

groups: These groups provided more than aforum for discussion although this was oneimportant function. In addition; theyprovided the arena in which primary sourceswere presented and analyzed. Small groupsare often difficult to arrange because of theproblem of staffing and limited resources.We-experimented by involving a group ofupper-division_ students _who are majors inthe prograrn offering directed-studies creditfor their work as undergraduate teachingassistants in the course. Groups wereestablished during the first week of class;and the same students remained togetherfor the-entire quarter. This enabled studentsto get t0 know one another and participateM an informsmall-_scale learning-environment_far removed trom_the_typicallylarge and anonymous lecture class: Theundergraduate teaching assistants metregularly with the instructoi- ,n an ongoingseminarthroughout the qup whichprovided continuity and a SUL ired way toprovide_mput into the groups.,I ne studentteaching_assistantsserved_as facilitatorsrather than teachers;_andthe r_embirs ofeach group were responsible forcontributing to the learning that took place:

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'1Once you begindiscussing teachingideas with colleagues,you may find thatothers have been usingprimary sources in theclassroom in numerousinnovative ways."

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One group aCtivity,that worked quite well,was_an assignment for each Student to takeher or his_date_of birth and go_ back thi;lyyears: They were then to choose aperiodical publ'shed at the time and find themajor issues discussed in that journalduring their birthday week that_year. Whenthey ,came together in the group, the taskwas to construct, drawing-on everyone's,findings, a cultUral portrait of the area. Sincenot everyone in_ the class was the same age,they were able to discern patternsof changeover time. Individually; students wererequired to delve into primary sourcematerial. Collectively; in the small groups;they were to pool their findings in order todraw some conclusions about culturalhistory and the process of change.

One final item pmvided _an_interestingdimension to the class:1 attended aworksh000n "student-generated databases" as part of the Northwest AreaProgram on Active Learning and wasintrigued by the thought Of adapting an in-class survey loan American Studies course.We decided tatake a class census whiChincluded questions _that would_ be relevant tothe_ themes of thecourse. We then tallied theresponses and copied the results for thestudents in the class. Throughout thecourse, we continued to refer to the'collective biography' of our class toindicate the pervasiveness of-the coursethemes and theft immediacy to the students'own_experiences, By asking students to_provide their "ethnicity."_forexample; wecould discuss the various ways in whichpeople define their cultural heritage.

Once you begin discussing teaching ideaswith colleagues, you may find that othershave been using primary sources intheclassroom.in_ numerous innovative ways. Forexample; in a recent worksh000n using .

primary sources in the classroom; I learnedabout an interesting project regularlyassigned by Riv-Ellen Prell in theAnthropology pepartment. Professor Prellendeavors to give the students a serseicifthe power of cultural- norms by asking _theMto diScover commonly-shared assumptionSin our own _societ y_One of_the _firstassignments is for students to break anAmencan cultural rule in public and write upthe experience. In this way the student'sown world beGornes the primary sourcelaboratory. Students leam the force ofunwritten social customs_ by attempting toenter a grocery storeand barter for goods,for-example, or by silting next to thE: solepassenger in an empty bus:

hiary May; in American Studies; has-. used the_po.b:ic arena as a primarysource by having students go out

and observe a-building. a park, or a socialinstitution such as a rrlavi9 theater. Thestudents are instructed _to describe whattheyobserve and analyzethe place orinstitution in terms of its origin, history, use,structure; and what it can tell us about theculture.

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Other instructors draw upon the richsources available in the many archives ofthe _University. Researchers frequently usesuch collections as the Social_WelfareHistory Archives,_theimmigration HistoryArchives; the rare books and manuscripts,children's literature; or governmentdocuments. These_ materials can often beused for class assignments. Recently, forexample, David Klaasen, curator of theSocial Welfare History Archives, assistedProfessor Sara Evans of the HistoryD_epartmentin_setting_up_a set of_researchpackets for students to use: Choosing fromamong.the packets; each studentinvestigates a particular_ issue in twentieth-century women's history. The packets madethe relevant material readily accessible tothe students, who then explored thedocumentS and wrote up their discoveries.

These are only a few of_the endlesspossibilities that might be tried in or adaptedfor classroom use.

Challenges and How to DealWith_ThemAs with_any_other teaching device;.primary..source projects.can present difficulties. Themazt common; perhaps; is the students'umiliarity with this type of assignment.There is need for-extra guidanceandassistance,from the instructor. Be sure to setaside plenty of class, time for explanation,questions, and discussion._HOld adequateoffice.hoursso students whoencounter__difficulties can come to you for assistance:You may find that some of the materials youthink would be most appropriate forstudents may in fact baffle them. Some trialand error will undoubtedly be ni.,7,essarychoosing sources and structunng

assignments. When possible, allow thestudents as much individual choice aspossible. The assignments will be moremeaningful if_the students have maximuminput: The more_reluctant and inexperiencedstudents will undoubtedly need the mosthelp; and instructors will need to beprepared to offer help when needed. Forlonger assignments, it is often helpful torequire a brief "progress report" or, if theclass is not-too large, a conference with theinstructor. In large classes, it may be usefulto _have students meet in_gwups_ before theassignments are completed, to discussdifficulties with each other and share ideas.The students will learn the most when theyhave adequate guidance and feedbackalong the way.

In general, it is best to avoid abstractnotions_and to make the assignments aswell as the sources as tangible and specificas possible.

The RewardsEven if difficulties arise along the way, theexperience is likely to-be rewarding forstudents and faculty alike. As an instructor,you are in essence_establishing an_apprentice relationship_ with youratudents:Your example and guidance gives them anopportunity to do some of the work of yourdiscipline even if it is on a small scale. Youmay even be surprised, on occasion, to findthat a student has discovered somethingthat does amount to a neW contribution tothe field.

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As aminstructor. youare in essenceestablishing an__

apprentice relationthipwith your students."

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In addition, we have the satisfaction ofknowing.that students in our class acquirean actual learning experience rather thansimply a c011ection of faCts and information.Studies of_the_process_of learning h_ow

individuals_acquire knowledge; skills; andproblem-solving capabilities haveprovided some disquieting evidence. Onestatistic that $ticks in my mind (no matterhow hard (try to shake it) is_that studentswho learn in tne "traditional" collegeclassr.:Jom setting listening to a. lecture,taking notes. demonstrating theiracquired_kno ;...edge in exams retain; sixmonths later; the paltry proportion of twentypercent of what they "learned." That meansthat within half a year; eighty percent of ourpearls of wisdom have evaporated into thin

Whehwe provide the students with theopportunity to make their own discoveries,they retain not only the knowledge theyacquired..but the skills of doing scholarlywork on their own:

Where to Get HelpThe Northwest Area Program on ActiveLearning workshops provided plenty ofideas that we were able _.) adapt to fit Ourclassroorn_needs, One thing the experienceproved is that as teachers_we have a lot incommon-and can share ideas with_eachother;_even if our scholarly pursuits arequite diverse. Our best resources, then, are

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our colleagues, in our own or in differentdisciplines. Some of our best ideas forteadhing American Studies.c': ..ne fromstrategies developed by individu: '; in suchunlikely .fields.as agronomy ahd psychology.What is most important; I think; is that weget together and share ideas as teachers.We take for granted the numerous seminars,colloquia, and conferences devoted toresearch_efforts._We need to recognize thevalue Of forums for our wOrk as teachers,tOci.

In addition _to sharing ideas withone another; it is important to knowthat places on campus can provide

a great deal of help and guidance. TheOffice of Educational DevelopmentPrograms can be of tremendous assistance,especially in alertMg ihdividuala in _one areaabout what peoplein_other parts of_theuniversity areoing, In addition-, thecurators and archivists in the many specialcollections in the University can be veryhelpful in putting together materials forclassroom use. The curator of the SocialWelfare History Archives, has_expressedwillingness to bring groups Of Students intothe ardhives, organize materials for them,and visit classes to provide _orientation,Other merriters of the archives' professionalstaffs would no doubt be willing to do thesame.

Lastly, we should all make an effort to putteaching strategies on the agenda of ourdepartmental meetings. We might besurprised to find out what interesting thingsare going on i. the classroom right nextdoor.

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introducing Active Learning:Conceptual and Practical ProblemsWilliam R. Charlesworth

Introducing active learninginto_alarge lecture class requires at leasttwo kinds of changes conceptual

and practical. Both have to be dealt withbefore the 3lass syllabus is written; onecould argue that both have to be dealt witheven before the course is listed as-an officialoffering The original_tunction of the courseand how thisfunctioniits_with those ofother courses in the department may wellht,ve to be changec if active learning isadopted.

Active learning can require, in unexpectedways, areconceptualization of coursematerial as well as pose interesting practicalproblems_ An example_is_setting up classconditions to replace lecturesSuch a_taskcan be initially frustrating; especially forinstructors who rehi solely on texts andlectures to carry the main weight ofinformatiohtransmission. Fortunately, tipstoward solving these_ problemscan bepassed on quite quickly in ,he-form ofexplicit procedures_Some theseprocedures will be presented belowr_tet usbegin with some major conceptual issues.

How to Get StartedDeveloping a course that gives students fullreign to seek out information actiVely andsolve_problemson_theirown r an be_conceptually very different from one inwhich the information is authoritativelydelivered in the course text and lectures.

William R. Chartesworth is a professor in theInstitote of _Child Cueveloprn nt at theUniversity of Minnesota:

Thus_the shiftto active learning_has to bewell thought out For 2.xampls_ the instructorhas to begin by asking what knowledge otthe discipline is woith having; and henceworth the students' hard work to get andretain. It requires a long process ofwinnowing down vast amounts of-information and making tough valuejudgments along the wa .

The instructor who wants to focus on alimited set of vital bits of knowledge to getacross to students has to make suchjudgments.iThese vital bits ol_knowledgemay _comprise many things depending uponthe discipline overriding principles, majorempirical events, intractable methodologicalproblems taxonomicdirnensionswhatever holds the discipline togetherconceptually. And because of themagnitude of th ;se bits; one cannot includemany of them in a ten-week course. Myexperience has been that eight to ten ofthem are-plenty. This may be due partly tothe fact that I usually use group problemsolving_as_an active learningstratedy to getthem across: In such courses activelearningtakes up approximately 60% of classmeeting time; the rest consists of lecturingand answering questions.

Examples of "vital"bits of knowledge F hadto pose in the forms of problems for threedifferent child development classes are:in an introductory _course; students_ examinehow to study and evaluate the effects ofintervention on child behavior anddevelopment, a seemingly dry exercise untilthey see the methodological problem

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"What is oftenforgotten is that'problem is a relationalterm a

characterization of adifferent relationshipbetween an arrestingstimulus and theforward movement ofthe Student's mind."

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embedded in public claims governmentprograms; ideological attempts to influenceeducation, popular accounts of day care,child rearing etc.; (?) in a course on deviantbehavior, studentshave to deal with theproblems-of classifying persons-andbehavior (theiunclions_Of classification_thepros and.cons_of_diagnosis and_prognosi3as they are applied to real life case studies;(3) in a course on the ethology of humanbehavior, students are asked to defend theuse of functional categories .havior,viewing funCtions in terms i

factors_and long_term_conseguences._ln_allcases __the solutions to the many facets ofthe r (oblems are not immediately availablein any particular source.

In working on such problerns, textbooks.readings, and lectures are used. They serveas familiarizing material, as sources andsti_mulators, white they_support _theinstructor Usually;_texts lay out a fieldtopically along a dimension or two ti-ne;size; complexity. The vast majority of themare not problem-oriented, although theyoften have problems at the end of chapters.These students do not work on theproblems because they are usuaHy-notcentral tOcourse_requirements.But_this mayall be to the good- Students read the text,listen to lectures that clarify points in thetext; get engaged in classroom .-Jiscussionand work on problems, and the instructorwrites the problems. Actually the instructoris better qualified than anyone to do sobecause it is the instructor who knows theStudents' minds, attitudes, propensities, etc.

What is often forgotten is that 'problem' is arelational term a characterization of adifficult.relationship between an arrestingstimulus and the forward movement Of thestudent's mind. One must:know both thenature of the stiMutus and the nature of thestudent's mind to.make pedagogical_progress...Instructors who do not know theinformation level of their students can reallynot create educationally meaningful andchal:enping tasks for them.

Challenges and- How topeal With ThemA major issue is how to get a _taskformulated.that has.a clearly statedobjective and alludes (either directly orindirectly) to the specific problems thatstand in the way of attaining this objective.Most tasks are couched in terms of eitherinterrogatives or imperatives-. Examples: :.What is a good example-of X? Describe HScompoSiton._ How did_ X_become_that way?Explain_what changestook diace_that madeX possible: What would have happened if. , .?

Prove your point. Distinguish between X andY. Interpret the following passage in terms of.

Imperatives and interrogativesusually serve familiar functions andcan be stripped down to cognitive_

actions_ such_ as describB thanvture or._ _development of_ X, explain how X becamethis way, compare X with; predict_ whatwould happen to X if; prove by logic or datathat, 6valuate X in terms of. These actionsspecify what has to be done to solve theproblem; they also clearly state vvhat formthe solutiOn will take: a description,explanation, cornparison, prediction, proofevaluation:

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If one knows one'sidiscipline well, writingsuch problems is_crialienging_and also fun,ii one's just getting to _know one'sdiscipline; it can be agony. The solutions toproblems are available either in one's mindor in texts, writings, etc. In these cases,setting the criteria for_evaluating a solutionis relatively easy and should be done inweitirig litinediately after the Orbblent-i5formulated. One should not taka anythingfor granted . even one's conception of.aproblem..Occasionally I write solutions first;then the problems; just to be sure that theisomorphism between what I think of as aproblem and what I think is a solution reallyexists.:It one is just getting to know one'sdiscipltneyiformulating problems can be verydifficult. At tirftes like this, c011eagues arevery valuable.

Problems that allow immediate criteriasetting are often referred to as convergentproblems. Their answers converge onconventionally or logically establishedstandards. Solutions to these problems arer_elatively_ easy to evaluate Diverget-Aproblemshowever, are another matter: theyonen up to the unknown and usually involvesuch verbs as invent, plan, generate, create,come up with, etc. Such problems requirebrainstorming and probably should beintroduced near the end of the course. Thenthe student is better:prepared and canrecognize conStraints even the greatestcreafion_must_have in order to be_reasonable; useful, and interesting:

Objectivnly evaluating-such sotutions isobviously difficult. Ludicrous.solutions getthe low.grade th_ey_deservetheothersolutions may have to be compared witheach other and then graded. I posed such aproblem only once in a class dealing withatypicatchildren. It:required inventing a toyor,game for deaf/blind children at twodifferent ageS iirifericy end -e8elchildhood. [could categorize four.classes ofsolution trivtator_uninteresting (notnovel); so-so; average; and very good andimaginative. Specific criteria I used wereappropriateness to deaf/blind behavior,appropriateness to developmental level, andimaginativeness. Obviously other criteriacould be used and to this day I am sureJustice wasnot equally distributed across allsoLutions._But that's the once of having funin active learning:

The main point of all this is that onceone decides to shift part of one'scourse to an active learning mode

such as_group problem soMng, interestingconceptual is.cues arise in reference to thenature of the knowledge in_one's disciplineanci how_the knawledge isnructured _and_presented to students. The choice of textsand readings and the nature of lectures aresgnificantly affected by these issues. Thepractical changes that one has to face whenSuch a Shift is undertaken can be numerous

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and lead to all kinds of trial and erroractivities. At this point acquainting oneselfwith some procedures may be helpful. Hereis a partial list.

1. The percentage of classtir..e devoted toactive learning is decided by at least twomajor factors how confident theinstructor feels_in relinquishing lecturesand turning over transmission of the_course material to readings and studentactMty,_and _now much experienceentering students have-with_ group_problem solving or other forms of activelearning. My experience with ourintroductory course in child developmentreveals that approximately one classperiod a week of group work perise was_ample and desired by a great majonty-ofthe_students. The_minonty was dividedinto those who wanted feweriectures_and those who wanted all class time tobe devoted to lectures. More advancedundergraduate courses; in my estimation,should increase active learning up to orover 50% and graduate courses couldconsist of 90% of_active learning. In allcases the instructor (when not lecturing)sets problem% _guides problem_solving,serves as a resource and evaluates the_active learning products of the students.

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2 Try to ensure that the classroom is largeenough to allow groups of four (four is awell-tried _and successful number)studentS_ to spread themselvescomfortably about the room. Aclassroom with twice as many seats asstudents works well. Classrooms withmovable chairs make life easier, but Ihave found that large amphitheaters withfixed seats pose no great problem.Frequently, three students sit in a rowand the fourth faces them, sitting on thearms of the seat in front of them.

3. Assignmg_students to groups is bestdone randomly or-as close to it aspossible. This leads_ta a sense offairness;_breaks_up tight.affiliations, a-ndensures that not all the front rowstudents end up together. Mixing frontrowers with rear rowers may producesome interesting reactions. Part of thegroup experience is to learn how to dealwith unfamiliar peers in a Situationrequiring collective_action. While_suchlearningts not the primaryaim ottLieclass (learning the substantive matter, inmy view; is); it is important not only froma social point of view but also from acognitive point of view. For example,studentsiare required to take on theperspective of others whenformulatingtheir knowledge or posing their questionsfor the group's_benefit.Asimple.way to_assign students to groups is to use classlists and a table of random numbers;especially if the students are alreadylisted in numerical sequence.

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4 Before the tasks can he tackled. sfudentsshould be aware of at least three thingsMat_ could become_problems.:personal each student has to adjust toworking in the group overcomeinhibi'dons to talk, share ideas withothers, control excessive monologuesetc.,i(b) group each group hasitodivide up the task and assign each groupmember to deal with a certain part,coordinate the groups activittes,_deatwith delinquencies: etc.: (c) resourcesthe group must identify readings;materials, etc. necessary to solve theproblem as well as arrange for times andplaces to meet. Students should be madeaware that theseare three normal partsof the process of group prOblem sOlvingand cannot be ignored.

5 Providing the groups with problem taskshas to be done systematically and withample time for all parts of the process.The tasks must ihave a connection withthe lectures and readings,- both past andfuture; that is,- they should link-withground already covered_as_well as_emendintdrtew_areas. This_rneans.they have tohave a solid conceptual connection withthe rest of the course. The task is given atitle, written up (usually a half sheettyped will do) and handed put to eachstudent before classion Wednesday.Students are instructed tb read it andmake preparations to solve it (by doingthe_appropriate_readindAt-tinkirtg about it,discussing it with friends; etc:) by Friday,the following class period. The groupthen meetsat the end of the class(Wednesday) and assigns spedific jpbs tosolve the task. Five minutes will suffice.

6 The followicig meeting.: Friday) isdedicated _to group activity. Each g;oupis given_ a blank broduct_sneet which willreprcsent their solution of :he problem.This sheet lists the iLHern title givesthe date, 6esigna!es space for thegroup's solt.ition and space at the endwith fuur spaces for each groupmember s signature (as evidence that -heand she contributed to solving_the task).Space_for the oracle given_the solution isleft in the upper right hand corner: Bothsides of the paper can be used for thesolution. An extra sheet can be added,but solutions should be kept short.Gradino time is a factor, especially inlarge classes.

7: Atter -receiving thaso1ut,onstJieinstructor and leaching assistantsdiscuss what constitutes an adequateanswer. This is done after readingthrough a number of pe exams and inlignt of pre-established criteria. Suitablesolutions are agreed upon and thesolutions are read, graded over theweekend, and handed back the followingMonday in class. In class I usually readaloud two high scoring solutions and twolow scoring solutions, giving reasons foiwhy they were evaluated as such. Thetwo groups scoring high are mentionedby number andasked to take a bow.UsuaHy they willnot_Sametirnes one cangoloo_far with rituals: The two groupsscoring low are not mentioned bynumber but stared at vigorously.

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... once one decidesto shift part of one'scourse to anactive _ _

learning mode such asgroup problem solving,interesting conceptualissues arise inreference to the natureof the knowledge inone's discipline andhow the knowledge isstructured andpresented to students."

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8: Each _group member whose.signatureison the solution sheet receives the groupgrade. Adjustments are made, bonuspoints can be given, for example, for agroup member who contributesdisproportionately more than others tothe solution. Group members have toagree on tbis. They also may agree thatsamemember contributed. _

disproportionately little to the solution.Group dynamics and control of individualbehavior is. often an important issue forsome groups and may in .some caseslead-. to dissension, revolts, uprisings.Suchigroups are counseled tb staytogether, beas explicit as possible individing up the task amongst all fourmembers; hold each other andthemselves accountable; and be preparedto make their individual contributionswhen.the solution isibeing written up.Occasionally, such fine adVice does not-work end the outlaw is either transferredto another group or given the same tasks(as the rest of the class) to work on

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individually: What percentage of the_individual student's final grade is basedon the group's performance has to bedecided in light of many factors. Howconfident the instructor feels tihat theitasks represent the vital knowledge of tnecourse, hew much working on the tasksolution actually contributes_to acquiringgeneral knowledge of course materialwhich will be measured in the final examor term papers, how much out-of-classtime is required to work on the solution.

9 Some groups in my -classes met overweekends and worked together_forseveral hours: other.groups metseldorn,some_not at. all: If after a.few tasksindividuals see the connection betweentheir work on them and the materialcovered in lectures_and brought up inquizzes or the midquarter exam,ieffortbecomes more meaningfuHfor thepraCtical. minded at least), If!! think thetasks are getting at_esentials. I give theirsolutions more weight in _the final grades

so far I have ranged from 10-40% ofthe final grade. When I feel moreconfident in the future about the tasks, I

may increase the weight.

The Rewardsctive learning in larae lectureclasses can become a reality_if oneis willing to make changes; some of

which may be greater than originallyanticipated. In my own experience I beganthe change by simply concluding thatstudenis were being lectured too much andinstead ShOuld be actively engaged in

problems. But when it came to creatingproblems, !he question arose: :5 this pleco ofinformation really wurth working for, worthmulling,over,-arguing about, and_ puttinginto writing? Interestingly enough, thisquestion never occurred to me over theyears_when_l was_wraing nundredsof .

multiple choice items fill-ins; and shortessays. My feeling; I guess; was that if onewrites enough questions it was worthy ofme to ask them and definitely worth it tostudents to know them. must have thoughtthat_ collettively they were a good thing,whi:le recognizing that individually not onewas worth remernberingadtsuchirrationality cannot last forever: Time is .

short. Students have other things to do andremember. So !nstructors have to choosethe best the course has to offer and hitstudents hard with it with the nghtclassroom_ procedures. Active learning usinggroup problem solving is a goOd way to do

The rewards of teaching a single course areusually elusive for instructor as well asstudent. They are difficult to measure, oftensubmerged inithe wave of new courses orsummer vacation: But surely educationalrewards exi5t and endure in-one form or-another Culture_would_r_lot_ be .pOssible_ifthey did not The form of rewards may beemotional feelings of strc ig satisfactionihat come with accomplishment.. The act ofsolving problems has a peculiarly strong

positive effect on numan beings: Bothstudent and instructor experience this effect,the former in workina towards a soluticn,the latter in constructing the problem. Andthe solution itself adds emotional reward.especially if it,is a solUtiori that rneets hghstandards arid hence high recognition.

Rewards of teaching may also take anotherform cognitive or epistemological.Acouinng new and valid knowledge_ is bydefinition what_ we mean by mental progressand this progress both improves adaptationand enriches life. Humans cannot improveadaptation cr ennth life in any other way:we_have to beeducatdodso. Learni ngto grapple with problems_important to.a _

domain of knowledge is one way_to acquirenew and valid knowledge. Putting effort intosuch.an activity, whether as an instructor orstudent, is what active learning is about andlearning Something IS alwayS a reWard.

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Cooperative Learning Groups

Kati A. Sehith

In a cooperatively _structured lesSanstudents are placed in small groupsand given group assignments to

complete while the instructor insures thatmembers of each group actively discuss thelesson, master:the assigned material, andreceive rewards on the basisuf how:the.group producticompares with preset criteriaof excellence._ Cooperative.instruction thusareatesz_situation in which students areresponsible not only for their own learningbut also for the learning of the othermembers of their group.

Cooperative:learning involvesimuch morethan simply having stud-ents share ordiscuss_material with other students,-although this communication is_oaviouslyimportant: The real crux of cooperativelearningts that the group shares a goal;such as producing a final report orachieving a high group average on a test.The:effectiveness of a group carrying out itsgoal is determined by the presence orabsenceof four essential elements ofcooperafive_group learning (Johnson,Johnson; Holubec and Roy, 1984):

First, cooperative learning requires thatgroup members develop positiveinterdependence.. In order for:their learningsituation to be cooperative, whatever thetask, students muSt perceivelhat they arepositively interdependent with othermembers of their learning group:

KM-I A. Smith is an assistant professor in theMineral Resources Research Center,Department of Civil and MineralEngineering; University oi Minnesota,

Second, cooperative learning requireF fe-to-facenteracflon among students. There isno magic in positive interdependence in andof itseq. It is the interaction patterns andverbal interchange among studentspromoted by the positive interdependenceWhich affect educational outcomes.

Thira_cooperative learning requires.individual accountability for mastering theassigned material. The purpose of a learningsituation is to maximize the achievement ofeach individual student. Determwing thelevel of mastery of each student isnecessary so students can provideappropriate support and assistance to oneanother.

Finally; cooperative learning requires thatstudents use interpersonal and small-groupskills appropriately. Obviously, placingsocially imskilled students in a learning:groyp and telling them to:cooperate will notprOduce the desired results. Students mustbe.taught the social_skills needed far_collaboration_and be motivated ta use them:Students must also be given guidance inanalyzing how well their learning groups arefunctioning and to what extent the grouphas been successful in achieving andmaintaining effective working relationShipS.

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How to Get StartedThe procedure for implementingcooperativeilearning developed by Davidand Roger Johnson is a general procedure,specific enough-to-provide-guidance, butflexible_ enough to he adapted to eaChnstructor's_ specific teaching.situationThe_Johnsons outliile five major tasks which theinstructor should address in organizinggroup learning activities.

1 Clearly specifY the objectives for thelesson. Two types of objectives must bespecified beforethe lesson beginsacademic objectives and collaborativeskills bjectives:

2 Make decisions about placing students inlearning groups before the lesson_istAUght. Select the_gro_up size mostappropriate for re lesson:. Cooperativelearning groups tend to range in sizefrom two to six. The optimum size of acooperative group will vary according tothe resources needed to complete thelesson or project (the larger thegroup,the greater the resources available to it),thecooperative skillS of group members(the_less_skillful re_group_rnembers;_thesmaller the group should_be), the natureof the task the materials available, andthe time available.

Usually, when iassigning students togroups, you,will want to maximize theheterogeneity in re groups. Randomassignment normally insures_a_goOdmixture of males and fernates nighty_ _-

verbal and passive studen!s, leaders andfollowers; and enthusiastic and reluctantlearners. Sometimes you may wl?thib letstudents choose whom they woreAth;

sometimes you may want to groupstudents according to their interests.Nonetheless, random assignment is themost highly recommended procedure.

Arrange re roort to facilitate groupacttvity. Cluster the groups of Students sothat_they will notinterfere_with oneanother: Within the groups; aH studentsshould be able to see the relevantmaterial, talk with one another; an dexchange ideas and materials. Usually acircle is best, and long tables should beavOided.

Plan instructional_materials_to_promateinterdependence among group members:Lesson materials can be structured topromote effective academic learning andpositive interdependence among groupmembers. When students are firstlearning to cooperate, o_r_when somestudents_are having problems_contributing to_the_group work, you maywant to_arrange the rnaterials.lilKe.ajigsaw puzzle_and give each groupmember one piece to force studerts tobegin the process of cooperation. Onegroup, for example, could be writing areport on alternative energy resources.each member_being responsiblc formaterial on one different type. FOr therepoit to_be_completed,all_group_members have to cont:ibute material andwork together to incorporate theirindividual contributions into the report.

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"Students must betaught the social skillsneeded forcollaboration and bemotivated to use them."

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Assign _group members roles to insureinterdependence. Interdependence maybe arranged through the assignment -ofcomplementary and --iterconnected rolestO group members.Tbs is_useful forinexperienced_group members:.Forexample, the group should have asummarizefrchecker, researcher-intormation gatherer, recorder,encourager, and observer. Some:assistance may be needed from theinstructor to insure that suchcomplementary roles are developedquickly by the groups:

3. Carefully explain the task; goal structure.and learning activity. Several.aspects ofexplaining an academic assignment tostudents should be considered, such as:setting _the task so the students_understand the assignmerit.explainingtheobjectives_arld relattng the concepts_to the students past experience; definingrelevant concepts, and asking questionsto check the students understanding.

In order to structure positive goal :

interdependence, you must communicateto students that they- have a grou_p goaland must work C011abOrati_vely. This maybeachievectby developing mutual goals(goal interdependence); establishing

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divisions of labor (task interdeperyt-,nce):dividing materials, resources, orinformation among_group members(resource -.Interdependence); assigninostudents_differing roles (role. _ -

interdependence); or giving jointrewards (reward interdependence).

provide means for insuring individualaccountabihty. To insure that all i-

meMbers learn you must assess theperformance.of each_ group memberfregiently This can_bedone,_for _ _

example: by giving practice tests or byrandomly selecting members to explaingroup answers.

Explain criteria for success. ascornpetition for grades may '1'breakdcwn student cooperation. Evaluat )nwithin cooperatively structuredtessons_needs_to_b_e_based_on_criteria_establishedfor acceptable work rather than on agrade curve. The criteria by whichstudents'. work will be evaluated shouldbe clearly explained at the beginning ofeach lessortso that :students and groupsare aware of the instructor s expectetiOnsfrom the outset.

In specifying group tasks, the instructorshould be Careful to explain thebehaviors recessary for successful taskcompletion. For instance, using phrasessuch as "make-sure everyoneparticipates," "listen carefully to othergroup mernbers,'_' and."have eachmernber_explain how_ta get.the_answer"in your task instructions will get betterresults than simply.telling groups to"discuss today's topic."

4 Monitcr the effectiveness of thecooperative learning groups andintervene to provide task assistancetsoch as anr.wering questions-andteaching task skills) or to increasestudents interpersonal and group skills.Cow-ye :iiterai,;:nns between students.Asking students to cooperate does notnecessarily mean they will do so. Muchof your time should be spent observingthe groups to see if their problems arefunctioning effectively.

In monitoring the groups as they work,you can help the students if you clarifyinstructions as needed, review importantprocedures and strategies for completingthe assignment, answer questions, andteach task skills as necessary.

Provide closure to _the_ lesson, At the endof the lesson, students should be able tosummarize what they have learned;understanding how they will use theinformation in future lessons. Teachersmay wish to surnmaTize the major pointsOf the lesson, ask students to recall ideasor give answers, arid ;aspond to any finalquestions they might have.

5. Evaluate student achievement and helpstudents discuss how well theycollaborated with one another. Evaluatethe quality and quantity of students'learning. Evaluate the group product(report or single set of answers agreedupon by all group members,_tor example)accordingto triteria_cleartyestablishedprior to the assignment. Assess how weltthe group functioned. Assessment shouldfocus both on members contributions toone another's learning and on the-

Group's success inirnaintaining goodworking relationships.

[IT our cooperative learning workshops witheducators we have stressed the importanceof curriculum building and teamwork. Infact, we have fourd that it is.much easierstarting cooperative learning if you have acooperative gtoup of coiieagues. It is alsohielpftil to stait small and build,Cooperativelearning groups snnuld evolyeinto ateachers program. You might try usin_qlearning.groups far atew_activittes_atiirst.Ultimately; you_may find that the _majority ofclass work; if not all of it; can be carried outmost successfully in a learning groupenvironrnent.

Sample Application:ooperative learning procedureshave-been implemented in_severalcourses in_Civil and_Mineral

Engineering,Typically, students are given aproblem to formulate and solve. Initially;they are told little about the nature of theproblem, sinceithe emphasis is ondeveloping their skill to formulate problems.Students then work in small groups toformulate and Solve the prOblemor Cremethe concept arid prepare a_report an howthe _problem was_solvad_either _on anoverhead _transparency or on paper. Later, arepresentat've from each group is then oftenselected (randomly) to present the group'ssolution. Finally, the approaches andtechniques used by the various groups tosolve the problem are compared in class

The_next_two_ sections_ describe theapplication of cooperat ye ;earning in twospecific courses: Systems Analysis andEnvironmental Issues,

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"The use of thecooperative goalstructure approximatesmore closely theactivity of real-worldPrnoloyment andproblem solving ..."

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Systems AnalysisThe major _objective of the Systems_Analysiscourse is to help students learn to formulateand solve practical _problems with theassistance of five operations researchtechniques decision theory, linearprogramming, network analysis, expertsystems and simulation. The instructionalmethiads used in this course ate describedin SmithWatsTngandStarlield (1983);_Smith; Starfield and Macneal (1985); andStarfield; Butala, England and Smith (1983).

The "bus problem"_is an example of one ofthe many informal problems given in thesystems course. It is a problem requiring adecision and a recommendation on whetherto purchase 25 or 50_ buses. Theproblemcan be_formulated_very_wel' by decision-treemethods; but since most students havenever heard of these methods they use .wide vanety of approaches which_allcontribute to a veryiinteresting discussion.The description of the task is to "Determinehow many buses to buy and give a rationalefor your answer." The expectations listedare: "Work_cnoperativ_ely, oneanswer fromeach group place on transparency; everygroup member must indicate that she or heunderstands the group's solution and inexplain it; make sure all group mernhishave their say, and assist all groip membersin understanding the material:: One personis selected randomly from each group topresent group's solution, using anoverhead projector:it is emphasized thatgroups are not competing and that thisexercise will not be formally evaluated.

Generally two-approaChes to the solUtion_,emergeone_t_hat erhanasizes minimizing themax' mum possible lc's& and one onmaximi7ing expecte° gain. Subgroupswithin each group are then assigned thetask of preparing each of these approachesfor presentation of ia rationale during thenext class period. A structured controversydiSCUSSiOri i then tbricruCed during thenext class period.

ollowing this, the sequence ofinstruction varies but ;ncludes mostof the following steps. A structured

tutonal is often used to draw out thein-inortant elements of the students'formulations and solutions. Comparisonsare made among the various approaches.Occasionally alecture is given_to highlightthe main points of the formulation andsolution and to introdu:e or clarifyimportant algorithms or heuristics.

Xmoderately_difficult problem is then_assigned for each groupiosoive by handcalculation. A computer package isintroduced that more quickly performs Viecalculations they've been doing by hand.The personal computer permits the studentsto revise their formulation and repeatedlysolve the problem. Thus they can ask "what

if questions and check the sensitivity oftheir solution to the problem formulationand assumptions,. Finally,,a complex,slightly open-ended problem is assigned.Open-ended problems are oneS that are notcompletely_described_Students z.re notinformed_as to which aspects of the systemshould be included for analysis since,typically; they get no such direction in thereal" world. The student groups formulate

and solve this problem using the computerpackage. Discussion anc interaction arerequired since the solution is sensitive to theformulation anc assumptions.

Each group presents its findings in both anoral and a written report.

Environmental IssuesOur environmental issues seminar,conducted annually in the College of LiberalArts Honors Plogram,locuses_studentattentiorion such issues as energyproduction; hazardous waste; air pollution,acid rain; and wilderness areas. Cooperativegroup learning with structured controversyis featured as the format. Controversy existswhen one pe.-son's ideas, information,conclusions, theories, or opinions areincompatible with_those of another person,and the two seek to_reach an agreement(Johnson and Johnson, _I982) Sincecontroversy is an inevitable part of anygroup's natural interaction, it follows that if itis managed effectively, controversy can leadto an exciting and effective group learning

experience. The course focuses on contentacquisition and on heiping students develcpcollaborative skills (through small groupwork),-constructive conflict managementskills (through structured_controversydiscussionsy_anciperspective-taking skills(through presentation and discussion ofdifferent perspectives on each issue). Thisprocedure is described more fully inJohnson, Johnson and Smith fin press),Petersr!r (1983), and Smith (1984).

Challenges and-How toDeal With ThemRestructuring courses from a lecture formatto a student-centered; smali group format inwhich students become actively engaged isboth rewarding and frustrating. The switchfrom lecture to learning,groups requires thatthe instructor prepare plans for studentactivities rather than lecture notes. It alsoinvolves_providing students with access tomaterials;_including handouts withdescriptive material; concepts; examples,study questions and homework problems.

bandoning the notion that lectuiingand teaching are one and the sameis prObably the most diffiCUlt

problem which _a faculty membercontemplatingective learning might face:My emphasis is on students becoming self-directed learners, so I focus on helpingthem develop personal resources to come togrips with material they are trying to master.I lecture only when I think it Will do moregood than harm. Wilbert MCKeachie, authOrof Teaching Tips: A Guidebook for theBeginning College Teacher; claims_that wedo not need to lecture when concepts are

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"As testimony to theeffectiveness of thisapproach,_we were abletoleach considerablymore than in theprevious year withoutany student complaintabout overload."

23

ovailable in printed form at an appropriatelevel far out students. In general, printpresents information in a-form which can becovered-more rapidly_and ina_way moreaccessible forretrieval than_do lectures.Students using printed materials can choosetheir own rate of learning: they can review:they can skip. and they can vary the order.Lectures con, however, help students get:up-to-date information, summarize materialsscattered-over a variety of printed sources,providestructures to help_students read_moreaffectively;_and have value apart fromtheir cognih ve content.

I have also tound that (must be very carefulwith evaluation ofstudents woiking inlearning groups. If grading is conducted interms of a normal distribution, students areencouraged to compete with_one_anotherarid_are oiscouraged_from helping one _ _another: There is a great deal of evidencesupporting the fact that students who studytogether and question one another are likelyto learn more than those who work

doinot_give students thoimpression that they're competing with:Other students for a grade_Instead I set_upcriteria that are_noncompetitive_(such ascertain numbers of points or percentages ofcorrect answers; or better yet; specificqualities which will determine grades) andare not reliant on the otudent's relative classstanding. My most important objecttve is todevelbp students' motivation and skills forcontinued learning, problem solving, andapplication of cousa learning_attarthe_course is aver: The testing and gradingsystem I use, therefore, puts theseobjectives as primary.

24

The RewardsLearning how to learn throughout life is abasic skill which I promote in every way Ic3n I believe that students will beempowered if_they are allowed to use theirstrengths, and that questloning, taking, _ _

listening, experimenting, and observing arecentral to the acquisition of this basic skill.All should be encouraged in learningsituations. Content is central to learning butmany views should be presented for dealingwith any prob!em, issue, concept or othermatter to be learned.

Washould truststudento to sort things outand help them develop techniques fordealing with information. We should alsohelp them learn to analyze a situation sothey may discover what information iolacking in order to develop a roundedpicture of-what they are studying. A:structure that_OupportS students and guidesthem toward the desired outcomes _withoutcontrolling_thern inappropriately is one ofsetting autonomy-oriented limits. Traditionalteaching, where students read the textbook.listen to lectures, work by themselves onapsignments, and try to outperform theirclassmates on exams, will not be as effectivein achieving the goals Of education_ outlinedabove as will group learning strategies:

The rewards associated with learninggroups are many. For students, learninggroups provide a useful means forde%eloping transferable skills; students learnhow to seek -out information, how to learnand work collaboratively, how to oefineprOblems, how to desigasolutions, how towrite_and_comrnurticate effectivelyand howto grapple with intellectual disagreement.

29

tudents_report_that _thettike _working with others in spite ofsome difficulties such as_

scheduling out-of-class meetings. Actually,students become quite adept at handling theday7to-day -problems associated withworking collabbratively with others.Students are able to manage larger, morecomplexand_often _more interesting _ _problems without feeling overwhelmed;often they take the initative for their ownlearning beyond the limits of theassignments, and spend mere time servingas resources foreach other-sharinginformation, and producing high qualityproducts than they do in other courses.Comparison with previous experienceshowed that students understood thematerial better and tended more often to gobeyond the information given than when thecourses were conducted in a lecture format.

In addition; there is considerable research(Johnson; Maruyama, Johnson; Nelson &Skon; 1981; Johnson; Johnson &Maruyama, 1983) which, indicates thatcooperative active learning is superior tocompetitive, individualistic learning, inwhich_ studentswork alone on _their own setof _materials at their own pace to_achieve apreset criterion of excellence in promoting:1) higher comprehension; understanding,mastery; and retention of facts; concepts;rules, and principles; 2) higher motivation tolearn; 3) more rapid transition to higherStages of cognitive and-moral reasoning; 4)mciro positive attitudes _toward the subjectmatter being_studied; classmates andteachers; and 5) collaborative competencies:

Forfaculty_the_greatesi reward is the_resporise from students. S:udents oftenreport that the Systems course; for example;is the first course in which they wereencouraged to work with other students.They especially like the teamwork. Sidi:6teamwork is an-important part Of gradUateS'professionatactivity, it_ is important_that theyexperience it_inan instructional setting: Thestudents discussion and level of reasoningon the assignments clearly showed theywere getting enormous benefits from theirdiscussions of open-ended problems. It wasstimulating to see students uncoveringaspectS of problems and algorithms whichhad been overlooked bystudents workingindivilually_in previous classes As___testimony to the effectiveness of thisappi-oach, we were able io teachconsiderabiy more than in the previous yearwithout any student complaint aboutoverload.

The work W th _cooperative learning groupsat_the University_of Minnesota_has shownthat these procedures can be effectivelyapplied to the education of college students.Students learned to work with one anothermore effectively; managed larger, morecomplex problems readily;ireported thatthey liked the cooperative learningexperience; and took the :nitiative fur theirowri_learning beycid _the _limits of theassignment (Smith; Johnson & Johnson1981):

3 025

26

Cooperative learning procedures haveseveral important contributions to make tocollege education. The use of thecooperative goal structure approximatesmore closely thE activity of real worldemployment and problem solving; allowsstudents to tackle larger, more complicated,and often more interesting problems withoutfeeling overwhelmed; allovds students tos'arve as resources for each other, hencetaking sorne of the pressure oft instructorsand teaching assistants; and allows studentsto expend morc effort on sharing ideas andon producing quality productsand lesr- onbeating_other students on performancemeasures .

nowledge and skills are of no use ifthe student cannot apply them: incooperative interaction with other

people, It does no good to train a studenthe or she does nOt_have the competenciesneeded_to_appty his or herknowledge andtechnical skills in cooperative felationshipson the job; in the family and community;and with friends. The most logical way toemphasize cooperative competencies aslearning outcomes is to structure themajority:of academic learning situationscooperatively.

Where to Get Help ,

I'd like to emphasize that the:books andarticles bf David and ROger Johnson-provideCleat procedures,:helpful_suggestions andresearch support for cooperative learning.The Cooperative Learning Center, located inroom 202; Pattee Hall; has a large amount ofmaterial. Learning in Groups, edited byBouton and Garth, also has useful advice onusing learnino groups. Goodlad's Learningby Tea-Ching provides superb guidance_on_allaspects of _tutoring,: Railonales_for activelearning and_additional benefits to studentsare described in Astin's AchievingEducational Excellence.

AcknowledgmentsThe authr gratefully acknowledges thesupport and assistance of David and RogerJOhnsOri, TOny Starfield, Alan Wassyng;Sam Sharp, Judy _Bartlett; and NancyMcConnell in preparing this article.

Introducing Simulation and Role Play

Tonle M; Shannon

imulation teaching strategies canbe:used very effectively withuniversity students to achieve more

active involvement in learning. Siinulation inthe classroom can be classifiegas one offour types:_1) role play_ 2) simulation games,3) simulation exercises; and 4) computersimulation. In all simulations; participantsare given an opportunity to experience whata specific situation might be like and topractice how to behave in the giveneirciirrittantet. All folk- typet Of simUlatiOncan help Make abStract COnCepta mOreconcrete; and thus more understandable, forstudents:

Role play involves spontaneous enactmentof a given situation. In a simulation exercise,students are put into a position of physicallyfeeling an abstract concept, such asdiscrimination, Simulation gametiprOVideopportunities for students to practicesomething without the penalties whichmight be involved In reality. Computersimulations include a wide variety ofsimulations currently available as softwarefor microcomputers.

The fain: typos of simulation differ in SeVeralways._Role play and sitmlation experiencesare_less structured and are non-competitive:_Simulation games and computer simulationsusually are governed by specific playingstrategies or rules, and they often include areward or payoff to the "winners.' The major

fenle M. Shannon is an assistant professorof child and family development at theUniversity of Minnesota-Duluth.

focus of this chapter will be on s,mulationthrough role play. Uses of the other threetypes of simulation will be sucgesied at theend of the chapter.

One of_the rnajor_ad_vantages of simulationas a teaching strategy is that students areactively invoived on an affective level as wellas a cognitive level. Probably the mostcommon reasons for using role play are toaffect attitudes and to increase awareness ofinterpersonal problems and issueslinherentin a given situation (Kozma et al, 1978). Roleplay can_ be_ used to teach_nontentin thecognitive; affective;_and psychomotordomains. Joyce and Weil (1980) state thatthe role playing model of teaching isextremely versatile; applicable to severalimportant educational objectives: "Throughrole playing_students can increase theirability to recognize their own and otherpeople's feelings; they can acquire_ newbehaviors for _handling previously_difficultsituations; and they can improve theirproblem-solving skills."

What is role-playing? According to Kozrna_et al (1978) there are basically two types ofrole plays. lin the first type, playersreiinquish their usual patterns of behavior inexchange farthe role and_patterns of _ _

another person: The role players attempt tcspeak; think, behave; and !eel like theperson they are playing. This allows thestudent to identify and empathize with otherpeople and their problerriS.

27

"... role play involvesspontaueousenactment of a givensituation."

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Iri,'he second type of role play, theplayers retain theirown roles andbehaviorpatterris, butact as if they

were_in a different Situation This type ofrole play is useful for the training of specificinterpersonal skills; such as counseling;interviewing; or handling conflict. Roleplaying done in this way can be used inconjunction with modehng., One persoricanoemonstrate the particular beh: vior andstudents can then practice it in a role play.

How taGat_StartedSome students are usually reluctant to playa role in front of the class in the beginning.it usuaHy_ works well to start gradually andinformally at first. For instance,, if the topicwere-parent/child communication,youcould have students work in pairs to enact atypical_parent/child conflict. The teachercirculates among thapairs, unobtrusivelylistening to the conversations, andintervenes only if students need assistance.

After a few experiences with simultaneousrole playing by the entire class working inpairs,,it usually works well to ask for somevOlunteerS to repeat their role play for the_classeSo th_e situation can be_discussed as agroup_, It_has been my experience thatsomeone usually does volunteer. (On therare occasions when there were novolunteers, I have asked specific students to_repeat their role play situation for the class. Iusually choose students who are outgoing,and whose role play-will bring out specificpoints important to the objectives for_theclass) It is often helpful to have two or three

pairs or students role play the samesituation for the class and thus illustrate thatthere are many possible solutions to mostsituations.

If the class is broken into learning groups,the students get to know the other studentsin their group fairly quickly. In this situationyou can begin with simultaneous roleplaying then have the pairs repeat theirplays for their learning groups.

There are two major advantages of havingall students play roles simultaneously. Oneis that; instead of passively observing; allstudents are actively involved with thecontent of the class. The second advantageis that it i ess threatening to play a r Ole ifno one is observing. Here the player canconcentrate onthe role_itseltrather thanworry about the impression on an audience:

hen students seem comfortablewith role playing in pairs, the sizeof the group can be expanded to

include four orfive members. In manyinstances, it is helpful to-assign one studentin each group the role_of -observer" withspecific suggestions aPout what aspects of_the role play to note: Following the play, theobserver provides feedback to the players.Depending on the feedback received andthe purpose of the play, it is sometimeshelpful to allow time for the group to replaythe Situatioh. There are rhany variationS Ofrole playing including role reVersa! ano cut-in role playing.

33

Role play is the most effective when thesituation to be played is meaningful,emotional and intense. It seerns to work bestwhen the stuaents are given some choicesabout the roles they wiltplay.. FOr inStariCe,iiihe. rola play invotves_a parent/childconflict; the students can decide who will bethe child and what the age and sex of thechild and of the parent will be.

The analysis which follows the play is asimportant, if not more important, than therole play itself. The instruCtor needs to plandiscussion_questions carefully tadevelopthe anticipated learning; If the discussionquestions are replicated and distributed tostudent pairs or groups; there is more activeinvolvement of students. Discussion ofquestions by the entire class can follow iftime permits. lf student answers are written,they can be collected for teaCher responseand/or grading.

The process the instructor uses to teachwith role playing involves 1) selecting auseable incident or situation, 2) briefing theparticipants and observers effectively_ 3)cutting off the role play at the point ofMaximum learning -_,and 4) analyzing andpossibly replaying the roles. Each stcpa skill_that is fairly_easy tolearn._Suggestions for each are given below:

Joyce ana Weil (1980) recommend thefoilowing for sources of situations for roleplaying: "Fikns, lovels, and short stones areexcellent sources, and problem stories oroUtlines of problem situations arecommonly used. Problem stories, as theirname trnpliesc _are short narratives that_describe the setting; circumstances; actionsand dialogue of a situation. One or:more of

the characters face a dilemma in which achoice must be made or an action taken.The story_ ends unresolved.": Joyce and Weildescribe tour types Of social problemsamenable tOCkploratibri through role play:interpersInal conflicts,intergroup_ relationsinvolving stereotypes_and pr_ejodides,iindividual dilemmas, such as vakie conflicts;and historical or contemporary socialproblems that neea to be confronted.

The briefing ot participants andobservers can range from verydetailed explanationsto very_vague

or open,endedsuggestions:_Usually whenstudents are not experienced in role play;more detail and structure must be providedwhen "setting the stage" for the play. Asthcy become more accustomed to role play,students becomejmore able to handlecomplexity. Usually the MOM helpfUlfeedback to the players comes fromobservers well instructed in the aspects ofthe role play most important to observe:

The skill of knowing when to stop a playprobably comes through experience. Klemerand Smith (1975) advise the instructor to ._

"stop the role playing at a high point èvên ifthe students appear to want to go on," Thisdisruption will_rnake_the discussion start_much more _quickly and_emotionally_thanwhen the playing is 'finished. Kozma_et al(1978) suggest that the instructor stop theroie play "if it becomes unmanageable orthreatening to one ofithe players. The playshould be stopped when the objective of theplay is reached or otherWiSe after three tdsix_minutes." My advice is for instructors totrust their own instincts here:

3 429

The value of:role play as a learningexperienceidepends upon the value:of theanalysis_fotlowing_the experience. This islargely_determinedby_th.e_skill_with_whichthe instructor leads the discussic,n of theplay. One may focus on affective orcognitive areas, depending on The types ofquestions asked following the play.Discust:ion questions can include bothaffettive and cognitive issues. Here areexamples of-general discussion questionsfor analyzing a play:

a) How did it feel to play this role?b) How accurate were you at predicting the

actions and reactions of the otherplayers?

C) If the other players did not act out theirroles in the ways_ you expected. hOw thd

_ you_want_thern_ to _react?d) What other approaches to resolving the

situation could have been used? Whatwill be the consequences of these?

e) Would other approaches or decisionshave been more effectiye? moresatisfying? more realistic?

f) Were the actions and feelings of the roleplayers typical of other peple in similarsituations?

g) How realistic was the situatirn asplayed? If it was not realistic; or seemedover-simplified, what other factors wouldprovide a more accurate portrayal of thesituation?

h) What generalizations about humanbehavior can be drawn from this play?

The discussion questions must be related tothe learning objectives for the lesson. If theobjectives were not accomplished by theplay and ensuing discussion, it may bedesirable to replay the roles in a different

30

way. The situation coJld be replayed withthe same students playing the same roles,the same students reversing roles, or withdifterent st3dents playing the reles.

Sample Applicationsorne of my most successful roleplaying experiences have focusedon family relationships and

parenting pine:example is based on:VirginiaSatir's work:in identifying and:describingcommunication styles. -I have two-goals forstudents:.1)..to.be.able to identify the fivecomrnunication_styles when they.see__ _

examples of each; and 2) to experience howit feels to use the different communicationstyles. Thefirst goal could be achieved by alecture or a film demonstrating the :

communication styles of blaming,: clacaLlg,distracting, being super-reasonable, andleveling_(Satir,_ 1976)._Role.play iS the kigicalteaching strategy to accomplish the secondgoal.

Students are divided into groups of five andgiven a 3s.ignrbents for both a role and acommunication style (e.g., mother-placator,fatner-blamer, teenage daughter-super-reasonable, younger son-distractor). Thefifth person acts_as_observer tabe_sure theplayers remember to use Ihe assignedcommunication styles. A problem situationis described and the "families" try to_resolvethe problem, each.using his/her assignedcommunication style. The discussion :

following the pfay-centers on how it felt tobe in the role_ of blaming, or of placating,etc:.Players describe what.They liked and didnot like about each of. thecommunicationstyles. When all students seem tounderstand the various styles well, we

35

discuss the solutions" each family reachedand how satisfactory these are likely to be.

The final part of the class involves replayingthe same familyroles and the same problema second time, this time with all,farnilymembers using the communication styleSatir_calis leveling.The discussion_again_centers on how students feel wherilevehng,and we compare the effectiveness of thecommunication in the first and secondplays. This technique has been successful inaccomplishing hc,tri of my goals foi theclass.

Another_successful_rote play_experience hasbeen _used _to_ develop _more posit:ye_attitudes toward elderly people This playinvolved more elaborate preparation,including "setting_ the stage tor the ;oleplay, with music, poetry, photograpos, and afilm. A song by John Pnne, Hello in Tnere,"was used to-describe the life of an elderlyretired couple; _a_ variety of_poems_waz_ readdepicting scenesin !helives of_old people:Visuals included photographs of elderlymen _and women of many racial and ethnicgroups and a film entitled MinnisRernenibers" which shows an c'r woman ina nursing home and flashes back to the timewhen she was a young wife and mtther.

Students were then given aletter written byMinnie; expressing her deep loneliness andher need to be recognized. They were askedto play the situation in small groups to showhow they would respond to Minnie. We didnot discuss this play as a class, but moststudents wereshll discussing it intheir smallgroups even after class. Many of thestudentssesponded to this playln_ theirjournals and some seemed to be dr ply

atfeLted. Several sa;c1 they visiteo or phonedn r. wrote_ to their grahdparPnts cr ritarents asa result of this class exper,ente: I am 'lotctrtain what :actors were crucial to theefteotiveness of this particular play; but thegoal of developing a sense of empathytoward elderly peo-ple was certainly attai,id,at leaSt for a time. Here, again, role_ play hadthe_patential to make a very powerfulemotional impact on students.

ole play has succeeded as ateething strategy in all of the social_sciences and M a-wide variety of

toolcs._Creative instructors in almost anyarea can think of ways to maKelearning"come alive" through use of role play orother simulations.

Many other _types of simulations_exist,however a detailed discussion of them isbeyond the scope of this chapter.Nonetheless, twould like to encouragepeople to consider expetimentmg withsimulation games and computersimulations.

Simulation games allow students to planstrategies and make decis:ons that aresimilar to those in real-life situations.&mulatiortgames usually involve competinggroups of wavers and usca4 prov,de ruiesof play.

role play may behelpful in theattainment oi higherlevels of cognitivedevelopment."

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"... one of he most;mportailt changes thatI see in sh;dents as aresull of rlle playing isa change _it- their abililyto understai:J otherpeople s points of

32

The number of computer simulation gameshas been increasi.-g rapidly and the qualityof the games has Peen improving. A fewexamples from recent journals will illustrate;he tlpes.ofigames-in use at-the universitylevel. An atitcle by-rsirn M. King in TeachIngSociology (April1985)tncludes adescrip,ion of_a computer_gan-;_e_e_ntttled_"Sex Roles"_ designed for college sociologyclasses The sprino 1985 issue of JouroahsrnEdi....;ator describes two microcomputergames developed to teach pre-journahsrnstudents to Iccateeno evaluate informationused in mass media messages. In TeachingPOlitioal Science i(surnme, 1983), twocompute: simulation exercises ateexplained: One allows_political scence andforeign language students to play nationaldecision-makers; the second is aninternatioral futures simulation_wherestuderts debate demographic, economic,?nergy arid agriculture issues. These arejust a few examples of the many simulationgames available.

Chaliengesand How toDeal with ThemUniversity students who are used to sittingpassively throiigh lectures may resist at firstthe effort it takes to become more activelyinvolved in learning. Using a gradualprvgression_from simultaneous role piayingin pairs to role playing_in small groups torole playing finally in front of the classseems to make this teacl-ing strategy lessthreatening and more enjoyable forstudents.

For a variety of reasals:_sorne_instructors donot feel very comfortable using role play]One reason may be that he/she has less, ontrol over the way the ciass will go usingthe role play method as compared with alecture method. It takes considerableexperience to predict accurately how apart,cular_group will respord to a given ruleplay situation_Instructors who_like to have aquiet. orderiy ciassrocm may dislike thenoise and confusion that occur in roleplaying. According to Kozarna et al. (1978),instru::tors who characterize themselves as"person-centered"- or as "intellecf-centered-are more likely to funct:on well With roleplay. instructors. would not find role pla? avery efficient way to deliver or demonstrateknowledge:

Some instructors may not use the role playmethod because there has been littleevidence of the superiority of this teachingmethod over more traditionai methods,otinstruction_Much of the researeh which hasbeen done has focuser' on_effectivenesswith elementary or secondaryievel students]After a review of the sparse literature relatedto role play at the university level; Kozma etal. (1978) state, "Thus, it seems that roleplay is useful to practice interpersonal skillsor to explOre different ettitudes. but attitudechanaes may nOt be stable arid do notnecessarily translate into behavior.

37

Just as the characteristics of the instructormay determine his/her attitude toward roleplay, so the:characteriStieS Of the StUdentsmay affect their preferences low_ard differentteaching strategie_s_ yany.recent researchstudies have identified various aspects ofstudents' learning styles. Some of thefactors which affect a student's ability tobenefit from a particular situation includethe stage of cognitiVe develioRment, thelearning modeS preferred, end the Way_information iS procesSd by the brain._ Forexample._ students whoprefer abstractlearning would_be more likely to benefit1.om_role play expe. iences than studentswho prefer the "concrete and sequential-presentation of class content.

One additiOnal pbteritial trOUble area f Or Nilepray should be mentioned. If OVer-USed, roleplais likely_to lose its teachingeffectiveness:

The RewardsThe major revvards of role play are theekeiternent and actiVe involvement it:bringstd the ClaSSrobtri. Both cognitiVe andaffective learning seem tO ttitt frOrti thisteaching_method Students have been_verypositive about their role play experiences:From the intensity of the role playing andthe discussion following; it is clear thatstudents are emotionally involved with thecontent.

The tOle Ot the inStrUCtOr ChangeS inapositive waywhen TUC-play isused: The class is more student-

centered while the instructor acts asexplainer, coach, and facilitator rather thanas the source of all knowledge.

One of the most importan, ,::hanges that I

see in students as a result of role playing isa change in their aoility to understand otherpeOples points of View. David and RogerJOrinson (1978) State that "one Of the MostcriticaLcompetencies for cognitive andsocial development is_social _perspective-taking. Social perspective-taking is theability to understand how a situationappears to another person and how thatperson ;s reacting cognitively andeitibtibrially to:the situation. Perspective-taking_isia Central proceSS Underlying_arnastall_interporsonal and_group skills. Ithas been found to be related_toeffectivepresentation of information, effectivecomprehension of information; theconstructive resolution of conflicts,willingness to disclose inforrnation on a0-Eli-SO-nal level, effective group problem-:SOlving, -coOperatfveness, positive attitudeStoward others within the same sitUatiOri,autonomous rnoraltudgrnent, intellectualand cognitive development and socialadjustment."

In addition to helping students developperSbrial and social skills, role play may behelpful in the attainfrierit of higher levels_Ofcognitive development. DaVid Hunt:(1970)has identified_four levels of conceptualstruct,Are according tothe number ofdimensions people use in relating to theenvironment and to the interrelationships ofthese dimensions. An individual at a lowcOmplexity:level uses categorical, absolutethinking, While pebple at high cornplexitylevels Can Se0 COMplek SitUatiOns frOmvariety of_ points of view and cansimultaneously weigh the effects of differentviewpoints,

33

Accordmg to Hunt ano others, the best wayto help people move toward greatercomplexity and flexibility is to expose themto trauling.which.pulls them to the nexthigher level of development. For students atthe iwo lowest levels the training shOuldhelp the student to recogruze that differentpeople _have different_ vantages_ from .whi_ch_

they look at_the world; and to .begin to takeon the points of view of others seeing howthey operate.in situations. Role playexperiences provide lust such opportunitiesfor students.

Where to Get HelpThe authors I have found most helpful fordescribing role playing and simulatioiigames are Joyce and Well (1980), Klemerand Smith (1975), and Kozma et aL (1978).Other dood references include Milton(1978), Abt 41970),_ and-Taylor and Walford(1972): A helpful journal on simulationgames is Simulation and Games AnInternational Journal of Theory. Design andResearch (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications).The best directions for and-examples ofSimulated experiente8 can be found in:Pfeiffer and Jones (Var ouo dates).

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Structuring Controversyin the ClassroomDeborah Deem Pr

ontioversy in the classroom canenNzrice student motivation,mastery of the material, and skills

in communication and Oonflitt resokition.Structured controversy can enter theclassroom through discussion or debate aspart of the forma! course curriculum: Even ifyou iirnit stuJent participation toa questionand answer period, the door is open toindividuals who want to challenge youropinions or disagree with the most basicinformation you hOpe tO get across.Controversy is_everi more likely _whenstudents are asked _to_ participate_ in_grotipdiscussions; solve:problems tooether; orwork in group projects. In any event;controversy is almost im.vitable whenstudents become actively involved in thelearning process.

But while_controversy can_facilitate learningand personal development_ it _also has: thepotential to block constructive work andfoster negative feelings. Learning to dealwith controversy takes patience andpractice, but when handled effectively it isstimulating, builds_healthy, positiverelationships,end fosters_creative solutionsto problems. The ideas whicii follOw canhelp_ create controverwthat is furtandproductive; and help resolve interpersonalconflicts that may arise whenever peoplework together.

Deborah Deemer is a doctoral candidate ineducational psychology at Me University ofMinnesota.

How to Get Started1. Deterrrine the appippliale format foi the

discussion. N.R.F. Maier (19631 believesthere are only two gereral classificationsof controversial discussion: a problem-solving discussion and a persuasivediscussion (or debate): In a:problemsolving discussion; students attempt toformulate a workable solution bystudying various aspects of the problem,identifying barriers and various avenuesto -solve the problem, and developing asolution: which takes all relevant:iriforrnationunto account. In ormtrast, iri apersuasive aiscussion, studentsbegin:with preforrnu'ated solutions and seekinforrnanon ano opinions that will justify;heir position. Whereas in the problem-solving discussion students work toresolve their differences 13; formulatingan integrative solution, in a persuasivediscussion tney_start with predeterminedsolution:sand_ attempt to solidify theirinitial perspective:

The debate format :ends to motivatestudents more than pioblem-solvingsessions. It would be most usetul in ycurclassroom when-you want ::tudents tobecome aware of certain fatis andopinions andloapplythern iri_oparticular situation: However; even withrole reversal and the assignment of afinal_group report that covers bothperspectives, a balanced integration ofmaterial is rarely achieved. Whenstudents succeed in attempts to integratethe perspectives, you probably- shOuldquestion whether ine_topic_that youchoose was of smfficient interest:

o 35

"Controversy in_theclassroorn_can enhancestudent motivation,mastery of the material,and Skills incommunication andconflict resolution."

36

Students find problem-solvingdiscussions relatively less stimulating;but a fuller examinaidn of the problem,with an eye towards integration, isfatilitated by thiS epprOech.

2. Chobse_anappropriate topic_ You coneither select a topic for discussion orencourage students to raise questionsand express opinions about materialalready covered. If you want students todiscusri a topic of your choice, you canstimulate triterest and,increaseparticipOtibii if yOU Selett an iSSUe thatinvolves attitudesithen intrOduce th8topi_c_ima_way thotmakes the issuepersonal or concrete:

3. Provids specific ins';',..,ctions. Youfacilitate controversy when your , ,

statement of the task is specific. Maierrecommends that you structure the tasktO sooarato_tho oroce-sg Of gonoratingideas from that ot evaluating_then_Forinstance; you might want to provide _instructions similai to the Pxample below:

Your group needs ;o icir.mtify the fourbest argurne:-:13 ior outlawing the oseof IQ tests. Prst you need to shoreyour views. and make a list of-all thearguments you can identify. Don't becritic& or ?Valuate the arguments thatare prr.sposed _at this _time. Rit yourenergy into helping each o'heridrintify and communicate ideas,regardless of !.3W absurd they maysound. When your list is relativelycomplete, then go back and select thefou, best arguments. You shoula beorepr:red to report your conclusions tothe clas3 in about tt-i!rty minutes:

Talk about.the "rules of constructivecontrove.-sy- prior to the debate andremind ,>tudents of them if the discussiongets out of hand. The follbWirig priritiplOSoutlined by Karl,Smith serve as a usefulhandoUt for StUderitS:

tam_ critical of ideas; not people. Ichallenge and refute the ideas ofthe opposing pair but I do notindicate that I personally rejectthem,Remember, we are all in thistogether, sink or swirri. I focus on,mming to the beSt decision

_ _

I encourage.everyone to participateand to master all the relevantinformation.I listen.to everyone's ideas even if I

don't agree.trestate what sorneone has said ifitils not Clear.t firstnring outall_ideas_and_factssupporting.all sides, and then ! tryto put them together in a way thatmakes sense.I try to understand all sides of theissue.I cihnge my mind when theE.4'idence clearly indicates that IShould do so.

4 1

()vide _sufficient time for discussion:The amount of time allocated for thediscussion depends on the complexity ofthe issue and size of the groLp. What'simportant is that you allow enough timeto resolve differences.

6. Helpstudents_reformulate the question ifthe _debate become&too heated. ;1students argue heatedly and it seemsthey are unable to get past their initialperspectives, you should intervene andhelp students_reformulate the problem. Ifstudents c-ont:nue in a competitivestruggle, there's reverenough-time toreach a Sotution,_ and they_ are likely tiiharbor_negative feelings: Therefore; it'simportant to have students explorerequirements of the problem and draft anew problem statement if the discussionbecomes deadlocked.

7. Try having students reverse sides andargu from ME opposing position. It Canbe_very usefulto_ have students restatethe arguments oftheiropponerts andpresent any new arguments/hat cometomind. This exercise may help to diffuseany prior animosity while it providespractice in good conflict skills. However;don't be discouragedjif students areunreceptiVe_and tind it difficult todivorcethemselves from their initial poSition.Even the most skilled individuals havetrouble with this one:

The procedures for organizing aformal debate are not dramaticallydifferent from those outlined for

informal debates. However, the followingsteps may prove useful additions. I,

A

1. Assign position& lf student opinion is notequally divided between the two_sides,assignments can be made by the flip of acoin.

2. Help students prepare for the debate.Each group should pick one or twostudents to represent them in the debate.Make sure the recruits volunteer; it's nofun it people are railroaded intoparticipation. Emphasize, however, thatall students are responsible to help theirrepresentative prepare arguments for usein the debate. The speaker is only theirmouthpiece and shouldn't be expected toshbuider all tne work

Students wfflusualiy help f you_ Struct Lir etheir participation: I recommend that _ _

each student get a pack of notecards andrecord each argurmant she or he comesacross. Group meetings are sometimesdifficult to arrange, but it's easy to ham)the speaker a stack of arguments on theway out of class.-It also help if you setaside at_least part of one crass period forstudents to organize their arguments anddevelop a strategy.

Students should organize the argumentsby topic. In thisiwa? they can assesswhere their position is strongly defendedand identify weak areas tfat require moreresearch._Making a _file will also helpthem quickly bui_laeceary counter-argument when the debate is underway]

4 237

3: Establish_the procedures for the debate:On the day of the debate have eachgroup sit together so the students canreadily exchange ideas. A few minordetails can addiflare, drama and fun.Place a tormaltectern in the front of theroom with a pitCher of water and a glassforeach speaker nearby_List the namesof thespeakers on_the board intrie ostlerof presentation and announce each oneat the appropriate time. Invite a fewcolleagues to serve on the panel ofjudges and be sure to have a time-keeper. The time-keeper should nofifyeach speaker when there are only 30seconds left to complete his _or herargument: And while reinforcing the_efforts of all participants; announce awinner. Students are apt to bedisgruntled if the debate ends in a draw,so make sure one side comes out ahead,even if by only a fraction of a point.

38

Challenges and Hoii toDeal W:th Them_

ach of the procedures outlinedabove has its Own_ set of problems.It seems that every time a solution

is worked out forone issue, a new difficultyarisestdreplace it. However, students arealmost always patient, understanding andhelpful in the resolutionot unexpectedproblems._This section should help youhead off some of the more common ones.

First, when students participate in a fullclass discussion, they may wander awayfrom the topic you want them to focus on.When-a question is tangential or at too higha leyeLyou_cantell theinquirer you_prefernotto address that particular question atthat time: recommend a visit during officehours to pursue the issue. Or you canschedule a time for students to generatequestions or problems.

Don't answer each_question as_it is raised:_Instead; summarize questions on the board:In this way you don't evade questions butfacilitate the collection and communicationof problems. Then, at an appropriate time,have the students themselves explore thoseproblems which are of common intereSt. InlectUre, for instance, you can proVideStLidentS with relevant_background material;but let_thern assume_responsibi!ity forsolving their own problems:

43

Ff students work togethor in groupE, youshould also 0e_orepared forinterpersonaiproblems and outbursts of anger andfrustration. Complaints are commonregarding group members who won't dotheir share of the work, or who dominate thediscussion in a direction that others don'tSUppeil. If you are,approathed with these orsimilar problems,_don't take sides. Your firStimpulsemay be_tosympathize.and_try to--calm the complainant down; or to disagreeand accuse him or her of beingunreasonable, but either approach is apt tocreate even more trouble.

.

:cording to Maier; you should liste-; butaunt react or evaluate. Let the studentsexpress their feelings. Your role is tounderstand and help the oersons talk abouthow they feel. After the students have fullyeXpreSSed their foolitio yOU ShbUld fecilitatethe collectproblern-Solving prOCeSS. Ifthe students seem shirk; askiquestions like:"What is likely to happen if you actdifferently?" "What will you do if that doesn'twork?" "Is it possible that someone mightobject?" Be careful not to pry, and askquestions in a way that doesn't implycrititiSM Or Shoot doWn An idea. Theatmosphere Should be one of jointexploration.

The Rewardsontroversy can add excitement tothe classroom aild help buildpositive relationships among

students and with the teacher Whendisagreements arise in the discussion,interest is-aroused, and students arestimulates to seek -information. Controversycartalsafacilitate problem.solving _ -

processes and help establish skills andmotivation for independent inquiry.

Where To,Get HelpThe suggestions above are intended to helpy00 ih-crease the leVel of controversy in theclassroom and manage it in a coristructiveway:. Many of itstdeas aredrawntrorn thework of N:R.F. Maier whose books can wellprovide a fuller understanding of theprocesses of controversy. The debateprogram of the Speech andCommunications Department is a usefulresource for Setting controverSy in theformal curriCulum.

"The debate förinattends to motivatestudents more thanproblem-solvino----.---sessions,

39

Using Active Learning in Large Classes

Thomas F. Brothen

Large classes, heavy teaching loads,reSearth and publication demands,service_responsibilitaes and_e lack

of_knowledge about teaching methods meanthat many professors continue to do whatgenerations of professors have done beforethem lecture. But there are alternatives.This chapter describes the classorganization, method, and results of usingactive learning Strategies in a paSicps,chology _course in which 270 stud_entsenroll each quarter.Lentral to the systemdescribed here is the use of learning groups.Learning groups are a recent addition to ateaching/learning system that has beencleveloptng ihthe General College since theearly :1970s when PrOfessor Henry BorowintrOdUced Wive retitatiOn intO hiS basicpsychOlogy course.

Briefly; learning groups require students towork together on tasks that teach themconcepts or skills. In this way, an activediscovery process takes place as stuuentsuse their ownand others' resources to workthrdugh prbblems or review exercises. Butanyone who has used learning groups_knows_there are problems to dvercorne ifthe process is to have the intended effect.An approach which deals with theseproblems is detailed below. Perhaps itsdescription will serve to stimulate others toadopt active learning strategies in theirclasses.

Thomas F. Brothen is an associate professorin the General College at the UniVersity ofMinnesota.

40

How to_Get StartedThere are several factors which should beconsidered when developing active learningmethods for large classes. Following theguidelines below may help you avoidpotential difficulties.

1. Find appropriate classroom space. Whenusing learning groups or any activelearning strategies with large classes, youwill find that an immediate, obVibliSproblem _is space. Most often, students ina large class fill the _room from aisle toaisle _In the _face _of_ bpi te_d_ down_ -

auditorium chairs; it is not a perfectsolution to divide the class into groups. Ihave divided my large class into 30student segments which meet two daysper week in laboratory/recitationsections. Here the prOblem becomesmore manageable mostly because,00ms_that accommodate_30_stuclentserecommohand are usually equipped withmoveable chairs.

2. Use teaching assistants i! possible.Without good teaching assistants, itwould be difficult if not iMpOSSible toaccomplish a great deal of active learningin_ large classes. A lone professor caneasily lecture_to 250 students:But if theclassroom methods involve activelearning and students are completingexercises, it ts difficult for one individualto provide adequate feedback. Ide flystudents should be split into sections insmaller roorns.yVith this arrangement,extra personnel are almost essential forproper monitoring of group activities I

45

have used undergraduate teachingassistants and tutors with very goodresults. Graduate Student assistants aredesirable but lot absolutely required.

3. Establish learning objectives. Clear;specific course objectives must bedeveloped and translated into specificstudent activities. It is relatively easy tostate objectives for a lecture course: abody of-knowiedge-is identified andstudents are required_ to_learn it: Butwhen students are also supposed to beable to use that knowledge, specifyingobjectives becomes a more difficult taskfor the instructor. The maM task is todecide_whatiyou_want students to be ableto do with_ what they are learning. Forexample,1 expect my ps-ycholog-y-students to _be _able to_ interpret_datatables based on human behavior, so Ihave them complete several projects inwhich they tabulate data they havegathered on their own behavior.

4. Write the syllabus to give students asmuch guidance as possible. Becauseactive_learning, particularly iii groupsettings is new to manystudents.youmay find it useful to prepare a moreelaborate syllabus than usual. First; ithelps students to have a daily guide tothe activities which will take place in eachclass pencid, whether lecture or grouptasks. You might also- want :to:find:roomM Me syllabus to explain_ what_will be_expected ot each studentin his or her _

group: Finally; it is important in an activelearning setting; as in any other class; tomake students aware of what criteria willbe considered for grades. In a class usinggroup actiVities as part of the gracil

system, students may be concernedabout what percent of their grades will beindividually based_and what portion willrest on group-related work.

5 Prepate practipe matertalsA you decideto use active learning strategies; youhave to generate activities for thestudents. Instructors cannot just tellstudents toi'discuss the material." It youdont provide specific exercises forstudents, you will be disappointed:withactive-learning, Printed_ assignments_seem to workhesttecausethey_helpprevent problems of misinterpretation.After several years of experience withhandout materials, I currently use astudent study guide which I wrotespecifically for my course.

6. Use the students themselves asresaurces_whenever_possibie. In a _largeclass the sheer number of studentsaffords the opportunity to use thestudents themselves as a sout"ce forsurvey data or behavioral observations.Small groups can then be_assigned thetask of using the data, and in a session ofthe entire class, various approaches tothe data can_be_discussed and_compared:In this way; students gain a "hands on"experience with the research process andcan see for themselves that_sometimesresearchers take different approaches tomaking inferences about the sameinformation.

4641

"In a large class thesheer number ofstudents affords theopp_ortunity to use thestudents themselves asa source for surveydata or behavioralobservations."

42

7: Provide feedback. Perhaps the mostimportant aspect of using active learn:ngmethods in a large classroom is theirpotential for allowing instructors toprovide constant and immediate,feedback to students. Because studentsin_the large classroom_can_be separatedinto smallergroups; _generally theinstructor has a hetter opportunity to getto know the students and to speak to thegroups on a more personal level thanmight be possible if the class is held as alarge lecture session.

Taking advantage of the_opportunity toprovide_feedback_is important: Althoughmany have had some exposure; moststudents you will encounter will beunfamiliar with active learning. Thus,they may be uncertain, as individuals oras groups, tnat they are proceeding asthey shoUld be, Supplying -feedbackhelps maintaln student motivation and ;5likely to improve oterall results:

Sample ApplicationsA detailed description of my class will showhow I have dealt with the issues raisedabove and, I hope, demopstratesome waysto structure a large class to achieve activelearning. Students attend class_together onMOnday, Wediresdayand Friday_arld breakinto nine_laboratory/recitation sections of 30on Tuesday and Thursday. Primarily theyare students in the General College, thegeneral education unit of the University. TheCollege attracts people with a wide varietyof academic it2cordS, abilities, and intereSta.

arl he Wednesday class session is theN ordy one thatimioht be called

traditional in forrn, This's the onlylecture time an overview of the nineweekly units. The ObjeCtive of this lecture isnot_to transmit:information but lo help _ _

students develop a structure they can use tounderstand material in that week's unit. Keyconcepts are related to each other and toconcepts from other units.

The Friday session is-devoted to a weeklyquiz and-review. Students complete a 15-item multiple choice_quwithin_a 20rninutetimetimit: After the quizzes are collected;students are shown the test items on ascreen while reviewing their answers on aquiz record form. It.-7.s_are explained and:correct answersgiven. Students thus receivefeedback-i.r rnediatoly after they_ take thequiz. My teaching assistantSand I areavailable to discuss items after the reveiwsession:

The ether class sessions are more explicitlyorganized around active learning principles.7he Monday and Tuesdasessrons aredevoted to-data projects. This element of thecurse is similar to,- but does not duplicate .the content-of traditiOnal psychology. _laboratory.coursesThe intent is to givestudents an understanding of what mostpsychology instructors would agree iscentral to the field the empirical approachto understanding human behavior. Theprojects are organized in a sequencefamiliar to payeholOgiSts.

4 7

On Monday, students pre introduced to a-oncept through a mini-lecture by theinstructor and then take part in anexperiment or complete a questionnaire toproduce data.lor example: beforebeginning a perception project requiringidentification of difference thresholdsproduced by a light apparatus I constructed;I explain the threshold concept. For aproject demonstrating serial position effectin memory, students are asked to learn listsof nonsensasyllables flashed on a screenwith a slide projector Students take part inthese research activities as both subjectsand investigators, and the research methodthus becomes clearer to them.

On Tuesday they work in four-studentlearning croups to tabulate their pooled datawith Me help_of teaching assistants andstudent_tutors: They analyze these resultsand discuss how they will answer theproject discussion questions.

Before the Thursday group sessions,students are expected to completeproject-questions and review

exercises (fill-in-the-blanks, study questions,andpractice_quizzes)from a workbook Idesigned specificallyiorthis course.Turning in a complete set of correctanswers by the beginning of the Thursdaysession earns the student two points (out of300 total course points); an answer sheetthat is 95 percent correct earns one point. Acompleted answer sheet also qualifies astudent for two additional points if his or hergroup_correctly cornpletesa matching_exercise: The matching exercises consist of20 statements about the unit's material to bematched with 20 key concepts and aregraded in the same fashion as the fill-irk-tie-

blank questions (tv:o points if all 20 arecorrect, etc.). Students are allowed to usetheir books or notes as resources in doingthese exercises. Later, in smaH groupSessionsmonitored by laboratory teachingassistants_orstudent tutors, students receiveyet another point if they contribute to thegroup's discussion of the study questions.

In all of this, high standards are maintainedin grading and points are awarded tb !reinforce the behavior-of actively workingwith course material. To establish a sense otcommon fateanctlaencouragecooperation; students' grades are dependentin part on their group's performance.

Because there are a number of activities andassignments associated with the course, acomprehensive syllabus is given to_studentsso they can be prepared for eaCh Class,session.:The_syllaboscontainsa calendar ofdaily class activities; a statement of class..procedures; and full information on gradingpolicies; including the total points necessaryto achieve particular grades.

Teaching assistant§ and tutors are central tothis type Of instructional system, and care isgiven.improviding them_with training andwritten guidelines_to_assistthern_with.Meir. _work. Teaching assistants for the course araprovided grading guidelines for each of thestudent exercises and projects as well as aset of explicit procedures to be followed inthe labbratory sessions. In addition, Isupervise an ongoing training-program forthe assistants clesignecilb address anyproblems which might arise during thequarter.

48 43

Student.tutors assist the teaching assistantsin laboratory sessions. The tutors areundergraduate students who previously hadtaken the course and-received high gradesinit. _Only thasestudents who showed ..

interest in Me class material and in workingwith other student5 are selected. Theyattend a weekly seminar on teaching andlearning for which they receive four credits.The tutors assume _responsibility for onelabbratory section lone ortwo tutocspersection) andispena several weeks i theirseminarreading arid disc_ussing materialfocusing on issues in teaching and learning;they examine their roles as tutors in thelaboratory sessr.ms. Later they work in

arning groups to research a topic of theirchoosing (e.T compulsive behavior, childabuse, TV and_ behavior, etc.) under my,guidance. EaCI-i group then dOes an oral anda written presentation on its chosen topic:

The teaching assistants and studenttutors are important for severalreason$. TAs and tutors are able to

provide immediate feedback tothe studentsin their learning groups. Teaching assistantscan be instructed to return exercises anoprojects as quickly_as_passible and withextensive comments,Ingroup sessions; TAscan serve as moderators helping to facilitategroup discussions. Tutors are also helpful inadvising students because.they areavailablewhile studentsare working and, as peers,ere relatively approachable and non-threätening to students who might bereluctant to seek out_the irrtructor orteaching assistants._ They_ may.also_serve_aspositive role models forstadents becausethey nave already succeeded in the course.

44

Chailenges_and How toDeal With_ThemSome faculty mey be initiallyiuncomfortablewith active,learmng_because it requiresgivina uothe rale of exclusive spokespersonin_the classroani._Teadiing assistants andtutors.become_more central inclass . _

activities. Students may even attribilte to thetextbook author exercises whic,h the courseinstructor slaved to create! On a recent classevaluation, aistydent of mine ,

commented that the-course instruCtor gotpaid for doing"nearly nothing." Butchanges In the role which_faculty_rnemberaplay in the classroom have been evolving forsome time. A pioneer in the field of.psychology; E.B. Titchener, was reputed toparade into his classroom in fullecademic,,.egai;a, graduate assistants at his side, whilestudents stood at attention until he beganletturing!

In addition to changes in the instructor'srole in the classroom; students quicklyrecognize change in their own roles asclassroom participants. Some students willinvariably complain of overwork or, of theirrelevanceof _the work you're making themdo. Many Students truly believe thateducation .means _merely absorbinginformation; and they will expect theinstructor to pump (lecture) the material intothem in the manner to which they are mostaccustomed; they are simply not used to"working- in class.

4 9

The active learning class provides a starkcontrast with the environment with whichmost students are acquainted. When theyleave classes using active learningexercises, students often complain:of beIngtired._One_even_complained _tame that atleast he could sleep during a lecture! You_ _

will find that even the most initially reluctantstudents generally adapt to the process inthe long run and come to appreciate thevalue of the active learning process.

Faculty using aCtive_learning strategies:mayalso find departmental colteagues_less thanidealLy supportive_inthe beginning: Somemay suggest that active learningapproaches provide an easy way out andthat students need to learn from theinstructor not each other. (I sometimesask ti.em abouLthe number of students intheir lectures who are slee-ping, talking,looking out the window, etC.). Again,-hawever_in_ the long run_ most-will_ recognizethat students are coming out of activelearning classes more enthusiastic and morehighly motivated.

Learning groups may pose anotherproblem, particularly in large classes.StudentS are used tO surviving (orprospering) on_thr_ownrand_sorne (oftenthe better students) are reluctant at first tohave their grades dependent on the work ofother students. Forcing group members toshare some degree of common fate fosterscooperative interaction. I tell students thatunless they plan a career as a lighthousekeeper, they had better get used to vvorkingin groups. And in the long run, students

seem to realize that they are learning moreabout the substantive course material byworking with other students as well aslearning more about other people ingeneral.

The Rewardsctive learning o.fers many rewardsfor both students and instructors.As measured by end-of-course

evalutions, student response to thesemethoc.si has been very:positive. But themost telling comments have corne tO mepersonally from my beat students. Theyexpress gratitude_at_having_heert able_totake the course because they received somuch individual attention and learned agreat deal. Exam performance has improvedsomewhat over the traditional method ofteaching the course but, more importantly,studahts are doing rriiith more thah Simplymarking answers on answer sheeta._Theyare now:better able to use the facts theyhave !earned

The side benefits to students witn thisapproach are also important. They learnhow to work with others and are able todevelop theircommunication and studyskills. They also assume rieW ihitiatiVe ih thecaurse_While it isoften easy_ for students towalk into a lecture not havingread the day'sassignment; it is more difficult for them tocome unprepared to a group session thatdemands everyone's help to complete anexercise.

45

"Perhaps the mostimportant aspect ofusing activelearningmethods in a largeclassroom is theirpotentiai for allowinginateUttort to provideconstant andimmediate feedback tostudents."

46

Faculty who incorporate active learningstrategies into their courses will be amplyrewarded. Active learhirig iS ih rhahy WaySless stressful than lecturing. Being "-up" todehveririterestirig arip_animateci lectureseach_class period is a strain; it is often _disturbing forinstractors to know that aheadache orcold_has resulted in hundredsof students getting less than their "money'sworth" out of a class session. On the otherhand, an active learning approach is lesssubject toitemporary_conditions such asillness or the press of other reSpOnsibilitieS.

AU thisdoes not_mean that using activelearning strategies results in less work.Indeed; there is actually a net (lain inworkload. But the additicnal offjrt isrewarded when you see every studentactit!ely iriVolved ih What ybi.i are trying tclteach therti.

Where to _Get Help_ _

Aronsen et al. (1978) describe a classroomtechnique that requires students to gatherthe pieces of a "puzzle" independently andthen work in groups to assemble them into afinal product. Each student is involved in theeffort because he or she is responsible foran important part of the puzzle, and groupcooperation is required tc complete thetasks.

Bouton and Garth (1983) present analysesof the use of learning groups in a wide:variety of settings and:With different SUbjettmatters. Brotheri (1984) describes threeeAertises Used in the class describerLabove.Johnson et al._(1981) review a clecaJe ofresearch on cooperative learning.

Finally, I invite anyone interested in theissues discussed here to contact me. I willbe:glad to give adVide, ehcbdragerneht,help, or solace as it'S_rieeded. I learnedrtlatW things the hard way 7 by triaLand_error: Perhaps I can help you avoid some ofthe pitfalls.

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Training Teaching Assistants to UseActive Learning StrategiesMy:aid Ross

ost departments at the Universityhire graduate students to performteaching duties. ihe motives f_or

doing so vary; but they always include_thedesire to help graduate students pay fortheir education and the idea that somepractice teaching experience will help whenthe student getsia teaching position in auniversity or c011ege. Graduate teachingassistants (TAS) duties range rrorn f_Ullresponsibilityforteaching a course tominor; behind.the,scenes_jobs such asgrading exams and papers: With fullresponsibility for the class, the TAI-elps thedepartment and the University by providingrelatively inexpensive instruction. Withlesser respopsibility, the TA helps indMdualprofessors deal with large numbers ofstudents who are enrolled at the University,especially at freshman and sophomorelevels.

Departments vary widely in the attentionthey pay to the training and duties of theirteaLI-ling assistants. Some treat them as theytreat new professors: the assistants get acopyof the textbooka standard syllabus,and a_grade_book: Other departments investconsiderable timeorienting new TAs to theirphilosophies and practices, and theyactively arrange regular contact betweenprofessors and TAs through staff meetingsor seminars.

Donald Ross is a professor in the EnglishDepartment and Composition Program atthe University of Minnesota,

The rernarks in this chapter are addressedto people in departments wHch offersomething for their TAs sorne way betweenthe_extremes l_have just described. I assumethat the teaching assistants_have partialresponsibility for direct contactwitttstudents; e.g.; in regularly scheduledrecitation sessions where !he professor isnot present (except, perhaps as anobserver). l_ also assume that the departmentconducts at_ least a few hdurs of training andorientation for new assistants.

The main message I hope_to conveyis thatby careful and enthusiastic use of training _

sessions, we.c:an help new teachers do a jobthat will benefit their undergraduatestudents and give them experience andconfidence so that_theyi will teach:as well aspossthle after or _while they earn theirdegrees:_By_ building TA training programson concepts of "active learning .'_we_canboth model and sponsor classroom attitudeswhich we approve.

How to Get Started ,First, recognize that master's or doctoralcanclidates are not very muCh like thestudents theywiltteach They_ are unusual intheir achievements as undergraduates: !heydid well in most of their courses; they hadwell-defined and nademic career goals;they wished to be_like theft professors inmany:ways. Toe siginificant degree theyneed to be reminded Of the students who satnext to them in introductory courses, thiosewho wentonto major_ in something else,those who got Cs; and those who droppedout of college.

52 47

"In an important way,opening up theundergraduate class tostudents' voices 4s_parallel to what theprofessor is supposedto be doing to helpteaching assistantslearn their craft."

48

econd, recognize that graduate _studenta, _especially those whoseundergraduate experience came

from a iarge university like Minnesota, aregetting an exciting and new kind ofeducation. n ail graduate courses, butespecially in seminars, they are in anenvironment where they can talk with aprofessor who_will listen attentively, who willrespect their ideas, and who will go out ofhis or her way to foster intellectual growth.

short, new graduate students benefit fromactive learning, perhaps for ihe first timesince they were the stars in their highschools.

The training _of new _teaching assistants canbeseen_as_channeling the graduatestudents energies to benefit the studentsthey will meet. Of course; the new TAs areinsecure about their jobs, but for most ofthem, all they need is:their mentorsendorsement and a bit of pra-ctical adviceabout how to use their tirne.

in_the training sessions that we have used inComposition for many years; and that wetried for the first time in English under aNorthwest Area Program on Active Learninggrant in 1904, our major approach was tomodel the teaching attitudes and: behaviorthat we wish the TAs to have._In both_Composition and Cnglisn,_writingandSpeaking arecentral activities: Sincespeaking is easier to change our trainingbegins with talking: we have the TAs talk alot, to each other and to the professor,abou; everything relevant.

Sample_ ApplicationsIn training TAsin English we asked newTAs tc read brief literary work.s before thesessions began. In the first hour I lecturedabout one work for about 20 minutes, thenasked the TAs to form groups of four toevaluate the "mini-lecture." The groupsselected people to report on their __

evaluation, to suggestimprovements in thelecture,.and to comment on the generalatmosphere of the experience (Were theybored? Did.they take notes? Was the lectureilluminating?).

Thisisortof introduction can easily be :

emulated in departments where the_chiefteaching activrty_ is quite_different trom theexplanation oftterary works: For example,where case studies or problem solvingactivities_are central; the training d,recorcould begin with a relatively_formalpresentation, followed:by the same kind.ofdebriefing I just described. The point is tohave grad-irate students experience-as_di-redly as possible what und_erg_raduatesexperience ina typicatclass session and;crucially; to reflect on that experience.

fter the lecture format_i-wentthroughtwo othermadels_ first _the recitation: then the small group.

In modeling the recitation; I began byasking for volunteer answers to myquestions, then pointedly called on thosewho had-been silent. In the debriefing wenoted differences and I s:-Aight readtionsand tried to make the TAs__sympathetic to_the.social and_psychological.tensions of therecitation classroom: F',ince the TAs wouldprobably use the recitation model for theirfirst teaching; this round was the mostobviously relevant.

While the small "learning_group" is probablythe best medium for teaching at any level, itis the least _traditional..Professorsare.familiar with.it only in their best graduateseminars; and they tend not to think of it inthe context of large undergraduate courses.For our new TAs, we set up small groupsfrom the start to help graduate students getto know,each, other and to_ encourage themto work together. During the modelingstageof the training program, eactigroupwasgiven_a_different_question about a literarytext to discuss and report on:

In comparing the lecture; recitation, andsmell group, the TAs became aware tnatthey hadibeen !most active in the smallaroup, where their views had been mostdiverseand they had a greatersenSe_ofownership_ over the questions they hadraized:_The difference _was most_pronocincedwhen; at the end of_the training session, theTAs were asked to propose essay examquestions for the three works. Questionsbased on the lecture text were uniform, endthey essentially were limrtnd to the issues11had raised in the lecture. The groups hati-4

much more difficulty in arriving atconsensusabout the good.questions tor thesmall group text; and the diversity of theirsuggestions began to reflect the complexityof the literary work_

We have also sponsored a-variant of thelearnmg group model for TAs to try outwhen they go to work for professo:s inregular_literature_courses. In_thesmallerrecitations; and even_in the large lecture, ithas proven feasible to_spend part of the_class time establishing informal workinggroups of 4 to 5 students. We have usedthesefor discussions of specific literaryquestions is setting an index ofcharacter in the story read for today'?").After small groupdiscussion_of 15 minutes_or so;_the_students_write out_theirindividuaLanswers; an exercise which serves as a quiz:Alternatively; the small groups discussioncan be the stimulus for a regular; full-classrecitation. By going around the room,overhearing the discussions,- the professorand/or TAs getiexcellent insight as to hOWwell the StUdents understand the qUestionand its implications.

Challenges_and How toDeal With ThemBoth the professor and the teachingassistants share concerns about using smallgroups and actwe learning. Even aftermodeling the three classroom environments,the TAs were inclined_ to rely-on the lecture.First, it was a_forrnat_they had_seen mostoften. Second, it gives the clearest feeling ofcontrol, both control over interpretation ofthe literary text and control over whathappens in the classroom. Third, discussionby students seems to be less "efficient" thana well-crafted lecture.

49

"While the smallle?rning group' isprobably the bestmedium for teaching atany level, it is the leasttraditional. Professorsare_familiar_vvith it onlyin their best graduateseminars..."

50

It should be obvious from the :

previou, diS'Lussion that we tried topromote and eacourage srnall_ _

groupactivities, both by forcing the newTAs to s:Dend scine time doing them and bythe general attitude that we tried to convey.Also, by trying to give the TAs somepractice and sorne confidence that they :

could be in a classroom with several smallgroup discussions goina on concuirently,wetried to get peoplepast the fear that totalchaos and anarchy would result:

The issue of control over intemretaticn _of_literary works_happens_tobe under heateddebate among literary critics. Thus; to raisequestions is relevant and to ask beginninggraduate students to explore the topic bothin theory and in practice is important.clearly, active learning works against theidea of the teacher-centered classroorn, andit_does force studentS to liSten to_eachothers' views _on _the _texts which _are in_ thesyllabus, In an important way; opening upthe undergraduate class to students' voicesis parallel to what the professor is supposedto be doing to help teaching assistants learntheft craft.

Finally, it is long:in the tradition of literaturedepartments that we value class discussionand_we lecturebut reluciantiy-__T_hus, there isa general attitude throughout thedepartment that lecturing is not the Nestway to teach our subject. Even by div,-.1ingup our largest courses into separaterecitation sections, we stiH wind up with 40or more ::-.tuden.;_ in We Hipe theexpanding TAs corH, and experiencewill_hela them become p-:w classroomre.-ource.

The RewardsBy introducing new teachers tc a vaney oftechniques, and:by modeling those of whici,we-approve, we help thern understand thewide range of things-they can do ni theirdasses._We_can see _the_ results_ whenteaching_assistanis in Enghsh apply to teachin the Composition Program. There theduties are quite different:The Ms inconiposAion rp..ve full responsibility for thesections to which they areassignecf. Theyare expected to use the tull range ofteaching techniques, from brief lectures, tOrecitation, to small group sessiOns, tOindividuatconferences._ In addition_ to thoseclassroom methods; we also introduceteachers to the various ways to assignwriting:intervene in and support students'writing processes, ane evaluate studentwrit!ng as it is being ilãnnéd, in draft, and infinal form.

55

Teaching Problem-Solving Skills

Bert E; Fristecit

The term "pro:dems," as I will discussit, does not refer to exerciseslllustrating some concept or theory

which has been introduced in the classroomthrough lectures or readings. Rather, itrefers to exe_rcises which allow:students tounderstand theoretical:concepts Py_observing similarities and differencesamong widely divergent problems. Aninstructor using problems as a teachingdevice has the opportunity not only to teacha body of theoretical knowledge but also toteach students how to make use of it.

Thereare &number of advantages to thisapproach to problem solving: First;problems, if chosen with care; serve asnatural motivation for exploring variousconcepts and theories. Second, problemshelp reinforce learning of major conceptsthrough repeated applications. Third,piuolems help students appreciate thepower of theory and the purpose of generalconcepts:

One might ask if there are majordisadvantages which follow from a use ofproblems as a learning device. My feeling isthera are not, although there are sornepitfalls to be avoided.:For instance, aparticular problem will necessarily be moredifficult whenit appears "naturally thanwhen it appears as anillustration of somegeneral concept introduced in text orlecture. Generally, a temptation for theinstructor is to hint to the student how the

Bert E. Fristedt is a professor in the Schgolof Mathematics at the University ofMinnesota.

problem should be solved. However, thebenefits mentioned above may be lost if theinstructor intervenes in this way. Althoughhinta play aconstructive role in teachingproblem-solving, it is usuallyibetter tosimply introduce easier problems whichallow studentatodevelop the necessarytheoretical understanding more gradually:

In addition; some students may be slow toappreciate all that they have achieved. Whilethe instructor may recognize that an i6eadeveloped in solving one problem isapplicable to_many othersstudents may notrealize the connections unless the instructorpoints thenvout An-instructorcan introducetheory and concepts into the class as thesituation allows and remind students thatthey have already discovered the principlesin their own problem solving. In my classes,I introduce many problems with particularsubstantive goals in mind and, once thestudents have worked through them, _I makesure the salient points are recognized.

What about teaching problem-solving itseiras opposed to using it as a vehicle for newconcepts, methodology and theory? Ibelieve that one learns how to solveproblems by solving problems. Nonetheless,there are manl useful techniques ofproblem-solving that good problem-solversknow, at leaSt implicitly, and_ that poorproblem-solvers danouLecturing onproblem,solving techniques inthe abstractcan be sterile and non-productive, but thefailure to make the techniques explicit whenthey occur naturally is to miss the chance tohelp students' problem-solving abilitiesgrow.

51

How. to- Get Startedhe_suggested method which followsis based on my experience teachinga problem-solving course to 19

Minneapolis and St. Paul secondarymathe.matics teachers during an intensivethree-week program in 1985 (10:00

tb 1:30 p.m. Monday through Friday).

1. Assess_the ability of your studentaudience. One of the advantages I had inteaching this course was that theaudience was comprised of students whoby and large were familiar with thediscipline. Because they were alreadyacquainted with the rudimentaryprocedures, there_was_little _difficulty indealing with complex problems:

A similar approach may be used with lessadvanced students, but some care shouldbe taken to provide problems which areaccessible to them. For mstance, aninstructor might want to use problemswhich address one particular COncepf or_theoretical principle_rather than problemswhichincorporate several abstractprinciples simultaneously.

2. Prepare problems which allow studentsto draw theoret;cal :connections.Preparing the problems to be used in thec,,irse is probably the most impOrtanttask involved in this problem-solvingapproach. Firstassnentioned; theproblems must be at a levelcommensurate with the skills of thestudents. They should be designed to

"stretch" the students capacities withoutcausing them too much anguish orfrustration. Second, the instructor mustmake_a conscious_etfortto_clesignsets ofproblems which haveinterconnectionsthat the students are capable ofdiscovering, at least partly, on their own.Finally, it is helpfutto provide a large setof problems even if every student doesnot complete ail of them. This challengesthe more advanced students and oftencircumvents the tendency.for them toexptain" the problems before other

students have worked through them.

3. Resist the temptation to lump in tooquickly to explain to students how aproblem ought to be -solved . ln order forthe. methods to be effective, students_must be encouraged_tagtapple" withtheprotlems arid recognize thetheoretical underpinnings without undueintervention on the part of the instructor.The overriding principle behind theapproach described here is that studentswill better understand the materials ifthey draw conrections themselves. Aninstructor who fails to resist thetemptation to "give students_the answers"deprives them of the benefits of thediscovery.

4. Use class discussions whenever possibleas a springboard for your owncomments. With-this approach it isuseful, as I will illustrate in the ne?(tsection, to stop and_summaiizestudentS__comments about the problems either as ameans of clarification or as an illusUationof the importance of a concept. Inphrasing your comments, try to make use

5 7

of the class discussion by bringing inuseful comments made by students,pointing out misconceptions_that _havebeen prevalent; etc. The more effectiveyou are in relating your own commentsto the class discussion, the easier it willbe for the students to understand whatyou are trying to say.

Using_student _discussion as a basis fOryour own_remarks_also gives_thestudentsa greater appreciation for commentsmade by their peers. Typically studentsare accustomed to viewing the instructoras the only useful commentator in theclassroom. It takes extra effort on thepart of -the instructor to convincestudents that their peers' Comments areworth noting.

5: Be flexible: Because_the studentsthemselves will be generalng topics fordiscussion and introducing, albeitsometimes inadvertently, theoreticalprinciples you wish to cover, you must beflexible enough to make use ofappropriate openings which allovv you tomake important points. Certainly manyinstructors find iteasier_ to_ come _to classon a given day with a set of notes listingthe concepts and facts to be introduced.An instructor whuencourages studentsto set the pace of progress anddetermine, through their questions andcomments, when a given concept shouldbe introduced will find the effort wellrewarded.

Sample ApplicaticmsThe preceding principles may becomeso_mewhat dearer in the_ followingdiscussion_ of_how I applied thernduring thefirst class session: I began the course byhanding out two or three pages of problems,giving an introductorytecture on what I hadin mind, and describing some mathematicalgames We-would encourter in the class. Imentioned in the lectu.e my own dailyattempts _to solve new prOblems ancttheexperience_of discarding _my ideas_a_t timesin response to wise comments mace byfellow faculty or students.

In the latter half of the per.od, studentswere broken down_into small groups i

to vvork on-the problerns I had handed_ ,

out earlier. After_ a half hour of group work, Icalled the_class _together and _asked forvolunteers ladiscess_the problems: The firstproblem we examined generatedconsiderable class discussion sincestudents had various approaches_to itssolution. Although I had strong opinionsabout the relative merits of the proposedmethods, I did not evaluate them right away.Only_after the discussion_slowed down did Ipresent_what I considered_ a_soundresolution of the matter; and then I wascareful to rely as much as possible on whathad aiready been brought out in t.:discussion. Finally, I pointed oLt ri,'wprbblems which could_be approached insimilar ways_before asking for .1,1, nteerS tbaddreSS another problem.

problems; ifchosen with care, serveas natural motivationfor exploring variousconcepts and theories."

53

"I bekeve that onelearns how to sulveproblems by_solving_problems. Nonetheless,there are many usefultechniques of problem-solving that goodproblem-solvers know,at least implicitly, andthat poor problem-solvers do not."

54

The next item brought up for classdiscussion was the game of "nim." Onestudent:in the class had reached-a correctconclusion-concerning-a particularly simpleversion of the game but had considerabledifficulty afticulating_his approach,A tookthe liberty of rephrasing his comments tomake sure the entire class was in tune withthe discussion. I also tried to solicitquestions from those who might be havingtrouble following what at times became arather rambling discussion.: (The discussionrambled because students had consideredvarious special_ve.rsions_of_the_gam0Eventually; when I decided that no one hadfurther constructive comments about thegame; I summarized; using precisestatements of theorems, what I beheved hadbeen provedin the course of the discussion.Then I stated, again using the board, what Ibelieved at least some people in the classwere Conjecturing.

nature of which was determined by eachindividual group. Students worked_ on avanety -of projects. Four chose to do a reportentitled "Going to the Workforce," four moreworked on azompendium_of the_problemsand_solutions treated in the course, andthose remaining worked on projects relatingto teaching problem-solving.

Challenges and How to DealWith ThemThere were three trouble:spots in thecourse. Since .class_rni: mber:-... were.presenting_complex information about thesolutions to problems; the presentationswere sometimes difficult to follow. At times Ifelt compelled to interrupt in order to makesure the class. was following. I tried to wordmy re:-explanations in:a way that did netreflect negatively_oh the person doing theexplaining or on the questioner if my_.comments came in response to a query:

I followed this procedure every class day second trouble spot _was of my ownwhen; usually; many problems were making: At one point I thought adiscussed. I kept adding to the set of student's solution was close toproblems from which studfmts could choose another topic that had not yet appeared into:work. To:some extent, the students the course, So I decided that this was myinterests determined the direction ofthe opportunity. As 1 was verbally:rnaking thecourse. I apprOached_the_course with a connections at the chalkboard, it developedflexible attitudeSince_the_sessions in which that the conneCtion was more_complicatedvarious class members described their and less striking_than I had anticipated:_i.solutions or progress seemed to work well handled the situation by admitting my errorfrom the beginning; I never assignedparticular problems or gave particularassignments.

In addition to the set Of problems_considered in class student groups_werealso assigned a joint project; the specific

and then giving-a separate shortintroduction to_ the_topiC I had Wanted tbpresent: [resisted thatemptation to explainhow my error had arisen:

The third problem was that some classmembers were much more proficient thanothers at doing problems. I essentially didnothing about this a[though theibestproblem solvers did_ help, individually andon their own, by_not_voiunteering to_givesolutions to the easierprobIerns._The _

reasons I did nothing are the following:most students made some classroomcontributions; every student seemed to befollowing most of what went on in class; ardmy feeling was that so many things weregoing so well that I did not want to tinker.

The RewardsThe greatest reward from using this methodis in seeing the students respond. Since myclass_consisted of people who were alreadyin tile workplace, I did not.feel ( had to setup a formal structure to help me decide onthe-most accurate grades for the students,andjt developed that no _suCh struCture -wasneeded ior_mottvation:_The_rewards for_theclass members seemed to consist in self-satisfacion and constructive interaction. Ithink the class.members also acquired manyproblem-posing and problem-solving skillsthat are transferable to the classrooms inWhiCh they teeth. However, thiSachievement may be Clearer to me than it isto them:

6055

56

Organizing Community Studies

Peggy Sand

ne_term 'community studies' refersto a wide range of activitiesundertaken by faculty and students

for a community. Usua!ly in a communitystudies project, students do research andproduce, under faculty supervision, atangible product which has been requestedby a community._The'community" might bea.neighborhood groupa citizens' .

organization, an elected town board, a localunit of government; or a public serviceagency. Broad-based citizen support_(including norninal funding) is usuallydesired. Community-based projects can beused as case studies in a class, as specialresearch projects through_directed studiesorfield_research_ registration: or as topics torsenior projects or vepers.

The objectives of one such communitystudies program at the University ofMinnesota include:

1. To provide opportunities for students-toenrich_th_eireducation by applying theiracademic; problem-solving; and humanrelations skills to real projects:

2. To provide opportunities forinterdisciplinary projects among facultyand students of many departments;

3. To serve _Mirtnesota_cornm unities seekingthe kind of assistance students canprovide under faculty guidance.

Peggy Sand is coordinator of the Center forCommunity Studies at the University ofMinnesota.

How to Get StartedThere are.sr,weral_steps_in_establishing acommunity studies program;

1. Determire the academic context. Toreceive department support forcommunity study projects and to getstudents arid facultyito spend the extratime theyitake, WSt determine how_community studies relate_to _degreerequirements and existing courses: Thetiming and nature of student and facultyinvolvement can vary according to theoverall academic program. Arecommunity-based projects best used ascase studies within existing classes'? Docommunity studies work better in moreindepet%d_ent_ student projects_ such_assenior projects_and directed studies?What kinds of projects and products areacceptable? What is a reasonable studentload for faculty working withindependent projects? Should there becoordination through a seminar?

Before-initiating-a specific_project,explore_your motivesend determine youreducational objectives. Is the purpose ofusing the community-based project toteach content? Is the purpose to teachproblem-solving methods?

Upon finding the course or curriculumarea for potential projects; the desiredtiming and duration of projects should beidentified. Most projects should be

planned around the academic calendar.They or their phases should begin ;:r endwith eath quarter or semester. Shorterprojects within regular classcs c _n bescheduledior thiee-_to six7weekblacksOne to three months is needed to set upmost projects.

2. Initiate relations with the community.Ideally, the :ornrnunity should come toyou asking for help. Their requestincreases_the Chance they will becommitted to_project funding,involvement and implementation: Do notdo an uninvited project in a community.A formal written request with letters ofsupport from other groups is best.

The facUlty or a University representativeShould meet in person With_communityrepresentatives_to.evaluate thecommunity's commitment to the projectand to clarify project objectives. Throughboth a meeting and written confirmation,the following issues should beaddressed: What are the community'sneeds and objectives?_ Do they want anyparticular produCt such as a workshop,presentation_report, maps,.newspapersupplement.slide_shovcc survey?What groups support the project? Howdo they relate to other local groups anddecision makers? Can they fund projectexpenses, arrangelocal meetings andpublicity, and provide resource people?WoUld the prOjett be better if done byprofessional consultants?

3. Select the projects. After the communityhas been screened and the project scopeloosely described, the faculty oidepartment should decide whether this isan acceptable project

4. Match stud.ents to the projects. Thenature of the project should sun thenumbers and skills of studerks likely tobe 111 the class-or interested hi doing theproject. What do the students expectfrom the class or community studiesproject? What ski!ls do they have indeahng with the content of the project; ingroup process, in communication, and inpresenting materials to the public? Doyou know the students or do tney comewith-recommendations from otherfaculty?_Do they_have time to comrnit tothe project? What motivates them?

If skills of students are relatively equal;the faculty can randomly assign studentsto project tasks. When time permits,allow them-some choice in projectassignments. Whi!e Student participationin theSe decisions is not_essential, it islikely to increase motivation:

5. Determine project methodology. Forprojects of short duration (fewer than fiveweeks), with very large groups or withinexperienced students, the facultyshould take the lead in organizing theproject. T_ypicatly, the faculty hP.:,ds out astatement-which describes the Scope ofthe project the objectives themethodology to be used and/or a set ofexpectations and deadlines. In longerprojects and in situations where faculty

62 57

"Community projectsare by nature complex,bringing in_manyirrelevant details andcomplex politicalsituations."

56

or consultants can advise, the studentsmay be asked to draft a project proposalsubject to faculty and communityapproval hi prOjeCts lasting One quantr,students should be given two week', todo the proposal.

In a student project proposal and infaculty problem statements for morecomplex projects or for inexperiencedstudents,:a step-by-step process toachieVe the project testiltS ShdLi Id bedeveloped: We_often_chert _an_outlineotthe six to twenty steps proposed:facultyshould anticipate the need for coachingsome students in this area andencouraging sever;:l drafts of the projectproposal.

The tirtlipg and role Of interaCtibri Withthe community orthe citizenparticipation should be planned: Thisshould be based on discussions withcommunity leaders who must completelysupport techniques to be used. Theproject proposal or an accompanyingoutline should state the-purpose ofcitizen participation in this_projeCt.Generallsc students should anticipate theneed for at least three to six visits to thecommunity for data gathering at keydecision-making or project review points.

6. Require a project agreement. Studentsshould understand that once there hasbeen local publicity about a project orMultiple Meeting8 With Communityrepresentatives, local expectationo arehigh_for some kind _of tangible resultsNot only do the people aant the resultsbut local organizers' credibility may alsobe on the line. Conversely, the studentsare counting on the community forreimbursement of project expenses andfOr geriLiirie intereSt ih the reSUltS.Students registration fOr credit (whichmakes_them_responsibleto_faculty) helpsreinforce their commitment:

The faculty and communityrepresentatives should both accept andapprove_ the project proposal.: Often abbard Of direttdrS bt elected biddy paSSesa motion_supporting the Student project.Shorter projects_organized more closely_by faculty and agency personnel may getby on a verbal agreement. But; for moststudents' projects, a written projectagreement is advisable.

7. Use classroom resources. Thesecommunity-based_ prokects_are notusually internships with-in-field projectsupervisors: Therefore, there is greaterneeo Tot ::.lassroom and faculty supportof the stut...-mt effort. Classroomdiscussion. ..:Nr regular weekly:orpirnonthN . ill-i-guided -seminars of_students d t-o nparable communityprojects art portant. Groupdiscussions ter_to finer-A studentsare ideal as IportJr.ity iz students

3

to regularly share their concerns,problems,accornphshments and_ insights.Often what has worked well for a studentin onesctting is useful to another. In-class group discussions permit facultyfacilitate good working relationships ininterdisciplinary teams and provideinformation and assistance in how towork effectively in groups.

8: Guide community interaction: Encouragegood record-keeping and communicationand urge students to keep a journal.Require students to make regular writtenor verbal reports after each communityinteraction. Ask students tO obtain andturn in tO the faculty:copes of anynewspaper articles about the protect_aidany_ formal correspondence:Encouragestudents to prepare and attach a letter oftransmittal with all materials left .1 thecommunity. This can becomeincreasingly important:after :students :

have left the community arid people:askl'Who did this? Was it approved? Is it thefinal version?"

Students or faculty will determine theapproximate times needed forcommunity input or project review, but itis the community that should beresponsible for scheduling-, setting up,and publicizing them. Students are oftensurprised that arrangemeots for any_kinds of meetings usually need to bemade three to five weeks in advance to

assure ieasonable publicity. For majorpresentations. the community should beencouraged to solicit involvement ot alllocal groups. Faculty should anticipateperiodically attending student meetingswith the community.

9. Evaluate project results. At each phase ofthe project:students should present theirfindings_or turntn a_report to Me faculty.At the co rnpletion_of eThpliase, theoverall proposed process should bereevaluated and; if necessary, changed tomeet new finding s. Such changes shouldrequire faculty approval and, if major, anokay from the community.

By-grading the initial project proposalsand _interi m project_reviews; faculty canreinforce their value: Group cooperationcan be reinforced by giving some portionof a grade for it. Interim project reviewscan help students keep ohscheduladuring long projects. But:particularly in acomplex, multi-phase project,_caresneeded so that comments and gradOswork_as_constructive criticism, notdemoralizing judgments or disincentives:

Contact community representativeswithin about one month of projectcompletion to confirm that they receivedall the project results and any materialsborrowed from them. If possible a yearlater in eacncommunity,.contact a crosssection_of communitysepresentatives_tddocument the project's effectiveness andany action that has resulted from it.

6 4 59

Sample Applicationsmong the undergraduatecommunity study projects whichtookiplace in 1984 and.1985 are

several which- illu-strate a vanety ofapproaches. 1) The Resource andCommunity Development Seminar _involve°faculty In _six departments gulding_a team ofeleven students in a study of the recreationpotential of anabandoned iron mining Area.The project began with a two-daycommunity visit including a town meeting,and culminated six-months later with theproduction of a 129-page report._ 2) Anindividual housing major worked with alocaloommlssion to_determin_euseior anew senior citizen center: The studentsurveyed potential users and helpeddivergent groups work together toimplement their ideas. 3) Landscapearchitecture students have worked withcommunities in their senior thesis projects.One quarter eaCti student_ prepared_ a_twocredit proposal and.during the subsequentquarter carried out a six-credit project.Landscape architecture students in basicdesign.ciasses were involved in three-week,well-organized community design projects.4) Throughithe Community StudiesSeminar, a faculty team guided-twenty-seven students from four departmentsworking_with eleven.comrnunities Severalmultidisciplinary teams with studentsregistering in their own departments wereorganized through this weekly seminar.

60

ChallengesLand How toDeal With ThemFinding a project suitable for use within acourse which has itsown educationalobjectives can be difficult. Communityprojects are byinature complex, bringing:inm_any irrelevant details_and complex_politicalsituations:_Thereare_risks thi.-.t students maybe dragged into political controversy. Theproject may be a pet idea of a few anddisliked or of no interest to others and sothe financial and other support needed fromthe community may fall apart after theprojeOt is well underway.

c. avoid_thesarisks;.experiencedlaculty!:. Li T.o be involved in setting up projects.

Use only projects requested by a broadconstituency of the community and haveproject agreements signed. Allow extra timeand facu!ty support to help students sdrtthrough complexities.

Finding students with_ appropnate skills canalso be a problem: Generally only studentswith some background related to the projectshould do communny sLudies. Oncestudents are known, there should beopportunity to edapt the project to theirinterests and abilities. If students lave amajor difficulty in a project, plan somealternatives wnich save face foreveryonel._Allow thestudent to revise the project so itstill meets euucational and communityobjectives. Allow teams to regroup after aninitial phase of a project.

Communication breakdowns can eLsilyoccur given the multiplicity of people (anu"bosSes"), the distance, the fact that most _community people are volunteers and most

65

students_inexperiericed and. sc _forth.Objectives may change as more.is knownabout the project. Occasionally acommunity may become impatient forresults when students are being encouragedby their faculty to do project documentationand analysis firSt.

o avoid theseproblems, carefullyset up the project instituting clearcommunication channels among

students, faculty, and community. Facultyshould lead class discussion aboutcommunity interactions to nelp interpretcommunications-. Faculty should step inquickly and meet With the_community ifmajor communication problems develop.

Keeping on schedule will be a problemunless the project is carefully scheduledeither by the faculty or with thorough facultyreview. Unforeseen circumstances,including bad weather, can prevent keycommunity presentation& Some-studentswill do other "easier" class work beforedoing "extra" projects. Others haveproblems keeping motivated during a longproject.

The diStance.to some communities frOmcampus.is often cited as a_pOtential:problem: For welt-organized_project&inwhich students have a choice ot location;communities fewer than three hours awaygenerally present no problems. Fof largeteams or classes, where scheduling anyMeeting outSide_classis difficult, distancecan be an added problem.

Even though commitment and motivationore_high,_the number of incompletes at theend of a term.can_ Pe higherthan average,too; With community studie& sWdents_have_a great deal .of pride in what they will give toa community, and at times they refuse tocomplete it until itis done right, even whenthere is a grade:penalty. At timescommunities will schedule.,inalpresentations weekS after:the Class ends.and students want_to_wwk tor that_due date.Faculty may want to_grade_a_projecLon _

whatever is complete at the due date butthen ask the student for the final results forthe record.

Rarely do students fail to complete theproject once they are substantially into it. Inmost_circumstances a Student whopersistently fails to meeLdeadlines,_offersrepeated excuses or has inadequatesubmissions throughout a quarter should beterminated immediately from a communityproject, since it hurts everyone's credibility.The faculty Thould inform the commuoitypromptly rather than let performanceproblems drag on.

Finally. quality control may be acon Usually these are studentprc Id not faculty research

projects .,usi are very impressive bycommunity standards and adequate orbetter-by classroom standards. But they dogo_out to_ the public with faculty anddepartmentnames on_thern. Faculty.have todecide what they will do if a product is _ -

received the last week of the quarter and itreads or looks rather awkward.

66 61

"For the student, themost obvious benefit isthe practicalexDerience in applyingskills and knowledge."

62

The RewardsFor the student; the most obvious benefit isthe practical experience in applying skillsand knowledge. This is a-learningexpenence in itself_ and Students have alsodisectly gained by listing the project on ,heirresumes..Working for_ a receptivecom.-Ality is very motivating the studentknows the people are depending on himiherand this responsibility frequently leads tohigher levels of performance. The deadlinesare very real to the students; there arepresentations to schedule, communitymeetings to publicize arid _newspaperpublishing deadlines to meet:

Communities are usually impressed with thequality of Student work_and_ openly showtheir graqtude.__This positive response buildsconfidence in the student. The students candevelop abilities to work with others, makevaluable professional contacts, and learnnew approaches to the projects from eachother. The students,learn firsthano aboutcommunity values, issues, politicalprocesses, and local economics.

Both faculty and stUdents_caniuse thecommunity_study situation .to_try. newproblernsolving methods: Faculty may findthat the community study project providesan opportunity for applied resea;ch on asubject of special interest to them. Decisionmaking and practice in using specific,techniques lead to skills transferable toOther life arid prOfessional settings. The veryproLedure_of faculty ana_students_togetherdesigning.theproblem-solving p(ocessbr:ngs with it a mentor-apprentice rapport.

While working with the community, thefaculty can discover emerginc issues andbuild a rapport with community leaders

which may lead to futu-e faculty researchprojects. In many cases thecommunitystudy project_may be the_first dirEct contactbetween the community and members of aparticular discipline. How many people in asmall town or neighborhood really knowwhat a geographer does? Community studyprojects offer an opportunity for verypositive public relations for the departments,disciplines, and professions.

Where to Get HelpThe Center for Community Studies islocated at 201 North Hall, St. Paul Campus,373-0272. It is availaple to faculty who wanthelp finding communities, contacting localagencies, and structuring projects, tostudents looking for-projects for directedstudies or senior papers, and tocommunities seeking student/faculty help: Aresource center has been developed withbooks, etc. about community participationtechniques, community organizing, needsassessment techniques, town/park planningand design, group process and relatedissues.

Some University of Minnesota departmentsand faculty with community studiesexperience are agriculture and appliedeconomics, architecture, forest resources,housing, landscape architecture, recreation.parks and leisure studies, and urban studies.

Other Univers.ty of Minnesota units offeringsupportservices tnclude. AgnculturalExtension Service. Cooperative LearningProject, Office of Special LearningOpportunity. and Center for Urban andRegional Affairs.

67

Teaching Cognitive Skint toUnderprepared StudentsDeane Chambers

sinstructors most of us haveheard(or uttered) the complaint thatstudents don't (or can't) think. Yet

in our teaching we are often inclined eitherto assume that students know how toperform_ certain mental operations or toignore their a-nalytical shortcomings bysubstituting the_mere_memorizatiOn ofcourse materials fdr their real_analysis, Evenwhen instructors sense that students are notanalyzing well (or at all); they may assumethat teaching thinking skiHs is an impossibletask or at least a process too time-consuming to be undertaken in the averagecollege classroom.

In recent years; the Supportive_ServiceS_Prcgram (SSP) which serves approximately25 percent of the freshman population at theUniversity of Minnesota-Duluth; has becomeincreasmgly concerned that academicproblems of underprepared students gobeyond deficiencies in writing, reading,iandmath and are symptomatiC Of more basicprobterns_in thinking and problem-Solvingprocesses:

To address these problems; SSP hasintroduced into its classes the FeuersteinInstrumental Enrichment (FIE), anintervention strategy desicned to assistunderprepared studerls ,;-; improvingprob!em-solving skills. Alth_Oughifl our ca7the method has beei%intracfucelli_.:ucourses especially designed to improve_student cognilve skills; we believe that the

Diane_ChaMbers is _an instructor in theSupportive_Services_Program at theUniversity of Minnesota; Duluth:

d

same principles app:ied_in any classroomsetting will produce favorable results:

How to Get StartedThFeuersteiri_l_nstrurnental Enrichmentprogram focuses_on /he development ofboth cognitive skills and learning motivation:Through a variety_ of exercises; students arerequired to use higher mental processes insequences which involve various levels ofcomplexity and novelir. As studentsbecome increasingly competent in fihdirigsolutionS tO diffiCUlt proble_ros, they becomernoreconfident in approaching newproblems:

Instructors in the SupportiveServices Program have receivedconsiderable training in the use of

Feuerstein techniques and have found theapproadh described in this chapler highlysuccessful.Although use of the specificFeuerstein.exerciseslequires sorne_training,faculty members who are concerned thattheir students at whatever level ofacademic achievement should.developmore effective cognitive skills may find thatthe suggestions below can b:eapplied in avanety-of Courses withobt additionalinstructor training.

1 ldernify the problem: Thinking_is acomplex and somewhat intangibleproGess. In ordr.: fcr us to be able toteach students how to think, weinstructors must first make some

68 63

Teaching cognitivethinking M addition tothe regular coursecontent may require anew balance of processand content."

64

decisions about the kind of thinkingstudents must do in order to besuccessful in an academic setting. Insome courses we can emphasizeteaching istude; :s how to thinkhypothetically; 4 other courses,instructors might be more concernedwith teaching students how to_rnakevalue_judgments] In either case, the morean instructor knows about the hind nfthinking students are expected to do; thebetter he or she will be at teaching themhow to do it.

2. Describe the cognitive stages. For mostof us the process of thinking analyticallyis almost automatic,_We may even beunaware of the steps we go through indoing it. For some students, however; anassignment such as "compare the Britisnand American systems of:government"may be very confusing. Many wi:isimplylist the characteristics of eaCh Of thesystems without taking the next step ofactuatty_rnakino_th,e comparison:. An _instruclor can nelo :;tudents by spendingsome dass tirr.,, discussing the processnecessary to cri'npletiiig the assignedtasks. In th,; SSP courses, we haveagreed to introduce the followingelements as a strategy for analytitalthinking:

a. Define the objectives of the task.b. Note the information given in the

problem itself.c. Plan a strategy that will allow you

to address the problem.

d. Determine toe rules which wouldoperate to solve the problem.

e. Check your work both when youare working on the prObiern andafter the tr.k is completed.

There are a_numbe;-_of sources _which .

may help you decide how to present theprocess of analytical tninking to yourstudents. See; for instance, BarryAnderson (1980), Edward deBono (1976),and Wilbert McKeacnie, ed. (1980).

3. EStabligh a "tninking vocab_u1-4: far thecrass-, Itmay be useful to establish a-)cabulary list with which students areexpected to be familiar by the end of thecourse. To repeat such words as"comp rison" and "hypothesis" inlectures and class discussions may fosteranalytical thinking because theSeencourage students to stay with theirmaterials.

4: Provide models of the processes youwant students to emulate. Since theyoften learn best by example, it is good tospend some class time on exercisesdesigned to encourage the types ofanalytical thinking students are-expectedto undertake.on their own:_For_example,in .m_y class students were expected tounderstand the process of decision-making. I outlined for them the processesI used in deciding whether or not to buya:Macintosh microcomputer. The classdiscussed the Steps I had taken inmakihg the deciion without knowing myfinal decision. Alto adding some

69

consideraCons, _they made a collectiVedecision_ which _they then_compared w_ithmine: Having gone througnthe processin class; students were better prepared tocomplete a similar decision-makingassignment individually.

5. Provide reinforcement through feedback.Students may not always see howstrategies used in _one situation are usefulin other, similarsituations One_of_mystudents; ;or instance, was given aprocess for solving word problems in herele-nentary algebra class. But becausethe 'nstructor made rn'ereuce to -sheprocess in connection with only oneproblem and never explained itsrelevance_for problems of this type, thestudentnever used_ it_again_When Ipresented the same process in_my class;the student suddenly understood theutility of the process for solving wordproblems in general.

Sample-Applicationst the _University ofDuluth-, a num:. -ar_ of programs_designed to assist 3 wide_range of

individuals traditionally disadvnntaged inhigher education have been merged into theSupportive Services Program. Doursesoffered include Readihg Skills, Studyand a_cou,-se specifically focused oncognitive thinking. When the decision wil.smade to introdoce_th_e Feuerstein methodinto S5F classes; instructors in ihe programreceived training in the Feuersteintechniques. The training as followed by aseries of staff meetnos which focused ondeveloping teaching strategies which wouldbe consistent across classes.

.r?

In the first such meeting, an all-day session.the staff drew up preliminary drafts listingthinking principles in whooh vie collectivelybelieved and common "thinking vocabulary"terms that we would agree to reinforce inour classes. Regarding thinking principles,for instance, we were agreed tha1, amongother things:

effeetive automat. C thinking processesshould _replace iiieffective automaticthinking Fv.:-.cesses:awarere f how we think: what wevalue; .c.id oow -ve solve problems canlead us to n*ix^ more eitective

s "ti.ne ht ovided forthinghypCno! an De used topredizt t;),. )seq:nces of ouractions f!,:* "-,;ne the result of an actbefore o e

In all,: th dev:Dped a list o -;3 learningpr;nciples around v,nich courses wereformed ounng the 1984-85 academic .;cir

The same procedure was used to clevise afinal vocabulary list of words with whi,:h wethought students .:,:hould be faniliar. Thefiaalithinking vocathil2;y list includes 59wurds and pr:rases which were tO bereinforced from _course_ to course.Academicunits on campus have since worked to _

coorthnate their content vocabulary andhave discussed :.low to help studentsbecome more familiar with the terminologyof their disciplines.

65

66

In the individual SSP courses,instructorF- were careful- to- reinforcethe students._ use of both _the

thinking_principles &Wine thinking_vocabulary we had agreed upon: Weprovided guided practice in the kinds ofanalytical ,xe;cises students mightencounter in content courses at theUniversity. We 31SO prowded, rnodelsrepresenting ii.e kind of work whichstuderitS are expecte(' to achieve. Forinstance;_one Lnstructorplaced..the_best.termpapers from her students in a file for otherstudents to examine; another wrote samplebook reviews to give students an idea ofwhat instructors might expect.

In each class, instructors cited evidence ofbehavii, hanges in students, including:

improved communication skills .

(greater willingness of students toparticipate in oral discussion',increased relevance of theft questionsand answers;_ more active listening;and students improVed ability tbdefend Opinions on the basis of logiCalevidenCe);

overcoming passivity as demonstratedby stUdents'initiating_ideas, showingcuriosity, volunteering_for additionaltasks, helping others, and beingwilling to take risks without fear offailure;increased ability to define problemssystematically and plan problem-solving strategies without theimpulsiveness Of trick] and error tactics;developed_ability_ttransferlearnedconcepts and problem-solvingstrategies to academic studies and lifesituations result of seeing andprojecting ,onships, and gaininginsight into thought processes;acceptance of responsibility _torihdependently gathering ando:ganizing information_doing. moreprecise woricreading and using_directions; correcting errors; andmaking decisions based on logicalevidence.

Challenges and How to DealWith ThemTeaching cognitive skills to_students,_particuJarly_to_ underpreparedstudents;_canbe a difficult process: Most instructors areused to covering considerable course_material in a 10-wet. period. Teachingcognitive thinking in addition to the regularLouise content may require a new balanceof-process and content. Tb dumpinformation on students, partic_plarlyrt.theyare not equipped_to deal with.kgenerallyresults in little more than the memorization

71

of isolated facts. While instructors may haveto make some decisions about whatsubstantive material is most importarstudents are likely to leave the classanalytical framework on which to "hangnew information.

Students_may_alsosuffersorne impatielce ifthey are asked to slow down to examine theprocesses they use to derive their answers.Most students are conditior,A nto the"right answer syndrome:" 31,:t . ,ayibecomeopenly hostile_ when af, ins:Fl,ctor indicatesthat some_ prOblerm: more than onesolution strategy.

In addition, teaching Locjtive thinking skillsrequires considerab planning by the :

instructor. Instructors :may find: it takes timeto develop mOdels to illustrate-the kind ofthinking processes they_would likestudentSto follow: -And we must detei mine thesequence in which to introduce facts andconcepts.

The-Rewatdsnderprepared students can be alaCkluster, passive, unmotivated:group of people through no fault of

their own:_Often they cr not see a purpose_behind their class work: Lut when we fc ;ustheir attention on thinking skills; we seemany of these students transfo'flted irparticipants who are c.ce:ive and enthus asticabout their academic_ activities.:Instrixtorsin our program noted a Strong increase inthe students' motivation, and overallimprovement in their self-concepts.

Students_ previously_passive began to_discuss; argue and produce some_ wonderfpapers. They _were able to respond to otherswhen asked questions about what they weredoing, and they learned to defend theiranswers when asked why:they had come toa particular conclusion. The main reward forari instructor is in seeing such Changes takeplace:

Another reward is tne excitement ofteaching students to learn. It is much morefun to teach students who are activelyinvolved than to wait passively forsornething to happen.

Underpreparedstudents are_often at adisadvantage because they lack the _

generative thinking skills necesswy fordoing well acadmically. The approachbutlinPd here illustrates one_attempt atpreparing, 6tese students to perform more;;t:;_,:r.,ofull;/ at university level.

when we focustheir attention onthinking skills, we seemany of these studentstransformed intoparlicipants who areactive and enthusiasticabout their aCademicactivities."

"Computers should beused for what they are

extremely usefultools."

68

Personal Computers in Education

Alan Wassyng, Karl Smith, and Sam Sharp

ot too many years_ago_educatorsbecame entranced by the thoughtof harnessing the power of

computers to take over the teachingprocess. For quite some time the computerwas touted as the solution to thetremendous problems in technicaleducation. However,- it became apparentthat the_much_heraldecl_arrival _o_f_computersand; in particular; Computer AidedInstruction; did not have the effect everyonehad hoped for. It is only in very_recent yearsthat computers:have started to play asignificant role in education:. This turn-:around has come about mainly,through theproliferationof low coSticapable, personalcomputers: Together with; _or perhapsbecause of this proliferation; manyeducators have come to realize thatcompArs should be used for what they are

extremely versat:i

is onapte, oedls thm effective use ofpersona: coniputers in ti,._::-,ducationalprocess. We do not adcr_es. 4.,.;!inuter dn Iaro practice as popularized :r, '.tionalCs:imp:ter Aided Instruction, oit,- i _ me ofrefererr-e is the kind o'; cc.,Lits,'S in v. .ichp, ;nieret sck:ng a erncipF,I ccrnnonent.Our (...!) .t,vth er`T',. -flogcourses, but we feel that our .jcas arepertinent to social, natural and physicalscience coursesand many of the moretechnical business courses. Although we

AtarrWassyng_and KartSmith are assistantprofessors; and Sam Sharp is a researchassociate in the Department of Civil andMineral Engineering at the University ofMinnesota.

cannot make.any claims abouttheappHcation of our techniques ancLiCeas tcother areas we think me have discoveredprinciples that transcend their boundaries.What we offer is our experience in usingpersonal cor7puters for engineeringeducation over the past five years. We havebeen heavily invOlved in this process, andshare the excitement engendered byactively involving students in the learningprocess_through the use of personalcomputers:

Sample ApplicationsWe see two-kinds of computer use ineducatiOn: 1)_ The use of_ the_comp_uter as anapplications taol to solvaproblems _in _whatever discipline is under study; and 2)The use of the computer as an educationaltoo/ used to teach students something abouta -,..:hnique, the behavior_of a system orperhaps the mechanics . of_an algorithm.These uses are not mutually extlusive.

1. The computer as an applications loot_ _Our experience_shows that students learnbest when actively involved in thelearning process. The computer can andshould be used to promote suchinvolvement.:Generic computer softwaresuch as word processors, spreadsheets.database managers, and statiStical andgraphics programsare invaluable in thisregarctIn particular; the use of aspreadsheet program such as LotusCorporation's 1-2-3 can be used toenable the student to try mai,-; differentvalues for crucial dimension§ in a

73

particular study. In situations where thr:student has no expertise in the use of ir espreadsheet program, the instructor canprepare a template. While a templateincludes all-tne necessary formulae. It isalso possible for the user-to changesome.vatuesin.the_worksheet. In thiS waythe student.can determine.the.effectofsuch changes without becoming deeplyembroiled in the setting up of thespreadsheet itself. Of course, the studentcan still examine all of the pertinentnumbers and formulae.

A few hours of instruction onspreadsheet fundamentals WiU :,Pirnit thestudents to be more deeply involved ncreating the spreadsheet formulae.

For exarnple,_ we are currently planningan engineering-oriented modeling__course: As thiscourse is to_be_given earlyin a student's career; we cannot assumemuch computer programming :xpertiseor any significant methematicalsophistication on the part of ourstudents. The emphasis during the_course will be on the formulation of themodel and its_relation_to the_ physical_system it has been designed to representIn order to achieve our goals the studentsmust be able to solve the mathmaticalproblems that arise in such endeavors.We intend to use a-soraadshee, program(probably_Lotus 1-2-3) in conjunctionwith very basic numerical methods.:Neare confident ihat_we can adequatelyintroduce_students_to 1_-_2-:.i in_two tothree hours: We will then introduceappropriate rurnerical techniques as theyare required. Many s eadsheetprograms can also generate 9raphics (for

example k graphs). yvhich arecenhance the students undercinvolvement.

Specific applications packages, such assimple beam analyses. may be used toenable the students to solvethe numberof problems sufficient to build experiencethat would oth_erwise sake too !ong tOacquire: In this case, the instructor_has tobalance carefully the time at herihisdisposal to explain methods of solutionand the understandable inclination of thestudent to use such a package withoutmastering the concepts involved.

On_another level, word processing_canbe an extremely_effectivemay in.which toinvolve th :. students in .the learningprocess.Nathan, 1985). Our experiencein getting students to use a wordprocessor to write up_their reports hashacta remarkable side effect. They putconsiderably more-effort into theirreportc.:._.Students clearly feel Some__obligation to_match the_content of theirreport with its now improved appearance.What this means in practice is that theyspend more time polishing their work.This often results in a deepercommitmentto understand what they rewriting about.

2: The computer as an.edvoational.tool.Students are currently taughtto use_computers aaa tool they will eventuallyemploy to help solve problems in theirfieldaof interest. It is this cap3bility thatsets the computer apart from otherteething aids. Using the computer simplyto automate what ',lechers and text-books have traditionally provided for

7 4 69

stuaents is not adequate. Even if thecomputes- is aole to.reactin a reasonablemanner tO students input we.do notthink that p-resent _computer technology.cart present factuatrnaterial.as effectivelyas books and magazines can present it,And; although Computers c.tn be used topresent material and tes!' students'.understanding of at material, they arenot ade:-..;.-ite substitutes for humar.teachers. One of the main re.asons th'<:tcomputer aided instruction -Is_cons[deredart attractive.alternattve_to traditionalteaching is that students are able toproceed at their own pace. Quickerstudents are not bored and slowerstudents are not left behind. However,this is not really a justification for usingcomputers over human beings:in theideal case; if there were.enough_goodteachers to.work.individually_with _

students ;his argument would not hold.So; at best; the use of computers in thisway is an attempt to overcome a"numbers" problem.

A more practical drawback to computerassiSted instruction _is_that good teacherr,usually_loath_using teaching materialprepared by somebody else. Forgood reason; they like to explain thingsin their own language, using a notationwith which they are comfortable. Thismeans that:mass produced coursewarestarts at a disadvantage.

Students_need tobu.ildex.periencethrough active participation in stu:.,ingthe behavior of a variety of systems(Arons, 1984; Hartley, 1985; Smith,-.`31urfield and Macneal, 1985). It is all verywell for them to learn the theory behind

70

some phenomenon, but actualexperience is often necessary beforestudents reaHy understand

We believe that we should usecomputers; books, video, handouts,overhead transparencies, chalkboard:eac:h wherever it is:appropriate. At themoment it seems that a well trained,motivated teacher !has no peer in thepresentation anddiscussion.of ideas.andconcepts._The_teacher should use thetools mentioned above to supplement theeducational process. Books,rnagazinesand notes can br lised to impartinformation to Jents (usually in theteacher's absence). Video could be usedthis way-or, like-overhead transparencies,it could_ be used_to impartirAo=matduring formal lectures and discussions.The computer, however, is different. Ithas an advantage that none of the othermedia has: it can solve problems.

The personal Computer can be used todevelop special educational programswhich permit s_tude'S 10- devefop_thisexperience.. Most GL the. i nstructionalsoftware we have developed is designedto use two screens simultaneously, onescreen for color graphics and the otherfor text. This enables us to presPiitcomplementary pictures and text witho.uthayingto flip from one to the other andwithout _losing the amount of informationwe_ would have to sacrifice if _we _were touse "windows" on the relatively smallscreens available on most pen.oilalcomputers.

75

Two examples, a wale; powersystem simulation and a crihcalpath scheduling, wiH illustrate our

use of the computer as an educational tool.

Example 1:A Water Power System SimulalionA typical water power system consists of awater reservoir, two si je shafts and a shut-off valve downstream. We assume that thereservoir is_kept at a constant leve, and thatthe shut-off valve is closed at a constantrate. The emphasis in thi ,ulation is toexamine the effects of the rate at which astudent may close the shut-off valve.

Here students can observe ior themselvesthat a rapidly closed valve will oscillate inthe surge shafts. Howevert if they close thevalve slowly the water levels in the surgeshafts approaCh their equilibrium levels in arather seciat_e_fashion. The faCt that thestudents control Me systarn enables them toexperiment with the system just as if theywere experimenting -vv.;h the re.-d physicalsystem. The advantages, of course, are thatrit.-,ny different cases can be tried and thussome insight acquired:into the behavior ofthesystem. The graphics in this example_eally_spell the differehce between successand failure:

Traditionally; the results of simulations likethis have been tabulated: numbers depirt ngthe levelsof the water in the surge shafts,numbers for the velocities,,numbers whichhaveto be interpreted. In those cases wheregraphs are used; they are traditionallygraphs of height versus..time: These graphsstill have to be interpreted. The real systembehavior is best understood by watching thereal system (even if it is just a graptic

representation): This seems to be the onlyway to develop a "physical feerfor thebehavior of the system. The graphs andnumbers are ,mportant. In fact, in somecases, they may show trends that are notobvious from simple observation of:theactual_ system, but these are sophistications.What.has to_be achieve° lir.st istamiliaritywith the system, an understariding of _how itworks; and what actually happens. It seemsto us that this is what is lacking in mostmodern technical education. All too oftenstudents are taught about details andsophistications before they reallyunderstand the basics.

Example 2:A Critical Path Scheduling PackageTeaching crcal path scheduling presentstwo difficulties. The first is how to showstudents the power of :the technique andhow ahd when _to use it in practice. Thesecond is how to give the students sufficientknowledge of_the algorithm and an intuitiveunderstanding of_ why_ it wdrks]_The packagewe have developed was designed to copewith ooth these aspects. It solves criticalpath scheduling problems and also can beused to demonstrate the algorithm.

Food For Thought ,Suppose you_are planning a dinnerfor two.Your menu_consists.ataery_special soup-and a baked chicken entree. The soup musthe boiled for 35 minutes and you shouldallow 15 minutes to serve and consume it.The chicken dish requires a fair amount ofpreparation.:Youlhave to,boil rice (for 30minutes), lightly fry the,Ohicken (for 15minutes), and then put the rice and chickenin a_baking dish_in_the.oven_for_l_5 minutes.It takes 5 minutes to prepare a sauce in the

7R

frying nanand 15 minutes to bbil peas. (Youonly hi.ve two potS and one trying panbesideS the bakingotish,) .You have_bouglit agood whita wine; allow 5 minutes to uncorkit (very carefully) and .let it stand for 30minutes before serving it. Allow 25 minutesto serve and demolish the entree and wine.How qjickly can you prepare and consumethe meal?

'FOod for thoughr is theproblern we use tointroduce students to critical pathscheduling: This technique can be used torepresent task interdependence andprecedence in a project consisting Dfnumerous activities. Apart from performingsuch analyses, our cntical path program canbe used to illUStrate the actual algorithmemployed; this sets it apart from other

applications packages and represent:,uve use of the computer as an

edocatIonal tool.

Figures 1 and 2 show two dis:inctstages in the "stepping" option inthe computer package. The

stepping option actually lets the user_ i

examine the critical path al-corithm,-step bystep. Figure 1 shows the_situationafter_thefirst four activities_ have been_ laid out on atime scale starting from the beginning of theproject. In Figure 2 we see that activity 'Winebreati-es' then follows activity 'Open wine:The student can thus follow the algorithm aseach tnsk isiadded to the display. Duringthis phase all activities are scheduled to startjust as scion as they can.

3oli rice

rFry chicken I

10 20 30 40 50

Figure 1

Open!wine 1 wine breathes

IBoil soup

Fry chicke,

1 I

10

72

I I

20 30 40

Figure 277

60 70 Time

50 60 70 Time

Figure 3 shows the paths when au theactivities have been considered. At thisStage it-is easy-for the students to identifythe "Ctitital path." This is the path(s) inwhich Mere is abSolutely.no slaCk time, thatis, the path in which_a nlayin.any activitywill delay the completion.af the_entire_.project. In our example; the critical activitiesare: boil soup, eat soup; and eat entree Atthis stage,, however, the computer has notyet identified the critical path. In order.to doSoall the attMties must be shifted to startjust as late as they can. This is shown in

Figure 4. (Note :hat tt,i: oc:vities ar hftcone by one in th program. W. shownjust the final result in inP. interesi f savirgspace. Also, on the corni ter scr!_en thedisplay :; colored to highligN salientpoints.)

Now the computer has a; t,-ie infOrrnatibri itrequires. Fina:ly, the stucan_t_can discoverhow the tasks are interreiated by shifting_any non-cntical task. For example; if_we tryto tivity Prepaie sauce' to start

. 'can 35, we will have to shift activity

!Opel'Wine I Wine breathes I slack Eat entree

Bbil SOOP IEat soup Eat entree

Boil rice IBoil peas I slatk Eat entree

Lry thicken

Hy thicken

slack Bake entree s!ack Eat entree

'Sauce!

I 1 I I-10 20

Openslack wine

slack Eat entree

I I I30 40 SC 60 70 Time

Figure 3

Wine breathes I Eat entree

J60 70 Time

siack

Isiack: Boil rice

Boi! sow I Eat scip

Boil rice Bake antree

Eat entree

Eat entree

IBoil )eas

SlaCk ITy7tticken FETa.kir entree

Eat entree

Eat entree

Istack Fry thitken

I______I ___I_ i 1 Lo 10 zo 30

slatk ISáuce

I40

Eat entree

50

Figure 4 73

"Using personalcomputers in educationis resource-intensive_and the one resource itrequires most of all isthe dedicated Wither."

74

'fry chicken first. This enables the student tOdevelop a feel for the crucial_ notion c"floar (the slack time available in anactivity):

The teaching aspect of the critical pathprogram can be activated only if theproblem being solved iS "SMall." This meansthat:a Single prOgram can be:Used aS thestudents progress frorri,the stage wherelearning,the_critical path method is _ _

important to that where the emphasis is onthe solution of practical problems. Thestudents are thus familiar with the programby the time they have to concentrate onsolving real problems and can devote theirenergies tb the prOblems not to learninghOW tb USO the computer package.

Additionaldetail as to how we communicatethe need for the techniques and how theteaching software is used du* ig the courseis provided later in this chapt,

How 20 Get Started-t leaSt One member Of the:inStruCtionalgroup shoutdbe_

_reasonably famitiar with personalcomputers: If there is no such member thenyour first priority is to create one! In manycases, we feel that students are far betterprepared, emotionally as well as technicaly.for the introduction oi computers (titheteaching curriculum So s.riy:igly did We feelon thiS matter that o eqr;V 1983,we_ran twofive-week courses to heip farnitiarizeourfaculty with_Pascal on personal computers.The courses were well attended; about 15faculty per course.

Start small and choose your applicationarea(s)_carefully: The most successfulapproach is the evolutionary. If you cannotcreate your own software, or cannot getsomeone to create it for you, then try todetermine:how you can use existing :

programs:in your field of intereSt. In faCt,you would be wise to adopt this,course ofaCtiOn before setting out to create your ownSoftware:

Estimate how many personal computers youwill require for your particular class size. Wehave been quite satisfied using central :

clusters of per'onal computerS, ratbee th9hrequiring students to purchase a_compiAer.A cluster of five_personal,computers_canserve a class of_20_to 30 students if theyhave enough access: In the early stages, thearrangement of groups of two or three at amachine goes a long way in helping withtwo problems: i) fewer machines serve morestudents and ii) more importantly, thestudents assist and _motivate each otherouring these crucial learning stages.

Spend some time in the early stages of thecourse to familiarize tht -:tudents with boththe hardware and the panicular softwarethey will be using. Effort expended at thistime will signifiCantly lower the frustrationthat students might suffer later:in thecourse._ If at least One cluster of personal:COmputers is located:in a _room canUsed for "hands-on- demonstration

79

sessions. then the first couole of sessionsshould be performed in this manner.

As far as possible, provide the stud: -Its withs. written user s guide to both the hardwarea nd sOft wa re.

Using InstructionalComputer Packages

s with any relatively new endeavor.there are many views and opinionsion how computers can and should

be used in the education process. We haveJust a tew points that we think are.importantenough_to_.be_stated in the form of ."rules.'Note that these rules.do not necessarilycover the cases in which students usecomputers to learn about computing.

1. The computer_should be used topromote actwe learning. Instead olsimply presenting information and testingthe students'_retention of thatiniorrnatiorLthe computer should_used to involve thestudents in the activediscovery of general principles. Usuallysuch discoveries are made by thobservation of similarities which inmany differenticases or systerns. Thecompute' provides us with the means ofpresenting StLi&i,is With a. vanety ofsystoms_iii a t nfPiinciples wft _ ,;scovered.in.this_way hold muc, note i7leaning than thosewhich are simply expounded during thecourse of a lecture.

2. The computer packages _should be toolswhich can be used to solve real problemsin th:c particular field of interest. Thesetools might_also contain teacning aids, asin the critical path scheduling example

abw.e. ii o_ur expenence_this is a veryeffective way of ?dually getting studentsinvolved in the learning process.

3 Graphics snould be used (whenever itm9kes sense to do so) to illustrate thebehavior Of systems or to present aneasily iniorpreted representation.of aparacular .event._In many cases_ !heeffective use of_graphics enabies_the.computer package to behave as another"Ianguaoe" to impart importantinformat,on. Traditionally, the languageused_in su,:n cases is mathematics, butvery few students can readily readphysical meaning intO the equations theyderive or study.

4. As far as possible; the computerpackages should be constructed/used insuch a way that the emphasis can remaino,i the subpct at hand, rather than on themechanics of the-computerimplemcntation. It is clear that somecomputer programs are -mor_e easy to usethan are others: '_Ease. of. use". in _

packages designed for teaching is ofparamount importance. The mostimportant attributes of such packages inthis regard pre that: i) it is obvious how toproceed at any stage in the program; ii)sufficient information is displayed on thescreen(s) to avoid continual referencetoanother location(screen or printout) foressential information;_iii) in_spite of theprevious point, each point beeconomically stated and arranged so thatessential information is imme-1,2..4

. i) error messages, as helpful aspossible, do-not obliterate theinformation that was on the screen at thetime the error occurred; and v) these

Qn75

1

packages mList recover gracefuHy fromusers. errors.

5 The computer packages should notviewed as soniething separate from the

St Of the !caching process. They shouldbe an-integral part Of an-educator'stoolkit and_should be regarded assupport mechanisms which may help tointroduce and reinforce ideas Or simplyact as tools in the solution of relevantproblems Tney should never be used inisolation, but should be combined withrelevant lectures, assignments, andreading material.

ehave been using instructionalcomputer packages for about sixyears now in the Department of

Civil and.Mineral Engineering at theUniversity of Minnesota. Sin^e 1981 we haverelied mainly on personal computers asthema,:hirtes of our choice. Initially we usedApple Il_computers but nowhave.migrated_to th3 IBM PC: T_he response from studentsto the inclusion of instructional computerpackanes has been more than encJuraging.They indicate that our extensive use of_personal computers is a majorreason forelecting to take our courses. Also, studentshave been encouraged by the iriendliness"of these smaltcomputers and have.beenhappy.witn theirincreased access.tocomputers: We have noticed a distinctimprovementin students' basicunderstanding of the course material, and arefreshing amount of innovation andcreativity in the way they have tackled theirassignments.

76

We have used these packages in two waysThe first and obvious way is simply to makeme programs available to students so thatthey are able to use them in the solution ofassigned problems. They are thus simplyapplication tools. Some of the packages canalso beused as edurational tools. WhiLe_ thisuse means more preparation for instructors.it also increases thai effectiveness (Smith.Wassyng and Starfi, 1983).

Initially, we present students with a problemwhich canbe solved using the technique weare about to stuoy. The probte!.. :ts-eff is notvery difficult and_the students_are not _ _

informed as to what technique is involved("Food for Thought" is an exr.:mple). Theyare divided into groups of two or three andasked to formulate and solve the problemduring a 45-minute session. This session isrun as a.group active learning project. At theconcijsion of this session, trie groupsiarerequested to_present their scdutions.. Th_eyare then asked whether or_not_their methodscould cope with slightly altered orcomplicated versions of the problem. In thisway they get to understand the need for thetechnique we are about to introduce andgain a-first-hand understanding of thedifficulties involved.,The technique.itselfcould baintroduced during a structuredtutorial {the students araqueriedand__prompted to discover the essential steps inthe algorW-- in a typical lecture sessicll,depending e complexity of thetechnique ai Me background of thestudents. At the successful conclusion 0:that stage, textbooks and other readingmatenatare recommended. ThiS is anessential_step_to broa.:on_the studentsunderstanding of the subject The computer

81

packages can be used during thisintroductory stage simply to .nstratethe approach.

A succession otassigned prc _ _ns followsthis initial problem: These can be relativelysmall, and we reco ,mend that at leasi oneof the_pToblems be done manually. Thatsame problem, and all of the others, shouldthen be solved using the computerpackage(s). At this stage the computerpackage is used in either a teach...1g mode,of simply as_a_toot_depending on thestudents' requirement:

Finalk i?ast one open-ended problem isass}gri.c tne groups. The problems are

thatthere are numerousways-ti formulate thent and the solutiortisensitiVe to the assumptions involved in the

formulation: By_ttaving_to pose same _o_f thequestions themselves; students developskills at solving realistic problems and aremotivated to achieve a more basicunderstanding of the behavior of thesystems they are studying. At this stage, thecornputer packagesare clearly used Just asapplication tools in the sblution process.

Challenges_and Hew toDe_al With Them

lthough there are significant pitfallsinithe use of personal computers ineducation, our experience is that

the rewards far outweigh the diffitiiltieS.Also, with iusta few exceptions, theproblems in_ using_personat computers idthe teaching process are no difserent fromthose inherent in striving to achieve qualityeducation independent of tools aridtechniques.

6

The following points highlight the majorobstacles.

1 At this time not enough educators arefamiliar with personal cornputersorcompetent to _use them in instruction(Turner: 1985):

2. Although the cost of hardware isdecreasing, costs of both hardwar andsoftware are still significant.

3. Not enough quality instructional soft.vareis available.

4. Currentiy were is little ,nstitutionalincentive or reward for faculty working inthis area. Computer programs do notappear to count as learned publications,and they take much longer tc create(Turner, 1S:35).

5: It is imperative that stuier do not cometo rely on solutions provided by theprograms without understanding how thesolution was reached, and withoutchecking the solution for reasonablebehavior. (This has always been awidespread prOblem hi the Use ofcomputers in practice as well as ineducation])

8 2 77

ConclusionUsing p.rson-al computers in education isresource-intensiveanditheone resourceitrequires moSt of.all IS the dedicated teacher:We see no.realistio.way.o_f getting acomputer to cope adequately with the taskof monitoring a student's progress or oftailoring additional help to a student'sneeds; noti; we want to retain any:thoughtsof nurturing creativity and of creating achrnate of healthy skepticisrn. And withoutcreativity tnere is very little progress!

-nacomputer should be recognize- fo;.hat it is an extremely versatiie toc,/. It

can supplement traditiceial enucatic.-ialprocesses, but it should not supplant them.The computer can and shobld ,o!utionizeteach:og, but it should do so by makr ng iteasier for studentS tO exnenment vidifferent situationsA 1 nut be used tofr)struct_thestudents the studentsshould become adept in mstruc.ong it and inharnessing its power for their own ..,dividualuses.

With the availability, relahvely low cost, andeffective graphics of modern personal,computers, it is nowpoible tc rovtdestudentsvith enough access to computersto make the computer an invaluable tool .neducation. We will be missing anoutstanding opportunity if we do not do so.But inappropriate use of these machinescould destroy mostiof the current good wihand excitement that we enjoy today. Wesnould not trivialize the teac:hing process,:-ior promise more_thamwe can dehver. Butvc-ecto feel_ that effective use of pesonalcomputers to involve students more in thelearning process can greatly contribute totechnical education.

78

Acknowledp.:entsWe gratc ,.1.-...acKnowledgethe assrstance ;AAntnony L:..ar_fietct_with whom we have spentmany hours discussing these ;E-,,st.h-s Weowe a lot to Charles Faiiturst, our h.:ad ofdepartment; and to Kenneth Reid, thedireAor of the Mineral iResources_ResearchCenter, who have proVideo us withopportunity, encouragement and support.The computer programs.described.havebn j::everoped as part of a joint studiesc-,:itract with IBM, and we would like tothank those at IBM Nno have been sosupportive of our work.

83

Questions and AnswersAbout Active LearningGloria Christopher

The authors of the precedng _

chapters have made men.,on ofsome of the many rewards

associated with the use of active !earningmethods. However, you may still haveouestions-and concerns about activelearning. The following questions 'Nerethose most frequenti/ asked_by part;cipahtsin the Northwest ..^,.ea_R:grarn workshop.,The answers are derived largely from a y,-3along evaluation process consisting of sixbasic elements:

(1) surveys and interviews of project leaders7;sociated ,.vith the program from 1983 tb

(2) surveys_ot 891 students involved in activelearning project classes;

(3) surveys of 62 faculty participants inNorthwest Area Program workshops andseminars;

(4) on-site visits to active learning projectclaSSes,

(5) informal interviews with students andchin assiStants trwOlved in act:verilri.j classes;

project leader final reports;

More specific information about theevalual procedures is described at theend of ; chapter.

Gloria Chrtstopher is a doctoral canclida:e inpolitical science at the University ofMinn8ota.

Quest i: How widespread is active_learning az the Uniity o Minnesota?In a survey of Northwest t 'ogramworkshop participants, re its wereaskt to indicate how cite. usedspecified activities in their clas:es. Thefoilowing table shows the activities USed bythe 62 faculty_reocrtirig five months or moreaiter attending a worksh,. p.

The_widesoread use of active Stiategieswhich involve students_in art activ_ity oiwhich require interaction with peers isimpressive. Results indicate that activelearning techniques are employed by P. fart.1:

number of faculty members their(6.-g. group projects were used "usually" oi7often"_by 84% of the 4ulty teaching alower dMsion class, and given high ratingby 37%). More traditional teachingtechniques such as lectures and readingand writing assignments; however, are stillthe most frequently used methods.

The use of active-learning methods appearsto increase with the level_ of the class. Abreakdown by class level (Icwerupper clivisionand_graduate) indicates thatwhile group discussion is used in_100% ofthe_graduate courses listed by respondents,only 26.3% of faculty "usually" incorporateiscussion into lower division classes, and

10c;0"nr,ver" use it there. Similar:y over 85%of thi;-,1 uctors teaching gra IL, coursesrepoile sirg wr,mg assignrne Dften"orusuatly7_;_ 4_7% of the lower div:si,faculty reported the same frequency of use.

Wnile the number of respondents ir ;hissurvey is too low and the auclf:nce .00

8479

Table 1

Teac wig Strateg:Used by Faculty

Lower Division Upper Division _GraduateWed_by

High_

ratingUsed

byHighrating

Useuby

11,c:r

rat...g

Reading Assignments 95% 63% 100% 79% 100% 100'

Group Discussion 90% 69% 90% 72% 100% Ci0.;-,

Lectures 89% 530/0 100% 6.6070 _86% !..7%

Mini Lecturer.' 89% 420/0 85% 41% 100%

Individual ProjettS 84'7O 47% "..5% 61 i,i 10( %

_72%

1000 ,6

Writing-ASSigriMentS 84% 47% 93% 66% 100% 56%

orti-Up PrOjett 840/o 37% 93% 62% 100% 850/0

Tests__ 84% 26% 93% 56% 86% 57%

Quizzes 74% 32% 82% 26% 50% 33%

Student Presentations 68% 16% 96% 63% 1009'o 86%

Field Work 68°,r, 11% 89% 48% 1000/0 570

Lab Work 53% 26% 770/6 31% 67% 17%

Case Studies : i 53% 10% 77% 27% 86% 71%

Research ParticipatiOn 47% 21% 82% 39% 83% 33°/c

Rble Playing 47% 0% 58% 15% 100% 57%

COmputer Work 42% 5% 01'/t, 20% 33% 0%

unrepresentative to be taken as a sample ofthe overall University community, the dataindicate that facuity are USing actiVeteaching strategies as an alternative orsupolemertt to ?Mona' rw-hods:However, this is much more the case at thegraduate level than at the undergiaduatelevel.

Question 2: Do-a,:tive learning methodSrealty make a difterente in tha classtoomeniriebnment?The deSCriptiOn of an_ active_ learningclassroom in_the_Introduction offers animpressive contrast to many collegeclassrooms. On-site visits to active learningclass'n suggest the description is notatypical. Repeatedly, these visits indicated adifferent kind of learning eriVirOnitent.

Or the: .nost basic level, active learningororooteg activity 'f vie_acceptithe,positiot.that classes which -;:n_courage fullstudentparticipation are preferable to those inwhich c,:udents are more passive; activelearning by its very nature is a positivealternative to trad;tional teachi7RL: methods.

Students r 'he riorthwest Area:ProjeCttlaSseS rej,,Aed II t aCtivelearrtir_:,

4ffOr-dedttj-77. enore_opportunitytake_part_i_n_experiments; individual andgroup research projects; oral reports; fieldtrips, learning grouor; role playingexercises; and class z.-.nd group discussionsthan did other:courses taken at theUniversity. Indeed, over 500/6 bf the studentssurveyed reported more or much more_personal participation in their active learningclasses:

85

In addition_ to_changing the.level of activityin the classroom; active learning changesthe patterns of interaction among stuc'entsand faculty. It helps to transform relationsbetween faculty and students and amongstudents themselves. Northwest Al.:a:Froject leaders used such terms as'moderator," 'orchestrater," or_"mediater" torefer.to their new classroom roles. oneinstructor put it,

I no longer feel as though I am theonly pc,...St2i1 in the classroomcontributing to the learning process.Now my.students are assuming moreresponsThey.a2, witn_myguidance, teaching themr.elves andtheir reers, It makes teaching and, Isuspect, learning more exciting.

Because they mak', greater use of thestudents as resources of learning, activelearning methods encourage students tointeract_more with one an-other Of thestudents_surveyed, 56% reported snore _(30:6%) or much more (35.) interactionwith other students than they had had inother Univer-4y classes ,oject leadersrepeatedly noted improt .ment in the socialskills of stuuents (including comrnunii,ation,liStening add teamwork) even in the COUrSeof a single academic quarter.

On-site visiis to active.learning classesindicated that students were eager toparticipate in class pctivities and work 'Nithother students. nunng one of our visits to aproject class, a studer said that he:hadalways beerrafraid toc- !-. upin class, andit was his aCtive learning class that madehim_realiz_e he had inforniation_important toother.students and an obligation to share itwith them:

Do activ_e_learnMg_rnethods make adifference in the classroorn_environrnent?The -Ir,-,wer is an uneguivocahl:: "yes."Act,:e learning methor:s increase theHumber of opportunities stujents have for"!-andis-on" learning,:pro'.,ote studentparticipatiorrand 'acilitate student andstudent-teacr..?r interaction.

Quesf'on 3::Do students learr as much inactivT aiming clarses as in classes usingtraditicnal teaching methbds?Most faculty members know what kinds ofiniormatioaandJiowrnuhrjformatiori canbe imparted by their lecture methodsbecause the instructor has virtually absolutecontrol over the information. The mostfrequently asked questions in the No:thwestArea Program workshops focused oncomparisons:of active learning methods inthis respectFrorn all indications, act :o

learning_methods_appear to alloW stUderitSto_ learn at leas as much as in traditionalclasses.

Tne best evidence comes frorr, studiesconducted independently by two NorthwestArec droject leaders. In u"-e instance, theinstruOter used control groups:to:measuredifferences in_the teSt Scores:1f students intraditional lecture and_ active learng _ _

sections of the same course and found nosignificant dii'cience iii tt . results ofthe two groups on identi- exams. Inanother instance, a!, inst -.tor comparedtest results from_ two active earnin9 classeswith the lasultS from the samo courses inprevious:years. In ihis case. i test resultsshowed slight, but statistically signific ntimprovement:

Northwest Area Program survey resultsgiupport these findings. Students wt.re asked 81

how much they learned from the activelearningiclasses taken at the University..)ver 50% of the students reported learning

more (40.3%) or muCh more (10.7%). i,vhileonly slightly over 7% reported learning ess(7:2%) or much less 6): 61% of thestudents in classes using learning groupsreported they learned more as a result ofworking in the groups.

In addition, questionnaires completed byNOtthWest Area Program projeCt leadersindicatsd that instructors in thaprograrnuniversally agreed that students appeared tohave a fuller understanding of coursematerials as the result of active learning.Their comments suggest students' paperswere:more intellectuaHy sophisticated andcreative and that responses to essay examquestions inditated increased ability torelate concepts and _factual _materials:Surveys_of faculty participants of NorthwestA r_a Program workshops who hadimplemented active learning methodsfurther attest 'o students improvement ir,this respect.

In short, ava.,le evidence inditatesithatstudents If. arn_at _least-as _rn Lich_ in activeLearning classes as_ in t rad iti one t lectureclass3s: Instructors who have usod bothmethods siggest that stucents'understanding of the material actuallyincreases because by actively working withthe subject matter, the:students learn toapply abstract concepts.

Question 4:_What crqes in time;resources; and supvort requirements con beexpected when implementing activelearning?Although there is no "hard" evidence to

82

provide an answer to the questions ofcomparable time commitment, the aapparent agreement among inStruct,s whohavewsed active leamin_g that the_rnethacisdo not -..:reate a whole new set of demandson instructors or resources. While projectleaders noted increased time requirementsin preparing for the transition to activelearning, most reported:that active learnnigmethods require essentially the same timecommitments aS do other teaching methodSCirce established.

Active learning methods also apnea, tornake little, if any, differencatrg -Inds

placeo on classroom resources.differences do occur result largely from thenature of the specific methods used(computev 1,--1rning obvI, sIy requirescompoter e...;uicment, use primarysources iilpies prowd -ccess toartifacts, etc.).:In most the typeand amount of resources can be determinedbyth, ildividuahnstructor. Thoughtplar :_,g, and creativity can turn readilyavailable materials into valuable learningresources.

By a id larpe it appears that active learningm^tho05 different out not

leaChing supplementsthan Time normallyspent lectures may be spentdesigning learr-ing activities; classroomswhich have been arranged iraditic.ially intostraichtenea rowe may need to berearranged t facilitate more ztudentinteraction assistants whose usualFunction 5 preparing and grading examsand papers may require some training tobecome_more involvedin day to dayinstruction: While making the transition to

activeilearning requires_ that -J.- n in: Jctorrethink his or her use of resources ar time._ .

it does not appear to involve extraordmaryadditional demands.

Question 5: How do students respond toactive learning methods?Surveys ofistuderits in_active learningclassesindicate overwhelmingly favorableresponse to active learning techniq ues._Asked to compare the active learning coursethey were taking with other cow.' -s at theUniversity, over 40% reported liking thecourse more (14.7%).or much more (27.4%).An additional 43% reported liking the courseabotit the same as other courses; 75% ofStudents working in learning groupsreported they enjoyed the experience.

In addition; over 60% of the studertsindicated they would recommend thecourse.to a.friend with similar interests, and79% reported the course stimulati r.t theirinterest in thetield of study._Inleres:ingly,stbdent receptivity to active learningmethodaseemed unaffected by their reports(42%) that active leaming_requirea more._effort of them than do traditional learningmethods. As one student commenced on thesurvey, -It seems like less eflo.1 even thoughyou know you're working harder, becauseyouiget a chance to see the results of yourwork and to realty do something kth wh,you':e learning."

As with ariy instructional . therewere students who did nut 11:ce the activelearning approach as nluch as dt:lerapproaches. Project leaders reported tnegative responses were most notabic in i.nefirst few active learning sessions. Most ofthe resistant students, they agreed,

appeared to adjust quickly and indeed toenjoy_ the method after a few class periods.Adect-lte drientationlo.active learningmethods is esseritiaLtaachieving.studentsupport. Students need to know thepurposes of the method and theassionments, as well as what will beexpected of them in the course.

EnjOythent Of the thethOdSSeetinS tb-havesome unteresting-Side reSUltS. AIM= 90% Ofthe students reported doingall53._8%) oralmost aH (34.9%) of the outside workrequired for the course. During an on-sitE:visit to one project class; a student reponcdthat there was simply no way ot avoiding thework loc;ause each day's activities were tiedtOthe MAL SeVeral stiidents also noted theytelt a greater resporability to :le preparedfor_class_because r peers expected themto contribute theirztair share" tn.groupassignments and discussion: Stucieilissurveyed also reported that they wereabsent less (19%) 0, much less (17.1%) inMe active learning class than in otherUniversity courses they haditaken. (Forty-six perCerit repOrted aoproXimately thesame number of absenceS.)

8833

Perhaps,e,L1 more conv.ncing than theaggregate survey.results were thecomments made by students during theinterview sessions or on the open-endedsection of the survey. Repeatedly, studentsexpressed enthusiasm about active learning(e.g.. "This has been an outstandingexperier ce.",,"I never thought I'd get thisexcited about school work.-).

Activetearning methods are apc,rently wellreceived by the vast majority oi students.Side benefits c iS enthusiasm includedecreased ah:er;t6ais increasedmotivatii i, and greater studentresponsibility for learning.

Oueston 6:_f_-_liaking.the transition to activelearningivorth the effort?The best evide-ce w have.gatheredsuggests that active learning offers menyrewards to an_ instrLictor willing to make thenecessar} chianges..As other authors in thishandbook have testified, students .are mo. eenthusiasuc, -more self-reliant,and by allAvai!abie evidence better _able to make useof_thetnfor ..iation they have =cquired: Forteachers; that is reward enough.

Evaluation ProceduresDurino the three-year project of theNorthwest Area Program on ActiveLearnin6, 20 projects received grants tosupport the development ofiactive learningin undergraduate classes. The facultymembers _who directed these projects andthairstudents provided much of theinformation for our evaluation effcts.Faculty were asked to completequestionnaires following each academic

84

quarter of the 1984-85 sChJ01.year and tosubmit final_ reports discussing theirexperiences in Implementing active learning.Surveys were gathered from 691 studenisenrolled in project classes in the winter andspring quarters of 1985. On-site visits weremade to at least one class session ,of theproject classes to observe the levels Ofactivity and interactiortamong students andbetween students _and the instructor; andinformal interviews were conducted withteaching ..:ssistant.:, and randomly selectedstuderts.

In additiJn, surveys were mailed to 113faculty participants in Nortf- west AreaProgram workshops and seminars- askingthern a vanety of questions about theirexperiences with iraditional and activelearning teaching- ,nods. Responses werereceiv-d from 62 faculty members of diverseacade, )ic rank and from a wide range ofacadei

89

Northwest Area Program on ActiveLearning: History anci P jsRussell Christensen

HistoryIn the winter of 1982: interviews withUniversity of Mir...esota facultymembers found two major

concerns: 1) the passive role of students intheir undergraduate education and_2) animpersonaLlearning environment. The Manylarge classes_atihe undergraduate level andthe prevalencr of the lecturing format .

affected student parficipation. Stucentswere acting as if learning was a passiveacquisition:of information, not a process ofactive inquiry. The,T active and interactiveopponunities were further curtailedby,students: tim, given to commuting (35% ofthe student body) and to part- or full-timework (75%).

Moieover, there .was the faculty perceptionthat while undergraduates were often poisedto recall and relay numerous facts, theyprobabiyiretained only a portion of thesebLyond_the final examination. Stud:?nt8 didrnt have _much _oppdrtunny_to_rnqnipt-late Orapply infoirnatron learned; to ci . ;bine thesedata into a larger N.iew, to make inferencesor collaborative judgments from them,defending tht:m against a professor orfellow students. Such students, while theyearn a degree, might well arrive r their firstjob struggling-juSt to conceptua,.ze aproblem; let alone to solve it.

It was tc address these needs that theNorthwest Area Foundation authorized athree-year, declining grant to the University

Russell Christensen is a doctoral candidate'n German, at the i '-...Trsity of Minnesola.g4

r

,

fo.: J.-lore-mg;_LLII.ication.racognized. in the

words of roposal; that": s_discussion,dialog! t. , give and take of genuineintellectiyA excnange between students andbetweef students and faculty rn,smbers is,ssentiai to _t!.e growth an Linde, g ra duateeducation Sheuld fblêr. . Stud;,rits learnfrom_ienturing venturing ideas:,interpretations,.hypotheses, questiOns.arguments; criticisms; conjeeturesarvdfrom responding to others' ventures: andfrom replying to others' responses to 'heirventures, and so on. This is what we meanby active learning....

The exploration and development et activelearnhg consisted in:

a conducting a competitive grants programfor departments;

b) organizing summer workshops on activelearning strategies, and

c) promoting a forum for discussion pyithewhole UrIversity community of, problemsand issues in undergraduate edUcation.

An experimentzl effort directed atdepartmental development, the pr,..,gramwas limited to colleges offeringbaccalaureate programs: participatingfaculty-c 'fie from the Morris. Duluth andTwin Cities:campuses, especially those whowere already accomplished_teachers bLitwho wanted to try out new teachingtechniques:

90 85

7::.ject DescriptionsTr)c, following 20 proposals were developedanO supported through the North West Area,-...ugram on Active Leaming.

Department of MathematicsThe _mathernatics_facult_y_ incl udedcooperative group projects in the appliedmathematics sequence. In theseprojects.students applied mathematicalskills to problems simi!ar to thoseencounte!.ed ri employMpint settings, e.g.,models ,for safe and effective drug dosage.Computers were used to assist stUdentgroups in forrnulatirtg_rnathematical models,applying mathematical techniques to obtaininformation about the models: andcomputing res ;Its. Student projects wereevaluated on sGientific validity, clarity, andexpositiop..Contact: Warmn S. Loud, 109a Vincent Hall

Division of-Social_and Behavioral SciencesGederal_College_expanded the developmentof group projects and laboratory sectionsused An teaching introductory psychology.This project made largesections '250students) ofintroductory psychology moreaclive by using student-led srnall group,recitations, practice exercises, indep_ndentand group projeCtS, arid classdnstratioas. Former students served astutors: In the laboratory; -tudents carriedout experiments, analyz.:d data; andinterpreted results. The instructor as& medthe role of instructional manager. ,

Contact: Thomas Brotheri, 253a Nrchokcin

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Institute of Child DevelopmentThe Institute of Child Developmentdesigned one section of introductorypsycholod lo include student activelearning ns. Students discussed _mainpoints from_ thelecture,_ took ouizzes on_weekly readings; developed questions forfuture quizzes; and shared relevant personalexperiences through discussion of classnotebooks. These small group sessionswere led by specially trained graauate andundergraduate teaching apprentices.Contact: William R. Charlesworth, 186 ChildDevelopment

Department of Civil and MineralEngineeringCivil and mineral engineering facultycombined student learning group.*.ncl, theuse of microcomputers in practical civilengineering problem solving instructionalmodules. Student_tearns were instructed_incooperative problem splving.and in usingthe microcomputer. The modules affecteuthe learning engineering problem solvingmethods, computer literacy, the use ofmathematical principles and decision,rnakir,.i. leadership, and communicationski:Is_ r.clUoed in project activities was a,faculty wore shop_ on promoting cooperativeprablm soling among students and therp,r, of microcomputers in instruction.Cantat.t: Kali A. Smith, 103c MineralRasources Research Center

School of Architecture and the Center forUrban and iRegional MfairsThe School of Architecture and the Centerfor Urban and!Regional Affairs tceited aprogramwhict-finvolves advancedundergraduates in the solution of_problemsin outstate Minnesota communities:Students in urban studies; geography:sociology, architecture; family socialscience, agriculture, applied economics; anddesign!,!were among expected participants.A facility! coordinator established workingrelationships_withselected towns, andinterdisciplinary student teams worked With:ocal community people and professionalsto help define community problems:recognize conflicts, and seek solutions.Contact: Peggy Sand, 205 North Hall

Department of Anitbal ScienceThaAnimal Science faculty rnovec AnimalBreeding (AnSc_3220)from lecturabasedcourse to a cooperative tea:;: approach:Teams of 12 students worked on classprojects aided by wee1/4.1y meetings with thefaculty instructor, audio7visual tutorialmaterials, computer assisted instruction,and field trips to University genetic researchunitsEach weekr the entire class of sixteams (72 students)_rnet to present theirprojects and to debate the:r views:Advanced undergraduates served as tutorsand field trip c; ides.r...Dntact: VVilliam E. Rempel, 125 Peters Hall

Department of GeographyGeography faculty developed a 2-crec,iproseminar designed to introduce advancedundergraduate students to faculty researchinterests, na`ure of geographic inquiry,approaches to research, and the formulationof:research problems end strategies. Themechanics of research and expositiontaught through the assignmentotrenopreparation of an annotaed bibliogrpreparatii:,0 of a research proposal,

,,f a preliminary outline fur asenior project. The proserninar was followed

-_ quarters of non-credit tutorialis to aid:Students in the finallon_of_their senior project.t: Joseph.E_Schwartzberg, 473iciences Building

Division of Science, Business andMathematicsGeneral College established cooperativelearnMg groups in intermediate algebrato aid students in overcoming mathanxiety and-to achieve a higherievel ofcompetence in algebra: Student groupsworked cooperatively answering problemassignments, comparing various problemsoMng techniques, and learning how toapply problem solving strategies to algebra.COntact: Douglas F. RobertSon, N285 ElliottHall

87

Department of HistoryThe History Department faculty d _)ped

microcomputer software packag e. ce-teredon historical issues marked by scr olardebate. Students studied historica, decya:eon the issues; developeditestablehypotheses; _tested _theirhypotheses usin a

previously compiled microcompute- dataset; e.g.; historical domography; votIngpatterns; census data; described chargesover time, and explored social, politica! aculturalimplications. Once developed, hepackages, were available to a variety ofupper division history courses.-Contact: Russell Menard, 614 SocialSciences Building

University of Minnesotai MorrisThe Morris campus faculty completeddevelopment of the freshman seminarprogram connections. Twelve facultymembers developed seminar topics unitedby a cul jri theme, Freshmen_vc,e_reMtroduced to_issues of _current academicand public concern through informal, t--;itinformed discussion of the topics wq.. thefaculty members and other students. Dunngthe secord quarter of the 1-credit seminar,students tookprirrary responsibty forshaping the directien of the seminars.Contact: Wilbert Ahe,m, 118 Camden Hall,Morris Campus

88

Supportive Services Program, Univusity ofMinnes,)ta-DuluthThe Scpportive Services Frogra: on theDuluth campus integrated the FeuersteinInstrurn,ntal Enrichment tec :toskill develnr ^ ^7,t cow. , lechniquetaught 1 thinkmg, andcommunicatio , activeinvolvement with matena . ;and exercises,and specifically addre, !he transferability

analytical strategies to all academic and-eal-world sltuations.Contact:_Diane Chambers, 138 Library,Du!u,..) Campus

Department of Sociellogy, University ofMinnesota-DuluthThe sociolog- faculty on the Duluth campusredesigned introduction to Sociology toemphasize ap p! ation and, method ofinquiry rather than description. The pnmary_aims_were to involvestudents_in_the practiceand_application_of sociology and tointegrate sociology with other social science

sciplines. The grant was used to supportthe development of teaching materials, andto incorporate directed learning activities,independent and group projects,,experiments, observations, and !iliraq,research into the course.Contact: Williarn A..Fieishrnan 228 CinaHall, Duluth Campus

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Program in Arierican Studie:.;Active learning strateg's wereOeveloped tosupplement tne curricultim of the newlydesigned introductory sequence inAmerican studies.(AmSt .1001,_ 1002, 1003):Instructional units revolved around thepresentation of four types of material: adocument, an event, a location, and anartifact. The active learning strate9ies weredesigned so that students became involvedin the interpretatiOn and integration of themiterialsStudents_develaped team work,communication; problem solving.and _ .

analytical skills. Students also gained anintroduction to the interdisciplinary study ofculture, learned_ how to integrate differenttypes of sources, and gainedinsights intocultural issues that transcend traditionaldisciohnary boundaries.Contact: Elaine Tyler May, 205 Scott Hall

Department of East Asinn StudiesA change in the traclii la; roles of bothChinese language teachers and studentswas the focus of the East Asia.i. Studiesproject. Students learned Chinese byactively employing communicative learningstrategies in pairand small group activitieswith set tasks. and.goals: Theinstructorfunctioned primarily as a model, guide and arnan6ger of stuJent speaking ability. Thisproject represented a shift from mastery ofgrammatical structures to the grasp of thedopropriate u. of such structures in

nunic-Huters. 113 FolvVell Hall

Department of-Child and FamilyDevelopment, University ofMinnesota-DvaithAn active learnin_g component was added toa course in human diversity_in the Collegeof Ec,...:.ation and Human ServicesProsions (WO). These strategiesprovided an opportunity for activeparticipation in simulations, role play andsmall group prOblem solving. Three tibildredstudents per-year were expected to take thi.=course in fulfilling an NCATE requirementContact Terrie M. Shannon, 125 BohannonHall Duluth Campus

Department of Educational PsychologySmall group interaction, cooperative groupstasks,:experiential learning, and activeexperimentation came the primaryinstructional_ me s for a course ine_ducation_ psych gy for-students studyingtabe junior and :nior .'-tigh school . .

teachers, The s of the developmentactivities was c -naking the coursematerials mo -,evant to the practicalorofession3:_ '..ng of school teaching.These rnodifir. ans were accomplished_through a cc.. -aration between curriculuMand.instructio,, taculty and faculty inpsychology . -

Contact mes Rest; 206a Burton Hall

9 489

Depattrnent of English-.efining the rule of leac`ling assislarts ;_n

'-onerican litetaturesurvey courses was tilefocus of this project Special traininc wasprovided for the teaching assistants dunngSeptember. The training focused on;earning group methods end strategies forteaching literature, in order to enable theteaching assistants to make a more aCtivecontribution to thecourses.Contact: Dr nald Ross, 209 Lind Hall

Department of Strategic Management andOrganizationA Schootof Management pilot seminar .organized by undergradua';a:, ;ded by afaculty member was to crk.,,,v, -vorlowldenetwork of hi,- scho theex,ange a? tion c Managementtheory and pi _Problems o casestud.es from each of 15 countries weretOrotated among participating groupsin thevarious countries_._The problems and theirsolutions would be evaluated by a localinterpretative panel of business and areaspecialists.Contact: Stuart Albert, 1208 Management;Economics Building

90

Department of Agronorv and PlantGenetic&It was planned that micro-computers,.f.ware modules would teach cropm.anagement decision-making and problem-solving skills in undergraduate agroncrnyCour; s. The modules were to be used:tointroduce,a variety of decisions norrnaHyrequired duringthe growing season: forexample, the_selecton af_the bestcrops,_seedbed preparation weed control, harvestmethods, and pasture management.Contact: Vern3n Cardwell, 101 Agronomy

Division of Social and Behavioral SciencesA 'fast start, strong finish- was the goal.Ofthis two-pronged project ih Genera; College,designed to lemortstrate the elements_of theactive_earning strategies_developed lastyear for introductory psychology. In theIntroductory economics sequence studentssol;ed projects in a setting that allowedthe-n to learn collaborative skills as well asgraphic and mathematical p.bblem-solving

acr,tac llor 252 1\11:_holson Hall

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List of Advisory CommitteeMembers and StaffThe Northwest Area Program onActive LearningAdvisory CommitteeWilliam R. Charlesworth (chair), professor ofchild psychology

Wilbert Ahern, professor of history, Morris

Carol Carrier; associate professor otcurriculum and instruction

Robert Evans, professor of philosopny,Duluth

Bert E. Fristedt, professof of mathematics

Van Gooch, professor of biology, Morns

Richard Goodrich, professor of animalSCience

John R.:Wallace, professor of philosophyand assistant vice president for acodemicaffairs

Kevin Anderson, student (year 3)

Kyle Fairchild, student (years 1 and 2)

David Linder, student (year 3)

Ellen Scher, student (years 1 and 2)

StaftDirectorSteven F. Schomberg, assistant dean anddirector of Summer Session, ContinuingEducation and ExtensionGraduate Administrative Fellows:

Nancy White law (year 1)

Duane Smith (year 1)

Verna Kragness (year 2)

Michael Leimbach (year 2)

Gloria Christopher (year 3)

Russell Christensen (year 3)

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