A Call for Another History of Management Thought Learning From the 18th and 19th Centuries Literatures on Management

Thibault Le Texier

Working paper very temporary version November 2010

Abstract

The term ldquomanagementrdquo appears in English-speaking literature in the second half of the 16th century but remains infrequent until the middle of the 18th From then on until the beginning of the 20th century four main types of literature make a repetitive use of the notion these are texts on husbandry medical care of the mother and of the infant household administration and school supervision If those uses are very diverse considered as a whole these literatures show a coherence in their common definition of the term ldquomanagementrdquo which could be summarized as such caring making efficiency driving systematizing and accounting This broad characterization of the word ldquomanagementrdquo an explicit reference for business management practitioners and theoricians at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th century but rather the mental foundation upon which mechanics engineers and accountants choose to build up their proper conception of the notion Rather than casting aside the dissimilarities between this early way of thinking management and modern business management thought we shall draw lessons from it and ask why dimensions of the concept were emphasized by corporate managers thinkers while others stood ignored

Reacutesumeacute

Le terme laquo management raquo apparaicirct dans la litteacuterature de langue anglaise dans la seconde moitieacute du XVIe siegravecle mais reste peu freacutequent jusqursquoau milieu du XVIIIe A partir de ce moment jusqursquoau deacutebut du XXe siegravecle quatre types principaux de litteacuteratures font un usage reacutepeacuteteacute de la notion il srsquoagit de textes sur lrsquoagriculture sur le soin meacutedical de la megravere et du nourrisson sur la gestion domestique et sur la direction drsquoune eacutecole Si ces usages sont tregraves divers ces litteacuteratures montrent dans leur ensemble une coheacuterence quant agrave leur deacutefinition commune du terme laquo management raquo que lrsquoon pourrait reacutesumer ainsi prendre soin rendre efficace conduire systeacutematiser et compter Cette deacutefinition large du terme laquo management raquo ne fut pas une reacutefeacuterence explicite des praticiens et des theacuteoriciens du management agrave la fin du XIXe et au deacutebut du XXe siegravecle mais plutocirct le soubassement cognitif sur lequel les meacutecaniciens les ingeacutenieurs et les comptables choisirent de construire leur propre conception de la notion Plutocirct que drsquoeacutecarter les dissimariteacutes entre ces premiegraveres faccedilons de penser le management et la penseacutee moderne du management des affaires nous en tirerons des leccedilons et nous demanderons notamment pourquoi certaines dimensions du concept furent mises en avant par les cadres drsquoentreprise et les theacuteoriciens des sciences de gestion alors que drsquoautres restegraverent ignoreacutees

2

Histories of Management Thought Usual Presuppositions

Looking at modern literature on management thought we mainly find two different kinds of histories The first tends to confine the managerial logic to the business sphere and ignore the older meanings of the word The second on the contrary all-inclusive sees managerial thinking almost everywhere and at almost every epoch of human history Both err through evolutionism and universalism

Histories of management practices and thought show in the whole a retrospective bias consisting in forming an archetypal definition of management from the 20th century perspective and in digging the history of entrepreneurship trade capitalism and more generally of what we call today the ldquoprivate sectorrdquo in search for preludes sketches roots ways and means of the victorious scheme of thinking they assume to be universal By doing so they forget that if the word ldquomanagementrdquo today mainly refers to business management only even when it is applied to institutions other than the capitalist corporation it is only from the first decades of the 20th century that publications in business management begin to supersede by their volume books in medical household farm and school management and that its 20th century definition took over its older meanings

It would seem that so far a majority of historical studies of management carefully remained within the boudaries of the business enterprise Even Daniel Wren who ventures as far as Babylonrsquos history in his Evolution of Management Thought (1972) circumscribes his book on Early Management Thought (1997) to the management of 19th and 20th centuries business enterprises

It has become well-known story in the second half of the 19th century in the United States an economic depression the coming of a large masses of unorganized immigrants favourable general incorporation laws an increasing business competition and the emergence of a national market favored the growth of large-scale industrial enterprises In turn this growth created new possibilities and new problems of labour recruitment training discipline control over production and accountancy which resulted in the creation of a distinct managerial layer within most of these corporations below the proprietors but above the foremen or clerks and the constitution of managerial techniques and doctrines By the end of the 19th century through the constitution of clubs professional societies journals academic curricula text-books and book collections this new class forged its proper technics and a ldquomanagerial ideologyrdquo of its own or at least its doxa Blend of the engineering way of thinking and of accounting methods this floating managerial rationality was synthetized and formalized by Frederick Taylor and slowly gained widespread accceptance while being tamed and sophisticated by management thinkers and leaders such as Henry Ford Henri Fayol Alexander Church Chester Barnard Elton Mayo Luther Gulick Mary Parker Follett Rensis Likert Chris Argyris Nobert Wiener Peter Drucker Herbert Simon Alfred P Sloan Rosabeth Moss Kanter Douglas McGregor Henry Mintzberg James March Kenichi Ohmae and Michael Porter among many others Meanwhile under the impetus of the organization theory and cybernetics this managerial doxa came to be applied to all the social institutions of industrial countries from the church to the family and from the school to the State its principles forming the core of the modern man common sense

Endorsing this conception of management history a majority of historians thus generally assumes that the birth and growth of a managerial rationality is a matter of

3

1) large going concerns that is of a specific manner of coordinating the efforts of great number of people usually organized into institutions (Chandler 1962 and 1977 Pollard 1965 Claude 1968 Wren 1972) The rise of large going concerns being tributary of technical innovations and inventive managers assume these authors management itself is inseparable from a certain technical stage of civilization which begun with the ldquonew factory systemrdquo (Nelson 1975)

2) capitalism and business that is or a specific manner of doing business In this sense management is inseparable from the modern corporation that is from the big business enterprise in corporate form but has little to do with ldquopublicrdquo institutions such as the Church the army or the state bureaucracies In this perspective we can risk the hypothesis that management histories have developed under the intimidating intellectual shadow of classical economy The influence of Marx over a generation of labour historians has been well documented and his inheritors share for instance the idea that management is by birth at the service of the business interests and must therefore be understood within the capitalist conceptual framework (Sombart 1928 Gorz 1973 Marglin 1974 Braverman 1974 Montgomery 1979 Clawson 1980 Edwards Gordon and Reich 1982 Noble 1984 Biernacki 1995)

3) class that is of the existence of a specific and well-structured professional group In this perspective management would be inseparable from the rise of the class of salaried managers which is itself dependent upon the existence of a distinct layer within corporations hierarchies between the owner(s) and the laborers Together with this thesis may come the idea that management is an ideology that is the political project of a distinct social group (Veblen 1921 Burnham 1941 Mills 1951 Bendix 1956 Whyte 1956 Harbison and Myers 1959 Montgomery 1979 Merkle 1988 Shenhav 1999)

But is this the history of management or rather the story of the way modern business corporation leaders and thinkers created an intellectual tool necessary for the survival of their mother-institution Of course modern management is inseparable from industrial innovation the modern corporation and the dynmics of capitalism But should its study be limited to this field Cannot we learn from the study of other field of development of management thoughts How to explain the widespread use of the word ldquomanagementrdquo in the 18th and 19th century to describe the functionning of institutions as different as the household the farm the school as well as the governing of living beings ranging from the bee to the sick old-person and from the cattle to the infant without assuming a too loose and inclusive definition of management

If some studies of the development of accounting have ventured outside the business and industrial arena (Freear 1970 Noke 1981 Scorgie 1997 Juchau 2002) these non-capitalist and non-technological roots of management are hardly considered by management historians Sidney Pollard would be an exception who risks a foot in farm management and admits that ldquothe agricultural estate might foreshadow some of the methods used later in the factoriesrdquo (Pollard 1965 30) But management meaning to him business management ie to ldquomanage large units within a competitive progressive environment and within a framework of economic motivationrdquo (Ibid 24) he searches for its roots in the first elaborate forms of businesses such as the industrial ldquodomestic systemrdquo and the putting-out system To him the birth of management was only possible in a capitalist environment

In his reference book on the history of the business corporation Alfred Chandler goes back as far as possible in the history of the ldquotraditional enterprisesrdquo to the Southern plantations the Lowell textile factories and the Springfield Armory (Chandler 1977 ldquoCh 2 The Traditional Enterprise in Productionrdquo 50-78)

4

Nevertheless he searches back in history for ancient forms of large-scale production and factory-like modes of organization As such he does not consider the large plantations in order to understand their logic but look in it for familiar practices Far from being the core institution around which revolved managerial practices the family was according to Chandler an obstacle to or even an enemy of the modern corporation embodying rival principles The corporation had thus to get rid of these familial traditions and networks of personal ties to become a managerial institution Througout his life Chandler remained interested in the emergence and development of managerial capitalism in the 19th and 20th century not of managerial rationality

George Claude Daniel Wren and Peter Drucker three other reference authors of management history seem on the contrary to occasionally venture too far For such authors management would be a genetic feature of humanity As such writes George Claude ldquoa true and comprehensive history of management would be a history of manrdquo (Claude 1968 vii) Similarly according to Wren ldquomanagement as an activity has always existed to make peoplersquos desires through organized effort Management facilitates the efforts of people in organized groups and arises when people seek to cooperate to achieve goalsrdquo (Wren 1972 11-12) Armed with such an all-embrassing definition these authors consider as managers old-days military chiefs priests jurists political leaders and merchants entrepreneurs Nevertheless if their definition may seem to broad in scope their history appears on the contrary much too discriminating Indeed besides quoting the Hammurabi code and Chanakya Kalautilyarsquos Arthasastra (Wren 1972 ch 2) why not considering the codified organization of labour and highly hierarchized functioning of European cloisters in the Middle Ages or the Christian doctrine of administratio as formulated by Paul in his Pastoral epistles and refined by the Roman canon law Besides citing the pharoahs as the first great managers as Drucker often did why not considering the invention of agriculture 14000 years ago which proved human dispositions for planning organizing and accounting Why not showing the symbolic link between the practice of business management and the extreme planification division of labour and industrial ideal of the 18th and 19th centuries utopian socialists Should not Saint-Simon or at least Max Weber rather than Chester Barnard (Williamson 1990) be considered as the true fathers of organization studies Why not unveiling the codification of administrative principles within the practice of early urban governance and municipal administration from the times of Calvinrsquos Geneva and Zwinglirsquos Zurich to the incorporation of American towns Why not considering the ldquopastoral governmentalityrdquo theorized by Michel Foucault in his 1978 lectures at the Collegravege de France (1978) Why not analyzing how the administration of european colonies gave rise to a specific art of management interwoving the logics of sovereignty and capitalism Besides occasionally quoting Sun Tzu and Clausewitz as potential source of business inspiration (Claude 1968 Wren 1972 Crainer 1997 Pearson 2009) why not studying the organization of armed bodies from medieval times to the present Did not Marx for instance underlined ldquothe way in which certain economic relations such as wage labour machinery etc develop earlier owing to war and in the armies etc than in the interior of bourgeois societyrdquo (Marx 1857 109) Besides quoting Machiavelli (Claude 1968 Wren 1972 Crainer 1997 Wren and Greenwood 1998 Pearson 2009) why not considering the taste for administrative planning showed by Utilitarians Reason of State thinkers Cameralists Physiocrats Jacobins Positivists and a majority of Radicals and more broadly the whole field of politics Institutions such as the feodal estate the early political parties the brotherhoods the fraternal societies the guilds and the churches were institutions asking for a certain kind of management Even if administrative work was not always

5

so important as to justify the existence of a specialized class and of a distinct layer of specialized managers within the institution it existed and obeyed to certain rules and principles that it would be interesting to examine under the light of management history

Method Objectives Hypothesis

Most of management thought historians seem to imagine in an abstract and somewhat structuralist perspective managerial ideas floating through the centuries and all-over the globe freely disposable to be formulated by great authors and leaders and being eventually embodied here and then in the form of more of less large-scale institutions On the contrary I assume that whenever and wherever these ideas exist they take a very tangible appearance they are symbolized by particular words Of course it is a long and painstaking work to search back for the different words which incoporated what we mean today by management and endless debates are inevitable if we try to affirm for instance how far was the greek word ldquooikonomiardquo (οἰκονοmicroία) close from our contemporary understanding of the term ldquomanagementrdquo But it is far less debatable to examine at the English translations of Xenophonrsquos and Aristotlersquos Economics and to consider from when they start to use the word ldquomanagementrdquo and in which ways As such one of the less controversial way of tracking back the incorporation in words of a managerial rationality is to examine the uses of the word ldquomanagementrdquo itself from its appearance in the English language

Histories of management often point out to the different methods and tools of management from double-entry bookkeeping to the stopwatch from the assembly line to video surveillance from just-in-time to the open space But among the first and most important tools used from the early corporate managers to the grandsons of Peter Drucker one deserves a special place it is the very word ldquomanagementrdquo which made possible for this social group to put a name on some of their practices and on their community and which served as a rallying battle flag as well as a seductive catch word But the corporate managers did not coin the term and if they redefined it they also inevitably inherited from its earlier meaning Or rather they adopted it because of its earlier meanings which seem to fit their own practices and representations As such the term ldquomanagementrdquo was not a prelude to business management thoughts nor an explicit reference for its theoricians but rather the mental foundation and the symbolic materials upon which mechanics engineers and accountants choose to build up their proper conception of management Words are not neutral If their use authorises a certain liberty they are also loaded with a patrimony of mental schemes Similarly when English political scientists adapted the word ldquopoliticsrdquo at the begining of the 16th century they adapted as much as adopted the Greeksrsquo representations of authority law power and government built in the very notion of polis So the early systematic uses of the term ldquomanagementrdquo are less genetic than foster parents of its 20th century acceptances That why I assumed that they deserve a thorough study

In order to do so I gathered from a search in the Library of Congress a catalogue of texts comprising the term ldquomanagementrdquo in their title which was mostly useful to delineate the thematical fields and the historical periods to delve into I then read through these literatures in search for common features and similar frames of reference accompanying the uses of the word ldquomanagementrdquo

6

The purpose of this paper is not to track back in the depth of history the sketches or seeds of modern management conspicuous features it is not interested in the ldquomodernity of the pastrdquo Neither does it try to reconstruct practices from the writtings It considers on the contrary the writtings for themselves and assumes that they carry a certain endogenous logic Instead of assuming an universal definition of the term ldquomanagementrdquo whether all-inclusive or restrained to business or factorylike activities this paper assumes that the meanings carried over the four last centuries by the notion of management depend upon historical and cultural contexts but nevertheless share a core of basic ideas Medical care husbandry housekeeping and school government are not forerunners of business management practices but some of the authors who codified these activities furnished an intellectual frame of mind used by corporate management thinkers The discrepancies between these mental systems should not be discarded but on the contrary put under the microscope for we might learn more about management by inquiring the different meanings of the same word ldquomanagementrdquo throught the centuries than by searching back for practices which however close from todayrsquos definition of the term ldquomanagementrdquo were characterized by different words and took sense within a very different system of thinking and valuing

Since its appearance in the English language in the 16th century until the beginning of the 20th century the word ldquomanagementrdquo did not mean primarily business management It was mainly used to talk about husbandry and health care From the 1830s household management came to synthetize elements of these two disciplines which nevertheless followed their own path While school management literature mostly developed from the 1860s Of course the risk of squashing details and homogenizing miscellaneous topics is great when such broad and diverse literatures are handled by young hands That is why the analysis is confined to the broad lines and the general features of the texts herein considered For these four fields of expression undoubtely display a shared set of principles and mental dispositions exhibiting a common consideration for caring a spirit of system and order exigences of industry and efficiency the idea of a possible improvement of things and beings as well as a extensive recourse to accouting and recording methods

That is these first systematic ways of thinking management show features very similar to what will be business management in the 20th century Nevertheless their authors cannot be considered as the scattered progenitors or precursors of modern management systems methods and tools like few spots of enlighted forerunners in a sea of dark ignorance and traditional beliefs waiting for the business corporation and its professional managers to gather and systematize their insights If some management thinkers such as Frank and Lillian Gilbreth may have transposed technics and experiments elaborated at home to the factories they were reorganizing it was not a common practice ndash the reverse became more common from the 1910s The builders of the systematic management schemes and of the scientific management movement were inspired by the mechanicsrsquo practices accountantsrsquo tools and scientific engineersrsquo dispositions of mind not by the important literature on medical farm school and household management (Nelson 1975 Chandler 1977 Merkle 1980 Noble 1984 Shenhav 1999) Reversely we can suppose that scientific management technics and methods were easily translated to the household the farm and the school because management theories and a managerial frame of mind preexisted in these fields

Our first hypothesis is that management was first and foremost applied to insects animals infants pupils sick persons pregnant mothers limbs symptomes diseases elements such as the soil and the air organizations but more rarely to autonomous

7

adult human beings That is the application of the word to laborers implied a shift in its meaning and may inform us about the representation of laborers in the managersrsquo minds The supervision of people is seen as something highly personal and hard to systematize

Secondly several of the main principles which form today the core of business management have blossomed and have been articulated together within small going concerns independantly from the capitalist sphere in technically low-developed environnements and without provoking the formation of a distinct class of managers whether professional or not Assumptions which seem to run counter to the idea common since Chandler that technological development organization size and capitalist motives are the usual forces of management evolution It would only be the case for the business corporation

Thirdly the early repetitive uses of the terms ldquomanagementrdquo shows the penetration of the scientific outlook into a well-structured discourse on government And here I would agree with Weber and Sombart when they define an enterprise not as a capitalist institution but as a rational one

Thirdly the study of the discourses on medical management farm management household management and school management from the end of the 18th century to the first quater of the 20th also throws light on the structuration of a forgotten root of the managerial rationality the principle of care Meanwile it shows the very marginal importance of the principle of control which is to become central in business management thought

Finally this analysis throws light on the institutional framework common to three of these four ways of thinking management the family We will thus risk an institutional answer to the question why did the understanding of the word ldquomanagementrdquo shaped from the times of Frederick Taylor come to supersede the early ways of thinking it

The First Meanings of the Term ldquoManagementrdquo

The forms ldquomanagingrdquo ldquoto managerdquo ldquomanagedrdquo ldquomanagerrdquo ldquomanageablerdquo and ldquomanagementrdquo are attested from the second half of the 16th century with the broad and principal reference to the handling of public or private affairs with skill tact or care (Murray 1908 104-106) Until the middle of the 18th century the word lsquomanagerdquo and its declinaisons remain infrequent From this date to the end of the nineteenth century four types of literatures make a repetitive use of the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo which are texts on husbandry medical care of the mother and her infant household administration and school supervision

From the middle of the 18th century some English and American farmers begin to use abundantly the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo to describe the direction of the various activities of husbandry (Ellis 1744 1749 1750 Young 1768 1770a 1770b The Complete Farmer 1777 Moubray 1816 Cobbett 1821 OrsquoConnor 1843 Thomas 1844 Dickson 1853 Andrews 1853 Tegetmeier 1854 Macdonald 1865 Curtis 1879 Ward and Lock 1881 Smith 1898 Taft 1898)

These books are very distinct from the general treatises of political economy then circulating which consider with a theoretical outlook the impact of laws on trade and agriculture as a national issue They rather focus on the farm as a single unit in a very empirical perspective which plants to cultivate when to saw how much yield is expected are the kind of issues they address Often compiling examples and cases

8

most of these books are practical catalogues of advices for the care of the farmrsquos livestock horses soil cooking food dairy equipment and buildings Some do nevertheless intend to extract general principles out of the myriad of husbandry practices Arthur Young stands among other as the great theorician of farm management from the end of the 18th century

The second corpus of literature widely using the term management concern the care of the mother and her infant (Cadogan 1748 Hill 1754 Theobald 1764 White 1773 Hamilton 1781 Moss 1781 Underwood 1789 Smith 1792 Clarke 1793 Seaman 1800 Hume 1802 Herdman 1804 Bard 1807 Anonymous 1811 Taylor 1816 Appleton 1820 Flint 1826 Fox 1834 Alcott 1836 Evanson and Maunsell 1836 Charles 1838 Chavasse 1839 1843 Bull 1840 Combe 1840 Cory 1844 Hancorn 1844 Hogg 1849 Barker 1865 Powers 1866 Getchell 1868 Vines 1868 Braidwood 1874 Barrett 1875 Dix 1880 Duncan 1880 Keeting 1881 Anonymous 1884 Bruen 1887 Starr 1889 Griffith 1898)

Most of these books focus on infants till weaning while latter books may apply the term ldquomanagementrdquo to the handling of older children and even of adolescents (Abbott 1871 Shearer 1904) In the whole ldquowritten for the young and inexperienced motherrdquo (Bull 1840 iii) they display in a plain familiar style medical and para-medical advices descriptions of pathologies and treatments as well as hints on moral and physical education with a particular view on hygiene Most of these books pay a great attention to the motherrsquos and her childrenrsquos environment and sanitary condition Here is an example of the classical exposition as sumed up by two irish professors of medecine in a much quoted treatise (Evanson and Maunsell 1836 14) ldquoThe subjects treated of in the ensuing chapters naturally divide themselves under two heads viz 1 Those which relate to the management of children in order to the preservation of their health and the removal or prevention of any cause that might obstruct their moral and physical development and 2 Those which relate to the detection discrimination and treatment of diseases to which the constitution of the child is liablerdquo The common book on infant management thus teaches mothers the proper superintendance of its health growth and development in their multiple dimension ldquohow often to bathe suitable diet air exercise and a regular manner of livingrdquo as writes the physician the Princess of Wales (Underwood 1789 10) as well as drinking motions rest sleep clothing retentions secretions excretions diseases passions and cultivation of the mind For example an anonymous american matronrsquos treatise on the nurture and management of infants written in 1811 treats the following topics the washing of infants their clothing how often should they be changed their combing their feeding the curing of begnign indispositions and slight and common complaints (such as wind in the stomach and bowels retention of the urine sore ears and eyes vomiting convulsions fever cutting of the tongue) exercise and rest teething ldquoteaching infants the right use of their handsrdquo (left- of righthanded) setting them on their feet ldquodirections as to the best manner and time of weaning infants and the diet best adapted to promote their health after they are weanedrdquo as weel as ldquothe early regulation of the infant temper and dispositionrdquo (Anomymous 1811) Some treatises and manuals are dedicated to the care of a peculiar organ disease or symptom and occasionally to onersquos general health (Bell 1779 Wilson 1847 Baird 1867 Vines 1868 Godfrey 1872 Drewry 1875 Bulkley 1875 Angell 1878 Lyman 1884) In particular the management of teeth is considered for himself (James 1814 Parmly 1819 Clark 1835 Spooner 1836 Knapp 1840 Palmer 1853)

From the beginning of the 19th century blossom books and magazines of advices to middle-class women not only in their quality of mothers and nurses but also as mistresses of a family housekeepers and cooks (Taylor 1815 Radcliffe 1823 Parkes

9

1825 The Economist and General Adviser 1825 The Modern Housekeeper 1826 Anonymous 1827 Copley 182- Child 1829 and 1831 Ellis 1839 Cobbett [183-] Beecher 1841 Walsh 1853 Beeton 1861 Cassells Household Guide 1869 Beecher and Stowe 1870 Caddy 1877 Mann 1878 Parloa 1879 Sylvain 1881 Corson 1885 Campbell 1896 Parloa 1898 Richards 1899 Butterworth 1902 Lucas 1904 Carter 1904 Terrill 1905 Hunt 1908 Richards 1910 Ravenhill and Schiff 1911 Bruere 1912 Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 Frederick 1913 and 1919 Pattison 1915 Gilbreth 1927 US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932)

The terms ldquodomestic managementrdquo ldquohome-managementrdquo ldquohousehold managementrdquo ldquofamily managementrdquo ldquothe management of the house and householdrdquo are then used to describe not only common household tasks but the general appearance and train de vie of the family According to the most popular writer of Victorian conduct literature ldquoin England there is a kind of science of good household management which if it consisted merely in keeping the house respectable in its physical character might be left to the effectual working out of hired hands but happily for the women of England there is a philosophy in this science by which all their highest and best feelings are called into exercise Not only must the house be neat and clean but it must be so ordered as to suit the tastes of all as far as may be without annoyance or offence to anyrdquo (Ellis 1839 25-26 my emphasis) Such manuals are in the whole more informal lists of advices than theoretical treatises They often mingle plans principles rules and technical instructions for such things as cooking keeping and dressing food carving sewing knitting trussing mending cleaning sweeping dusting caring of furniture and beds warming ventilating destroying noxious insects washing starching ironing cleansing whitening dyeing upkeeping yards gardens and animals nursing caring for the poor marketing furnishing and decorating The subtitle of Anne Cobbettrsquos most famous Manual of Domestic Management sums up what the term ldquohousehold managementrdquo could stand for at the beginning of the 19th century Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs (Cobbett 183-) While the task of the housekeeper evolves considerably from the 1870s and 1880s ndash the housewife being more and more deprived of salaried servants and family helpers buying more and more products formerly homemade and externalizing tasks such as the education of children and the care for the sick ndash the elaboration of systems of household management develops unabated As Ellen Richards noted in 1899 ldquohousekeeping no longer means washing dishes scrubbing floors making soap and candles it means spending a given amount of money for a great variety of ready-prepared articles and so using the commodities as to produce the greatest satisfaction and the best possible mental moral and physical resultsrdquo (Richards 1899 103)

School and classroom management is also considered Books on ldquoschool managementrdquo begin to appear at the beginning of the 19th century in Great Britain but become common from the 1860s and greatly develop in the United States at the very beginning of the 20th century (Catlow 1813 Gill 1857 Morrison 1859 Joyce 1863 Wickersham 1864 Harding 1872 Holbrook 1873 Kellogg 1880 Baldwin 1881 Raub 1882 Landon 1883 Major 1883 White 1893 Tompkins 1895 Collar and Crook 1901 Dutton 1903 Seeley 1903 J Taylor 1903 Chancellor 1904 and 1910 Prince 1906 Bagley 1907 Perry 1908 Arnold 1908 and 1916 Salisbury 1911 Rice 1913 Bennett 1917)

10

This literature is mainly written by progressive principals superintendent and teachers in normal school in order to present a new method of educating children as opposed to the mainly authoritarian and coercitive military-like style of the old system otherwise discarded under the names of the Police System or the Force System School managementrsquos theories share the same set of principles with other fields of management thought here examined but adds a recuring use of the term ldquoorganizationrdquo As a teacher in school management admits ldquowhatever difference there may be between a book on school management and one on the management of any other organization is only a difference in detailsrdquo (Tompkins 1895 32)

It is of course sometimes difficult to draw clear-cut distinctions between these publications Some authors eventually deal with the three topics in the same book or in separate publications John Henry Walsh writes for instance a Manual of Domestic Economy (1853) another of Domestic Medicine and Surgery (1858) edits a cookery book (1858) and authors books on dog management (1859) and horse management (1861) Apothecary James Nelson is the first to add hints on manners and education to his medical essay on the management of children (Nelson 1753) a practice soon to be imitated More generally farm management manuals often contain a chapter on the medical care of animals And the farm and the household are long inseparable The gentleman farmer Arthur Young notes for instance in 1770 that ldquoanother point of some consequence in a gentlemans oeconomical management is house-keeping so far as it concerns the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 240) And when established in 1923 the American Bureau of Home Economics is a part of the Department of Agriculture When it develops into a literary branch household management comes to absorb topics such as infancy management garden management and diseases management Esther Copleyrsquos cook book published in the 1820s presents the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts (Copley 182-) The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine similarly displays numerous advices on medicines as well as hints on husbandry and rural economy There is also a continuum between the management of women during pregnancy in labour in child-bed and the management of the children and of home Until the last quarter of the 19th century child management constitutes a part of the books on the domestic duties of housewives (Parkes 1825 Child 1831 Beecher 1841 Walsh 1853 Beeton 1861 Beecher and Stowe 1869 Mann 1878) Up to these years as Smuts remarks ldquomost of the burden of medical care fell on the women of the familyrdquo even among the well-to-do (Smuts 1959 13)

Similarly animal management falls under both the head of farm management and medical management Let us note here that the literature on horse management is considerable in the 19th century and goes beyond their use for farming (Flint 1815 Lawrence 1830 Nimrod 1831 Youatt 1834 Capt M 1842 Hieover 1848 Horlock and Weir 1855 Mayhem 1864 Mahon 1865 Graves and Prudden 1868 Sherer 1868 McClure 1870 Gough 1878 Reynolds 1882 Sample 1882 Magner 1886 Galvayne 1888 Cook 1891 Heard 1893 Armatage 1896 Adye 1903 Bell 1904 Axe 1905) The term ldquomanagementrdquo is commonly applied to the training handling and directing of a horse in its paces from the 16th century probably in consequence of the confusing proximity between the word ldquomanagerdquo and the French word ldquomanegravegerdquo (riding stable) Books on dogs management are also common (Ellis 1749 Cook 1826 Loudon 1851 Horlock 1852 Hill 1881 Sample 1882) as well as on sheep

11

mules cattle swine pigs and poultry (Daubenton 1782 Moubray 1816 Williams 1849 Youatt 1855 Jacques 1866 Graves and Prudden 1868 Sherer 1868 Vaniman 1885 Periam 188- Heard 1893) The same author may decline his system of management to various races of animals in the same book or in different ones such as William Youatt writting successively upon the management of horses (1834) sheeps (1836) cattle (1837) dogs (1854) and hogs (1855) or George Armatage dissertating about The Varieties and Management in Health and Disease of sheeps (1873) cattle (1893) and horses (1894)

The word ldquomanagementrdquo is often casted as a general umbrella to depict a broad field on interest For instance school management often includes ldquonot only school economy proper but also school government and school ethicsrdquo as well as school requisites school work and management of the teacher as states an American superintendent (Raub 1882 11-12) Some books might use the term in their title and no further in which case we suspect some editorsrsquo final suggestion to their authors On the contrary books might treat our four themes without using repetitively the notion of management And indeed many books are specifically devoted to child care from the end of the Middle Ages and to husbandry household administration and education from Antiquity We limit ouserves to those which made a thorough use of the term ldquomanagementrdquo to reflect upon their subject for we suggest that it is the mark of a peculiar way of thinking Moreover there exists an obvious discrepancy between the authorsrsquo cultural background and the epochs when they were writting even if many books are published and republished over times both in Great Britain and the United States Some are English other Americans and one or two books here considered are translations from the French But from the middle of the 18th century to the end of the 19th and whatever the part of the ocean we look at the word ldquomanagementrdquo keeps a stable meaning The great change will come as we should see at the beginning of the 20th century Finally the books herein examined did not have the same diffusion Some books have been widely read and served as models in each one in its peculiar field while others knew a single and confidential edition In infant management for instance the famous William Cadogan and Hugh Smith stood as authorities at the end of the 18th century The statistician agronomist and empirical scientist Arthur Young who imagined ldquosystems of managementrdquo as early as 1768 was similarly a reference in farm management In household administration Catharine Beecher Isbella Beeton and Ellen Richards have been popular references and still are Beecher authored ldquothe best-known treatises on domestic economy of the nineteenth centuty (Matthews 1987 31) Isbella Beetonrsquos 1861 book which popularized the expression ldquohousehold managementrdquo sold over sixty thousands copies in its first year of publication and almost two millions copies by 1868 (Humble 2000 vii) And Ellen Richards is considered as the ldquoprophetrdquo of home economics ldquoits interpreter its conservator its inspirer and to use her own word its engineerrdquo to quote another home economics proeminent figure (Bevier 1911 214)

The Logic Underlying the Early Uses of the Term ldquoManagementrdquo

In spite of obvious practical discrepancies the three types of literature here analyzed have common features First of all they are popular pedagogical and technical While they are often written by scholarly educated authors they are not theoretical or scientific treatises but aim at a relatively large and uneducated public

12

The title of one of these caracteristically stipulates that it is ldquowritten in a plain familiar stile to render it intelligible and useful to all mothers and those who have the management of infantsrdquo (Herdman 1804) As such advices on mothersrsquo and childrenrsquos management are often offered under the form of letters a format specially adopted for the friendly delivery of advices Most prefaces and introduction exhibit the same concern for intelligibility

Taken as a single corpus the books herein considered show a conceptual coherence and share a common understanding of the term ldquomanagementrdquo To manage then means to care to be industrious and to make efficient to drive and improve to arrange and act in a systematic way to count and calculate

If most of the books here gathered consist merely in descriptive lists of empirical practices some attempt at formulating general principles and laws out of it Whether explicitely or implicitely these principles are linked to one another and form a kind of system Indeed the care should be efficient accounting should be regular in order to gain appropriate knowledge gaining knowledge should be useful for training keeping records and setting time-tables has an important influence in promoting regularity etc As states pioneering educator Joseph Baldwin ldquoschool management is the art of so directing school affairs as to produce system order and efficiencyrdquo (Baldwin 1881 15)

Care One of the first predominant meaning of the term management is to look after to

take care to breed to cultivate to maintain The principle of care is the nodal point of the different understanding of the literature on management in the 18th ang 19th century Of course infants and children management means their proper care In this case authors may use the terms ldquonursing or maternal managementrdquo indifferently (Barrett 1875 10) The notion of ldquomanagementrdquo is more generally applied to the care of fragile human beings subject to diseases and accidents such as pregnant mothers sick-persons and old people ldquoThe care is allrdquo in farm management as well as writes the pamphleteer farmer and journalist William Cobbett (Cobbett 1821 113) The proper care given to the soil the animals and the equipment forms the core of what is meant in this literature by ldquomanagementrdquo

This principle of care signifies the prevention of depletion and if necessary the medical treatment of diseases ldquoManagement in health and diseaserdquo is a much common formula Treating illness is thus a necessary part of a careful management and the terms ldquomanagementrdquo and ldquotreatmentrdquo are often synonymous Logically books on infant management are predominantly written by physicians and those on animal management by veterinaries But to care for is not the business of the sole doctor and the very reason for the existence of such books is that as Thomas Williams states it ldquoa knowledge of the proper management of domestic animals and particularly of the causes preventives symptoms and treatment of the various complaintsthey are subject to should be possessed by every farmerrdquo (Williams 1849 9)

Hygiene cleanliness and sanitation are dominant elements in writtings on management and even on school management ldquoSchool hygiene and school management are inseparablerdquo states for instance the president of an American normal school (Salisbury 1911 54) Books on household management often devote a chapter to this issue

13

In a way a proper medical management consists in preventing diseases more than in curing it not in turning every mother into a physician but into a superintendent capable of giving effect to the prescriptions of a physician As a general rule states a scottish doctor and physiologist ldquowhere the child is well managed medicine of any kind is very rarely requiredrdquo (Combe 1840 77) An English doctor warns for himself his readers in these terms ldquoI shall not trouble you with the curative part of diseases incident to children that being altogether the concern of the physician [] This present system of nursing is intended only to manage children so as to prevent illnessrdquo (Smith 1792 163-164) An anonymous writer similarly states ldquoI wish to enable my fair readers to manage the infants committed to their care without being obliged to call in a physician for every trifling indispositionrdquo (Anonymous 1811 39) Similarly a horse breeder advises that ldquoa judicious change of food efficient stable management and proper arrangements for work can accomplish all that is necessary for the conservation of health in sound horses in a better and safer manner than the exhibition of medicamentsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 98)

To care is also the leading principle structuring the different methods of household management Their objective is invariably as an author sums it up ldquothe maximum of health physical mental and moralrdquo (Terrill 1905 14) According to Ellen Richards who is considered as the mother of home economics ldquothe ideal of lsquohomersquo is protection from dangers from within bad habits bad food bad air dirt and abuse shelter in fact from all stunting agencies just as the gardener protects his tender plants until they become strong enough to stand by themselvesrdquo (Richards 1910 73) Let us note here that this predominance of the principle of care in the first meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo should not receive a gender explaination as analysis and histories of household management often occasion Farming was predominantly a manly practice and it stressed the importance of caring as much as the more womanly activities of the household Similarly caring is a pivotal element of the more womanly activities of class management as well as of the more manly activities of school management

More generally the usual application of the term ldquomanagementrdquo includes such operations as the breeding rearing curing and proper care of living beings including crops plants bees and animals as well as of peculiar parts of the body such as the teeth and eyes of human beings and the horses feet and legs Some authors may talk about ldquomoralrdquo and ldquomental managementrdquo of children and adults (for example Thompson 1841) and eventually of the moral management of insane persons (Haslam 1817 Millingen 1841) But it is also widely applied to the careful maintenance of the house and of the farming tools In the second half of the 19th century several engineers and machinists adopt this meaning of the term management to describe the maintenance and repairing of motors machines boilers and diverse kinds of machinery Emory Edwardsrsquo book still reedited today typically gives ldquosome general rules for the care and management of steam-engines and boilersrdquo (Edwards 1882 390) Writers using in this perspective the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo were not marginal and included personalities such as Zerah Colburn editor of one of Britainrsquos leading technical journal in the middle on the 19th century (Ward 1847 Colburn 1851 Bourne 1861 Watson 1867 Roper 1875 and 1889 Shock 1880 Edwards 1882 Smith 1882 Sinclair 1885 Tompkins 1889 Lieckfeld 1896 Moulson et alii 1898 Houghtaling 1899 Biggs 189- Homans 1902 Tulley 1907)

14

Industry and Efficiency Industry and efficiency form the second structuring managerial principle of the

arts of nursing husbandry and housekeeping For our authors nothing is worst than keeping idle the soil animals or men Medical advisers repeatedly stress the importance of exercises for the proper development of children But it is in farm household and school management that these principles of industry and efficiency is the most prevalent

At the end of the 18th century the experimental agronomist Arthur Young try to call attention to the extent of land lying waste in Great Britain (Young 1773) The word economy is thus used commonly in the sense of thrift and of a judicious use of resource The insistence on the profitability of a farm or of a particular crop then means more their productivity than a potential pecuniary profit on a market To the authors here considered the purpose of farm management is not to produce a lot but to produce more with less As an example the advocate of ldquoscientific agriculturerdquo Charles Fox in his text book on farm management makes it clear that ldquothe object of the practical farmer is to raise from a given area of land the largest quantity of the most profitable produce at the least costrdquo (Fox 1854 3) Meanwhile he hardly talks about buying selling and markets

In household management to be industrious and keep good hours is a necessity As states the Housekeeperrsquos magazine in 1825 ldquoabsolute idleness is inexcusable in a woman because the needle is always at hand for those intervals in which she cannot be otherwise employedrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) Similarly in their famous book on housekeeping Catharine Beecher and Harriet Stowe warn their readers about their ldquoobligation to spend every hour for some useful endrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 215) Besides being industrious a housekeeper must be efficient wether in making or in spending The purpose of the Cassells Household Guide is thus to show ldquohow by the minimum of expenditure the maximum of comfort and of luxury may be obtainedrdquo (Cassells Household Guide 1869 1) In this perspective notes a regular contributor to the Ladies Home Journal magazine economy in the home ldquomeans that everything is put to its proper use and there is no wasterdquo and most of all ldquothat the most precious thing (sic) in it mdash the mother mdash shall not be misused or wastedrdquo (Parloa 1898 258 and 352) That is careful management means frugality in the use of money equipment and human beings According to Ellen Richards it is the increasing resort to calculation on a money basis which has led to this emphasis on efficiency ldquoin these days of consolidation for the purpose of cutting down expenses days of close calculation of cost when everything is reduced to a money basis in production it is not surprising that discussion should have arisen over the great waste involved in the keeping up of fifty kitchen-fires to do the work that five would dordquo (Richards 1899 1)

Industry is a disciplining tool much recommended by school and classroom management writers ldquoThe art of school management states characteristically an educational author consists very much in the art of giving enough and suitable employment Work must be given if good order is not obtained give morerdquo (Kellogg 1880 80) Similarly states an American superintendent ldquothe secret of success in managing small children as well as larger ones lies in giving them plenty to dordquo (Raub 1882 193) This principle of industry as in the cases of farm and household management comes generally along with the principle of efficiency According to John Gill for instance whose text-book on school management was a set text in many of the training colleges for teachers which were established after 1850 (Mugglestone 2006 291) school management or ldquoschool organization is a system of arrangements

15

designed to secure constant employment efficient instruction and moral control In other words it aims at providing the means of instructing and educating the greatest number in the most efficient manner and by the most economical expenditure of time and labourrdquo (Gill 1857 56) For another writer in school management ldquothe teachers work in school naturally falls into three great divisions which taken in logical order are mdash (1) organisation (2) discipline (3) teaching and unless all three receive due attention the work is not likely to be performed with that efficiency that economy of time and labour both of the teacher and of the pupils and that absence of friction which should characterise the operation of every good schoolrdquo (Landon 1883 109) Rice in his bestseller on scientific management in schools asserts that ldquoin the strict sense scientific management in education can only be defined as a system of management specifically directed toward the elimination of waste in teaching so that the children attending the schools may be duly rewarded for the expenditure of their time and effortrdquo (Rice 1913 viii) As puts it a professor of education in a book which went through more than thirty reprintings from 1907 to 1927 (Callahan 1962 7) the problem of classroom management ldquois a problem of economy it seeks to determine in what manner the working unit of the school plant may be made to return the largest dividend upon the material investment of time energy and moneyrdquo (Bagley 1907 2) Or as sums up another professor of education and author of a book on ldquoschool efficiencyrdquo ldquothe problem of school management is to give [people] as much as possible for their moneyrdquo (Bennett 1917 1-2)

From another perspective the very purpose of school management is to form future industrious citizens An English inspector of board schools insists for instance upon ldquothe true objects and aims of school management which are the promoting of the good habits of cheerful industry all-conquering thoroughness orderly disposition of time and labor and the practice of useful activityrdquo (Holbrook 1873 179) According to a much cited professor of education writing a generation later ldquothe aim of the school may be formulated as social efficiency Whatever the school undertakes to accomplish must be judged in the light of this standardrdquo that is to turn every child into a ldquosocially efficient individualrdquo (Bagley 1907 7-8) As states professor of pedagogy Arnold Tompkins ldquoit is needless to urge that a school thoroughly organized and managed with its regular exact and punctual requirement in performance of duty is a most powerful means of bringing the pupil into the habit and spirit of industrial life [] The public school artfully managed is the very institution to supply to society members who are not simply industrious by force of conviction and habit but who have the joy of industry in the heartrdquo (Tompkins 1895 206-207)

Handling Driving Improving Perhaps the most common significance of the verb ldquoto managerdquo from its first uses

at the end of the 16th century is ldquoto handlerdquo ldquoto conductrdquo or ldquoto carry onrdquo (Murray 1908 104-105) The verb is applied to inanimate things such as weapons instuments vehicules and affairs to actions and operations to institutions such as households and states and to animals primarily horses and cattle

In many of the texts here considered the word management means altogether breeding training and curing It often refers to the training of a particular animal the horse being by far the main sort considered with dogs coming in a second position The managing of an animal refers for instance to its breeding rearing taming ldquobreaking or learningrdquo (Ellis 1749 ChII) exercising subduing educating

16

conducting and driving That is managing means more ndash or less ndash than rude disciplining For instance goodness and patience rather than ldquomain strength and stupid harshnessrdquo (Graves and Prudden 1868 38) are systematically recommended in the management of horses ldquoKindness goes far in managing these noble animalsrdquo confirms the cavalry officer Mahon (1865 49) An anonymous mother also writes that children ldquoare much better and more easily managed by kindness and it is quite easy to be firm with a child without being angry or severerdquo (Anonymous 1884 62) For most of authors on school and classroom management cooperation more than discpline is the basis of a sound eduction as military methods of instruction are rejected in a distant past ldquoReproof and privations writes an educational pioneer are the only punishments ordinarily needed in school or family The management should be so systematic and vigorous as to render severer punishments unnecessaryrdquo (Baldwin 1881 166)

This meaning of management also appears on the books considering the rearing of infants and children which purpose is their rise and progress as well as in books on school and classroom management In both cases a good management mostly consists in giving proper habits ndash that is organized reactions For instance writes an American professor of pedagogy ldquothe school should be managed with the conscious purpose of forming habits of orderrdquo (Tompkins 1895 203) A very influential professor of education could even formulate a ldquolaw of habit-buildingrdquo ldquoFocalization of consciousness upon the process to be automatized plus attentive repetition of this process permitting no exceptions until automatism resultsrdquo (Bagley 1907 16) This educating process also applies to the training of household servants a subject of a foremost intest for the early writers on household management In some cases notes Mary Elizabeth Carter servants ldquomay like boys and girls have to be taught and trained in habits of cleanliness and orderrdquo (Carter 1904 115) It also applies to the education of the future housewife which become part of the syllabus of ldquoDomestic Sciencerdquo in universities at the end of the 19th century Logically the term management was commonly applied from the middle of the 19th century to the tasks of the teacher in charge of developing his or her pupils along physical mental and moral lines Besides many books on school management note that the old days teacher was mainly superintending while the modern one is mainly teaching Most also states that teaching has become a profession and as such necessitates a proper training ldquoThe teacher writes an editor of the New York School Journal must study to be a good teacher the art of school management in its best sense turns upon thatrdquo (Kellogg 1880 78)

By essence conduct books devise ways of improving their readersrsquo behavior As scientific disciplines develop the housewife is for instance to gain knowledge in chemistry physics and psychology In her first best-selling book Catharine Beecher who can envision the task of housewife as a ldquoprofessionrdquo (Beecher 1841 5) recommend that domestic economy should be made ldquoa regular part of school educationrdquo and not taught at home by the mothers often ignorant of the true rules of this science (Ibid 63)

For behind the idea of training lies the principle of progress As early as the 17th century enlighted farmers began to shake the bounds of tradition by submitting agriculture to rational scrutiny and experiment (Best 1642) In the 19th century the home which may seem like the bastion of tradition was subject to many methods for improving its running

The very purpose of most of the early books on management is the education of their reader A majority of it aims conscienciously at being pedagogical and popular sharing this common faith in the power of knowledge and in the benefits of mass

17

education which made its way through Europe and the United States from the 18th century The doctor Anthony Thompson characteristically states that ldquothe most judicious plan of medical management may be devised and the plainest directions for its fulfilment may be delivered to the attendants of the sick-room but without more information on the subject than is at present possessed by the females of a household and especially by those whose duty it is to superintend the execution of the orders of the Physician little benefit can be anticipated to the invalidrdquo (Thompson 1841 vii)

Order Arrangement System Regulation Order arrangement system and regulation are watchwords of the 18th and 19th

century literature on management and especially of the literature on farm and household management The expressions ldquosystem of managingrdquo ldquoplan of managementrdquo ldquomethod of managementrdquo are found in almost every book here considered The very idea of management seem to imply the notion of a regular and ordered system The Housekeeperrsquos magazine even talks about the ldquobest-regulated familyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg3 52) and Catharine Beecher of ldquoa systematic and well-regulated familyrdquo (Beecher 1841 126) For a widely read authoress of books on household administration for instance ldquomethod and order are two most important factors in the management of the householdrdquo (Parloa 1898 61) Regarding accounts writes the author of a ldquosystem of practical domestic economyrdquo ldquoregularity is the very life and soul of economyrdquo (Anonymous 1827 380) The setting of a routine and the search for regularity are especially praised in the rearing of children and of animals Thus according to a horse expert ldquoone of the first things desirable in stable management is rule by rule I mean a regular way of doing thingsrdquo (Hieover 1848 90) Similarly school management thinkers praise order and system and order ldquoSystem in school management is a necessityrdquo states one of them (Raub 1882 196) ldquoOrderliness in general matters of school management writes another is a right upon which it is unnecessary to insist The child has the right to expect regular periods for school work orderly entrance and dismissal etc care of clothing uniformity in certain aspects of discipline and the likerdquo (Arnold 1908 174) As states an English inspector of board schools ldquoThe first requisite of good management in all schools is orderrdquo (Major 1883 209) For a fourth author on this subject an ldquoimportant device in school management is the adoption of a self-regulating system [] A school is a sort of mechanism and all its movements must be regular to avoid confusion and waste of timerdquo (White 1893 94-95) As recognizes Dr Arnold Tompkins of Illinois University for whom ldquono means ever devised is more potent than an efficient system of school managementrdquo ldquowe are quite strictly materialists in school management setting objective and fixed forms and rules hard and fast over against a growing and pulsating liferdquo (Tompkins 1895 208 and 14)

Arthur Young who was to become Secretary to the English Board of Agriculture could be called the Frederick Taylor of farm management not in the sense that he animated and inspired a school but in the sense that he attempted to ldquoreduce multifarious fugitive subjects to some degree of order and even principlesrdquo articulated into a rational ldquosystem of general managementrdquo (Young 1770b 2-3) His purpose being to see husbandry ldquobuilt upon as just and philosophic principles as the art of medicinerdquo (Ibid 175) Young thus applied an experimental and scientific outlook to husbandry Talking about accounts he states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) He thus draws ldquoschemes of conducting farmsrdquo

18

with an eye to constant improvements (Young 1770b 34) To him the superiority of the gentleman over the common farmer lay in his capacity to acquire new knowledge not in his application of old ones To him it is thus important to devise a ldquoplan of agricultural operationrdquo (Young 1770a vol 2 471) What he calls the ldquosystem of managementrdquo or ldquotrain of managementrdquo of a farm is nothing but the division arrangement and proportionning of its land cattle and labour Young thus elaborate methods and calculus for a efficient division of work which he calls ldquodisposition of the teamsrdquo (Young 1770b 25) and which takes the form of distribution of ploughs horses ox and laborers He proposes for instance a table with the distribution of 16 servants 11 laborers and 16 boys for the ploughs harrowing team carried over brought over rolling horse hoeing road team ox team ditto carting extra team shepherd exen steers swine cows Young also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men As it sums it up himslef a certain portion of time a certain portion of space and ldquoa certain portion of hands are assigned to each businessrdquo (Ibid 60)

According to a prolific author of conduct books ldquothat house only is well conducted where there is a strict attention paid to order and regularity To do every thing in its proper time to keep every thing in its right place and to use every thing for its proper use is the very essence of good managementrdquo (Taylor 1815 27) Similarly according to the author of a Modern System of Domestic Cookery a ldquosystem of domestic management is the foundation of all the comfort and welfare of private familiesrdquo (Radcliffe 1823 1) But Catharine Beecher is the first one to devise in 1841 such a ldquosystematic plan of domestic economyrdquo (Beecher 1841 157) in a book notes a literature teacher specialist of Catharine Beecher which ldquowent through fifteen editions between 1841 and 1856 and established Beecher as the nations foremost authority on household practicerdquo (Tonkovich in Beecher and Stowe 1869 xiii) According to her philosophy ldquoit is wise therefore for all persons to devise a general plan which they will at least keep in view and aim to accomplish and by which a proper proportion of time shall be secured for all the duties of liferdquo (Ibid 158) She thus advocates a ldquosystematic employment of timerdquo (Ibid 160 Beecher and Stowe 1870 196) Beecher and her sister Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote in a later book ldquoEvery young lady can systematize her pursuits to a certain extent She can have a particular day for mending her wardrobe and for arranging her trunks closets and drawers She can keep her work-basket her desk at school and all her other conveniences in their proper places and in regular order She can have regular periods for reading walking visiting study and domestic pursuits And by following this method in youth she will form a taste for regularity and a habit of system which will prove a blessing to her through liferdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 202) The housekeeper should not limit her division and arrangement of work to the servants but strive for ldquothe apportioning of regular employment to the various members of a family If a housekeeper can secure the cooperation of all her family she will find that lsquomany hands make light workrsquordquo (Beecher 1841 163) Adding that ldquoa woman is under obligations so to arrange the hours and pursuits of her family as to promote systematic and habitual industryrdquo (Ibid 185) For that purpose she draws plans of houses and domestic conveniences (Ibid ch XXIV)

Both Young and Beecher show the conspicuous features that exhibit the literature on farm and household management a quest for regularity and order systematicity planning selection as well as the arrangement of work and division of labor But elaboration of methods and plans are also common in medical management literature The doctor Cadogan proposes as early as 1748 a ldquoPlan of Nursingrdquo (Cadogan 1748 21)

19

This systematic frame of mind is first expressed by medical farm and household management writers not so much in a desire to standardize but in a constant effort to codify That is routines are not systematically reduced to a measurable standard but they are carefully specified often regarding a specific time and place The very idea of writting a book imply this logic of formalizing and codifying a set of practices The most methodic books circumscribe the mother farmer and housekeeperrsquos tasks and codify it in every detail Most of the books on infant management codify the childrenrsquos dress from the shoes to the cap their cleanliness bathing foods drinks exercise amusements sleep education and employments Isabella Beetonrsquos 1861 book codified every aspect of household management and even every aspect of a diner given at home or in paying visits of condoleance This very idea of codification is best exemplified by the recurring planning tools proposed by most of these books such as detailed plans of houses diagrams of kitchen schedules work orders tables of duties calendars reminder cards and files bulletin boards ledgers accounting books individual calendars or written menus to be posted in pantry and kitchen (Cf for instance figure below from US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932 202) An author even recommends the use of ldquoprinted rules

in bath room [] giving a few very simple admonitions upon what is lsquogood formrsquo in a lavatory of any sortrdquo (Carter 1904 93) For the ldquohousehold engineerrdquo Christine Frederick ldquostandard practice means then written directions as to method and tools and timerdquo (Frederick 1919 152)

Even if most of English and American homes employed less than ten servants and therefore knew in a limited degree the division labor Nevertheless remarks the author of a ldquodomestic economy and household sciencerdquo manual ldquoin most households it is found necessary to divide the work which has to be done amongst various people

20

and to have some of these especially trained for certain parts of it such as cooking the food cleaning the house and waiting upon the inmates The arranging of all this work has to be thought of and planned by the master and mistress who are the responsible controllers and heads of the house Thus the duties of servants their relations to their employers and their good management or handling are also matters with which domestic economy has to dealrdquo (Mann 1878 5)

Much of the books on school management devote a chapter or a whole part to ldquoorganizationrdquo which usally contains instructions regarding the number and size of the classes the distribution of the staff the syllabus of work for each class the classification of the scholars and the time table It may picture plans of the school or at least of the ideal classroom and some even specify the way children should be gathered and circulate wtihin their class (Cf right time table and plan of a school reproduced from Collar and Crook 1901 41) For an influential writer on school management ldquothe particulars embraced under organization comprise the arrangements of the rooms classification of the children duties of the master subordinates distribution of work and time tablesrdquo (Gill 1857 57) Under the head of organization the rector of a Glasgow school thus describe for instance ldquothe arrangement of desks most suitable to the efficient management of a schoolrdquo (Morrison 1859 44) Another author talks about ldquothe distribution of the teaching powerrdquo (Landon 1883 110)

According to the authors of farm management books good husbandry is not a matter of duplicating age-old recipes but a matter of choices and of planning choice of a location of a farm og a kind of farming (intensive or extensive) of crops of livestock of horses of equipment of implements of calendar etc All these parameters interacts As such states Young husbandry can never arrive at perfection ldquoif the exact degree of every vegetable cultivated be not known in relation to soil and management and in a word if all the the various branches of this complex art be not so thoroughly sifted and examined as to be familiar in every combinationrdquo (Young 1770b 150-151) A century later Robert Scott Burn advises his readers to select their animals with regards to ldquothe soil its cropping size locality and climaterdquo (Burn 1877 29) Richard Reynolds states for himself that ldquoalmost every treatise upon the management of farm-horses contain formulae of food allowances applicable for use at certain seasons and during the performance of certain agricultural operationsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 52) Similarly the proper selection of a new house of servants of food of menus of activities for the children and even ldquothe choice of friendsrdquo and new acquaintances (Parkes 1825 Part I Conversations II and III) are important dimensions of household management For a household editor for the Ladies Home Journal if a housekeeper ldquodoes not know that round steak at 20 cents a pound possesses as much nutriment as the

21

porterhouse at 26 cents she will not expend wisely or economically She should know something of the idea of a lsquobalanced mealrsquo and what foods will give it the place of milk fruit and eggs in the diet what are healthful meat substitutes and the nourishment of various kinds of breads vegetables and cerealsrdquo (Frederick 1913 105)

Most of the book on children management describe curricula proper to their development For instance in his Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children written in 1792 Smith formulates ldquorulesrdquo describes ldquobest methodsrdquo and offers detailed prescriptions for the management of children ldquolet their breakfast at six or seven in the morning be half a pint of new milk with about two ounces of bread in it mdash the second meal should be half a pint of good broth with the same quantity of bread let this be given about ten or eleven in the morning mdash the third meal about two or three in the afternoon should be broth in like manner mdash and their supper about six in the evening new milk and bread the same as for breakfastrdquo (Smith 1792 140) Most of books on children management give advices regarding their different stages of life and notably the periods of weaning and of dentition Samuel Smiles the famous surgeon presents ldquoin a tabular form what [he] conceive[s] ought to be the proper disposition of time in childhood boyhood adolescenceand adult age in order to the attainment of a full development of the mental faculties with a corresponding healthy completion of the physical structurerdquo (Smiles 1838 188) As such for each period of age he precises ldquothe hours that should be devoted to exercise exercise with instruction tuition relaxation and sleeprdquo (Cf table below from Ibid 188) Similarly many household management books propose plans for the distribution of tasks settled down to the day and even down to the quarter of an hour (Butterworth 1902 27-28) According to the Housekeeperrsquos magazine ldquoearly rising and a good disposition of time is essential to Economyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) As early as 1825 Frances Parkes proposes a ldquosystem of Domestic Dutyrdquo (Parkes 1825 22) which regulates the ldquodisposal of timerdquo (Ibid 16) ldquoAs much time is saved or rather gained by a regular disposal of each division of the day I recommend to you to plan the whole out every morning and as far as you can command circumstances to pursue that plan steadilyrdquo (Ibid 317) Almanachs are important tools of farm and household regulation of time and farming operations also obeys to calendars and a precise chronological pattern The combination of these different parameters require an ordered mind as it is repeatedly remarked in farm management books ldquoA time-table is to a school what grammar is to a languagerdquo says an Irish head-master who participated in the task of ldquointroducing among the national schools [of Ireland] an improved and uniform organization and of diffusing among the national teachers a more extensive practical knowledge of school keepingrdquo (Joyce 1863 37 and vii) As such he codifies a regular day at school hour by hour beginning in such a manner ldquoldquo955 to 10 Inspection as to cleanliness mdash At five minutes to ten the children should be arranged according to their divisions and drafts either in the playground or in the school- room and the teacher after a hasty glance to see that their hands faces and hair are clean and neat marches all to their several places This preliminary business should not encroach on the school time the first lessons should be actually commencing at 10 oclockrdquo (Ibid 59) For another writer on school management it is obvious that ldquothere must be a well devised program distributing the time properly among the various classes and that it must be inflexibly followedrdquo (Kellogg 1880 92) Such time-tables are a common feature of school management books

The question of ldquoarrangementrdquo that is of planning space is a common feature of farm and household management books ldquoA place for everything and everything in its

22

placerdquo is a recurring moto of 18th and 19th centuries management books Books on farm management thus frequently offer developments the arrangement of the fields and even latter on the planning of farm buildings fields or poultry houses (Dickson 1853) As early as 1768 Arthur Young underline the ldquogeneral benefit which arises from a judicious arrangement of a farmrdquo by a farmer and especially ldquothe arranging his lands properly for his cropsrdquo (Young 1768 156-157 and 158) Another author underlines that ldquobesides a most rigid and accurate set of account booksrdquo ldquoan accurate plan of each field should also be had showing the position of drains with their outfalls position of fences and gates and another detailing the mode of cropping and the part of the rotation under which at the stated intervals it comes to be placedrdquo (Burn 1877 29) Warren in his classic book on farm management proposes schemes of farm layout location size and shape of fields (Warren 1913 365-368) Regarding household management such author may propose ldquoplans of houses suited to townsrdquo (Walsh 1853 96) this one a plan of the pantries (Parloa 1898 15) while another calls for ldquoscientific house-planningrdquo (Bruere 1912 174) Ellen Richards prescriptions for the arrangement of a house include such elements as windows walls sink bathtub florrs woodwork stair rails and supports plumbing vaccum cleaner gas burners screens etc (Richards 1911) Beecher and Stowe add to their sketch of ldquomodel cottage-ground plan and roomsrdquo ldquoIn the description and arrangement the leading aim is to show how time labor and expense are saved not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangementrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 24) For the real purpose of planning is often both order and efficiency For instance

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

2

Histories of Management Thought Usual Presuppositions

Looking at modern literature on management thought we mainly find two different kinds of histories The first tends to confine the managerial logic to the business sphere and ignore the older meanings of the word The second on the contrary all-inclusive sees managerial thinking almost everywhere and at almost every epoch of human history Both err through evolutionism and universalism

Histories of management practices and thought show in the whole a retrospective bias consisting in forming an archetypal definition of management from the 20th century perspective and in digging the history of entrepreneurship trade capitalism and more generally of what we call today the ldquoprivate sectorrdquo in search for preludes sketches roots ways and means of the victorious scheme of thinking they assume to be universal By doing so they forget that if the word ldquomanagementrdquo today mainly refers to business management only even when it is applied to institutions other than the capitalist corporation it is only from the first decades of the 20th century that publications in business management begin to supersede by their volume books in medical household farm and school management and that its 20th century definition took over its older meanings

It would seem that so far a majority of historical studies of management carefully remained within the boudaries of the business enterprise Even Daniel Wren who ventures as far as Babylonrsquos history in his Evolution of Management Thought (1972) circumscribes his book on Early Management Thought (1997) to the management of 19th and 20th centuries business enterprises

It has become well-known story in the second half of the 19th century in the United States an economic depression the coming of a large masses of unorganized immigrants favourable general incorporation laws an increasing business competition and the emergence of a national market favored the growth of large-scale industrial enterprises In turn this growth created new possibilities and new problems of labour recruitment training discipline control over production and accountancy which resulted in the creation of a distinct managerial layer within most of these corporations below the proprietors but above the foremen or clerks and the constitution of managerial techniques and doctrines By the end of the 19th century through the constitution of clubs professional societies journals academic curricula text-books and book collections this new class forged its proper technics and a ldquomanagerial ideologyrdquo of its own or at least its doxa Blend of the engineering way of thinking and of accounting methods this floating managerial rationality was synthetized and formalized by Frederick Taylor and slowly gained widespread accceptance while being tamed and sophisticated by management thinkers and leaders such as Henry Ford Henri Fayol Alexander Church Chester Barnard Elton Mayo Luther Gulick Mary Parker Follett Rensis Likert Chris Argyris Nobert Wiener Peter Drucker Herbert Simon Alfred P Sloan Rosabeth Moss Kanter Douglas McGregor Henry Mintzberg James March Kenichi Ohmae and Michael Porter among many others Meanwhile under the impetus of the organization theory and cybernetics this managerial doxa came to be applied to all the social institutions of industrial countries from the church to the family and from the school to the State its principles forming the core of the modern man common sense

Endorsing this conception of management history a majority of historians thus generally assumes that the birth and growth of a managerial rationality is a matter of

3

1) large going concerns that is of a specific manner of coordinating the efforts of great number of people usually organized into institutions (Chandler 1962 and 1977 Pollard 1965 Claude 1968 Wren 1972) The rise of large going concerns being tributary of technical innovations and inventive managers assume these authors management itself is inseparable from a certain technical stage of civilization which begun with the ldquonew factory systemrdquo (Nelson 1975)

2) capitalism and business that is or a specific manner of doing business In this sense management is inseparable from the modern corporation that is from the big business enterprise in corporate form but has little to do with ldquopublicrdquo institutions such as the Church the army or the state bureaucracies In this perspective we can risk the hypothesis that management histories have developed under the intimidating intellectual shadow of classical economy The influence of Marx over a generation of labour historians has been well documented and his inheritors share for instance the idea that management is by birth at the service of the business interests and must therefore be understood within the capitalist conceptual framework (Sombart 1928 Gorz 1973 Marglin 1974 Braverman 1974 Montgomery 1979 Clawson 1980 Edwards Gordon and Reich 1982 Noble 1984 Biernacki 1995)

3) class that is of the existence of a specific and well-structured professional group In this perspective management would be inseparable from the rise of the class of salaried managers which is itself dependent upon the existence of a distinct layer within corporations hierarchies between the owner(s) and the laborers Together with this thesis may come the idea that management is an ideology that is the political project of a distinct social group (Veblen 1921 Burnham 1941 Mills 1951 Bendix 1956 Whyte 1956 Harbison and Myers 1959 Montgomery 1979 Merkle 1988 Shenhav 1999)

But is this the history of management or rather the story of the way modern business corporation leaders and thinkers created an intellectual tool necessary for the survival of their mother-institution Of course modern management is inseparable from industrial innovation the modern corporation and the dynmics of capitalism But should its study be limited to this field Cannot we learn from the study of other field of development of management thoughts How to explain the widespread use of the word ldquomanagementrdquo in the 18th and 19th century to describe the functionning of institutions as different as the household the farm the school as well as the governing of living beings ranging from the bee to the sick old-person and from the cattle to the infant without assuming a too loose and inclusive definition of management

If some studies of the development of accounting have ventured outside the business and industrial arena (Freear 1970 Noke 1981 Scorgie 1997 Juchau 2002) these non-capitalist and non-technological roots of management are hardly considered by management historians Sidney Pollard would be an exception who risks a foot in farm management and admits that ldquothe agricultural estate might foreshadow some of the methods used later in the factoriesrdquo (Pollard 1965 30) But management meaning to him business management ie to ldquomanage large units within a competitive progressive environment and within a framework of economic motivationrdquo (Ibid 24) he searches for its roots in the first elaborate forms of businesses such as the industrial ldquodomestic systemrdquo and the putting-out system To him the birth of management was only possible in a capitalist environment

In his reference book on the history of the business corporation Alfred Chandler goes back as far as possible in the history of the ldquotraditional enterprisesrdquo to the Southern plantations the Lowell textile factories and the Springfield Armory (Chandler 1977 ldquoCh 2 The Traditional Enterprise in Productionrdquo 50-78)

4

Nevertheless he searches back in history for ancient forms of large-scale production and factory-like modes of organization As such he does not consider the large plantations in order to understand their logic but look in it for familiar practices Far from being the core institution around which revolved managerial practices the family was according to Chandler an obstacle to or even an enemy of the modern corporation embodying rival principles The corporation had thus to get rid of these familial traditions and networks of personal ties to become a managerial institution Througout his life Chandler remained interested in the emergence and development of managerial capitalism in the 19th and 20th century not of managerial rationality

George Claude Daniel Wren and Peter Drucker three other reference authors of management history seem on the contrary to occasionally venture too far For such authors management would be a genetic feature of humanity As such writes George Claude ldquoa true and comprehensive history of management would be a history of manrdquo (Claude 1968 vii) Similarly according to Wren ldquomanagement as an activity has always existed to make peoplersquos desires through organized effort Management facilitates the efforts of people in organized groups and arises when people seek to cooperate to achieve goalsrdquo (Wren 1972 11-12) Armed with such an all-embrassing definition these authors consider as managers old-days military chiefs priests jurists political leaders and merchants entrepreneurs Nevertheless if their definition may seem to broad in scope their history appears on the contrary much too discriminating Indeed besides quoting the Hammurabi code and Chanakya Kalautilyarsquos Arthasastra (Wren 1972 ch 2) why not considering the codified organization of labour and highly hierarchized functioning of European cloisters in the Middle Ages or the Christian doctrine of administratio as formulated by Paul in his Pastoral epistles and refined by the Roman canon law Besides citing the pharoahs as the first great managers as Drucker often did why not considering the invention of agriculture 14000 years ago which proved human dispositions for planning organizing and accounting Why not showing the symbolic link between the practice of business management and the extreme planification division of labour and industrial ideal of the 18th and 19th centuries utopian socialists Should not Saint-Simon or at least Max Weber rather than Chester Barnard (Williamson 1990) be considered as the true fathers of organization studies Why not unveiling the codification of administrative principles within the practice of early urban governance and municipal administration from the times of Calvinrsquos Geneva and Zwinglirsquos Zurich to the incorporation of American towns Why not considering the ldquopastoral governmentalityrdquo theorized by Michel Foucault in his 1978 lectures at the Collegravege de France (1978) Why not analyzing how the administration of european colonies gave rise to a specific art of management interwoving the logics of sovereignty and capitalism Besides occasionally quoting Sun Tzu and Clausewitz as potential source of business inspiration (Claude 1968 Wren 1972 Crainer 1997 Pearson 2009) why not studying the organization of armed bodies from medieval times to the present Did not Marx for instance underlined ldquothe way in which certain economic relations such as wage labour machinery etc develop earlier owing to war and in the armies etc than in the interior of bourgeois societyrdquo (Marx 1857 109) Besides quoting Machiavelli (Claude 1968 Wren 1972 Crainer 1997 Wren and Greenwood 1998 Pearson 2009) why not considering the taste for administrative planning showed by Utilitarians Reason of State thinkers Cameralists Physiocrats Jacobins Positivists and a majority of Radicals and more broadly the whole field of politics Institutions such as the feodal estate the early political parties the brotherhoods the fraternal societies the guilds and the churches were institutions asking for a certain kind of management Even if administrative work was not always

5

so important as to justify the existence of a specialized class and of a distinct layer of specialized managers within the institution it existed and obeyed to certain rules and principles that it would be interesting to examine under the light of management history

Method Objectives Hypothesis

Most of management thought historians seem to imagine in an abstract and somewhat structuralist perspective managerial ideas floating through the centuries and all-over the globe freely disposable to be formulated by great authors and leaders and being eventually embodied here and then in the form of more of less large-scale institutions On the contrary I assume that whenever and wherever these ideas exist they take a very tangible appearance they are symbolized by particular words Of course it is a long and painstaking work to search back for the different words which incoporated what we mean today by management and endless debates are inevitable if we try to affirm for instance how far was the greek word ldquooikonomiardquo (οἰκονοmicroία) close from our contemporary understanding of the term ldquomanagementrdquo But it is far less debatable to examine at the English translations of Xenophonrsquos and Aristotlersquos Economics and to consider from when they start to use the word ldquomanagementrdquo and in which ways As such one of the less controversial way of tracking back the incorporation in words of a managerial rationality is to examine the uses of the word ldquomanagementrdquo itself from its appearance in the English language

Histories of management often point out to the different methods and tools of management from double-entry bookkeeping to the stopwatch from the assembly line to video surveillance from just-in-time to the open space But among the first and most important tools used from the early corporate managers to the grandsons of Peter Drucker one deserves a special place it is the very word ldquomanagementrdquo which made possible for this social group to put a name on some of their practices and on their community and which served as a rallying battle flag as well as a seductive catch word But the corporate managers did not coin the term and if they redefined it they also inevitably inherited from its earlier meaning Or rather they adopted it because of its earlier meanings which seem to fit their own practices and representations As such the term ldquomanagementrdquo was not a prelude to business management thoughts nor an explicit reference for its theoricians but rather the mental foundation and the symbolic materials upon which mechanics engineers and accountants choose to build up their proper conception of management Words are not neutral If their use authorises a certain liberty they are also loaded with a patrimony of mental schemes Similarly when English political scientists adapted the word ldquopoliticsrdquo at the begining of the 16th century they adapted as much as adopted the Greeksrsquo representations of authority law power and government built in the very notion of polis So the early systematic uses of the term ldquomanagementrdquo are less genetic than foster parents of its 20th century acceptances That why I assumed that they deserve a thorough study

In order to do so I gathered from a search in the Library of Congress a catalogue of texts comprising the term ldquomanagementrdquo in their title which was mostly useful to delineate the thematical fields and the historical periods to delve into I then read through these literatures in search for common features and similar frames of reference accompanying the uses of the word ldquomanagementrdquo

6

The purpose of this paper is not to track back in the depth of history the sketches or seeds of modern management conspicuous features it is not interested in the ldquomodernity of the pastrdquo Neither does it try to reconstruct practices from the writtings It considers on the contrary the writtings for themselves and assumes that they carry a certain endogenous logic Instead of assuming an universal definition of the term ldquomanagementrdquo whether all-inclusive or restrained to business or factorylike activities this paper assumes that the meanings carried over the four last centuries by the notion of management depend upon historical and cultural contexts but nevertheless share a core of basic ideas Medical care husbandry housekeeping and school government are not forerunners of business management practices but some of the authors who codified these activities furnished an intellectual frame of mind used by corporate management thinkers The discrepancies between these mental systems should not be discarded but on the contrary put under the microscope for we might learn more about management by inquiring the different meanings of the same word ldquomanagementrdquo throught the centuries than by searching back for practices which however close from todayrsquos definition of the term ldquomanagementrdquo were characterized by different words and took sense within a very different system of thinking and valuing

Since its appearance in the English language in the 16th century until the beginning of the 20th century the word ldquomanagementrdquo did not mean primarily business management It was mainly used to talk about husbandry and health care From the 1830s household management came to synthetize elements of these two disciplines which nevertheless followed their own path While school management literature mostly developed from the 1860s Of course the risk of squashing details and homogenizing miscellaneous topics is great when such broad and diverse literatures are handled by young hands That is why the analysis is confined to the broad lines and the general features of the texts herein considered For these four fields of expression undoubtely display a shared set of principles and mental dispositions exhibiting a common consideration for caring a spirit of system and order exigences of industry and efficiency the idea of a possible improvement of things and beings as well as a extensive recourse to accouting and recording methods

That is these first systematic ways of thinking management show features very similar to what will be business management in the 20th century Nevertheless their authors cannot be considered as the scattered progenitors or precursors of modern management systems methods and tools like few spots of enlighted forerunners in a sea of dark ignorance and traditional beliefs waiting for the business corporation and its professional managers to gather and systematize their insights If some management thinkers such as Frank and Lillian Gilbreth may have transposed technics and experiments elaborated at home to the factories they were reorganizing it was not a common practice ndash the reverse became more common from the 1910s The builders of the systematic management schemes and of the scientific management movement were inspired by the mechanicsrsquo practices accountantsrsquo tools and scientific engineersrsquo dispositions of mind not by the important literature on medical farm school and household management (Nelson 1975 Chandler 1977 Merkle 1980 Noble 1984 Shenhav 1999) Reversely we can suppose that scientific management technics and methods were easily translated to the household the farm and the school because management theories and a managerial frame of mind preexisted in these fields

Our first hypothesis is that management was first and foremost applied to insects animals infants pupils sick persons pregnant mothers limbs symptomes diseases elements such as the soil and the air organizations but more rarely to autonomous

7

adult human beings That is the application of the word to laborers implied a shift in its meaning and may inform us about the representation of laborers in the managersrsquo minds The supervision of people is seen as something highly personal and hard to systematize

Secondly several of the main principles which form today the core of business management have blossomed and have been articulated together within small going concerns independantly from the capitalist sphere in technically low-developed environnements and without provoking the formation of a distinct class of managers whether professional or not Assumptions which seem to run counter to the idea common since Chandler that technological development organization size and capitalist motives are the usual forces of management evolution It would only be the case for the business corporation

Thirdly the early repetitive uses of the terms ldquomanagementrdquo shows the penetration of the scientific outlook into a well-structured discourse on government And here I would agree with Weber and Sombart when they define an enterprise not as a capitalist institution but as a rational one

Thirdly the study of the discourses on medical management farm management household management and school management from the end of the 18th century to the first quater of the 20th also throws light on the structuration of a forgotten root of the managerial rationality the principle of care Meanwile it shows the very marginal importance of the principle of control which is to become central in business management thought

Finally this analysis throws light on the institutional framework common to three of these four ways of thinking management the family We will thus risk an institutional answer to the question why did the understanding of the word ldquomanagementrdquo shaped from the times of Frederick Taylor come to supersede the early ways of thinking it

The First Meanings of the Term ldquoManagementrdquo

The forms ldquomanagingrdquo ldquoto managerdquo ldquomanagedrdquo ldquomanagerrdquo ldquomanageablerdquo and ldquomanagementrdquo are attested from the second half of the 16th century with the broad and principal reference to the handling of public or private affairs with skill tact or care (Murray 1908 104-106) Until the middle of the 18th century the word lsquomanagerdquo and its declinaisons remain infrequent From this date to the end of the nineteenth century four types of literatures make a repetitive use of the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo which are texts on husbandry medical care of the mother and her infant household administration and school supervision

From the middle of the 18th century some English and American farmers begin to use abundantly the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo to describe the direction of the various activities of husbandry (Ellis 1744 1749 1750 Young 1768 1770a 1770b The Complete Farmer 1777 Moubray 1816 Cobbett 1821 OrsquoConnor 1843 Thomas 1844 Dickson 1853 Andrews 1853 Tegetmeier 1854 Macdonald 1865 Curtis 1879 Ward and Lock 1881 Smith 1898 Taft 1898)

These books are very distinct from the general treatises of political economy then circulating which consider with a theoretical outlook the impact of laws on trade and agriculture as a national issue They rather focus on the farm as a single unit in a very empirical perspective which plants to cultivate when to saw how much yield is expected are the kind of issues they address Often compiling examples and cases

8

most of these books are practical catalogues of advices for the care of the farmrsquos livestock horses soil cooking food dairy equipment and buildings Some do nevertheless intend to extract general principles out of the myriad of husbandry practices Arthur Young stands among other as the great theorician of farm management from the end of the 18th century

The second corpus of literature widely using the term management concern the care of the mother and her infant (Cadogan 1748 Hill 1754 Theobald 1764 White 1773 Hamilton 1781 Moss 1781 Underwood 1789 Smith 1792 Clarke 1793 Seaman 1800 Hume 1802 Herdman 1804 Bard 1807 Anonymous 1811 Taylor 1816 Appleton 1820 Flint 1826 Fox 1834 Alcott 1836 Evanson and Maunsell 1836 Charles 1838 Chavasse 1839 1843 Bull 1840 Combe 1840 Cory 1844 Hancorn 1844 Hogg 1849 Barker 1865 Powers 1866 Getchell 1868 Vines 1868 Braidwood 1874 Barrett 1875 Dix 1880 Duncan 1880 Keeting 1881 Anonymous 1884 Bruen 1887 Starr 1889 Griffith 1898)

Most of these books focus on infants till weaning while latter books may apply the term ldquomanagementrdquo to the handling of older children and even of adolescents (Abbott 1871 Shearer 1904) In the whole ldquowritten for the young and inexperienced motherrdquo (Bull 1840 iii) they display in a plain familiar style medical and para-medical advices descriptions of pathologies and treatments as well as hints on moral and physical education with a particular view on hygiene Most of these books pay a great attention to the motherrsquos and her childrenrsquos environment and sanitary condition Here is an example of the classical exposition as sumed up by two irish professors of medecine in a much quoted treatise (Evanson and Maunsell 1836 14) ldquoThe subjects treated of in the ensuing chapters naturally divide themselves under two heads viz 1 Those which relate to the management of children in order to the preservation of their health and the removal or prevention of any cause that might obstruct their moral and physical development and 2 Those which relate to the detection discrimination and treatment of diseases to which the constitution of the child is liablerdquo The common book on infant management thus teaches mothers the proper superintendance of its health growth and development in their multiple dimension ldquohow often to bathe suitable diet air exercise and a regular manner of livingrdquo as writes the physician the Princess of Wales (Underwood 1789 10) as well as drinking motions rest sleep clothing retentions secretions excretions diseases passions and cultivation of the mind For example an anonymous american matronrsquos treatise on the nurture and management of infants written in 1811 treats the following topics the washing of infants their clothing how often should they be changed their combing their feeding the curing of begnign indispositions and slight and common complaints (such as wind in the stomach and bowels retention of the urine sore ears and eyes vomiting convulsions fever cutting of the tongue) exercise and rest teething ldquoteaching infants the right use of their handsrdquo (left- of righthanded) setting them on their feet ldquodirections as to the best manner and time of weaning infants and the diet best adapted to promote their health after they are weanedrdquo as weel as ldquothe early regulation of the infant temper and dispositionrdquo (Anomymous 1811) Some treatises and manuals are dedicated to the care of a peculiar organ disease or symptom and occasionally to onersquos general health (Bell 1779 Wilson 1847 Baird 1867 Vines 1868 Godfrey 1872 Drewry 1875 Bulkley 1875 Angell 1878 Lyman 1884) In particular the management of teeth is considered for himself (James 1814 Parmly 1819 Clark 1835 Spooner 1836 Knapp 1840 Palmer 1853)

From the beginning of the 19th century blossom books and magazines of advices to middle-class women not only in their quality of mothers and nurses but also as mistresses of a family housekeepers and cooks (Taylor 1815 Radcliffe 1823 Parkes

9

1825 The Economist and General Adviser 1825 The Modern Housekeeper 1826 Anonymous 1827 Copley 182- Child 1829 and 1831 Ellis 1839 Cobbett [183-] Beecher 1841 Walsh 1853 Beeton 1861 Cassells Household Guide 1869 Beecher and Stowe 1870 Caddy 1877 Mann 1878 Parloa 1879 Sylvain 1881 Corson 1885 Campbell 1896 Parloa 1898 Richards 1899 Butterworth 1902 Lucas 1904 Carter 1904 Terrill 1905 Hunt 1908 Richards 1910 Ravenhill and Schiff 1911 Bruere 1912 Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 Frederick 1913 and 1919 Pattison 1915 Gilbreth 1927 US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932)

The terms ldquodomestic managementrdquo ldquohome-managementrdquo ldquohousehold managementrdquo ldquofamily managementrdquo ldquothe management of the house and householdrdquo are then used to describe not only common household tasks but the general appearance and train de vie of the family According to the most popular writer of Victorian conduct literature ldquoin England there is a kind of science of good household management which if it consisted merely in keeping the house respectable in its physical character might be left to the effectual working out of hired hands but happily for the women of England there is a philosophy in this science by which all their highest and best feelings are called into exercise Not only must the house be neat and clean but it must be so ordered as to suit the tastes of all as far as may be without annoyance or offence to anyrdquo (Ellis 1839 25-26 my emphasis) Such manuals are in the whole more informal lists of advices than theoretical treatises They often mingle plans principles rules and technical instructions for such things as cooking keeping and dressing food carving sewing knitting trussing mending cleaning sweeping dusting caring of furniture and beds warming ventilating destroying noxious insects washing starching ironing cleansing whitening dyeing upkeeping yards gardens and animals nursing caring for the poor marketing furnishing and decorating The subtitle of Anne Cobbettrsquos most famous Manual of Domestic Management sums up what the term ldquohousehold managementrdquo could stand for at the beginning of the 19th century Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs (Cobbett 183-) While the task of the housekeeper evolves considerably from the 1870s and 1880s ndash the housewife being more and more deprived of salaried servants and family helpers buying more and more products formerly homemade and externalizing tasks such as the education of children and the care for the sick ndash the elaboration of systems of household management develops unabated As Ellen Richards noted in 1899 ldquohousekeeping no longer means washing dishes scrubbing floors making soap and candles it means spending a given amount of money for a great variety of ready-prepared articles and so using the commodities as to produce the greatest satisfaction and the best possible mental moral and physical resultsrdquo (Richards 1899 103)

School and classroom management is also considered Books on ldquoschool managementrdquo begin to appear at the beginning of the 19th century in Great Britain but become common from the 1860s and greatly develop in the United States at the very beginning of the 20th century (Catlow 1813 Gill 1857 Morrison 1859 Joyce 1863 Wickersham 1864 Harding 1872 Holbrook 1873 Kellogg 1880 Baldwin 1881 Raub 1882 Landon 1883 Major 1883 White 1893 Tompkins 1895 Collar and Crook 1901 Dutton 1903 Seeley 1903 J Taylor 1903 Chancellor 1904 and 1910 Prince 1906 Bagley 1907 Perry 1908 Arnold 1908 and 1916 Salisbury 1911 Rice 1913 Bennett 1917)

10

This literature is mainly written by progressive principals superintendent and teachers in normal school in order to present a new method of educating children as opposed to the mainly authoritarian and coercitive military-like style of the old system otherwise discarded under the names of the Police System or the Force System School managementrsquos theories share the same set of principles with other fields of management thought here examined but adds a recuring use of the term ldquoorganizationrdquo As a teacher in school management admits ldquowhatever difference there may be between a book on school management and one on the management of any other organization is only a difference in detailsrdquo (Tompkins 1895 32)

It is of course sometimes difficult to draw clear-cut distinctions between these publications Some authors eventually deal with the three topics in the same book or in separate publications John Henry Walsh writes for instance a Manual of Domestic Economy (1853) another of Domestic Medicine and Surgery (1858) edits a cookery book (1858) and authors books on dog management (1859) and horse management (1861) Apothecary James Nelson is the first to add hints on manners and education to his medical essay on the management of children (Nelson 1753) a practice soon to be imitated More generally farm management manuals often contain a chapter on the medical care of animals And the farm and the household are long inseparable The gentleman farmer Arthur Young notes for instance in 1770 that ldquoanother point of some consequence in a gentlemans oeconomical management is house-keeping so far as it concerns the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 240) And when established in 1923 the American Bureau of Home Economics is a part of the Department of Agriculture When it develops into a literary branch household management comes to absorb topics such as infancy management garden management and diseases management Esther Copleyrsquos cook book published in the 1820s presents the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts (Copley 182-) The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine similarly displays numerous advices on medicines as well as hints on husbandry and rural economy There is also a continuum between the management of women during pregnancy in labour in child-bed and the management of the children and of home Until the last quarter of the 19th century child management constitutes a part of the books on the domestic duties of housewives (Parkes 1825 Child 1831 Beecher 1841 Walsh 1853 Beeton 1861 Beecher and Stowe 1869 Mann 1878) Up to these years as Smuts remarks ldquomost of the burden of medical care fell on the women of the familyrdquo even among the well-to-do (Smuts 1959 13)

Similarly animal management falls under both the head of farm management and medical management Let us note here that the literature on horse management is considerable in the 19th century and goes beyond their use for farming (Flint 1815 Lawrence 1830 Nimrod 1831 Youatt 1834 Capt M 1842 Hieover 1848 Horlock and Weir 1855 Mayhem 1864 Mahon 1865 Graves and Prudden 1868 Sherer 1868 McClure 1870 Gough 1878 Reynolds 1882 Sample 1882 Magner 1886 Galvayne 1888 Cook 1891 Heard 1893 Armatage 1896 Adye 1903 Bell 1904 Axe 1905) The term ldquomanagementrdquo is commonly applied to the training handling and directing of a horse in its paces from the 16th century probably in consequence of the confusing proximity between the word ldquomanagerdquo and the French word ldquomanegravegerdquo (riding stable) Books on dogs management are also common (Ellis 1749 Cook 1826 Loudon 1851 Horlock 1852 Hill 1881 Sample 1882) as well as on sheep

11

mules cattle swine pigs and poultry (Daubenton 1782 Moubray 1816 Williams 1849 Youatt 1855 Jacques 1866 Graves and Prudden 1868 Sherer 1868 Vaniman 1885 Periam 188- Heard 1893) The same author may decline his system of management to various races of animals in the same book or in different ones such as William Youatt writting successively upon the management of horses (1834) sheeps (1836) cattle (1837) dogs (1854) and hogs (1855) or George Armatage dissertating about The Varieties and Management in Health and Disease of sheeps (1873) cattle (1893) and horses (1894)

The word ldquomanagementrdquo is often casted as a general umbrella to depict a broad field on interest For instance school management often includes ldquonot only school economy proper but also school government and school ethicsrdquo as well as school requisites school work and management of the teacher as states an American superintendent (Raub 1882 11-12) Some books might use the term in their title and no further in which case we suspect some editorsrsquo final suggestion to their authors On the contrary books might treat our four themes without using repetitively the notion of management And indeed many books are specifically devoted to child care from the end of the Middle Ages and to husbandry household administration and education from Antiquity We limit ouserves to those which made a thorough use of the term ldquomanagementrdquo to reflect upon their subject for we suggest that it is the mark of a peculiar way of thinking Moreover there exists an obvious discrepancy between the authorsrsquo cultural background and the epochs when they were writting even if many books are published and republished over times both in Great Britain and the United States Some are English other Americans and one or two books here considered are translations from the French But from the middle of the 18th century to the end of the 19th and whatever the part of the ocean we look at the word ldquomanagementrdquo keeps a stable meaning The great change will come as we should see at the beginning of the 20th century Finally the books herein examined did not have the same diffusion Some books have been widely read and served as models in each one in its peculiar field while others knew a single and confidential edition In infant management for instance the famous William Cadogan and Hugh Smith stood as authorities at the end of the 18th century The statistician agronomist and empirical scientist Arthur Young who imagined ldquosystems of managementrdquo as early as 1768 was similarly a reference in farm management In household administration Catharine Beecher Isbella Beeton and Ellen Richards have been popular references and still are Beecher authored ldquothe best-known treatises on domestic economy of the nineteenth centuty (Matthews 1987 31) Isbella Beetonrsquos 1861 book which popularized the expression ldquohousehold managementrdquo sold over sixty thousands copies in its first year of publication and almost two millions copies by 1868 (Humble 2000 vii) And Ellen Richards is considered as the ldquoprophetrdquo of home economics ldquoits interpreter its conservator its inspirer and to use her own word its engineerrdquo to quote another home economics proeminent figure (Bevier 1911 214)

The Logic Underlying the Early Uses of the Term ldquoManagementrdquo

In spite of obvious practical discrepancies the three types of literature here analyzed have common features First of all they are popular pedagogical and technical While they are often written by scholarly educated authors they are not theoretical or scientific treatises but aim at a relatively large and uneducated public

12

The title of one of these caracteristically stipulates that it is ldquowritten in a plain familiar stile to render it intelligible and useful to all mothers and those who have the management of infantsrdquo (Herdman 1804) As such advices on mothersrsquo and childrenrsquos management are often offered under the form of letters a format specially adopted for the friendly delivery of advices Most prefaces and introduction exhibit the same concern for intelligibility

Taken as a single corpus the books herein considered show a conceptual coherence and share a common understanding of the term ldquomanagementrdquo To manage then means to care to be industrious and to make efficient to drive and improve to arrange and act in a systematic way to count and calculate

If most of the books here gathered consist merely in descriptive lists of empirical practices some attempt at formulating general principles and laws out of it Whether explicitely or implicitely these principles are linked to one another and form a kind of system Indeed the care should be efficient accounting should be regular in order to gain appropriate knowledge gaining knowledge should be useful for training keeping records and setting time-tables has an important influence in promoting regularity etc As states pioneering educator Joseph Baldwin ldquoschool management is the art of so directing school affairs as to produce system order and efficiencyrdquo (Baldwin 1881 15)

Care One of the first predominant meaning of the term management is to look after to

take care to breed to cultivate to maintain The principle of care is the nodal point of the different understanding of the literature on management in the 18th ang 19th century Of course infants and children management means their proper care In this case authors may use the terms ldquonursing or maternal managementrdquo indifferently (Barrett 1875 10) The notion of ldquomanagementrdquo is more generally applied to the care of fragile human beings subject to diseases and accidents such as pregnant mothers sick-persons and old people ldquoThe care is allrdquo in farm management as well as writes the pamphleteer farmer and journalist William Cobbett (Cobbett 1821 113) The proper care given to the soil the animals and the equipment forms the core of what is meant in this literature by ldquomanagementrdquo

This principle of care signifies the prevention of depletion and if necessary the medical treatment of diseases ldquoManagement in health and diseaserdquo is a much common formula Treating illness is thus a necessary part of a careful management and the terms ldquomanagementrdquo and ldquotreatmentrdquo are often synonymous Logically books on infant management are predominantly written by physicians and those on animal management by veterinaries But to care for is not the business of the sole doctor and the very reason for the existence of such books is that as Thomas Williams states it ldquoa knowledge of the proper management of domestic animals and particularly of the causes preventives symptoms and treatment of the various complaintsthey are subject to should be possessed by every farmerrdquo (Williams 1849 9)

Hygiene cleanliness and sanitation are dominant elements in writtings on management and even on school management ldquoSchool hygiene and school management are inseparablerdquo states for instance the president of an American normal school (Salisbury 1911 54) Books on household management often devote a chapter to this issue

13

In a way a proper medical management consists in preventing diseases more than in curing it not in turning every mother into a physician but into a superintendent capable of giving effect to the prescriptions of a physician As a general rule states a scottish doctor and physiologist ldquowhere the child is well managed medicine of any kind is very rarely requiredrdquo (Combe 1840 77) An English doctor warns for himself his readers in these terms ldquoI shall not trouble you with the curative part of diseases incident to children that being altogether the concern of the physician [] This present system of nursing is intended only to manage children so as to prevent illnessrdquo (Smith 1792 163-164) An anonymous writer similarly states ldquoI wish to enable my fair readers to manage the infants committed to their care without being obliged to call in a physician for every trifling indispositionrdquo (Anonymous 1811 39) Similarly a horse breeder advises that ldquoa judicious change of food efficient stable management and proper arrangements for work can accomplish all that is necessary for the conservation of health in sound horses in a better and safer manner than the exhibition of medicamentsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 98)

To care is also the leading principle structuring the different methods of household management Their objective is invariably as an author sums it up ldquothe maximum of health physical mental and moralrdquo (Terrill 1905 14) According to Ellen Richards who is considered as the mother of home economics ldquothe ideal of lsquohomersquo is protection from dangers from within bad habits bad food bad air dirt and abuse shelter in fact from all stunting agencies just as the gardener protects his tender plants until they become strong enough to stand by themselvesrdquo (Richards 1910 73) Let us note here that this predominance of the principle of care in the first meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo should not receive a gender explaination as analysis and histories of household management often occasion Farming was predominantly a manly practice and it stressed the importance of caring as much as the more womanly activities of the household Similarly caring is a pivotal element of the more womanly activities of class management as well as of the more manly activities of school management

More generally the usual application of the term ldquomanagementrdquo includes such operations as the breeding rearing curing and proper care of living beings including crops plants bees and animals as well as of peculiar parts of the body such as the teeth and eyes of human beings and the horses feet and legs Some authors may talk about ldquomoralrdquo and ldquomental managementrdquo of children and adults (for example Thompson 1841) and eventually of the moral management of insane persons (Haslam 1817 Millingen 1841) But it is also widely applied to the careful maintenance of the house and of the farming tools In the second half of the 19th century several engineers and machinists adopt this meaning of the term management to describe the maintenance and repairing of motors machines boilers and diverse kinds of machinery Emory Edwardsrsquo book still reedited today typically gives ldquosome general rules for the care and management of steam-engines and boilersrdquo (Edwards 1882 390) Writers using in this perspective the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo were not marginal and included personalities such as Zerah Colburn editor of one of Britainrsquos leading technical journal in the middle on the 19th century (Ward 1847 Colburn 1851 Bourne 1861 Watson 1867 Roper 1875 and 1889 Shock 1880 Edwards 1882 Smith 1882 Sinclair 1885 Tompkins 1889 Lieckfeld 1896 Moulson et alii 1898 Houghtaling 1899 Biggs 189- Homans 1902 Tulley 1907)

14

Industry and Efficiency Industry and efficiency form the second structuring managerial principle of the

arts of nursing husbandry and housekeeping For our authors nothing is worst than keeping idle the soil animals or men Medical advisers repeatedly stress the importance of exercises for the proper development of children But it is in farm household and school management that these principles of industry and efficiency is the most prevalent

At the end of the 18th century the experimental agronomist Arthur Young try to call attention to the extent of land lying waste in Great Britain (Young 1773) The word economy is thus used commonly in the sense of thrift and of a judicious use of resource The insistence on the profitability of a farm or of a particular crop then means more their productivity than a potential pecuniary profit on a market To the authors here considered the purpose of farm management is not to produce a lot but to produce more with less As an example the advocate of ldquoscientific agriculturerdquo Charles Fox in his text book on farm management makes it clear that ldquothe object of the practical farmer is to raise from a given area of land the largest quantity of the most profitable produce at the least costrdquo (Fox 1854 3) Meanwhile he hardly talks about buying selling and markets

In household management to be industrious and keep good hours is a necessity As states the Housekeeperrsquos magazine in 1825 ldquoabsolute idleness is inexcusable in a woman because the needle is always at hand for those intervals in which she cannot be otherwise employedrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) Similarly in their famous book on housekeeping Catharine Beecher and Harriet Stowe warn their readers about their ldquoobligation to spend every hour for some useful endrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 215) Besides being industrious a housekeeper must be efficient wether in making or in spending The purpose of the Cassells Household Guide is thus to show ldquohow by the minimum of expenditure the maximum of comfort and of luxury may be obtainedrdquo (Cassells Household Guide 1869 1) In this perspective notes a regular contributor to the Ladies Home Journal magazine economy in the home ldquomeans that everything is put to its proper use and there is no wasterdquo and most of all ldquothat the most precious thing (sic) in it mdash the mother mdash shall not be misused or wastedrdquo (Parloa 1898 258 and 352) That is careful management means frugality in the use of money equipment and human beings According to Ellen Richards it is the increasing resort to calculation on a money basis which has led to this emphasis on efficiency ldquoin these days of consolidation for the purpose of cutting down expenses days of close calculation of cost when everything is reduced to a money basis in production it is not surprising that discussion should have arisen over the great waste involved in the keeping up of fifty kitchen-fires to do the work that five would dordquo (Richards 1899 1)

Industry is a disciplining tool much recommended by school and classroom management writers ldquoThe art of school management states characteristically an educational author consists very much in the art of giving enough and suitable employment Work must be given if good order is not obtained give morerdquo (Kellogg 1880 80) Similarly states an American superintendent ldquothe secret of success in managing small children as well as larger ones lies in giving them plenty to dordquo (Raub 1882 193) This principle of industry as in the cases of farm and household management comes generally along with the principle of efficiency According to John Gill for instance whose text-book on school management was a set text in many of the training colleges for teachers which were established after 1850 (Mugglestone 2006 291) school management or ldquoschool organization is a system of arrangements

15

designed to secure constant employment efficient instruction and moral control In other words it aims at providing the means of instructing and educating the greatest number in the most efficient manner and by the most economical expenditure of time and labourrdquo (Gill 1857 56) For another writer in school management ldquothe teachers work in school naturally falls into three great divisions which taken in logical order are mdash (1) organisation (2) discipline (3) teaching and unless all three receive due attention the work is not likely to be performed with that efficiency that economy of time and labour both of the teacher and of the pupils and that absence of friction which should characterise the operation of every good schoolrdquo (Landon 1883 109) Rice in his bestseller on scientific management in schools asserts that ldquoin the strict sense scientific management in education can only be defined as a system of management specifically directed toward the elimination of waste in teaching so that the children attending the schools may be duly rewarded for the expenditure of their time and effortrdquo (Rice 1913 viii) As puts it a professor of education in a book which went through more than thirty reprintings from 1907 to 1927 (Callahan 1962 7) the problem of classroom management ldquois a problem of economy it seeks to determine in what manner the working unit of the school plant may be made to return the largest dividend upon the material investment of time energy and moneyrdquo (Bagley 1907 2) Or as sums up another professor of education and author of a book on ldquoschool efficiencyrdquo ldquothe problem of school management is to give [people] as much as possible for their moneyrdquo (Bennett 1917 1-2)

From another perspective the very purpose of school management is to form future industrious citizens An English inspector of board schools insists for instance upon ldquothe true objects and aims of school management which are the promoting of the good habits of cheerful industry all-conquering thoroughness orderly disposition of time and labor and the practice of useful activityrdquo (Holbrook 1873 179) According to a much cited professor of education writing a generation later ldquothe aim of the school may be formulated as social efficiency Whatever the school undertakes to accomplish must be judged in the light of this standardrdquo that is to turn every child into a ldquosocially efficient individualrdquo (Bagley 1907 7-8) As states professor of pedagogy Arnold Tompkins ldquoit is needless to urge that a school thoroughly organized and managed with its regular exact and punctual requirement in performance of duty is a most powerful means of bringing the pupil into the habit and spirit of industrial life [] The public school artfully managed is the very institution to supply to society members who are not simply industrious by force of conviction and habit but who have the joy of industry in the heartrdquo (Tompkins 1895 206-207)

Handling Driving Improving Perhaps the most common significance of the verb ldquoto managerdquo from its first uses

at the end of the 16th century is ldquoto handlerdquo ldquoto conductrdquo or ldquoto carry onrdquo (Murray 1908 104-105) The verb is applied to inanimate things such as weapons instuments vehicules and affairs to actions and operations to institutions such as households and states and to animals primarily horses and cattle

In many of the texts here considered the word management means altogether breeding training and curing It often refers to the training of a particular animal the horse being by far the main sort considered with dogs coming in a second position The managing of an animal refers for instance to its breeding rearing taming ldquobreaking or learningrdquo (Ellis 1749 ChII) exercising subduing educating

16

conducting and driving That is managing means more ndash or less ndash than rude disciplining For instance goodness and patience rather than ldquomain strength and stupid harshnessrdquo (Graves and Prudden 1868 38) are systematically recommended in the management of horses ldquoKindness goes far in managing these noble animalsrdquo confirms the cavalry officer Mahon (1865 49) An anonymous mother also writes that children ldquoare much better and more easily managed by kindness and it is quite easy to be firm with a child without being angry or severerdquo (Anonymous 1884 62) For most of authors on school and classroom management cooperation more than discpline is the basis of a sound eduction as military methods of instruction are rejected in a distant past ldquoReproof and privations writes an educational pioneer are the only punishments ordinarily needed in school or family The management should be so systematic and vigorous as to render severer punishments unnecessaryrdquo (Baldwin 1881 166)

This meaning of management also appears on the books considering the rearing of infants and children which purpose is their rise and progress as well as in books on school and classroom management In both cases a good management mostly consists in giving proper habits ndash that is organized reactions For instance writes an American professor of pedagogy ldquothe school should be managed with the conscious purpose of forming habits of orderrdquo (Tompkins 1895 203) A very influential professor of education could even formulate a ldquolaw of habit-buildingrdquo ldquoFocalization of consciousness upon the process to be automatized plus attentive repetition of this process permitting no exceptions until automatism resultsrdquo (Bagley 1907 16) This educating process also applies to the training of household servants a subject of a foremost intest for the early writers on household management In some cases notes Mary Elizabeth Carter servants ldquomay like boys and girls have to be taught and trained in habits of cleanliness and orderrdquo (Carter 1904 115) It also applies to the education of the future housewife which become part of the syllabus of ldquoDomestic Sciencerdquo in universities at the end of the 19th century Logically the term management was commonly applied from the middle of the 19th century to the tasks of the teacher in charge of developing his or her pupils along physical mental and moral lines Besides many books on school management note that the old days teacher was mainly superintending while the modern one is mainly teaching Most also states that teaching has become a profession and as such necessitates a proper training ldquoThe teacher writes an editor of the New York School Journal must study to be a good teacher the art of school management in its best sense turns upon thatrdquo (Kellogg 1880 78)

By essence conduct books devise ways of improving their readersrsquo behavior As scientific disciplines develop the housewife is for instance to gain knowledge in chemistry physics and psychology In her first best-selling book Catharine Beecher who can envision the task of housewife as a ldquoprofessionrdquo (Beecher 1841 5) recommend that domestic economy should be made ldquoa regular part of school educationrdquo and not taught at home by the mothers often ignorant of the true rules of this science (Ibid 63)

For behind the idea of training lies the principle of progress As early as the 17th century enlighted farmers began to shake the bounds of tradition by submitting agriculture to rational scrutiny and experiment (Best 1642) In the 19th century the home which may seem like the bastion of tradition was subject to many methods for improving its running

The very purpose of most of the early books on management is the education of their reader A majority of it aims conscienciously at being pedagogical and popular sharing this common faith in the power of knowledge and in the benefits of mass

17

education which made its way through Europe and the United States from the 18th century The doctor Anthony Thompson characteristically states that ldquothe most judicious plan of medical management may be devised and the plainest directions for its fulfilment may be delivered to the attendants of the sick-room but without more information on the subject than is at present possessed by the females of a household and especially by those whose duty it is to superintend the execution of the orders of the Physician little benefit can be anticipated to the invalidrdquo (Thompson 1841 vii)

Order Arrangement System Regulation Order arrangement system and regulation are watchwords of the 18th and 19th

century literature on management and especially of the literature on farm and household management The expressions ldquosystem of managingrdquo ldquoplan of managementrdquo ldquomethod of managementrdquo are found in almost every book here considered The very idea of management seem to imply the notion of a regular and ordered system The Housekeeperrsquos magazine even talks about the ldquobest-regulated familyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg3 52) and Catharine Beecher of ldquoa systematic and well-regulated familyrdquo (Beecher 1841 126) For a widely read authoress of books on household administration for instance ldquomethod and order are two most important factors in the management of the householdrdquo (Parloa 1898 61) Regarding accounts writes the author of a ldquosystem of practical domestic economyrdquo ldquoregularity is the very life and soul of economyrdquo (Anonymous 1827 380) The setting of a routine and the search for regularity are especially praised in the rearing of children and of animals Thus according to a horse expert ldquoone of the first things desirable in stable management is rule by rule I mean a regular way of doing thingsrdquo (Hieover 1848 90) Similarly school management thinkers praise order and system and order ldquoSystem in school management is a necessityrdquo states one of them (Raub 1882 196) ldquoOrderliness in general matters of school management writes another is a right upon which it is unnecessary to insist The child has the right to expect regular periods for school work orderly entrance and dismissal etc care of clothing uniformity in certain aspects of discipline and the likerdquo (Arnold 1908 174) As states an English inspector of board schools ldquoThe first requisite of good management in all schools is orderrdquo (Major 1883 209) For a fourth author on this subject an ldquoimportant device in school management is the adoption of a self-regulating system [] A school is a sort of mechanism and all its movements must be regular to avoid confusion and waste of timerdquo (White 1893 94-95) As recognizes Dr Arnold Tompkins of Illinois University for whom ldquono means ever devised is more potent than an efficient system of school managementrdquo ldquowe are quite strictly materialists in school management setting objective and fixed forms and rules hard and fast over against a growing and pulsating liferdquo (Tompkins 1895 208 and 14)

Arthur Young who was to become Secretary to the English Board of Agriculture could be called the Frederick Taylor of farm management not in the sense that he animated and inspired a school but in the sense that he attempted to ldquoreduce multifarious fugitive subjects to some degree of order and even principlesrdquo articulated into a rational ldquosystem of general managementrdquo (Young 1770b 2-3) His purpose being to see husbandry ldquobuilt upon as just and philosophic principles as the art of medicinerdquo (Ibid 175) Young thus applied an experimental and scientific outlook to husbandry Talking about accounts he states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) He thus draws ldquoschemes of conducting farmsrdquo

18

with an eye to constant improvements (Young 1770b 34) To him the superiority of the gentleman over the common farmer lay in his capacity to acquire new knowledge not in his application of old ones To him it is thus important to devise a ldquoplan of agricultural operationrdquo (Young 1770a vol 2 471) What he calls the ldquosystem of managementrdquo or ldquotrain of managementrdquo of a farm is nothing but the division arrangement and proportionning of its land cattle and labour Young thus elaborate methods and calculus for a efficient division of work which he calls ldquodisposition of the teamsrdquo (Young 1770b 25) and which takes the form of distribution of ploughs horses ox and laborers He proposes for instance a table with the distribution of 16 servants 11 laborers and 16 boys for the ploughs harrowing team carried over brought over rolling horse hoeing road team ox team ditto carting extra team shepherd exen steers swine cows Young also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men As it sums it up himslef a certain portion of time a certain portion of space and ldquoa certain portion of hands are assigned to each businessrdquo (Ibid 60)

According to a prolific author of conduct books ldquothat house only is well conducted where there is a strict attention paid to order and regularity To do every thing in its proper time to keep every thing in its right place and to use every thing for its proper use is the very essence of good managementrdquo (Taylor 1815 27) Similarly according to the author of a Modern System of Domestic Cookery a ldquosystem of domestic management is the foundation of all the comfort and welfare of private familiesrdquo (Radcliffe 1823 1) But Catharine Beecher is the first one to devise in 1841 such a ldquosystematic plan of domestic economyrdquo (Beecher 1841 157) in a book notes a literature teacher specialist of Catharine Beecher which ldquowent through fifteen editions between 1841 and 1856 and established Beecher as the nations foremost authority on household practicerdquo (Tonkovich in Beecher and Stowe 1869 xiii) According to her philosophy ldquoit is wise therefore for all persons to devise a general plan which they will at least keep in view and aim to accomplish and by which a proper proportion of time shall be secured for all the duties of liferdquo (Ibid 158) She thus advocates a ldquosystematic employment of timerdquo (Ibid 160 Beecher and Stowe 1870 196) Beecher and her sister Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote in a later book ldquoEvery young lady can systematize her pursuits to a certain extent She can have a particular day for mending her wardrobe and for arranging her trunks closets and drawers She can keep her work-basket her desk at school and all her other conveniences in their proper places and in regular order She can have regular periods for reading walking visiting study and domestic pursuits And by following this method in youth she will form a taste for regularity and a habit of system which will prove a blessing to her through liferdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 202) The housekeeper should not limit her division and arrangement of work to the servants but strive for ldquothe apportioning of regular employment to the various members of a family If a housekeeper can secure the cooperation of all her family she will find that lsquomany hands make light workrsquordquo (Beecher 1841 163) Adding that ldquoa woman is under obligations so to arrange the hours and pursuits of her family as to promote systematic and habitual industryrdquo (Ibid 185) For that purpose she draws plans of houses and domestic conveniences (Ibid ch XXIV)

Both Young and Beecher show the conspicuous features that exhibit the literature on farm and household management a quest for regularity and order systematicity planning selection as well as the arrangement of work and division of labor But elaboration of methods and plans are also common in medical management literature The doctor Cadogan proposes as early as 1748 a ldquoPlan of Nursingrdquo (Cadogan 1748 21)

19

This systematic frame of mind is first expressed by medical farm and household management writers not so much in a desire to standardize but in a constant effort to codify That is routines are not systematically reduced to a measurable standard but they are carefully specified often regarding a specific time and place The very idea of writting a book imply this logic of formalizing and codifying a set of practices The most methodic books circumscribe the mother farmer and housekeeperrsquos tasks and codify it in every detail Most of the books on infant management codify the childrenrsquos dress from the shoes to the cap their cleanliness bathing foods drinks exercise amusements sleep education and employments Isabella Beetonrsquos 1861 book codified every aspect of household management and even every aspect of a diner given at home or in paying visits of condoleance This very idea of codification is best exemplified by the recurring planning tools proposed by most of these books such as detailed plans of houses diagrams of kitchen schedules work orders tables of duties calendars reminder cards and files bulletin boards ledgers accounting books individual calendars or written menus to be posted in pantry and kitchen (Cf for instance figure below from US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932 202) An author even recommends the use of ldquoprinted rules

in bath room [] giving a few very simple admonitions upon what is lsquogood formrsquo in a lavatory of any sortrdquo (Carter 1904 93) For the ldquohousehold engineerrdquo Christine Frederick ldquostandard practice means then written directions as to method and tools and timerdquo (Frederick 1919 152)

Even if most of English and American homes employed less than ten servants and therefore knew in a limited degree the division labor Nevertheless remarks the author of a ldquodomestic economy and household sciencerdquo manual ldquoin most households it is found necessary to divide the work which has to be done amongst various people

20

and to have some of these especially trained for certain parts of it such as cooking the food cleaning the house and waiting upon the inmates The arranging of all this work has to be thought of and planned by the master and mistress who are the responsible controllers and heads of the house Thus the duties of servants their relations to their employers and their good management or handling are also matters with which domestic economy has to dealrdquo (Mann 1878 5)

Much of the books on school management devote a chapter or a whole part to ldquoorganizationrdquo which usally contains instructions regarding the number and size of the classes the distribution of the staff the syllabus of work for each class the classification of the scholars and the time table It may picture plans of the school or at least of the ideal classroom and some even specify the way children should be gathered and circulate wtihin their class (Cf right time table and plan of a school reproduced from Collar and Crook 1901 41) For an influential writer on school management ldquothe particulars embraced under organization comprise the arrangements of the rooms classification of the children duties of the master subordinates distribution of work and time tablesrdquo (Gill 1857 57) Under the head of organization the rector of a Glasgow school thus describe for instance ldquothe arrangement of desks most suitable to the efficient management of a schoolrdquo (Morrison 1859 44) Another author talks about ldquothe distribution of the teaching powerrdquo (Landon 1883 110)

According to the authors of farm management books good husbandry is not a matter of duplicating age-old recipes but a matter of choices and of planning choice of a location of a farm og a kind of farming (intensive or extensive) of crops of livestock of horses of equipment of implements of calendar etc All these parameters interacts As such states Young husbandry can never arrive at perfection ldquoif the exact degree of every vegetable cultivated be not known in relation to soil and management and in a word if all the the various branches of this complex art be not so thoroughly sifted and examined as to be familiar in every combinationrdquo (Young 1770b 150-151) A century later Robert Scott Burn advises his readers to select their animals with regards to ldquothe soil its cropping size locality and climaterdquo (Burn 1877 29) Richard Reynolds states for himself that ldquoalmost every treatise upon the management of farm-horses contain formulae of food allowances applicable for use at certain seasons and during the performance of certain agricultural operationsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 52) Similarly the proper selection of a new house of servants of food of menus of activities for the children and even ldquothe choice of friendsrdquo and new acquaintances (Parkes 1825 Part I Conversations II and III) are important dimensions of household management For a household editor for the Ladies Home Journal if a housekeeper ldquodoes not know that round steak at 20 cents a pound possesses as much nutriment as the

21

porterhouse at 26 cents she will not expend wisely or economically She should know something of the idea of a lsquobalanced mealrsquo and what foods will give it the place of milk fruit and eggs in the diet what are healthful meat substitutes and the nourishment of various kinds of breads vegetables and cerealsrdquo (Frederick 1913 105)

Most of the book on children management describe curricula proper to their development For instance in his Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children written in 1792 Smith formulates ldquorulesrdquo describes ldquobest methodsrdquo and offers detailed prescriptions for the management of children ldquolet their breakfast at six or seven in the morning be half a pint of new milk with about two ounces of bread in it mdash the second meal should be half a pint of good broth with the same quantity of bread let this be given about ten or eleven in the morning mdash the third meal about two or three in the afternoon should be broth in like manner mdash and their supper about six in the evening new milk and bread the same as for breakfastrdquo (Smith 1792 140) Most of books on children management give advices regarding their different stages of life and notably the periods of weaning and of dentition Samuel Smiles the famous surgeon presents ldquoin a tabular form what [he] conceive[s] ought to be the proper disposition of time in childhood boyhood adolescenceand adult age in order to the attainment of a full development of the mental faculties with a corresponding healthy completion of the physical structurerdquo (Smiles 1838 188) As such for each period of age he precises ldquothe hours that should be devoted to exercise exercise with instruction tuition relaxation and sleeprdquo (Cf table below from Ibid 188) Similarly many household management books propose plans for the distribution of tasks settled down to the day and even down to the quarter of an hour (Butterworth 1902 27-28) According to the Housekeeperrsquos magazine ldquoearly rising and a good disposition of time is essential to Economyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) As early as 1825 Frances Parkes proposes a ldquosystem of Domestic Dutyrdquo (Parkes 1825 22) which regulates the ldquodisposal of timerdquo (Ibid 16) ldquoAs much time is saved or rather gained by a regular disposal of each division of the day I recommend to you to plan the whole out every morning and as far as you can command circumstances to pursue that plan steadilyrdquo (Ibid 317) Almanachs are important tools of farm and household regulation of time and farming operations also obeys to calendars and a precise chronological pattern The combination of these different parameters require an ordered mind as it is repeatedly remarked in farm management books ldquoA time-table is to a school what grammar is to a languagerdquo says an Irish head-master who participated in the task of ldquointroducing among the national schools [of Ireland] an improved and uniform organization and of diffusing among the national teachers a more extensive practical knowledge of school keepingrdquo (Joyce 1863 37 and vii) As such he codifies a regular day at school hour by hour beginning in such a manner ldquoldquo955 to 10 Inspection as to cleanliness mdash At five minutes to ten the children should be arranged according to their divisions and drafts either in the playground or in the school- room and the teacher after a hasty glance to see that their hands faces and hair are clean and neat marches all to their several places This preliminary business should not encroach on the school time the first lessons should be actually commencing at 10 oclockrdquo (Ibid 59) For another writer on school management it is obvious that ldquothere must be a well devised program distributing the time properly among the various classes and that it must be inflexibly followedrdquo (Kellogg 1880 92) Such time-tables are a common feature of school management books

The question of ldquoarrangementrdquo that is of planning space is a common feature of farm and household management books ldquoA place for everything and everything in its

22

placerdquo is a recurring moto of 18th and 19th centuries management books Books on farm management thus frequently offer developments the arrangement of the fields and even latter on the planning of farm buildings fields or poultry houses (Dickson 1853) As early as 1768 Arthur Young underline the ldquogeneral benefit which arises from a judicious arrangement of a farmrdquo by a farmer and especially ldquothe arranging his lands properly for his cropsrdquo (Young 1768 156-157 and 158) Another author underlines that ldquobesides a most rigid and accurate set of account booksrdquo ldquoan accurate plan of each field should also be had showing the position of drains with their outfalls position of fences and gates and another detailing the mode of cropping and the part of the rotation under which at the stated intervals it comes to be placedrdquo (Burn 1877 29) Warren in his classic book on farm management proposes schemes of farm layout location size and shape of fields (Warren 1913 365-368) Regarding household management such author may propose ldquoplans of houses suited to townsrdquo (Walsh 1853 96) this one a plan of the pantries (Parloa 1898 15) while another calls for ldquoscientific house-planningrdquo (Bruere 1912 174) Ellen Richards prescriptions for the arrangement of a house include such elements as windows walls sink bathtub florrs woodwork stair rails and supports plumbing vaccum cleaner gas burners screens etc (Richards 1911) Beecher and Stowe add to their sketch of ldquomodel cottage-ground plan and roomsrdquo ldquoIn the description and arrangement the leading aim is to show how time labor and expense are saved not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangementrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 24) For the real purpose of planning is often both order and efficiency For instance

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

3

1) large going concerns that is of a specific manner of coordinating the efforts of great number of people usually organized into institutions (Chandler 1962 and 1977 Pollard 1965 Claude 1968 Wren 1972) The rise of large going concerns being tributary of technical innovations and inventive managers assume these authors management itself is inseparable from a certain technical stage of civilization which begun with the ldquonew factory systemrdquo (Nelson 1975)

2) capitalism and business that is or a specific manner of doing business In this sense management is inseparable from the modern corporation that is from the big business enterprise in corporate form but has little to do with ldquopublicrdquo institutions such as the Church the army or the state bureaucracies In this perspective we can risk the hypothesis that management histories have developed under the intimidating intellectual shadow of classical economy The influence of Marx over a generation of labour historians has been well documented and his inheritors share for instance the idea that management is by birth at the service of the business interests and must therefore be understood within the capitalist conceptual framework (Sombart 1928 Gorz 1973 Marglin 1974 Braverman 1974 Montgomery 1979 Clawson 1980 Edwards Gordon and Reich 1982 Noble 1984 Biernacki 1995)

3) class that is of the existence of a specific and well-structured professional group In this perspective management would be inseparable from the rise of the class of salaried managers which is itself dependent upon the existence of a distinct layer within corporations hierarchies between the owner(s) and the laborers Together with this thesis may come the idea that management is an ideology that is the political project of a distinct social group (Veblen 1921 Burnham 1941 Mills 1951 Bendix 1956 Whyte 1956 Harbison and Myers 1959 Montgomery 1979 Merkle 1988 Shenhav 1999)

But is this the history of management or rather the story of the way modern business corporation leaders and thinkers created an intellectual tool necessary for the survival of their mother-institution Of course modern management is inseparable from industrial innovation the modern corporation and the dynmics of capitalism But should its study be limited to this field Cannot we learn from the study of other field of development of management thoughts How to explain the widespread use of the word ldquomanagementrdquo in the 18th and 19th century to describe the functionning of institutions as different as the household the farm the school as well as the governing of living beings ranging from the bee to the sick old-person and from the cattle to the infant without assuming a too loose and inclusive definition of management

If some studies of the development of accounting have ventured outside the business and industrial arena (Freear 1970 Noke 1981 Scorgie 1997 Juchau 2002) these non-capitalist and non-technological roots of management are hardly considered by management historians Sidney Pollard would be an exception who risks a foot in farm management and admits that ldquothe agricultural estate might foreshadow some of the methods used later in the factoriesrdquo (Pollard 1965 30) But management meaning to him business management ie to ldquomanage large units within a competitive progressive environment and within a framework of economic motivationrdquo (Ibid 24) he searches for its roots in the first elaborate forms of businesses such as the industrial ldquodomestic systemrdquo and the putting-out system To him the birth of management was only possible in a capitalist environment

In his reference book on the history of the business corporation Alfred Chandler goes back as far as possible in the history of the ldquotraditional enterprisesrdquo to the Southern plantations the Lowell textile factories and the Springfield Armory (Chandler 1977 ldquoCh 2 The Traditional Enterprise in Productionrdquo 50-78)

4

Nevertheless he searches back in history for ancient forms of large-scale production and factory-like modes of organization As such he does not consider the large plantations in order to understand their logic but look in it for familiar practices Far from being the core institution around which revolved managerial practices the family was according to Chandler an obstacle to or even an enemy of the modern corporation embodying rival principles The corporation had thus to get rid of these familial traditions and networks of personal ties to become a managerial institution Througout his life Chandler remained interested in the emergence and development of managerial capitalism in the 19th and 20th century not of managerial rationality

George Claude Daniel Wren and Peter Drucker three other reference authors of management history seem on the contrary to occasionally venture too far For such authors management would be a genetic feature of humanity As such writes George Claude ldquoa true and comprehensive history of management would be a history of manrdquo (Claude 1968 vii) Similarly according to Wren ldquomanagement as an activity has always existed to make peoplersquos desires through organized effort Management facilitates the efforts of people in organized groups and arises when people seek to cooperate to achieve goalsrdquo (Wren 1972 11-12) Armed with such an all-embrassing definition these authors consider as managers old-days military chiefs priests jurists political leaders and merchants entrepreneurs Nevertheless if their definition may seem to broad in scope their history appears on the contrary much too discriminating Indeed besides quoting the Hammurabi code and Chanakya Kalautilyarsquos Arthasastra (Wren 1972 ch 2) why not considering the codified organization of labour and highly hierarchized functioning of European cloisters in the Middle Ages or the Christian doctrine of administratio as formulated by Paul in his Pastoral epistles and refined by the Roman canon law Besides citing the pharoahs as the first great managers as Drucker often did why not considering the invention of agriculture 14000 years ago which proved human dispositions for planning organizing and accounting Why not showing the symbolic link between the practice of business management and the extreme planification division of labour and industrial ideal of the 18th and 19th centuries utopian socialists Should not Saint-Simon or at least Max Weber rather than Chester Barnard (Williamson 1990) be considered as the true fathers of organization studies Why not unveiling the codification of administrative principles within the practice of early urban governance and municipal administration from the times of Calvinrsquos Geneva and Zwinglirsquos Zurich to the incorporation of American towns Why not considering the ldquopastoral governmentalityrdquo theorized by Michel Foucault in his 1978 lectures at the Collegravege de France (1978) Why not analyzing how the administration of european colonies gave rise to a specific art of management interwoving the logics of sovereignty and capitalism Besides occasionally quoting Sun Tzu and Clausewitz as potential source of business inspiration (Claude 1968 Wren 1972 Crainer 1997 Pearson 2009) why not studying the organization of armed bodies from medieval times to the present Did not Marx for instance underlined ldquothe way in which certain economic relations such as wage labour machinery etc develop earlier owing to war and in the armies etc than in the interior of bourgeois societyrdquo (Marx 1857 109) Besides quoting Machiavelli (Claude 1968 Wren 1972 Crainer 1997 Wren and Greenwood 1998 Pearson 2009) why not considering the taste for administrative planning showed by Utilitarians Reason of State thinkers Cameralists Physiocrats Jacobins Positivists and a majority of Radicals and more broadly the whole field of politics Institutions such as the feodal estate the early political parties the brotherhoods the fraternal societies the guilds and the churches were institutions asking for a certain kind of management Even if administrative work was not always

5

so important as to justify the existence of a specialized class and of a distinct layer of specialized managers within the institution it existed and obeyed to certain rules and principles that it would be interesting to examine under the light of management history

Method Objectives Hypothesis

Most of management thought historians seem to imagine in an abstract and somewhat structuralist perspective managerial ideas floating through the centuries and all-over the globe freely disposable to be formulated by great authors and leaders and being eventually embodied here and then in the form of more of less large-scale institutions On the contrary I assume that whenever and wherever these ideas exist they take a very tangible appearance they are symbolized by particular words Of course it is a long and painstaking work to search back for the different words which incoporated what we mean today by management and endless debates are inevitable if we try to affirm for instance how far was the greek word ldquooikonomiardquo (οἰκονοmicroία) close from our contemporary understanding of the term ldquomanagementrdquo But it is far less debatable to examine at the English translations of Xenophonrsquos and Aristotlersquos Economics and to consider from when they start to use the word ldquomanagementrdquo and in which ways As such one of the less controversial way of tracking back the incorporation in words of a managerial rationality is to examine the uses of the word ldquomanagementrdquo itself from its appearance in the English language

Histories of management often point out to the different methods and tools of management from double-entry bookkeeping to the stopwatch from the assembly line to video surveillance from just-in-time to the open space But among the first and most important tools used from the early corporate managers to the grandsons of Peter Drucker one deserves a special place it is the very word ldquomanagementrdquo which made possible for this social group to put a name on some of their practices and on their community and which served as a rallying battle flag as well as a seductive catch word But the corporate managers did not coin the term and if they redefined it they also inevitably inherited from its earlier meaning Or rather they adopted it because of its earlier meanings which seem to fit their own practices and representations As such the term ldquomanagementrdquo was not a prelude to business management thoughts nor an explicit reference for its theoricians but rather the mental foundation and the symbolic materials upon which mechanics engineers and accountants choose to build up their proper conception of management Words are not neutral If their use authorises a certain liberty they are also loaded with a patrimony of mental schemes Similarly when English political scientists adapted the word ldquopoliticsrdquo at the begining of the 16th century they adapted as much as adopted the Greeksrsquo representations of authority law power and government built in the very notion of polis So the early systematic uses of the term ldquomanagementrdquo are less genetic than foster parents of its 20th century acceptances That why I assumed that they deserve a thorough study

In order to do so I gathered from a search in the Library of Congress a catalogue of texts comprising the term ldquomanagementrdquo in their title which was mostly useful to delineate the thematical fields and the historical periods to delve into I then read through these literatures in search for common features and similar frames of reference accompanying the uses of the word ldquomanagementrdquo

6

The purpose of this paper is not to track back in the depth of history the sketches or seeds of modern management conspicuous features it is not interested in the ldquomodernity of the pastrdquo Neither does it try to reconstruct practices from the writtings It considers on the contrary the writtings for themselves and assumes that they carry a certain endogenous logic Instead of assuming an universal definition of the term ldquomanagementrdquo whether all-inclusive or restrained to business or factorylike activities this paper assumes that the meanings carried over the four last centuries by the notion of management depend upon historical and cultural contexts but nevertheless share a core of basic ideas Medical care husbandry housekeeping and school government are not forerunners of business management practices but some of the authors who codified these activities furnished an intellectual frame of mind used by corporate management thinkers The discrepancies between these mental systems should not be discarded but on the contrary put under the microscope for we might learn more about management by inquiring the different meanings of the same word ldquomanagementrdquo throught the centuries than by searching back for practices which however close from todayrsquos definition of the term ldquomanagementrdquo were characterized by different words and took sense within a very different system of thinking and valuing

Since its appearance in the English language in the 16th century until the beginning of the 20th century the word ldquomanagementrdquo did not mean primarily business management It was mainly used to talk about husbandry and health care From the 1830s household management came to synthetize elements of these two disciplines which nevertheless followed their own path While school management literature mostly developed from the 1860s Of course the risk of squashing details and homogenizing miscellaneous topics is great when such broad and diverse literatures are handled by young hands That is why the analysis is confined to the broad lines and the general features of the texts herein considered For these four fields of expression undoubtely display a shared set of principles and mental dispositions exhibiting a common consideration for caring a spirit of system and order exigences of industry and efficiency the idea of a possible improvement of things and beings as well as a extensive recourse to accouting and recording methods

That is these first systematic ways of thinking management show features very similar to what will be business management in the 20th century Nevertheless their authors cannot be considered as the scattered progenitors or precursors of modern management systems methods and tools like few spots of enlighted forerunners in a sea of dark ignorance and traditional beliefs waiting for the business corporation and its professional managers to gather and systematize their insights If some management thinkers such as Frank and Lillian Gilbreth may have transposed technics and experiments elaborated at home to the factories they were reorganizing it was not a common practice ndash the reverse became more common from the 1910s The builders of the systematic management schemes and of the scientific management movement were inspired by the mechanicsrsquo practices accountantsrsquo tools and scientific engineersrsquo dispositions of mind not by the important literature on medical farm school and household management (Nelson 1975 Chandler 1977 Merkle 1980 Noble 1984 Shenhav 1999) Reversely we can suppose that scientific management technics and methods were easily translated to the household the farm and the school because management theories and a managerial frame of mind preexisted in these fields

Our first hypothesis is that management was first and foremost applied to insects animals infants pupils sick persons pregnant mothers limbs symptomes diseases elements such as the soil and the air organizations but more rarely to autonomous

7

adult human beings That is the application of the word to laborers implied a shift in its meaning and may inform us about the representation of laborers in the managersrsquo minds The supervision of people is seen as something highly personal and hard to systematize

Secondly several of the main principles which form today the core of business management have blossomed and have been articulated together within small going concerns independantly from the capitalist sphere in technically low-developed environnements and without provoking the formation of a distinct class of managers whether professional or not Assumptions which seem to run counter to the idea common since Chandler that technological development organization size and capitalist motives are the usual forces of management evolution It would only be the case for the business corporation

Thirdly the early repetitive uses of the terms ldquomanagementrdquo shows the penetration of the scientific outlook into a well-structured discourse on government And here I would agree with Weber and Sombart when they define an enterprise not as a capitalist institution but as a rational one

Thirdly the study of the discourses on medical management farm management household management and school management from the end of the 18th century to the first quater of the 20th also throws light on the structuration of a forgotten root of the managerial rationality the principle of care Meanwile it shows the very marginal importance of the principle of control which is to become central in business management thought

Finally this analysis throws light on the institutional framework common to three of these four ways of thinking management the family We will thus risk an institutional answer to the question why did the understanding of the word ldquomanagementrdquo shaped from the times of Frederick Taylor come to supersede the early ways of thinking it

The First Meanings of the Term ldquoManagementrdquo

The forms ldquomanagingrdquo ldquoto managerdquo ldquomanagedrdquo ldquomanagerrdquo ldquomanageablerdquo and ldquomanagementrdquo are attested from the second half of the 16th century with the broad and principal reference to the handling of public or private affairs with skill tact or care (Murray 1908 104-106) Until the middle of the 18th century the word lsquomanagerdquo and its declinaisons remain infrequent From this date to the end of the nineteenth century four types of literatures make a repetitive use of the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo which are texts on husbandry medical care of the mother and her infant household administration and school supervision

From the middle of the 18th century some English and American farmers begin to use abundantly the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo to describe the direction of the various activities of husbandry (Ellis 1744 1749 1750 Young 1768 1770a 1770b The Complete Farmer 1777 Moubray 1816 Cobbett 1821 OrsquoConnor 1843 Thomas 1844 Dickson 1853 Andrews 1853 Tegetmeier 1854 Macdonald 1865 Curtis 1879 Ward and Lock 1881 Smith 1898 Taft 1898)

These books are very distinct from the general treatises of political economy then circulating which consider with a theoretical outlook the impact of laws on trade and agriculture as a national issue They rather focus on the farm as a single unit in a very empirical perspective which plants to cultivate when to saw how much yield is expected are the kind of issues they address Often compiling examples and cases

8

most of these books are practical catalogues of advices for the care of the farmrsquos livestock horses soil cooking food dairy equipment and buildings Some do nevertheless intend to extract general principles out of the myriad of husbandry practices Arthur Young stands among other as the great theorician of farm management from the end of the 18th century

The second corpus of literature widely using the term management concern the care of the mother and her infant (Cadogan 1748 Hill 1754 Theobald 1764 White 1773 Hamilton 1781 Moss 1781 Underwood 1789 Smith 1792 Clarke 1793 Seaman 1800 Hume 1802 Herdman 1804 Bard 1807 Anonymous 1811 Taylor 1816 Appleton 1820 Flint 1826 Fox 1834 Alcott 1836 Evanson and Maunsell 1836 Charles 1838 Chavasse 1839 1843 Bull 1840 Combe 1840 Cory 1844 Hancorn 1844 Hogg 1849 Barker 1865 Powers 1866 Getchell 1868 Vines 1868 Braidwood 1874 Barrett 1875 Dix 1880 Duncan 1880 Keeting 1881 Anonymous 1884 Bruen 1887 Starr 1889 Griffith 1898)

Most of these books focus on infants till weaning while latter books may apply the term ldquomanagementrdquo to the handling of older children and even of adolescents (Abbott 1871 Shearer 1904) In the whole ldquowritten for the young and inexperienced motherrdquo (Bull 1840 iii) they display in a plain familiar style medical and para-medical advices descriptions of pathologies and treatments as well as hints on moral and physical education with a particular view on hygiene Most of these books pay a great attention to the motherrsquos and her childrenrsquos environment and sanitary condition Here is an example of the classical exposition as sumed up by two irish professors of medecine in a much quoted treatise (Evanson and Maunsell 1836 14) ldquoThe subjects treated of in the ensuing chapters naturally divide themselves under two heads viz 1 Those which relate to the management of children in order to the preservation of their health and the removal or prevention of any cause that might obstruct their moral and physical development and 2 Those which relate to the detection discrimination and treatment of diseases to which the constitution of the child is liablerdquo The common book on infant management thus teaches mothers the proper superintendance of its health growth and development in their multiple dimension ldquohow often to bathe suitable diet air exercise and a regular manner of livingrdquo as writes the physician the Princess of Wales (Underwood 1789 10) as well as drinking motions rest sleep clothing retentions secretions excretions diseases passions and cultivation of the mind For example an anonymous american matronrsquos treatise on the nurture and management of infants written in 1811 treats the following topics the washing of infants their clothing how often should they be changed their combing their feeding the curing of begnign indispositions and slight and common complaints (such as wind in the stomach and bowels retention of the urine sore ears and eyes vomiting convulsions fever cutting of the tongue) exercise and rest teething ldquoteaching infants the right use of their handsrdquo (left- of righthanded) setting them on their feet ldquodirections as to the best manner and time of weaning infants and the diet best adapted to promote their health after they are weanedrdquo as weel as ldquothe early regulation of the infant temper and dispositionrdquo (Anomymous 1811) Some treatises and manuals are dedicated to the care of a peculiar organ disease or symptom and occasionally to onersquos general health (Bell 1779 Wilson 1847 Baird 1867 Vines 1868 Godfrey 1872 Drewry 1875 Bulkley 1875 Angell 1878 Lyman 1884) In particular the management of teeth is considered for himself (James 1814 Parmly 1819 Clark 1835 Spooner 1836 Knapp 1840 Palmer 1853)

From the beginning of the 19th century blossom books and magazines of advices to middle-class women not only in their quality of mothers and nurses but also as mistresses of a family housekeepers and cooks (Taylor 1815 Radcliffe 1823 Parkes

9

1825 The Economist and General Adviser 1825 The Modern Housekeeper 1826 Anonymous 1827 Copley 182- Child 1829 and 1831 Ellis 1839 Cobbett [183-] Beecher 1841 Walsh 1853 Beeton 1861 Cassells Household Guide 1869 Beecher and Stowe 1870 Caddy 1877 Mann 1878 Parloa 1879 Sylvain 1881 Corson 1885 Campbell 1896 Parloa 1898 Richards 1899 Butterworth 1902 Lucas 1904 Carter 1904 Terrill 1905 Hunt 1908 Richards 1910 Ravenhill and Schiff 1911 Bruere 1912 Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 Frederick 1913 and 1919 Pattison 1915 Gilbreth 1927 US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932)

The terms ldquodomestic managementrdquo ldquohome-managementrdquo ldquohousehold managementrdquo ldquofamily managementrdquo ldquothe management of the house and householdrdquo are then used to describe not only common household tasks but the general appearance and train de vie of the family According to the most popular writer of Victorian conduct literature ldquoin England there is a kind of science of good household management which if it consisted merely in keeping the house respectable in its physical character might be left to the effectual working out of hired hands but happily for the women of England there is a philosophy in this science by which all their highest and best feelings are called into exercise Not only must the house be neat and clean but it must be so ordered as to suit the tastes of all as far as may be without annoyance or offence to anyrdquo (Ellis 1839 25-26 my emphasis) Such manuals are in the whole more informal lists of advices than theoretical treatises They often mingle plans principles rules and technical instructions for such things as cooking keeping and dressing food carving sewing knitting trussing mending cleaning sweeping dusting caring of furniture and beds warming ventilating destroying noxious insects washing starching ironing cleansing whitening dyeing upkeeping yards gardens and animals nursing caring for the poor marketing furnishing and decorating The subtitle of Anne Cobbettrsquos most famous Manual of Domestic Management sums up what the term ldquohousehold managementrdquo could stand for at the beginning of the 19th century Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs (Cobbett 183-) While the task of the housekeeper evolves considerably from the 1870s and 1880s ndash the housewife being more and more deprived of salaried servants and family helpers buying more and more products formerly homemade and externalizing tasks such as the education of children and the care for the sick ndash the elaboration of systems of household management develops unabated As Ellen Richards noted in 1899 ldquohousekeeping no longer means washing dishes scrubbing floors making soap and candles it means spending a given amount of money for a great variety of ready-prepared articles and so using the commodities as to produce the greatest satisfaction and the best possible mental moral and physical resultsrdquo (Richards 1899 103)

School and classroom management is also considered Books on ldquoschool managementrdquo begin to appear at the beginning of the 19th century in Great Britain but become common from the 1860s and greatly develop in the United States at the very beginning of the 20th century (Catlow 1813 Gill 1857 Morrison 1859 Joyce 1863 Wickersham 1864 Harding 1872 Holbrook 1873 Kellogg 1880 Baldwin 1881 Raub 1882 Landon 1883 Major 1883 White 1893 Tompkins 1895 Collar and Crook 1901 Dutton 1903 Seeley 1903 J Taylor 1903 Chancellor 1904 and 1910 Prince 1906 Bagley 1907 Perry 1908 Arnold 1908 and 1916 Salisbury 1911 Rice 1913 Bennett 1917)

10

This literature is mainly written by progressive principals superintendent and teachers in normal school in order to present a new method of educating children as opposed to the mainly authoritarian and coercitive military-like style of the old system otherwise discarded under the names of the Police System or the Force System School managementrsquos theories share the same set of principles with other fields of management thought here examined but adds a recuring use of the term ldquoorganizationrdquo As a teacher in school management admits ldquowhatever difference there may be between a book on school management and one on the management of any other organization is only a difference in detailsrdquo (Tompkins 1895 32)

It is of course sometimes difficult to draw clear-cut distinctions between these publications Some authors eventually deal with the three topics in the same book or in separate publications John Henry Walsh writes for instance a Manual of Domestic Economy (1853) another of Domestic Medicine and Surgery (1858) edits a cookery book (1858) and authors books on dog management (1859) and horse management (1861) Apothecary James Nelson is the first to add hints on manners and education to his medical essay on the management of children (Nelson 1753) a practice soon to be imitated More generally farm management manuals often contain a chapter on the medical care of animals And the farm and the household are long inseparable The gentleman farmer Arthur Young notes for instance in 1770 that ldquoanother point of some consequence in a gentlemans oeconomical management is house-keeping so far as it concerns the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 240) And when established in 1923 the American Bureau of Home Economics is a part of the Department of Agriculture When it develops into a literary branch household management comes to absorb topics such as infancy management garden management and diseases management Esther Copleyrsquos cook book published in the 1820s presents the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts (Copley 182-) The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine similarly displays numerous advices on medicines as well as hints on husbandry and rural economy There is also a continuum between the management of women during pregnancy in labour in child-bed and the management of the children and of home Until the last quarter of the 19th century child management constitutes a part of the books on the domestic duties of housewives (Parkes 1825 Child 1831 Beecher 1841 Walsh 1853 Beeton 1861 Beecher and Stowe 1869 Mann 1878) Up to these years as Smuts remarks ldquomost of the burden of medical care fell on the women of the familyrdquo even among the well-to-do (Smuts 1959 13)

Similarly animal management falls under both the head of farm management and medical management Let us note here that the literature on horse management is considerable in the 19th century and goes beyond their use for farming (Flint 1815 Lawrence 1830 Nimrod 1831 Youatt 1834 Capt M 1842 Hieover 1848 Horlock and Weir 1855 Mayhem 1864 Mahon 1865 Graves and Prudden 1868 Sherer 1868 McClure 1870 Gough 1878 Reynolds 1882 Sample 1882 Magner 1886 Galvayne 1888 Cook 1891 Heard 1893 Armatage 1896 Adye 1903 Bell 1904 Axe 1905) The term ldquomanagementrdquo is commonly applied to the training handling and directing of a horse in its paces from the 16th century probably in consequence of the confusing proximity between the word ldquomanagerdquo and the French word ldquomanegravegerdquo (riding stable) Books on dogs management are also common (Ellis 1749 Cook 1826 Loudon 1851 Horlock 1852 Hill 1881 Sample 1882) as well as on sheep

11

mules cattle swine pigs and poultry (Daubenton 1782 Moubray 1816 Williams 1849 Youatt 1855 Jacques 1866 Graves and Prudden 1868 Sherer 1868 Vaniman 1885 Periam 188- Heard 1893) The same author may decline his system of management to various races of animals in the same book or in different ones such as William Youatt writting successively upon the management of horses (1834) sheeps (1836) cattle (1837) dogs (1854) and hogs (1855) or George Armatage dissertating about The Varieties and Management in Health and Disease of sheeps (1873) cattle (1893) and horses (1894)

The word ldquomanagementrdquo is often casted as a general umbrella to depict a broad field on interest For instance school management often includes ldquonot only school economy proper but also school government and school ethicsrdquo as well as school requisites school work and management of the teacher as states an American superintendent (Raub 1882 11-12) Some books might use the term in their title and no further in which case we suspect some editorsrsquo final suggestion to their authors On the contrary books might treat our four themes without using repetitively the notion of management And indeed many books are specifically devoted to child care from the end of the Middle Ages and to husbandry household administration and education from Antiquity We limit ouserves to those which made a thorough use of the term ldquomanagementrdquo to reflect upon their subject for we suggest that it is the mark of a peculiar way of thinking Moreover there exists an obvious discrepancy between the authorsrsquo cultural background and the epochs when they were writting even if many books are published and republished over times both in Great Britain and the United States Some are English other Americans and one or two books here considered are translations from the French But from the middle of the 18th century to the end of the 19th and whatever the part of the ocean we look at the word ldquomanagementrdquo keeps a stable meaning The great change will come as we should see at the beginning of the 20th century Finally the books herein examined did not have the same diffusion Some books have been widely read and served as models in each one in its peculiar field while others knew a single and confidential edition In infant management for instance the famous William Cadogan and Hugh Smith stood as authorities at the end of the 18th century The statistician agronomist and empirical scientist Arthur Young who imagined ldquosystems of managementrdquo as early as 1768 was similarly a reference in farm management In household administration Catharine Beecher Isbella Beeton and Ellen Richards have been popular references and still are Beecher authored ldquothe best-known treatises on domestic economy of the nineteenth centuty (Matthews 1987 31) Isbella Beetonrsquos 1861 book which popularized the expression ldquohousehold managementrdquo sold over sixty thousands copies in its first year of publication and almost two millions copies by 1868 (Humble 2000 vii) And Ellen Richards is considered as the ldquoprophetrdquo of home economics ldquoits interpreter its conservator its inspirer and to use her own word its engineerrdquo to quote another home economics proeminent figure (Bevier 1911 214)

The Logic Underlying the Early Uses of the Term ldquoManagementrdquo

In spite of obvious practical discrepancies the three types of literature here analyzed have common features First of all they are popular pedagogical and technical While they are often written by scholarly educated authors they are not theoretical or scientific treatises but aim at a relatively large and uneducated public

12

The title of one of these caracteristically stipulates that it is ldquowritten in a plain familiar stile to render it intelligible and useful to all mothers and those who have the management of infantsrdquo (Herdman 1804) As such advices on mothersrsquo and childrenrsquos management are often offered under the form of letters a format specially adopted for the friendly delivery of advices Most prefaces and introduction exhibit the same concern for intelligibility

Taken as a single corpus the books herein considered show a conceptual coherence and share a common understanding of the term ldquomanagementrdquo To manage then means to care to be industrious and to make efficient to drive and improve to arrange and act in a systematic way to count and calculate

If most of the books here gathered consist merely in descriptive lists of empirical practices some attempt at formulating general principles and laws out of it Whether explicitely or implicitely these principles are linked to one another and form a kind of system Indeed the care should be efficient accounting should be regular in order to gain appropriate knowledge gaining knowledge should be useful for training keeping records and setting time-tables has an important influence in promoting regularity etc As states pioneering educator Joseph Baldwin ldquoschool management is the art of so directing school affairs as to produce system order and efficiencyrdquo (Baldwin 1881 15)

Care One of the first predominant meaning of the term management is to look after to

take care to breed to cultivate to maintain The principle of care is the nodal point of the different understanding of the literature on management in the 18th ang 19th century Of course infants and children management means their proper care In this case authors may use the terms ldquonursing or maternal managementrdquo indifferently (Barrett 1875 10) The notion of ldquomanagementrdquo is more generally applied to the care of fragile human beings subject to diseases and accidents such as pregnant mothers sick-persons and old people ldquoThe care is allrdquo in farm management as well as writes the pamphleteer farmer and journalist William Cobbett (Cobbett 1821 113) The proper care given to the soil the animals and the equipment forms the core of what is meant in this literature by ldquomanagementrdquo

This principle of care signifies the prevention of depletion and if necessary the medical treatment of diseases ldquoManagement in health and diseaserdquo is a much common formula Treating illness is thus a necessary part of a careful management and the terms ldquomanagementrdquo and ldquotreatmentrdquo are often synonymous Logically books on infant management are predominantly written by physicians and those on animal management by veterinaries But to care for is not the business of the sole doctor and the very reason for the existence of such books is that as Thomas Williams states it ldquoa knowledge of the proper management of domestic animals and particularly of the causes preventives symptoms and treatment of the various complaintsthey are subject to should be possessed by every farmerrdquo (Williams 1849 9)

Hygiene cleanliness and sanitation are dominant elements in writtings on management and even on school management ldquoSchool hygiene and school management are inseparablerdquo states for instance the president of an American normal school (Salisbury 1911 54) Books on household management often devote a chapter to this issue

13

In a way a proper medical management consists in preventing diseases more than in curing it not in turning every mother into a physician but into a superintendent capable of giving effect to the prescriptions of a physician As a general rule states a scottish doctor and physiologist ldquowhere the child is well managed medicine of any kind is very rarely requiredrdquo (Combe 1840 77) An English doctor warns for himself his readers in these terms ldquoI shall not trouble you with the curative part of diseases incident to children that being altogether the concern of the physician [] This present system of nursing is intended only to manage children so as to prevent illnessrdquo (Smith 1792 163-164) An anonymous writer similarly states ldquoI wish to enable my fair readers to manage the infants committed to their care without being obliged to call in a physician for every trifling indispositionrdquo (Anonymous 1811 39) Similarly a horse breeder advises that ldquoa judicious change of food efficient stable management and proper arrangements for work can accomplish all that is necessary for the conservation of health in sound horses in a better and safer manner than the exhibition of medicamentsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 98)

To care is also the leading principle structuring the different methods of household management Their objective is invariably as an author sums it up ldquothe maximum of health physical mental and moralrdquo (Terrill 1905 14) According to Ellen Richards who is considered as the mother of home economics ldquothe ideal of lsquohomersquo is protection from dangers from within bad habits bad food bad air dirt and abuse shelter in fact from all stunting agencies just as the gardener protects his tender plants until they become strong enough to stand by themselvesrdquo (Richards 1910 73) Let us note here that this predominance of the principle of care in the first meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo should not receive a gender explaination as analysis and histories of household management often occasion Farming was predominantly a manly practice and it stressed the importance of caring as much as the more womanly activities of the household Similarly caring is a pivotal element of the more womanly activities of class management as well as of the more manly activities of school management

More generally the usual application of the term ldquomanagementrdquo includes such operations as the breeding rearing curing and proper care of living beings including crops plants bees and animals as well as of peculiar parts of the body such as the teeth and eyes of human beings and the horses feet and legs Some authors may talk about ldquomoralrdquo and ldquomental managementrdquo of children and adults (for example Thompson 1841) and eventually of the moral management of insane persons (Haslam 1817 Millingen 1841) But it is also widely applied to the careful maintenance of the house and of the farming tools In the second half of the 19th century several engineers and machinists adopt this meaning of the term management to describe the maintenance and repairing of motors machines boilers and diverse kinds of machinery Emory Edwardsrsquo book still reedited today typically gives ldquosome general rules for the care and management of steam-engines and boilersrdquo (Edwards 1882 390) Writers using in this perspective the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo were not marginal and included personalities such as Zerah Colburn editor of one of Britainrsquos leading technical journal in the middle on the 19th century (Ward 1847 Colburn 1851 Bourne 1861 Watson 1867 Roper 1875 and 1889 Shock 1880 Edwards 1882 Smith 1882 Sinclair 1885 Tompkins 1889 Lieckfeld 1896 Moulson et alii 1898 Houghtaling 1899 Biggs 189- Homans 1902 Tulley 1907)

14

Industry and Efficiency Industry and efficiency form the second structuring managerial principle of the

arts of nursing husbandry and housekeeping For our authors nothing is worst than keeping idle the soil animals or men Medical advisers repeatedly stress the importance of exercises for the proper development of children But it is in farm household and school management that these principles of industry and efficiency is the most prevalent

At the end of the 18th century the experimental agronomist Arthur Young try to call attention to the extent of land lying waste in Great Britain (Young 1773) The word economy is thus used commonly in the sense of thrift and of a judicious use of resource The insistence on the profitability of a farm or of a particular crop then means more their productivity than a potential pecuniary profit on a market To the authors here considered the purpose of farm management is not to produce a lot but to produce more with less As an example the advocate of ldquoscientific agriculturerdquo Charles Fox in his text book on farm management makes it clear that ldquothe object of the practical farmer is to raise from a given area of land the largest quantity of the most profitable produce at the least costrdquo (Fox 1854 3) Meanwhile he hardly talks about buying selling and markets

In household management to be industrious and keep good hours is a necessity As states the Housekeeperrsquos magazine in 1825 ldquoabsolute idleness is inexcusable in a woman because the needle is always at hand for those intervals in which she cannot be otherwise employedrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) Similarly in their famous book on housekeeping Catharine Beecher and Harriet Stowe warn their readers about their ldquoobligation to spend every hour for some useful endrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 215) Besides being industrious a housekeeper must be efficient wether in making or in spending The purpose of the Cassells Household Guide is thus to show ldquohow by the minimum of expenditure the maximum of comfort and of luxury may be obtainedrdquo (Cassells Household Guide 1869 1) In this perspective notes a regular contributor to the Ladies Home Journal magazine economy in the home ldquomeans that everything is put to its proper use and there is no wasterdquo and most of all ldquothat the most precious thing (sic) in it mdash the mother mdash shall not be misused or wastedrdquo (Parloa 1898 258 and 352) That is careful management means frugality in the use of money equipment and human beings According to Ellen Richards it is the increasing resort to calculation on a money basis which has led to this emphasis on efficiency ldquoin these days of consolidation for the purpose of cutting down expenses days of close calculation of cost when everything is reduced to a money basis in production it is not surprising that discussion should have arisen over the great waste involved in the keeping up of fifty kitchen-fires to do the work that five would dordquo (Richards 1899 1)

Industry is a disciplining tool much recommended by school and classroom management writers ldquoThe art of school management states characteristically an educational author consists very much in the art of giving enough and suitable employment Work must be given if good order is not obtained give morerdquo (Kellogg 1880 80) Similarly states an American superintendent ldquothe secret of success in managing small children as well as larger ones lies in giving them plenty to dordquo (Raub 1882 193) This principle of industry as in the cases of farm and household management comes generally along with the principle of efficiency According to John Gill for instance whose text-book on school management was a set text in many of the training colleges for teachers which were established after 1850 (Mugglestone 2006 291) school management or ldquoschool organization is a system of arrangements

15

designed to secure constant employment efficient instruction and moral control In other words it aims at providing the means of instructing and educating the greatest number in the most efficient manner and by the most economical expenditure of time and labourrdquo (Gill 1857 56) For another writer in school management ldquothe teachers work in school naturally falls into three great divisions which taken in logical order are mdash (1) organisation (2) discipline (3) teaching and unless all three receive due attention the work is not likely to be performed with that efficiency that economy of time and labour both of the teacher and of the pupils and that absence of friction which should characterise the operation of every good schoolrdquo (Landon 1883 109) Rice in his bestseller on scientific management in schools asserts that ldquoin the strict sense scientific management in education can only be defined as a system of management specifically directed toward the elimination of waste in teaching so that the children attending the schools may be duly rewarded for the expenditure of their time and effortrdquo (Rice 1913 viii) As puts it a professor of education in a book which went through more than thirty reprintings from 1907 to 1927 (Callahan 1962 7) the problem of classroom management ldquois a problem of economy it seeks to determine in what manner the working unit of the school plant may be made to return the largest dividend upon the material investment of time energy and moneyrdquo (Bagley 1907 2) Or as sums up another professor of education and author of a book on ldquoschool efficiencyrdquo ldquothe problem of school management is to give [people] as much as possible for their moneyrdquo (Bennett 1917 1-2)

From another perspective the very purpose of school management is to form future industrious citizens An English inspector of board schools insists for instance upon ldquothe true objects and aims of school management which are the promoting of the good habits of cheerful industry all-conquering thoroughness orderly disposition of time and labor and the practice of useful activityrdquo (Holbrook 1873 179) According to a much cited professor of education writing a generation later ldquothe aim of the school may be formulated as social efficiency Whatever the school undertakes to accomplish must be judged in the light of this standardrdquo that is to turn every child into a ldquosocially efficient individualrdquo (Bagley 1907 7-8) As states professor of pedagogy Arnold Tompkins ldquoit is needless to urge that a school thoroughly organized and managed with its regular exact and punctual requirement in performance of duty is a most powerful means of bringing the pupil into the habit and spirit of industrial life [] The public school artfully managed is the very institution to supply to society members who are not simply industrious by force of conviction and habit but who have the joy of industry in the heartrdquo (Tompkins 1895 206-207)

Handling Driving Improving Perhaps the most common significance of the verb ldquoto managerdquo from its first uses

at the end of the 16th century is ldquoto handlerdquo ldquoto conductrdquo or ldquoto carry onrdquo (Murray 1908 104-105) The verb is applied to inanimate things such as weapons instuments vehicules and affairs to actions and operations to institutions such as households and states and to animals primarily horses and cattle

In many of the texts here considered the word management means altogether breeding training and curing It often refers to the training of a particular animal the horse being by far the main sort considered with dogs coming in a second position The managing of an animal refers for instance to its breeding rearing taming ldquobreaking or learningrdquo (Ellis 1749 ChII) exercising subduing educating

16

conducting and driving That is managing means more ndash or less ndash than rude disciplining For instance goodness and patience rather than ldquomain strength and stupid harshnessrdquo (Graves and Prudden 1868 38) are systematically recommended in the management of horses ldquoKindness goes far in managing these noble animalsrdquo confirms the cavalry officer Mahon (1865 49) An anonymous mother also writes that children ldquoare much better and more easily managed by kindness and it is quite easy to be firm with a child without being angry or severerdquo (Anonymous 1884 62) For most of authors on school and classroom management cooperation more than discpline is the basis of a sound eduction as military methods of instruction are rejected in a distant past ldquoReproof and privations writes an educational pioneer are the only punishments ordinarily needed in school or family The management should be so systematic and vigorous as to render severer punishments unnecessaryrdquo (Baldwin 1881 166)

This meaning of management also appears on the books considering the rearing of infants and children which purpose is their rise and progress as well as in books on school and classroom management In both cases a good management mostly consists in giving proper habits ndash that is organized reactions For instance writes an American professor of pedagogy ldquothe school should be managed with the conscious purpose of forming habits of orderrdquo (Tompkins 1895 203) A very influential professor of education could even formulate a ldquolaw of habit-buildingrdquo ldquoFocalization of consciousness upon the process to be automatized plus attentive repetition of this process permitting no exceptions until automatism resultsrdquo (Bagley 1907 16) This educating process also applies to the training of household servants a subject of a foremost intest for the early writers on household management In some cases notes Mary Elizabeth Carter servants ldquomay like boys and girls have to be taught and trained in habits of cleanliness and orderrdquo (Carter 1904 115) It also applies to the education of the future housewife which become part of the syllabus of ldquoDomestic Sciencerdquo in universities at the end of the 19th century Logically the term management was commonly applied from the middle of the 19th century to the tasks of the teacher in charge of developing his or her pupils along physical mental and moral lines Besides many books on school management note that the old days teacher was mainly superintending while the modern one is mainly teaching Most also states that teaching has become a profession and as such necessitates a proper training ldquoThe teacher writes an editor of the New York School Journal must study to be a good teacher the art of school management in its best sense turns upon thatrdquo (Kellogg 1880 78)

By essence conduct books devise ways of improving their readersrsquo behavior As scientific disciplines develop the housewife is for instance to gain knowledge in chemistry physics and psychology In her first best-selling book Catharine Beecher who can envision the task of housewife as a ldquoprofessionrdquo (Beecher 1841 5) recommend that domestic economy should be made ldquoa regular part of school educationrdquo and not taught at home by the mothers often ignorant of the true rules of this science (Ibid 63)

For behind the idea of training lies the principle of progress As early as the 17th century enlighted farmers began to shake the bounds of tradition by submitting agriculture to rational scrutiny and experiment (Best 1642) In the 19th century the home which may seem like the bastion of tradition was subject to many methods for improving its running

The very purpose of most of the early books on management is the education of their reader A majority of it aims conscienciously at being pedagogical and popular sharing this common faith in the power of knowledge and in the benefits of mass

17

education which made its way through Europe and the United States from the 18th century The doctor Anthony Thompson characteristically states that ldquothe most judicious plan of medical management may be devised and the plainest directions for its fulfilment may be delivered to the attendants of the sick-room but without more information on the subject than is at present possessed by the females of a household and especially by those whose duty it is to superintend the execution of the orders of the Physician little benefit can be anticipated to the invalidrdquo (Thompson 1841 vii)

Order Arrangement System Regulation Order arrangement system and regulation are watchwords of the 18th and 19th

century literature on management and especially of the literature on farm and household management The expressions ldquosystem of managingrdquo ldquoplan of managementrdquo ldquomethod of managementrdquo are found in almost every book here considered The very idea of management seem to imply the notion of a regular and ordered system The Housekeeperrsquos magazine even talks about the ldquobest-regulated familyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg3 52) and Catharine Beecher of ldquoa systematic and well-regulated familyrdquo (Beecher 1841 126) For a widely read authoress of books on household administration for instance ldquomethod and order are two most important factors in the management of the householdrdquo (Parloa 1898 61) Regarding accounts writes the author of a ldquosystem of practical domestic economyrdquo ldquoregularity is the very life and soul of economyrdquo (Anonymous 1827 380) The setting of a routine and the search for regularity are especially praised in the rearing of children and of animals Thus according to a horse expert ldquoone of the first things desirable in stable management is rule by rule I mean a regular way of doing thingsrdquo (Hieover 1848 90) Similarly school management thinkers praise order and system and order ldquoSystem in school management is a necessityrdquo states one of them (Raub 1882 196) ldquoOrderliness in general matters of school management writes another is a right upon which it is unnecessary to insist The child has the right to expect regular periods for school work orderly entrance and dismissal etc care of clothing uniformity in certain aspects of discipline and the likerdquo (Arnold 1908 174) As states an English inspector of board schools ldquoThe first requisite of good management in all schools is orderrdquo (Major 1883 209) For a fourth author on this subject an ldquoimportant device in school management is the adoption of a self-regulating system [] A school is a sort of mechanism and all its movements must be regular to avoid confusion and waste of timerdquo (White 1893 94-95) As recognizes Dr Arnold Tompkins of Illinois University for whom ldquono means ever devised is more potent than an efficient system of school managementrdquo ldquowe are quite strictly materialists in school management setting objective and fixed forms and rules hard and fast over against a growing and pulsating liferdquo (Tompkins 1895 208 and 14)

Arthur Young who was to become Secretary to the English Board of Agriculture could be called the Frederick Taylor of farm management not in the sense that he animated and inspired a school but in the sense that he attempted to ldquoreduce multifarious fugitive subjects to some degree of order and even principlesrdquo articulated into a rational ldquosystem of general managementrdquo (Young 1770b 2-3) His purpose being to see husbandry ldquobuilt upon as just and philosophic principles as the art of medicinerdquo (Ibid 175) Young thus applied an experimental and scientific outlook to husbandry Talking about accounts he states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) He thus draws ldquoschemes of conducting farmsrdquo

18

with an eye to constant improvements (Young 1770b 34) To him the superiority of the gentleman over the common farmer lay in his capacity to acquire new knowledge not in his application of old ones To him it is thus important to devise a ldquoplan of agricultural operationrdquo (Young 1770a vol 2 471) What he calls the ldquosystem of managementrdquo or ldquotrain of managementrdquo of a farm is nothing but the division arrangement and proportionning of its land cattle and labour Young thus elaborate methods and calculus for a efficient division of work which he calls ldquodisposition of the teamsrdquo (Young 1770b 25) and which takes the form of distribution of ploughs horses ox and laborers He proposes for instance a table with the distribution of 16 servants 11 laborers and 16 boys for the ploughs harrowing team carried over brought over rolling horse hoeing road team ox team ditto carting extra team shepherd exen steers swine cows Young also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men As it sums it up himslef a certain portion of time a certain portion of space and ldquoa certain portion of hands are assigned to each businessrdquo (Ibid 60)

According to a prolific author of conduct books ldquothat house only is well conducted where there is a strict attention paid to order and regularity To do every thing in its proper time to keep every thing in its right place and to use every thing for its proper use is the very essence of good managementrdquo (Taylor 1815 27) Similarly according to the author of a Modern System of Domestic Cookery a ldquosystem of domestic management is the foundation of all the comfort and welfare of private familiesrdquo (Radcliffe 1823 1) But Catharine Beecher is the first one to devise in 1841 such a ldquosystematic plan of domestic economyrdquo (Beecher 1841 157) in a book notes a literature teacher specialist of Catharine Beecher which ldquowent through fifteen editions between 1841 and 1856 and established Beecher as the nations foremost authority on household practicerdquo (Tonkovich in Beecher and Stowe 1869 xiii) According to her philosophy ldquoit is wise therefore for all persons to devise a general plan which they will at least keep in view and aim to accomplish and by which a proper proportion of time shall be secured for all the duties of liferdquo (Ibid 158) She thus advocates a ldquosystematic employment of timerdquo (Ibid 160 Beecher and Stowe 1870 196) Beecher and her sister Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote in a later book ldquoEvery young lady can systematize her pursuits to a certain extent She can have a particular day for mending her wardrobe and for arranging her trunks closets and drawers She can keep her work-basket her desk at school and all her other conveniences in their proper places and in regular order She can have regular periods for reading walking visiting study and domestic pursuits And by following this method in youth she will form a taste for regularity and a habit of system which will prove a blessing to her through liferdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 202) The housekeeper should not limit her division and arrangement of work to the servants but strive for ldquothe apportioning of regular employment to the various members of a family If a housekeeper can secure the cooperation of all her family she will find that lsquomany hands make light workrsquordquo (Beecher 1841 163) Adding that ldquoa woman is under obligations so to arrange the hours and pursuits of her family as to promote systematic and habitual industryrdquo (Ibid 185) For that purpose she draws plans of houses and domestic conveniences (Ibid ch XXIV)

Both Young and Beecher show the conspicuous features that exhibit the literature on farm and household management a quest for regularity and order systematicity planning selection as well as the arrangement of work and division of labor But elaboration of methods and plans are also common in medical management literature The doctor Cadogan proposes as early as 1748 a ldquoPlan of Nursingrdquo (Cadogan 1748 21)

19

This systematic frame of mind is first expressed by medical farm and household management writers not so much in a desire to standardize but in a constant effort to codify That is routines are not systematically reduced to a measurable standard but they are carefully specified often regarding a specific time and place The very idea of writting a book imply this logic of formalizing and codifying a set of practices The most methodic books circumscribe the mother farmer and housekeeperrsquos tasks and codify it in every detail Most of the books on infant management codify the childrenrsquos dress from the shoes to the cap their cleanliness bathing foods drinks exercise amusements sleep education and employments Isabella Beetonrsquos 1861 book codified every aspect of household management and even every aspect of a diner given at home or in paying visits of condoleance This very idea of codification is best exemplified by the recurring planning tools proposed by most of these books such as detailed plans of houses diagrams of kitchen schedules work orders tables of duties calendars reminder cards and files bulletin boards ledgers accounting books individual calendars or written menus to be posted in pantry and kitchen (Cf for instance figure below from US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932 202) An author even recommends the use of ldquoprinted rules

in bath room [] giving a few very simple admonitions upon what is lsquogood formrsquo in a lavatory of any sortrdquo (Carter 1904 93) For the ldquohousehold engineerrdquo Christine Frederick ldquostandard practice means then written directions as to method and tools and timerdquo (Frederick 1919 152)

Even if most of English and American homes employed less than ten servants and therefore knew in a limited degree the division labor Nevertheless remarks the author of a ldquodomestic economy and household sciencerdquo manual ldquoin most households it is found necessary to divide the work which has to be done amongst various people

20

and to have some of these especially trained for certain parts of it such as cooking the food cleaning the house and waiting upon the inmates The arranging of all this work has to be thought of and planned by the master and mistress who are the responsible controllers and heads of the house Thus the duties of servants their relations to their employers and their good management or handling are also matters with which domestic economy has to dealrdquo (Mann 1878 5)

Much of the books on school management devote a chapter or a whole part to ldquoorganizationrdquo which usally contains instructions regarding the number and size of the classes the distribution of the staff the syllabus of work for each class the classification of the scholars and the time table It may picture plans of the school or at least of the ideal classroom and some even specify the way children should be gathered and circulate wtihin their class (Cf right time table and plan of a school reproduced from Collar and Crook 1901 41) For an influential writer on school management ldquothe particulars embraced under organization comprise the arrangements of the rooms classification of the children duties of the master subordinates distribution of work and time tablesrdquo (Gill 1857 57) Under the head of organization the rector of a Glasgow school thus describe for instance ldquothe arrangement of desks most suitable to the efficient management of a schoolrdquo (Morrison 1859 44) Another author talks about ldquothe distribution of the teaching powerrdquo (Landon 1883 110)

According to the authors of farm management books good husbandry is not a matter of duplicating age-old recipes but a matter of choices and of planning choice of a location of a farm og a kind of farming (intensive or extensive) of crops of livestock of horses of equipment of implements of calendar etc All these parameters interacts As such states Young husbandry can never arrive at perfection ldquoif the exact degree of every vegetable cultivated be not known in relation to soil and management and in a word if all the the various branches of this complex art be not so thoroughly sifted and examined as to be familiar in every combinationrdquo (Young 1770b 150-151) A century later Robert Scott Burn advises his readers to select their animals with regards to ldquothe soil its cropping size locality and climaterdquo (Burn 1877 29) Richard Reynolds states for himself that ldquoalmost every treatise upon the management of farm-horses contain formulae of food allowances applicable for use at certain seasons and during the performance of certain agricultural operationsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 52) Similarly the proper selection of a new house of servants of food of menus of activities for the children and even ldquothe choice of friendsrdquo and new acquaintances (Parkes 1825 Part I Conversations II and III) are important dimensions of household management For a household editor for the Ladies Home Journal if a housekeeper ldquodoes not know that round steak at 20 cents a pound possesses as much nutriment as the

21

porterhouse at 26 cents she will not expend wisely or economically She should know something of the idea of a lsquobalanced mealrsquo and what foods will give it the place of milk fruit and eggs in the diet what are healthful meat substitutes and the nourishment of various kinds of breads vegetables and cerealsrdquo (Frederick 1913 105)

Most of the book on children management describe curricula proper to their development For instance in his Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children written in 1792 Smith formulates ldquorulesrdquo describes ldquobest methodsrdquo and offers detailed prescriptions for the management of children ldquolet their breakfast at six or seven in the morning be half a pint of new milk with about two ounces of bread in it mdash the second meal should be half a pint of good broth with the same quantity of bread let this be given about ten or eleven in the morning mdash the third meal about two or three in the afternoon should be broth in like manner mdash and their supper about six in the evening new milk and bread the same as for breakfastrdquo (Smith 1792 140) Most of books on children management give advices regarding their different stages of life and notably the periods of weaning and of dentition Samuel Smiles the famous surgeon presents ldquoin a tabular form what [he] conceive[s] ought to be the proper disposition of time in childhood boyhood adolescenceand adult age in order to the attainment of a full development of the mental faculties with a corresponding healthy completion of the physical structurerdquo (Smiles 1838 188) As such for each period of age he precises ldquothe hours that should be devoted to exercise exercise with instruction tuition relaxation and sleeprdquo (Cf table below from Ibid 188) Similarly many household management books propose plans for the distribution of tasks settled down to the day and even down to the quarter of an hour (Butterworth 1902 27-28) According to the Housekeeperrsquos magazine ldquoearly rising and a good disposition of time is essential to Economyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) As early as 1825 Frances Parkes proposes a ldquosystem of Domestic Dutyrdquo (Parkes 1825 22) which regulates the ldquodisposal of timerdquo (Ibid 16) ldquoAs much time is saved or rather gained by a regular disposal of each division of the day I recommend to you to plan the whole out every morning and as far as you can command circumstances to pursue that plan steadilyrdquo (Ibid 317) Almanachs are important tools of farm and household regulation of time and farming operations also obeys to calendars and a precise chronological pattern The combination of these different parameters require an ordered mind as it is repeatedly remarked in farm management books ldquoA time-table is to a school what grammar is to a languagerdquo says an Irish head-master who participated in the task of ldquointroducing among the national schools [of Ireland] an improved and uniform organization and of diffusing among the national teachers a more extensive practical knowledge of school keepingrdquo (Joyce 1863 37 and vii) As such he codifies a regular day at school hour by hour beginning in such a manner ldquoldquo955 to 10 Inspection as to cleanliness mdash At five minutes to ten the children should be arranged according to their divisions and drafts either in the playground or in the school- room and the teacher after a hasty glance to see that their hands faces and hair are clean and neat marches all to their several places This preliminary business should not encroach on the school time the first lessons should be actually commencing at 10 oclockrdquo (Ibid 59) For another writer on school management it is obvious that ldquothere must be a well devised program distributing the time properly among the various classes and that it must be inflexibly followedrdquo (Kellogg 1880 92) Such time-tables are a common feature of school management books

The question of ldquoarrangementrdquo that is of planning space is a common feature of farm and household management books ldquoA place for everything and everything in its

22

placerdquo is a recurring moto of 18th and 19th centuries management books Books on farm management thus frequently offer developments the arrangement of the fields and even latter on the planning of farm buildings fields or poultry houses (Dickson 1853) As early as 1768 Arthur Young underline the ldquogeneral benefit which arises from a judicious arrangement of a farmrdquo by a farmer and especially ldquothe arranging his lands properly for his cropsrdquo (Young 1768 156-157 and 158) Another author underlines that ldquobesides a most rigid and accurate set of account booksrdquo ldquoan accurate plan of each field should also be had showing the position of drains with their outfalls position of fences and gates and another detailing the mode of cropping and the part of the rotation under which at the stated intervals it comes to be placedrdquo (Burn 1877 29) Warren in his classic book on farm management proposes schemes of farm layout location size and shape of fields (Warren 1913 365-368) Regarding household management such author may propose ldquoplans of houses suited to townsrdquo (Walsh 1853 96) this one a plan of the pantries (Parloa 1898 15) while another calls for ldquoscientific house-planningrdquo (Bruere 1912 174) Ellen Richards prescriptions for the arrangement of a house include such elements as windows walls sink bathtub florrs woodwork stair rails and supports plumbing vaccum cleaner gas burners screens etc (Richards 1911) Beecher and Stowe add to their sketch of ldquomodel cottage-ground plan and roomsrdquo ldquoIn the description and arrangement the leading aim is to show how time labor and expense are saved not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangementrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 24) For the real purpose of planning is often both order and efficiency For instance

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

4

Nevertheless he searches back in history for ancient forms of large-scale production and factory-like modes of organization As such he does not consider the large plantations in order to understand their logic but look in it for familiar practices Far from being the core institution around which revolved managerial practices the family was according to Chandler an obstacle to or even an enemy of the modern corporation embodying rival principles The corporation had thus to get rid of these familial traditions and networks of personal ties to become a managerial institution Througout his life Chandler remained interested in the emergence and development of managerial capitalism in the 19th and 20th century not of managerial rationality

George Claude Daniel Wren and Peter Drucker three other reference authors of management history seem on the contrary to occasionally venture too far For such authors management would be a genetic feature of humanity As such writes George Claude ldquoa true and comprehensive history of management would be a history of manrdquo (Claude 1968 vii) Similarly according to Wren ldquomanagement as an activity has always existed to make peoplersquos desires through organized effort Management facilitates the efforts of people in organized groups and arises when people seek to cooperate to achieve goalsrdquo (Wren 1972 11-12) Armed with such an all-embrassing definition these authors consider as managers old-days military chiefs priests jurists political leaders and merchants entrepreneurs Nevertheless if their definition may seem to broad in scope their history appears on the contrary much too discriminating Indeed besides quoting the Hammurabi code and Chanakya Kalautilyarsquos Arthasastra (Wren 1972 ch 2) why not considering the codified organization of labour and highly hierarchized functioning of European cloisters in the Middle Ages or the Christian doctrine of administratio as formulated by Paul in his Pastoral epistles and refined by the Roman canon law Besides citing the pharoahs as the first great managers as Drucker often did why not considering the invention of agriculture 14000 years ago which proved human dispositions for planning organizing and accounting Why not showing the symbolic link between the practice of business management and the extreme planification division of labour and industrial ideal of the 18th and 19th centuries utopian socialists Should not Saint-Simon or at least Max Weber rather than Chester Barnard (Williamson 1990) be considered as the true fathers of organization studies Why not unveiling the codification of administrative principles within the practice of early urban governance and municipal administration from the times of Calvinrsquos Geneva and Zwinglirsquos Zurich to the incorporation of American towns Why not considering the ldquopastoral governmentalityrdquo theorized by Michel Foucault in his 1978 lectures at the Collegravege de France (1978) Why not analyzing how the administration of european colonies gave rise to a specific art of management interwoving the logics of sovereignty and capitalism Besides occasionally quoting Sun Tzu and Clausewitz as potential source of business inspiration (Claude 1968 Wren 1972 Crainer 1997 Pearson 2009) why not studying the organization of armed bodies from medieval times to the present Did not Marx for instance underlined ldquothe way in which certain economic relations such as wage labour machinery etc develop earlier owing to war and in the armies etc than in the interior of bourgeois societyrdquo (Marx 1857 109) Besides quoting Machiavelli (Claude 1968 Wren 1972 Crainer 1997 Wren and Greenwood 1998 Pearson 2009) why not considering the taste for administrative planning showed by Utilitarians Reason of State thinkers Cameralists Physiocrats Jacobins Positivists and a majority of Radicals and more broadly the whole field of politics Institutions such as the feodal estate the early political parties the brotherhoods the fraternal societies the guilds and the churches were institutions asking for a certain kind of management Even if administrative work was not always

5

so important as to justify the existence of a specialized class and of a distinct layer of specialized managers within the institution it existed and obeyed to certain rules and principles that it would be interesting to examine under the light of management history

Method Objectives Hypothesis

Most of management thought historians seem to imagine in an abstract and somewhat structuralist perspective managerial ideas floating through the centuries and all-over the globe freely disposable to be formulated by great authors and leaders and being eventually embodied here and then in the form of more of less large-scale institutions On the contrary I assume that whenever and wherever these ideas exist they take a very tangible appearance they are symbolized by particular words Of course it is a long and painstaking work to search back for the different words which incoporated what we mean today by management and endless debates are inevitable if we try to affirm for instance how far was the greek word ldquooikonomiardquo (οἰκονοmicroία) close from our contemporary understanding of the term ldquomanagementrdquo But it is far less debatable to examine at the English translations of Xenophonrsquos and Aristotlersquos Economics and to consider from when they start to use the word ldquomanagementrdquo and in which ways As such one of the less controversial way of tracking back the incorporation in words of a managerial rationality is to examine the uses of the word ldquomanagementrdquo itself from its appearance in the English language

Histories of management often point out to the different methods and tools of management from double-entry bookkeeping to the stopwatch from the assembly line to video surveillance from just-in-time to the open space But among the first and most important tools used from the early corporate managers to the grandsons of Peter Drucker one deserves a special place it is the very word ldquomanagementrdquo which made possible for this social group to put a name on some of their practices and on their community and which served as a rallying battle flag as well as a seductive catch word But the corporate managers did not coin the term and if they redefined it they also inevitably inherited from its earlier meaning Or rather they adopted it because of its earlier meanings which seem to fit their own practices and representations As such the term ldquomanagementrdquo was not a prelude to business management thoughts nor an explicit reference for its theoricians but rather the mental foundation and the symbolic materials upon which mechanics engineers and accountants choose to build up their proper conception of management Words are not neutral If their use authorises a certain liberty they are also loaded with a patrimony of mental schemes Similarly when English political scientists adapted the word ldquopoliticsrdquo at the begining of the 16th century they adapted as much as adopted the Greeksrsquo representations of authority law power and government built in the very notion of polis So the early systematic uses of the term ldquomanagementrdquo are less genetic than foster parents of its 20th century acceptances That why I assumed that they deserve a thorough study

In order to do so I gathered from a search in the Library of Congress a catalogue of texts comprising the term ldquomanagementrdquo in their title which was mostly useful to delineate the thematical fields and the historical periods to delve into I then read through these literatures in search for common features and similar frames of reference accompanying the uses of the word ldquomanagementrdquo

6

The purpose of this paper is not to track back in the depth of history the sketches or seeds of modern management conspicuous features it is not interested in the ldquomodernity of the pastrdquo Neither does it try to reconstruct practices from the writtings It considers on the contrary the writtings for themselves and assumes that they carry a certain endogenous logic Instead of assuming an universal definition of the term ldquomanagementrdquo whether all-inclusive or restrained to business or factorylike activities this paper assumes that the meanings carried over the four last centuries by the notion of management depend upon historical and cultural contexts but nevertheless share a core of basic ideas Medical care husbandry housekeeping and school government are not forerunners of business management practices but some of the authors who codified these activities furnished an intellectual frame of mind used by corporate management thinkers The discrepancies between these mental systems should not be discarded but on the contrary put under the microscope for we might learn more about management by inquiring the different meanings of the same word ldquomanagementrdquo throught the centuries than by searching back for practices which however close from todayrsquos definition of the term ldquomanagementrdquo were characterized by different words and took sense within a very different system of thinking and valuing

Since its appearance in the English language in the 16th century until the beginning of the 20th century the word ldquomanagementrdquo did not mean primarily business management It was mainly used to talk about husbandry and health care From the 1830s household management came to synthetize elements of these two disciplines which nevertheless followed their own path While school management literature mostly developed from the 1860s Of course the risk of squashing details and homogenizing miscellaneous topics is great when such broad and diverse literatures are handled by young hands That is why the analysis is confined to the broad lines and the general features of the texts herein considered For these four fields of expression undoubtely display a shared set of principles and mental dispositions exhibiting a common consideration for caring a spirit of system and order exigences of industry and efficiency the idea of a possible improvement of things and beings as well as a extensive recourse to accouting and recording methods

That is these first systematic ways of thinking management show features very similar to what will be business management in the 20th century Nevertheless their authors cannot be considered as the scattered progenitors or precursors of modern management systems methods and tools like few spots of enlighted forerunners in a sea of dark ignorance and traditional beliefs waiting for the business corporation and its professional managers to gather and systematize their insights If some management thinkers such as Frank and Lillian Gilbreth may have transposed technics and experiments elaborated at home to the factories they were reorganizing it was not a common practice ndash the reverse became more common from the 1910s The builders of the systematic management schemes and of the scientific management movement were inspired by the mechanicsrsquo practices accountantsrsquo tools and scientific engineersrsquo dispositions of mind not by the important literature on medical farm school and household management (Nelson 1975 Chandler 1977 Merkle 1980 Noble 1984 Shenhav 1999) Reversely we can suppose that scientific management technics and methods were easily translated to the household the farm and the school because management theories and a managerial frame of mind preexisted in these fields

Our first hypothesis is that management was first and foremost applied to insects animals infants pupils sick persons pregnant mothers limbs symptomes diseases elements such as the soil and the air organizations but more rarely to autonomous

7

adult human beings That is the application of the word to laborers implied a shift in its meaning and may inform us about the representation of laborers in the managersrsquo minds The supervision of people is seen as something highly personal and hard to systematize

Secondly several of the main principles which form today the core of business management have blossomed and have been articulated together within small going concerns independantly from the capitalist sphere in technically low-developed environnements and without provoking the formation of a distinct class of managers whether professional or not Assumptions which seem to run counter to the idea common since Chandler that technological development organization size and capitalist motives are the usual forces of management evolution It would only be the case for the business corporation

Thirdly the early repetitive uses of the terms ldquomanagementrdquo shows the penetration of the scientific outlook into a well-structured discourse on government And here I would agree with Weber and Sombart when they define an enterprise not as a capitalist institution but as a rational one

Thirdly the study of the discourses on medical management farm management household management and school management from the end of the 18th century to the first quater of the 20th also throws light on the structuration of a forgotten root of the managerial rationality the principle of care Meanwile it shows the very marginal importance of the principle of control which is to become central in business management thought

Finally this analysis throws light on the institutional framework common to three of these four ways of thinking management the family We will thus risk an institutional answer to the question why did the understanding of the word ldquomanagementrdquo shaped from the times of Frederick Taylor come to supersede the early ways of thinking it

The First Meanings of the Term ldquoManagementrdquo

The forms ldquomanagingrdquo ldquoto managerdquo ldquomanagedrdquo ldquomanagerrdquo ldquomanageablerdquo and ldquomanagementrdquo are attested from the second half of the 16th century with the broad and principal reference to the handling of public or private affairs with skill tact or care (Murray 1908 104-106) Until the middle of the 18th century the word lsquomanagerdquo and its declinaisons remain infrequent From this date to the end of the nineteenth century four types of literatures make a repetitive use of the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo which are texts on husbandry medical care of the mother and her infant household administration and school supervision

From the middle of the 18th century some English and American farmers begin to use abundantly the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo to describe the direction of the various activities of husbandry (Ellis 1744 1749 1750 Young 1768 1770a 1770b The Complete Farmer 1777 Moubray 1816 Cobbett 1821 OrsquoConnor 1843 Thomas 1844 Dickson 1853 Andrews 1853 Tegetmeier 1854 Macdonald 1865 Curtis 1879 Ward and Lock 1881 Smith 1898 Taft 1898)

These books are very distinct from the general treatises of political economy then circulating which consider with a theoretical outlook the impact of laws on trade and agriculture as a national issue They rather focus on the farm as a single unit in a very empirical perspective which plants to cultivate when to saw how much yield is expected are the kind of issues they address Often compiling examples and cases

8

most of these books are practical catalogues of advices for the care of the farmrsquos livestock horses soil cooking food dairy equipment and buildings Some do nevertheless intend to extract general principles out of the myriad of husbandry practices Arthur Young stands among other as the great theorician of farm management from the end of the 18th century

The second corpus of literature widely using the term management concern the care of the mother and her infant (Cadogan 1748 Hill 1754 Theobald 1764 White 1773 Hamilton 1781 Moss 1781 Underwood 1789 Smith 1792 Clarke 1793 Seaman 1800 Hume 1802 Herdman 1804 Bard 1807 Anonymous 1811 Taylor 1816 Appleton 1820 Flint 1826 Fox 1834 Alcott 1836 Evanson and Maunsell 1836 Charles 1838 Chavasse 1839 1843 Bull 1840 Combe 1840 Cory 1844 Hancorn 1844 Hogg 1849 Barker 1865 Powers 1866 Getchell 1868 Vines 1868 Braidwood 1874 Barrett 1875 Dix 1880 Duncan 1880 Keeting 1881 Anonymous 1884 Bruen 1887 Starr 1889 Griffith 1898)

Most of these books focus on infants till weaning while latter books may apply the term ldquomanagementrdquo to the handling of older children and even of adolescents (Abbott 1871 Shearer 1904) In the whole ldquowritten for the young and inexperienced motherrdquo (Bull 1840 iii) they display in a plain familiar style medical and para-medical advices descriptions of pathologies and treatments as well as hints on moral and physical education with a particular view on hygiene Most of these books pay a great attention to the motherrsquos and her childrenrsquos environment and sanitary condition Here is an example of the classical exposition as sumed up by two irish professors of medecine in a much quoted treatise (Evanson and Maunsell 1836 14) ldquoThe subjects treated of in the ensuing chapters naturally divide themselves under two heads viz 1 Those which relate to the management of children in order to the preservation of their health and the removal or prevention of any cause that might obstruct their moral and physical development and 2 Those which relate to the detection discrimination and treatment of diseases to which the constitution of the child is liablerdquo The common book on infant management thus teaches mothers the proper superintendance of its health growth and development in their multiple dimension ldquohow often to bathe suitable diet air exercise and a regular manner of livingrdquo as writes the physician the Princess of Wales (Underwood 1789 10) as well as drinking motions rest sleep clothing retentions secretions excretions diseases passions and cultivation of the mind For example an anonymous american matronrsquos treatise on the nurture and management of infants written in 1811 treats the following topics the washing of infants their clothing how often should they be changed their combing their feeding the curing of begnign indispositions and slight and common complaints (such as wind in the stomach and bowels retention of the urine sore ears and eyes vomiting convulsions fever cutting of the tongue) exercise and rest teething ldquoteaching infants the right use of their handsrdquo (left- of righthanded) setting them on their feet ldquodirections as to the best manner and time of weaning infants and the diet best adapted to promote their health after they are weanedrdquo as weel as ldquothe early regulation of the infant temper and dispositionrdquo (Anomymous 1811) Some treatises and manuals are dedicated to the care of a peculiar organ disease or symptom and occasionally to onersquos general health (Bell 1779 Wilson 1847 Baird 1867 Vines 1868 Godfrey 1872 Drewry 1875 Bulkley 1875 Angell 1878 Lyman 1884) In particular the management of teeth is considered for himself (James 1814 Parmly 1819 Clark 1835 Spooner 1836 Knapp 1840 Palmer 1853)

From the beginning of the 19th century blossom books and magazines of advices to middle-class women not only in their quality of mothers and nurses but also as mistresses of a family housekeepers and cooks (Taylor 1815 Radcliffe 1823 Parkes

9

1825 The Economist and General Adviser 1825 The Modern Housekeeper 1826 Anonymous 1827 Copley 182- Child 1829 and 1831 Ellis 1839 Cobbett [183-] Beecher 1841 Walsh 1853 Beeton 1861 Cassells Household Guide 1869 Beecher and Stowe 1870 Caddy 1877 Mann 1878 Parloa 1879 Sylvain 1881 Corson 1885 Campbell 1896 Parloa 1898 Richards 1899 Butterworth 1902 Lucas 1904 Carter 1904 Terrill 1905 Hunt 1908 Richards 1910 Ravenhill and Schiff 1911 Bruere 1912 Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 Frederick 1913 and 1919 Pattison 1915 Gilbreth 1927 US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932)

The terms ldquodomestic managementrdquo ldquohome-managementrdquo ldquohousehold managementrdquo ldquofamily managementrdquo ldquothe management of the house and householdrdquo are then used to describe not only common household tasks but the general appearance and train de vie of the family According to the most popular writer of Victorian conduct literature ldquoin England there is a kind of science of good household management which if it consisted merely in keeping the house respectable in its physical character might be left to the effectual working out of hired hands but happily for the women of England there is a philosophy in this science by which all their highest and best feelings are called into exercise Not only must the house be neat and clean but it must be so ordered as to suit the tastes of all as far as may be without annoyance or offence to anyrdquo (Ellis 1839 25-26 my emphasis) Such manuals are in the whole more informal lists of advices than theoretical treatises They often mingle plans principles rules and technical instructions for such things as cooking keeping and dressing food carving sewing knitting trussing mending cleaning sweeping dusting caring of furniture and beds warming ventilating destroying noxious insects washing starching ironing cleansing whitening dyeing upkeeping yards gardens and animals nursing caring for the poor marketing furnishing and decorating The subtitle of Anne Cobbettrsquos most famous Manual of Domestic Management sums up what the term ldquohousehold managementrdquo could stand for at the beginning of the 19th century Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs (Cobbett 183-) While the task of the housekeeper evolves considerably from the 1870s and 1880s ndash the housewife being more and more deprived of salaried servants and family helpers buying more and more products formerly homemade and externalizing tasks such as the education of children and the care for the sick ndash the elaboration of systems of household management develops unabated As Ellen Richards noted in 1899 ldquohousekeeping no longer means washing dishes scrubbing floors making soap and candles it means spending a given amount of money for a great variety of ready-prepared articles and so using the commodities as to produce the greatest satisfaction and the best possible mental moral and physical resultsrdquo (Richards 1899 103)

School and classroom management is also considered Books on ldquoschool managementrdquo begin to appear at the beginning of the 19th century in Great Britain but become common from the 1860s and greatly develop in the United States at the very beginning of the 20th century (Catlow 1813 Gill 1857 Morrison 1859 Joyce 1863 Wickersham 1864 Harding 1872 Holbrook 1873 Kellogg 1880 Baldwin 1881 Raub 1882 Landon 1883 Major 1883 White 1893 Tompkins 1895 Collar and Crook 1901 Dutton 1903 Seeley 1903 J Taylor 1903 Chancellor 1904 and 1910 Prince 1906 Bagley 1907 Perry 1908 Arnold 1908 and 1916 Salisbury 1911 Rice 1913 Bennett 1917)

10

This literature is mainly written by progressive principals superintendent and teachers in normal school in order to present a new method of educating children as opposed to the mainly authoritarian and coercitive military-like style of the old system otherwise discarded under the names of the Police System or the Force System School managementrsquos theories share the same set of principles with other fields of management thought here examined but adds a recuring use of the term ldquoorganizationrdquo As a teacher in school management admits ldquowhatever difference there may be between a book on school management and one on the management of any other organization is only a difference in detailsrdquo (Tompkins 1895 32)

It is of course sometimes difficult to draw clear-cut distinctions between these publications Some authors eventually deal with the three topics in the same book or in separate publications John Henry Walsh writes for instance a Manual of Domestic Economy (1853) another of Domestic Medicine and Surgery (1858) edits a cookery book (1858) and authors books on dog management (1859) and horse management (1861) Apothecary James Nelson is the first to add hints on manners and education to his medical essay on the management of children (Nelson 1753) a practice soon to be imitated More generally farm management manuals often contain a chapter on the medical care of animals And the farm and the household are long inseparable The gentleman farmer Arthur Young notes for instance in 1770 that ldquoanother point of some consequence in a gentlemans oeconomical management is house-keeping so far as it concerns the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 240) And when established in 1923 the American Bureau of Home Economics is a part of the Department of Agriculture When it develops into a literary branch household management comes to absorb topics such as infancy management garden management and diseases management Esther Copleyrsquos cook book published in the 1820s presents the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts (Copley 182-) The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine similarly displays numerous advices on medicines as well as hints on husbandry and rural economy There is also a continuum between the management of women during pregnancy in labour in child-bed and the management of the children and of home Until the last quarter of the 19th century child management constitutes a part of the books on the domestic duties of housewives (Parkes 1825 Child 1831 Beecher 1841 Walsh 1853 Beeton 1861 Beecher and Stowe 1869 Mann 1878) Up to these years as Smuts remarks ldquomost of the burden of medical care fell on the women of the familyrdquo even among the well-to-do (Smuts 1959 13)

Similarly animal management falls under both the head of farm management and medical management Let us note here that the literature on horse management is considerable in the 19th century and goes beyond their use for farming (Flint 1815 Lawrence 1830 Nimrod 1831 Youatt 1834 Capt M 1842 Hieover 1848 Horlock and Weir 1855 Mayhem 1864 Mahon 1865 Graves and Prudden 1868 Sherer 1868 McClure 1870 Gough 1878 Reynolds 1882 Sample 1882 Magner 1886 Galvayne 1888 Cook 1891 Heard 1893 Armatage 1896 Adye 1903 Bell 1904 Axe 1905) The term ldquomanagementrdquo is commonly applied to the training handling and directing of a horse in its paces from the 16th century probably in consequence of the confusing proximity between the word ldquomanagerdquo and the French word ldquomanegravegerdquo (riding stable) Books on dogs management are also common (Ellis 1749 Cook 1826 Loudon 1851 Horlock 1852 Hill 1881 Sample 1882) as well as on sheep

11

mules cattle swine pigs and poultry (Daubenton 1782 Moubray 1816 Williams 1849 Youatt 1855 Jacques 1866 Graves and Prudden 1868 Sherer 1868 Vaniman 1885 Periam 188- Heard 1893) The same author may decline his system of management to various races of animals in the same book or in different ones such as William Youatt writting successively upon the management of horses (1834) sheeps (1836) cattle (1837) dogs (1854) and hogs (1855) or George Armatage dissertating about The Varieties and Management in Health and Disease of sheeps (1873) cattle (1893) and horses (1894)

The word ldquomanagementrdquo is often casted as a general umbrella to depict a broad field on interest For instance school management often includes ldquonot only school economy proper but also school government and school ethicsrdquo as well as school requisites school work and management of the teacher as states an American superintendent (Raub 1882 11-12) Some books might use the term in their title and no further in which case we suspect some editorsrsquo final suggestion to their authors On the contrary books might treat our four themes without using repetitively the notion of management And indeed many books are specifically devoted to child care from the end of the Middle Ages and to husbandry household administration and education from Antiquity We limit ouserves to those which made a thorough use of the term ldquomanagementrdquo to reflect upon their subject for we suggest that it is the mark of a peculiar way of thinking Moreover there exists an obvious discrepancy between the authorsrsquo cultural background and the epochs when they were writting even if many books are published and republished over times both in Great Britain and the United States Some are English other Americans and one or two books here considered are translations from the French But from the middle of the 18th century to the end of the 19th and whatever the part of the ocean we look at the word ldquomanagementrdquo keeps a stable meaning The great change will come as we should see at the beginning of the 20th century Finally the books herein examined did not have the same diffusion Some books have been widely read and served as models in each one in its peculiar field while others knew a single and confidential edition In infant management for instance the famous William Cadogan and Hugh Smith stood as authorities at the end of the 18th century The statistician agronomist and empirical scientist Arthur Young who imagined ldquosystems of managementrdquo as early as 1768 was similarly a reference in farm management In household administration Catharine Beecher Isbella Beeton and Ellen Richards have been popular references and still are Beecher authored ldquothe best-known treatises on domestic economy of the nineteenth centuty (Matthews 1987 31) Isbella Beetonrsquos 1861 book which popularized the expression ldquohousehold managementrdquo sold over sixty thousands copies in its first year of publication and almost two millions copies by 1868 (Humble 2000 vii) And Ellen Richards is considered as the ldquoprophetrdquo of home economics ldquoits interpreter its conservator its inspirer and to use her own word its engineerrdquo to quote another home economics proeminent figure (Bevier 1911 214)

The Logic Underlying the Early Uses of the Term ldquoManagementrdquo

In spite of obvious practical discrepancies the three types of literature here analyzed have common features First of all they are popular pedagogical and technical While they are often written by scholarly educated authors they are not theoretical or scientific treatises but aim at a relatively large and uneducated public

12

The title of one of these caracteristically stipulates that it is ldquowritten in a plain familiar stile to render it intelligible and useful to all mothers and those who have the management of infantsrdquo (Herdman 1804) As such advices on mothersrsquo and childrenrsquos management are often offered under the form of letters a format specially adopted for the friendly delivery of advices Most prefaces and introduction exhibit the same concern for intelligibility

Taken as a single corpus the books herein considered show a conceptual coherence and share a common understanding of the term ldquomanagementrdquo To manage then means to care to be industrious and to make efficient to drive and improve to arrange and act in a systematic way to count and calculate

If most of the books here gathered consist merely in descriptive lists of empirical practices some attempt at formulating general principles and laws out of it Whether explicitely or implicitely these principles are linked to one another and form a kind of system Indeed the care should be efficient accounting should be regular in order to gain appropriate knowledge gaining knowledge should be useful for training keeping records and setting time-tables has an important influence in promoting regularity etc As states pioneering educator Joseph Baldwin ldquoschool management is the art of so directing school affairs as to produce system order and efficiencyrdquo (Baldwin 1881 15)

Care One of the first predominant meaning of the term management is to look after to

take care to breed to cultivate to maintain The principle of care is the nodal point of the different understanding of the literature on management in the 18th ang 19th century Of course infants and children management means their proper care In this case authors may use the terms ldquonursing or maternal managementrdquo indifferently (Barrett 1875 10) The notion of ldquomanagementrdquo is more generally applied to the care of fragile human beings subject to diseases and accidents such as pregnant mothers sick-persons and old people ldquoThe care is allrdquo in farm management as well as writes the pamphleteer farmer and journalist William Cobbett (Cobbett 1821 113) The proper care given to the soil the animals and the equipment forms the core of what is meant in this literature by ldquomanagementrdquo

This principle of care signifies the prevention of depletion and if necessary the medical treatment of diseases ldquoManagement in health and diseaserdquo is a much common formula Treating illness is thus a necessary part of a careful management and the terms ldquomanagementrdquo and ldquotreatmentrdquo are often synonymous Logically books on infant management are predominantly written by physicians and those on animal management by veterinaries But to care for is not the business of the sole doctor and the very reason for the existence of such books is that as Thomas Williams states it ldquoa knowledge of the proper management of domestic animals and particularly of the causes preventives symptoms and treatment of the various complaintsthey are subject to should be possessed by every farmerrdquo (Williams 1849 9)

Hygiene cleanliness and sanitation are dominant elements in writtings on management and even on school management ldquoSchool hygiene and school management are inseparablerdquo states for instance the president of an American normal school (Salisbury 1911 54) Books on household management often devote a chapter to this issue

13

In a way a proper medical management consists in preventing diseases more than in curing it not in turning every mother into a physician but into a superintendent capable of giving effect to the prescriptions of a physician As a general rule states a scottish doctor and physiologist ldquowhere the child is well managed medicine of any kind is very rarely requiredrdquo (Combe 1840 77) An English doctor warns for himself his readers in these terms ldquoI shall not trouble you with the curative part of diseases incident to children that being altogether the concern of the physician [] This present system of nursing is intended only to manage children so as to prevent illnessrdquo (Smith 1792 163-164) An anonymous writer similarly states ldquoI wish to enable my fair readers to manage the infants committed to their care without being obliged to call in a physician for every trifling indispositionrdquo (Anonymous 1811 39) Similarly a horse breeder advises that ldquoa judicious change of food efficient stable management and proper arrangements for work can accomplish all that is necessary for the conservation of health in sound horses in a better and safer manner than the exhibition of medicamentsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 98)

To care is also the leading principle structuring the different methods of household management Their objective is invariably as an author sums it up ldquothe maximum of health physical mental and moralrdquo (Terrill 1905 14) According to Ellen Richards who is considered as the mother of home economics ldquothe ideal of lsquohomersquo is protection from dangers from within bad habits bad food bad air dirt and abuse shelter in fact from all stunting agencies just as the gardener protects his tender plants until they become strong enough to stand by themselvesrdquo (Richards 1910 73) Let us note here that this predominance of the principle of care in the first meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo should not receive a gender explaination as analysis and histories of household management often occasion Farming was predominantly a manly practice and it stressed the importance of caring as much as the more womanly activities of the household Similarly caring is a pivotal element of the more womanly activities of class management as well as of the more manly activities of school management

More generally the usual application of the term ldquomanagementrdquo includes such operations as the breeding rearing curing and proper care of living beings including crops plants bees and animals as well as of peculiar parts of the body such as the teeth and eyes of human beings and the horses feet and legs Some authors may talk about ldquomoralrdquo and ldquomental managementrdquo of children and adults (for example Thompson 1841) and eventually of the moral management of insane persons (Haslam 1817 Millingen 1841) But it is also widely applied to the careful maintenance of the house and of the farming tools In the second half of the 19th century several engineers and machinists adopt this meaning of the term management to describe the maintenance and repairing of motors machines boilers and diverse kinds of machinery Emory Edwardsrsquo book still reedited today typically gives ldquosome general rules for the care and management of steam-engines and boilersrdquo (Edwards 1882 390) Writers using in this perspective the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo were not marginal and included personalities such as Zerah Colburn editor of one of Britainrsquos leading technical journal in the middle on the 19th century (Ward 1847 Colburn 1851 Bourne 1861 Watson 1867 Roper 1875 and 1889 Shock 1880 Edwards 1882 Smith 1882 Sinclair 1885 Tompkins 1889 Lieckfeld 1896 Moulson et alii 1898 Houghtaling 1899 Biggs 189- Homans 1902 Tulley 1907)

14

Industry and Efficiency Industry and efficiency form the second structuring managerial principle of the

arts of nursing husbandry and housekeeping For our authors nothing is worst than keeping idle the soil animals or men Medical advisers repeatedly stress the importance of exercises for the proper development of children But it is in farm household and school management that these principles of industry and efficiency is the most prevalent

At the end of the 18th century the experimental agronomist Arthur Young try to call attention to the extent of land lying waste in Great Britain (Young 1773) The word economy is thus used commonly in the sense of thrift and of a judicious use of resource The insistence on the profitability of a farm or of a particular crop then means more their productivity than a potential pecuniary profit on a market To the authors here considered the purpose of farm management is not to produce a lot but to produce more with less As an example the advocate of ldquoscientific agriculturerdquo Charles Fox in his text book on farm management makes it clear that ldquothe object of the practical farmer is to raise from a given area of land the largest quantity of the most profitable produce at the least costrdquo (Fox 1854 3) Meanwhile he hardly talks about buying selling and markets

In household management to be industrious and keep good hours is a necessity As states the Housekeeperrsquos magazine in 1825 ldquoabsolute idleness is inexcusable in a woman because the needle is always at hand for those intervals in which she cannot be otherwise employedrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) Similarly in their famous book on housekeeping Catharine Beecher and Harriet Stowe warn their readers about their ldquoobligation to spend every hour for some useful endrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 215) Besides being industrious a housekeeper must be efficient wether in making or in spending The purpose of the Cassells Household Guide is thus to show ldquohow by the minimum of expenditure the maximum of comfort and of luxury may be obtainedrdquo (Cassells Household Guide 1869 1) In this perspective notes a regular contributor to the Ladies Home Journal magazine economy in the home ldquomeans that everything is put to its proper use and there is no wasterdquo and most of all ldquothat the most precious thing (sic) in it mdash the mother mdash shall not be misused or wastedrdquo (Parloa 1898 258 and 352) That is careful management means frugality in the use of money equipment and human beings According to Ellen Richards it is the increasing resort to calculation on a money basis which has led to this emphasis on efficiency ldquoin these days of consolidation for the purpose of cutting down expenses days of close calculation of cost when everything is reduced to a money basis in production it is not surprising that discussion should have arisen over the great waste involved in the keeping up of fifty kitchen-fires to do the work that five would dordquo (Richards 1899 1)

Industry is a disciplining tool much recommended by school and classroom management writers ldquoThe art of school management states characteristically an educational author consists very much in the art of giving enough and suitable employment Work must be given if good order is not obtained give morerdquo (Kellogg 1880 80) Similarly states an American superintendent ldquothe secret of success in managing small children as well as larger ones lies in giving them plenty to dordquo (Raub 1882 193) This principle of industry as in the cases of farm and household management comes generally along with the principle of efficiency According to John Gill for instance whose text-book on school management was a set text in many of the training colleges for teachers which were established after 1850 (Mugglestone 2006 291) school management or ldquoschool organization is a system of arrangements

15

designed to secure constant employment efficient instruction and moral control In other words it aims at providing the means of instructing and educating the greatest number in the most efficient manner and by the most economical expenditure of time and labourrdquo (Gill 1857 56) For another writer in school management ldquothe teachers work in school naturally falls into three great divisions which taken in logical order are mdash (1) organisation (2) discipline (3) teaching and unless all three receive due attention the work is not likely to be performed with that efficiency that economy of time and labour both of the teacher and of the pupils and that absence of friction which should characterise the operation of every good schoolrdquo (Landon 1883 109) Rice in his bestseller on scientific management in schools asserts that ldquoin the strict sense scientific management in education can only be defined as a system of management specifically directed toward the elimination of waste in teaching so that the children attending the schools may be duly rewarded for the expenditure of their time and effortrdquo (Rice 1913 viii) As puts it a professor of education in a book which went through more than thirty reprintings from 1907 to 1927 (Callahan 1962 7) the problem of classroom management ldquois a problem of economy it seeks to determine in what manner the working unit of the school plant may be made to return the largest dividend upon the material investment of time energy and moneyrdquo (Bagley 1907 2) Or as sums up another professor of education and author of a book on ldquoschool efficiencyrdquo ldquothe problem of school management is to give [people] as much as possible for their moneyrdquo (Bennett 1917 1-2)

From another perspective the very purpose of school management is to form future industrious citizens An English inspector of board schools insists for instance upon ldquothe true objects and aims of school management which are the promoting of the good habits of cheerful industry all-conquering thoroughness orderly disposition of time and labor and the practice of useful activityrdquo (Holbrook 1873 179) According to a much cited professor of education writing a generation later ldquothe aim of the school may be formulated as social efficiency Whatever the school undertakes to accomplish must be judged in the light of this standardrdquo that is to turn every child into a ldquosocially efficient individualrdquo (Bagley 1907 7-8) As states professor of pedagogy Arnold Tompkins ldquoit is needless to urge that a school thoroughly organized and managed with its regular exact and punctual requirement in performance of duty is a most powerful means of bringing the pupil into the habit and spirit of industrial life [] The public school artfully managed is the very institution to supply to society members who are not simply industrious by force of conviction and habit but who have the joy of industry in the heartrdquo (Tompkins 1895 206-207)

Handling Driving Improving Perhaps the most common significance of the verb ldquoto managerdquo from its first uses

at the end of the 16th century is ldquoto handlerdquo ldquoto conductrdquo or ldquoto carry onrdquo (Murray 1908 104-105) The verb is applied to inanimate things such as weapons instuments vehicules and affairs to actions and operations to institutions such as households and states and to animals primarily horses and cattle

In many of the texts here considered the word management means altogether breeding training and curing It often refers to the training of a particular animal the horse being by far the main sort considered with dogs coming in a second position The managing of an animal refers for instance to its breeding rearing taming ldquobreaking or learningrdquo (Ellis 1749 ChII) exercising subduing educating

16

conducting and driving That is managing means more ndash or less ndash than rude disciplining For instance goodness and patience rather than ldquomain strength and stupid harshnessrdquo (Graves and Prudden 1868 38) are systematically recommended in the management of horses ldquoKindness goes far in managing these noble animalsrdquo confirms the cavalry officer Mahon (1865 49) An anonymous mother also writes that children ldquoare much better and more easily managed by kindness and it is quite easy to be firm with a child without being angry or severerdquo (Anonymous 1884 62) For most of authors on school and classroom management cooperation more than discpline is the basis of a sound eduction as military methods of instruction are rejected in a distant past ldquoReproof and privations writes an educational pioneer are the only punishments ordinarily needed in school or family The management should be so systematic and vigorous as to render severer punishments unnecessaryrdquo (Baldwin 1881 166)

This meaning of management also appears on the books considering the rearing of infants and children which purpose is their rise and progress as well as in books on school and classroom management In both cases a good management mostly consists in giving proper habits ndash that is organized reactions For instance writes an American professor of pedagogy ldquothe school should be managed with the conscious purpose of forming habits of orderrdquo (Tompkins 1895 203) A very influential professor of education could even formulate a ldquolaw of habit-buildingrdquo ldquoFocalization of consciousness upon the process to be automatized plus attentive repetition of this process permitting no exceptions until automatism resultsrdquo (Bagley 1907 16) This educating process also applies to the training of household servants a subject of a foremost intest for the early writers on household management In some cases notes Mary Elizabeth Carter servants ldquomay like boys and girls have to be taught and trained in habits of cleanliness and orderrdquo (Carter 1904 115) It also applies to the education of the future housewife which become part of the syllabus of ldquoDomestic Sciencerdquo in universities at the end of the 19th century Logically the term management was commonly applied from the middle of the 19th century to the tasks of the teacher in charge of developing his or her pupils along physical mental and moral lines Besides many books on school management note that the old days teacher was mainly superintending while the modern one is mainly teaching Most also states that teaching has become a profession and as such necessitates a proper training ldquoThe teacher writes an editor of the New York School Journal must study to be a good teacher the art of school management in its best sense turns upon thatrdquo (Kellogg 1880 78)

By essence conduct books devise ways of improving their readersrsquo behavior As scientific disciplines develop the housewife is for instance to gain knowledge in chemistry physics and psychology In her first best-selling book Catharine Beecher who can envision the task of housewife as a ldquoprofessionrdquo (Beecher 1841 5) recommend that domestic economy should be made ldquoa regular part of school educationrdquo and not taught at home by the mothers often ignorant of the true rules of this science (Ibid 63)

For behind the idea of training lies the principle of progress As early as the 17th century enlighted farmers began to shake the bounds of tradition by submitting agriculture to rational scrutiny and experiment (Best 1642) In the 19th century the home which may seem like the bastion of tradition was subject to many methods for improving its running

The very purpose of most of the early books on management is the education of their reader A majority of it aims conscienciously at being pedagogical and popular sharing this common faith in the power of knowledge and in the benefits of mass

17

education which made its way through Europe and the United States from the 18th century The doctor Anthony Thompson characteristically states that ldquothe most judicious plan of medical management may be devised and the plainest directions for its fulfilment may be delivered to the attendants of the sick-room but without more information on the subject than is at present possessed by the females of a household and especially by those whose duty it is to superintend the execution of the orders of the Physician little benefit can be anticipated to the invalidrdquo (Thompson 1841 vii)

Order Arrangement System Regulation Order arrangement system and regulation are watchwords of the 18th and 19th

century literature on management and especially of the literature on farm and household management The expressions ldquosystem of managingrdquo ldquoplan of managementrdquo ldquomethod of managementrdquo are found in almost every book here considered The very idea of management seem to imply the notion of a regular and ordered system The Housekeeperrsquos magazine even talks about the ldquobest-regulated familyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg3 52) and Catharine Beecher of ldquoa systematic and well-regulated familyrdquo (Beecher 1841 126) For a widely read authoress of books on household administration for instance ldquomethod and order are two most important factors in the management of the householdrdquo (Parloa 1898 61) Regarding accounts writes the author of a ldquosystem of practical domestic economyrdquo ldquoregularity is the very life and soul of economyrdquo (Anonymous 1827 380) The setting of a routine and the search for regularity are especially praised in the rearing of children and of animals Thus according to a horse expert ldquoone of the first things desirable in stable management is rule by rule I mean a regular way of doing thingsrdquo (Hieover 1848 90) Similarly school management thinkers praise order and system and order ldquoSystem in school management is a necessityrdquo states one of them (Raub 1882 196) ldquoOrderliness in general matters of school management writes another is a right upon which it is unnecessary to insist The child has the right to expect regular periods for school work orderly entrance and dismissal etc care of clothing uniformity in certain aspects of discipline and the likerdquo (Arnold 1908 174) As states an English inspector of board schools ldquoThe first requisite of good management in all schools is orderrdquo (Major 1883 209) For a fourth author on this subject an ldquoimportant device in school management is the adoption of a self-regulating system [] A school is a sort of mechanism and all its movements must be regular to avoid confusion and waste of timerdquo (White 1893 94-95) As recognizes Dr Arnold Tompkins of Illinois University for whom ldquono means ever devised is more potent than an efficient system of school managementrdquo ldquowe are quite strictly materialists in school management setting objective and fixed forms and rules hard and fast over against a growing and pulsating liferdquo (Tompkins 1895 208 and 14)

Arthur Young who was to become Secretary to the English Board of Agriculture could be called the Frederick Taylor of farm management not in the sense that he animated and inspired a school but in the sense that he attempted to ldquoreduce multifarious fugitive subjects to some degree of order and even principlesrdquo articulated into a rational ldquosystem of general managementrdquo (Young 1770b 2-3) His purpose being to see husbandry ldquobuilt upon as just and philosophic principles as the art of medicinerdquo (Ibid 175) Young thus applied an experimental and scientific outlook to husbandry Talking about accounts he states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) He thus draws ldquoschemes of conducting farmsrdquo

18

with an eye to constant improvements (Young 1770b 34) To him the superiority of the gentleman over the common farmer lay in his capacity to acquire new knowledge not in his application of old ones To him it is thus important to devise a ldquoplan of agricultural operationrdquo (Young 1770a vol 2 471) What he calls the ldquosystem of managementrdquo or ldquotrain of managementrdquo of a farm is nothing but the division arrangement and proportionning of its land cattle and labour Young thus elaborate methods and calculus for a efficient division of work which he calls ldquodisposition of the teamsrdquo (Young 1770b 25) and which takes the form of distribution of ploughs horses ox and laborers He proposes for instance a table with the distribution of 16 servants 11 laborers and 16 boys for the ploughs harrowing team carried over brought over rolling horse hoeing road team ox team ditto carting extra team shepherd exen steers swine cows Young also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men As it sums it up himslef a certain portion of time a certain portion of space and ldquoa certain portion of hands are assigned to each businessrdquo (Ibid 60)

According to a prolific author of conduct books ldquothat house only is well conducted where there is a strict attention paid to order and regularity To do every thing in its proper time to keep every thing in its right place and to use every thing for its proper use is the very essence of good managementrdquo (Taylor 1815 27) Similarly according to the author of a Modern System of Domestic Cookery a ldquosystem of domestic management is the foundation of all the comfort and welfare of private familiesrdquo (Radcliffe 1823 1) But Catharine Beecher is the first one to devise in 1841 such a ldquosystematic plan of domestic economyrdquo (Beecher 1841 157) in a book notes a literature teacher specialist of Catharine Beecher which ldquowent through fifteen editions between 1841 and 1856 and established Beecher as the nations foremost authority on household practicerdquo (Tonkovich in Beecher and Stowe 1869 xiii) According to her philosophy ldquoit is wise therefore for all persons to devise a general plan which they will at least keep in view and aim to accomplish and by which a proper proportion of time shall be secured for all the duties of liferdquo (Ibid 158) She thus advocates a ldquosystematic employment of timerdquo (Ibid 160 Beecher and Stowe 1870 196) Beecher and her sister Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote in a later book ldquoEvery young lady can systematize her pursuits to a certain extent She can have a particular day for mending her wardrobe and for arranging her trunks closets and drawers She can keep her work-basket her desk at school and all her other conveniences in their proper places and in regular order She can have regular periods for reading walking visiting study and domestic pursuits And by following this method in youth she will form a taste for regularity and a habit of system which will prove a blessing to her through liferdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 202) The housekeeper should not limit her division and arrangement of work to the servants but strive for ldquothe apportioning of regular employment to the various members of a family If a housekeeper can secure the cooperation of all her family she will find that lsquomany hands make light workrsquordquo (Beecher 1841 163) Adding that ldquoa woman is under obligations so to arrange the hours and pursuits of her family as to promote systematic and habitual industryrdquo (Ibid 185) For that purpose she draws plans of houses and domestic conveniences (Ibid ch XXIV)

Both Young and Beecher show the conspicuous features that exhibit the literature on farm and household management a quest for regularity and order systematicity planning selection as well as the arrangement of work and division of labor But elaboration of methods and plans are also common in medical management literature The doctor Cadogan proposes as early as 1748 a ldquoPlan of Nursingrdquo (Cadogan 1748 21)

19

This systematic frame of mind is first expressed by medical farm and household management writers not so much in a desire to standardize but in a constant effort to codify That is routines are not systematically reduced to a measurable standard but they are carefully specified often regarding a specific time and place The very idea of writting a book imply this logic of formalizing and codifying a set of practices The most methodic books circumscribe the mother farmer and housekeeperrsquos tasks and codify it in every detail Most of the books on infant management codify the childrenrsquos dress from the shoes to the cap their cleanliness bathing foods drinks exercise amusements sleep education and employments Isabella Beetonrsquos 1861 book codified every aspect of household management and even every aspect of a diner given at home or in paying visits of condoleance This very idea of codification is best exemplified by the recurring planning tools proposed by most of these books such as detailed plans of houses diagrams of kitchen schedules work orders tables of duties calendars reminder cards and files bulletin boards ledgers accounting books individual calendars or written menus to be posted in pantry and kitchen (Cf for instance figure below from US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932 202) An author even recommends the use of ldquoprinted rules

in bath room [] giving a few very simple admonitions upon what is lsquogood formrsquo in a lavatory of any sortrdquo (Carter 1904 93) For the ldquohousehold engineerrdquo Christine Frederick ldquostandard practice means then written directions as to method and tools and timerdquo (Frederick 1919 152)

Even if most of English and American homes employed less than ten servants and therefore knew in a limited degree the division labor Nevertheless remarks the author of a ldquodomestic economy and household sciencerdquo manual ldquoin most households it is found necessary to divide the work which has to be done amongst various people

20

and to have some of these especially trained for certain parts of it such as cooking the food cleaning the house and waiting upon the inmates The arranging of all this work has to be thought of and planned by the master and mistress who are the responsible controllers and heads of the house Thus the duties of servants their relations to their employers and their good management or handling are also matters with which domestic economy has to dealrdquo (Mann 1878 5)

Much of the books on school management devote a chapter or a whole part to ldquoorganizationrdquo which usally contains instructions regarding the number and size of the classes the distribution of the staff the syllabus of work for each class the classification of the scholars and the time table It may picture plans of the school or at least of the ideal classroom and some even specify the way children should be gathered and circulate wtihin their class (Cf right time table and plan of a school reproduced from Collar and Crook 1901 41) For an influential writer on school management ldquothe particulars embraced under organization comprise the arrangements of the rooms classification of the children duties of the master subordinates distribution of work and time tablesrdquo (Gill 1857 57) Under the head of organization the rector of a Glasgow school thus describe for instance ldquothe arrangement of desks most suitable to the efficient management of a schoolrdquo (Morrison 1859 44) Another author talks about ldquothe distribution of the teaching powerrdquo (Landon 1883 110)

According to the authors of farm management books good husbandry is not a matter of duplicating age-old recipes but a matter of choices and of planning choice of a location of a farm og a kind of farming (intensive or extensive) of crops of livestock of horses of equipment of implements of calendar etc All these parameters interacts As such states Young husbandry can never arrive at perfection ldquoif the exact degree of every vegetable cultivated be not known in relation to soil and management and in a word if all the the various branches of this complex art be not so thoroughly sifted and examined as to be familiar in every combinationrdquo (Young 1770b 150-151) A century later Robert Scott Burn advises his readers to select their animals with regards to ldquothe soil its cropping size locality and climaterdquo (Burn 1877 29) Richard Reynolds states for himself that ldquoalmost every treatise upon the management of farm-horses contain formulae of food allowances applicable for use at certain seasons and during the performance of certain agricultural operationsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 52) Similarly the proper selection of a new house of servants of food of menus of activities for the children and even ldquothe choice of friendsrdquo and new acquaintances (Parkes 1825 Part I Conversations II and III) are important dimensions of household management For a household editor for the Ladies Home Journal if a housekeeper ldquodoes not know that round steak at 20 cents a pound possesses as much nutriment as the

21

porterhouse at 26 cents she will not expend wisely or economically She should know something of the idea of a lsquobalanced mealrsquo and what foods will give it the place of milk fruit and eggs in the diet what are healthful meat substitutes and the nourishment of various kinds of breads vegetables and cerealsrdquo (Frederick 1913 105)

Most of the book on children management describe curricula proper to their development For instance in his Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children written in 1792 Smith formulates ldquorulesrdquo describes ldquobest methodsrdquo and offers detailed prescriptions for the management of children ldquolet their breakfast at six or seven in the morning be half a pint of new milk with about two ounces of bread in it mdash the second meal should be half a pint of good broth with the same quantity of bread let this be given about ten or eleven in the morning mdash the third meal about two or three in the afternoon should be broth in like manner mdash and their supper about six in the evening new milk and bread the same as for breakfastrdquo (Smith 1792 140) Most of books on children management give advices regarding their different stages of life and notably the periods of weaning and of dentition Samuel Smiles the famous surgeon presents ldquoin a tabular form what [he] conceive[s] ought to be the proper disposition of time in childhood boyhood adolescenceand adult age in order to the attainment of a full development of the mental faculties with a corresponding healthy completion of the physical structurerdquo (Smiles 1838 188) As such for each period of age he precises ldquothe hours that should be devoted to exercise exercise with instruction tuition relaxation and sleeprdquo (Cf table below from Ibid 188) Similarly many household management books propose plans for the distribution of tasks settled down to the day and even down to the quarter of an hour (Butterworth 1902 27-28) According to the Housekeeperrsquos magazine ldquoearly rising and a good disposition of time is essential to Economyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) As early as 1825 Frances Parkes proposes a ldquosystem of Domestic Dutyrdquo (Parkes 1825 22) which regulates the ldquodisposal of timerdquo (Ibid 16) ldquoAs much time is saved or rather gained by a regular disposal of each division of the day I recommend to you to plan the whole out every morning and as far as you can command circumstances to pursue that plan steadilyrdquo (Ibid 317) Almanachs are important tools of farm and household regulation of time and farming operations also obeys to calendars and a precise chronological pattern The combination of these different parameters require an ordered mind as it is repeatedly remarked in farm management books ldquoA time-table is to a school what grammar is to a languagerdquo says an Irish head-master who participated in the task of ldquointroducing among the national schools [of Ireland] an improved and uniform organization and of diffusing among the national teachers a more extensive practical knowledge of school keepingrdquo (Joyce 1863 37 and vii) As such he codifies a regular day at school hour by hour beginning in such a manner ldquoldquo955 to 10 Inspection as to cleanliness mdash At five minutes to ten the children should be arranged according to their divisions and drafts either in the playground or in the school- room and the teacher after a hasty glance to see that their hands faces and hair are clean and neat marches all to their several places This preliminary business should not encroach on the school time the first lessons should be actually commencing at 10 oclockrdquo (Ibid 59) For another writer on school management it is obvious that ldquothere must be a well devised program distributing the time properly among the various classes and that it must be inflexibly followedrdquo (Kellogg 1880 92) Such time-tables are a common feature of school management books

The question of ldquoarrangementrdquo that is of planning space is a common feature of farm and household management books ldquoA place for everything and everything in its

22

placerdquo is a recurring moto of 18th and 19th centuries management books Books on farm management thus frequently offer developments the arrangement of the fields and even latter on the planning of farm buildings fields or poultry houses (Dickson 1853) As early as 1768 Arthur Young underline the ldquogeneral benefit which arises from a judicious arrangement of a farmrdquo by a farmer and especially ldquothe arranging his lands properly for his cropsrdquo (Young 1768 156-157 and 158) Another author underlines that ldquobesides a most rigid and accurate set of account booksrdquo ldquoan accurate plan of each field should also be had showing the position of drains with their outfalls position of fences and gates and another detailing the mode of cropping and the part of the rotation under which at the stated intervals it comes to be placedrdquo (Burn 1877 29) Warren in his classic book on farm management proposes schemes of farm layout location size and shape of fields (Warren 1913 365-368) Regarding household management such author may propose ldquoplans of houses suited to townsrdquo (Walsh 1853 96) this one a plan of the pantries (Parloa 1898 15) while another calls for ldquoscientific house-planningrdquo (Bruere 1912 174) Ellen Richards prescriptions for the arrangement of a house include such elements as windows walls sink bathtub florrs woodwork stair rails and supports plumbing vaccum cleaner gas burners screens etc (Richards 1911) Beecher and Stowe add to their sketch of ldquomodel cottage-ground plan and roomsrdquo ldquoIn the description and arrangement the leading aim is to show how time labor and expense are saved not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangementrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 24) For the real purpose of planning is often both order and efficiency For instance

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

5

so important as to justify the existence of a specialized class and of a distinct layer of specialized managers within the institution it existed and obeyed to certain rules and principles that it would be interesting to examine under the light of management history

Method Objectives Hypothesis

Most of management thought historians seem to imagine in an abstract and somewhat structuralist perspective managerial ideas floating through the centuries and all-over the globe freely disposable to be formulated by great authors and leaders and being eventually embodied here and then in the form of more of less large-scale institutions On the contrary I assume that whenever and wherever these ideas exist they take a very tangible appearance they are symbolized by particular words Of course it is a long and painstaking work to search back for the different words which incoporated what we mean today by management and endless debates are inevitable if we try to affirm for instance how far was the greek word ldquooikonomiardquo (οἰκονοmicroία) close from our contemporary understanding of the term ldquomanagementrdquo But it is far less debatable to examine at the English translations of Xenophonrsquos and Aristotlersquos Economics and to consider from when they start to use the word ldquomanagementrdquo and in which ways As such one of the less controversial way of tracking back the incorporation in words of a managerial rationality is to examine the uses of the word ldquomanagementrdquo itself from its appearance in the English language

Histories of management often point out to the different methods and tools of management from double-entry bookkeeping to the stopwatch from the assembly line to video surveillance from just-in-time to the open space But among the first and most important tools used from the early corporate managers to the grandsons of Peter Drucker one deserves a special place it is the very word ldquomanagementrdquo which made possible for this social group to put a name on some of their practices and on their community and which served as a rallying battle flag as well as a seductive catch word But the corporate managers did not coin the term and if they redefined it they also inevitably inherited from its earlier meaning Or rather they adopted it because of its earlier meanings which seem to fit their own practices and representations As such the term ldquomanagementrdquo was not a prelude to business management thoughts nor an explicit reference for its theoricians but rather the mental foundation and the symbolic materials upon which mechanics engineers and accountants choose to build up their proper conception of management Words are not neutral If their use authorises a certain liberty they are also loaded with a patrimony of mental schemes Similarly when English political scientists adapted the word ldquopoliticsrdquo at the begining of the 16th century they adapted as much as adopted the Greeksrsquo representations of authority law power and government built in the very notion of polis So the early systematic uses of the term ldquomanagementrdquo are less genetic than foster parents of its 20th century acceptances That why I assumed that they deserve a thorough study

In order to do so I gathered from a search in the Library of Congress a catalogue of texts comprising the term ldquomanagementrdquo in their title which was mostly useful to delineate the thematical fields and the historical periods to delve into I then read through these literatures in search for common features and similar frames of reference accompanying the uses of the word ldquomanagementrdquo

6

The purpose of this paper is not to track back in the depth of history the sketches or seeds of modern management conspicuous features it is not interested in the ldquomodernity of the pastrdquo Neither does it try to reconstruct practices from the writtings It considers on the contrary the writtings for themselves and assumes that they carry a certain endogenous logic Instead of assuming an universal definition of the term ldquomanagementrdquo whether all-inclusive or restrained to business or factorylike activities this paper assumes that the meanings carried over the four last centuries by the notion of management depend upon historical and cultural contexts but nevertheless share a core of basic ideas Medical care husbandry housekeeping and school government are not forerunners of business management practices but some of the authors who codified these activities furnished an intellectual frame of mind used by corporate management thinkers The discrepancies between these mental systems should not be discarded but on the contrary put under the microscope for we might learn more about management by inquiring the different meanings of the same word ldquomanagementrdquo throught the centuries than by searching back for practices which however close from todayrsquos definition of the term ldquomanagementrdquo were characterized by different words and took sense within a very different system of thinking and valuing

Since its appearance in the English language in the 16th century until the beginning of the 20th century the word ldquomanagementrdquo did not mean primarily business management It was mainly used to talk about husbandry and health care From the 1830s household management came to synthetize elements of these two disciplines which nevertheless followed their own path While school management literature mostly developed from the 1860s Of course the risk of squashing details and homogenizing miscellaneous topics is great when such broad and diverse literatures are handled by young hands That is why the analysis is confined to the broad lines and the general features of the texts herein considered For these four fields of expression undoubtely display a shared set of principles and mental dispositions exhibiting a common consideration for caring a spirit of system and order exigences of industry and efficiency the idea of a possible improvement of things and beings as well as a extensive recourse to accouting and recording methods

That is these first systematic ways of thinking management show features very similar to what will be business management in the 20th century Nevertheless their authors cannot be considered as the scattered progenitors or precursors of modern management systems methods and tools like few spots of enlighted forerunners in a sea of dark ignorance and traditional beliefs waiting for the business corporation and its professional managers to gather and systematize their insights If some management thinkers such as Frank and Lillian Gilbreth may have transposed technics and experiments elaborated at home to the factories they were reorganizing it was not a common practice ndash the reverse became more common from the 1910s The builders of the systematic management schemes and of the scientific management movement were inspired by the mechanicsrsquo practices accountantsrsquo tools and scientific engineersrsquo dispositions of mind not by the important literature on medical farm school and household management (Nelson 1975 Chandler 1977 Merkle 1980 Noble 1984 Shenhav 1999) Reversely we can suppose that scientific management technics and methods were easily translated to the household the farm and the school because management theories and a managerial frame of mind preexisted in these fields

Our first hypothesis is that management was first and foremost applied to insects animals infants pupils sick persons pregnant mothers limbs symptomes diseases elements such as the soil and the air organizations but more rarely to autonomous

7

adult human beings That is the application of the word to laborers implied a shift in its meaning and may inform us about the representation of laborers in the managersrsquo minds The supervision of people is seen as something highly personal and hard to systematize

Secondly several of the main principles which form today the core of business management have blossomed and have been articulated together within small going concerns independantly from the capitalist sphere in technically low-developed environnements and without provoking the formation of a distinct class of managers whether professional or not Assumptions which seem to run counter to the idea common since Chandler that technological development organization size and capitalist motives are the usual forces of management evolution It would only be the case for the business corporation

Thirdly the early repetitive uses of the terms ldquomanagementrdquo shows the penetration of the scientific outlook into a well-structured discourse on government And here I would agree with Weber and Sombart when they define an enterprise not as a capitalist institution but as a rational one

Thirdly the study of the discourses on medical management farm management household management and school management from the end of the 18th century to the first quater of the 20th also throws light on the structuration of a forgotten root of the managerial rationality the principle of care Meanwile it shows the very marginal importance of the principle of control which is to become central in business management thought

Finally this analysis throws light on the institutional framework common to three of these four ways of thinking management the family We will thus risk an institutional answer to the question why did the understanding of the word ldquomanagementrdquo shaped from the times of Frederick Taylor come to supersede the early ways of thinking it

The First Meanings of the Term ldquoManagementrdquo

The forms ldquomanagingrdquo ldquoto managerdquo ldquomanagedrdquo ldquomanagerrdquo ldquomanageablerdquo and ldquomanagementrdquo are attested from the second half of the 16th century with the broad and principal reference to the handling of public or private affairs with skill tact or care (Murray 1908 104-106) Until the middle of the 18th century the word lsquomanagerdquo and its declinaisons remain infrequent From this date to the end of the nineteenth century four types of literatures make a repetitive use of the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo which are texts on husbandry medical care of the mother and her infant household administration and school supervision

From the middle of the 18th century some English and American farmers begin to use abundantly the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo to describe the direction of the various activities of husbandry (Ellis 1744 1749 1750 Young 1768 1770a 1770b The Complete Farmer 1777 Moubray 1816 Cobbett 1821 OrsquoConnor 1843 Thomas 1844 Dickson 1853 Andrews 1853 Tegetmeier 1854 Macdonald 1865 Curtis 1879 Ward and Lock 1881 Smith 1898 Taft 1898)

These books are very distinct from the general treatises of political economy then circulating which consider with a theoretical outlook the impact of laws on trade and agriculture as a national issue They rather focus on the farm as a single unit in a very empirical perspective which plants to cultivate when to saw how much yield is expected are the kind of issues they address Often compiling examples and cases

8

most of these books are practical catalogues of advices for the care of the farmrsquos livestock horses soil cooking food dairy equipment and buildings Some do nevertheless intend to extract general principles out of the myriad of husbandry practices Arthur Young stands among other as the great theorician of farm management from the end of the 18th century

The second corpus of literature widely using the term management concern the care of the mother and her infant (Cadogan 1748 Hill 1754 Theobald 1764 White 1773 Hamilton 1781 Moss 1781 Underwood 1789 Smith 1792 Clarke 1793 Seaman 1800 Hume 1802 Herdman 1804 Bard 1807 Anonymous 1811 Taylor 1816 Appleton 1820 Flint 1826 Fox 1834 Alcott 1836 Evanson and Maunsell 1836 Charles 1838 Chavasse 1839 1843 Bull 1840 Combe 1840 Cory 1844 Hancorn 1844 Hogg 1849 Barker 1865 Powers 1866 Getchell 1868 Vines 1868 Braidwood 1874 Barrett 1875 Dix 1880 Duncan 1880 Keeting 1881 Anonymous 1884 Bruen 1887 Starr 1889 Griffith 1898)

Most of these books focus on infants till weaning while latter books may apply the term ldquomanagementrdquo to the handling of older children and even of adolescents (Abbott 1871 Shearer 1904) In the whole ldquowritten for the young and inexperienced motherrdquo (Bull 1840 iii) they display in a plain familiar style medical and para-medical advices descriptions of pathologies and treatments as well as hints on moral and physical education with a particular view on hygiene Most of these books pay a great attention to the motherrsquos and her childrenrsquos environment and sanitary condition Here is an example of the classical exposition as sumed up by two irish professors of medecine in a much quoted treatise (Evanson and Maunsell 1836 14) ldquoThe subjects treated of in the ensuing chapters naturally divide themselves under two heads viz 1 Those which relate to the management of children in order to the preservation of their health and the removal or prevention of any cause that might obstruct their moral and physical development and 2 Those which relate to the detection discrimination and treatment of diseases to which the constitution of the child is liablerdquo The common book on infant management thus teaches mothers the proper superintendance of its health growth and development in their multiple dimension ldquohow often to bathe suitable diet air exercise and a regular manner of livingrdquo as writes the physician the Princess of Wales (Underwood 1789 10) as well as drinking motions rest sleep clothing retentions secretions excretions diseases passions and cultivation of the mind For example an anonymous american matronrsquos treatise on the nurture and management of infants written in 1811 treats the following topics the washing of infants their clothing how often should they be changed their combing their feeding the curing of begnign indispositions and slight and common complaints (such as wind in the stomach and bowels retention of the urine sore ears and eyes vomiting convulsions fever cutting of the tongue) exercise and rest teething ldquoteaching infants the right use of their handsrdquo (left- of righthanded) setting them on their feet ldquodirections as to the best manner and time of weaning infants and the diet best adapted to promote their health after they are weanedrdquo as weel as ldquothe early regulation of the infant temper and dispositionrdquo (Anomymous 1811) Some treatises and manuals are dedicated to the care of a peculiar organ disease or symptom and occasionally to onersquos general health (Bell 1779 Wilson 1847 Baird 1867 Vines 1868 Godfrey 1872 Drewry 1875 Bulkley 1875 Angell 1878 Lyman 1884) In particular the management of teeth is considered for himself (James 1814 Parmly 1819 Clark 1835 Spooner 1836 Knapp 1840 Palmer 1853)

From the beginning of the 19th century blossom books and magazines of advices to middle-class women not only in their quality of mothers and nurses but also as mistresses of a family housekeepers and cooks (Taylor 1815 Radcliffe 1823 Parkes

9

1825 The Economist and General Adviser 1825 The Modern Housekeeper 1826 Anonymous 1827 Copley 182- Child 1829 and 1831 Ellis 1839 Cobbett [183-] Beecher 1841 Walsh 1853 Beeton 1861 Cassells Household Guide 1869 Beecher and Stowe 1870 Caddy 1877 Mann 1878 Parloa 1879 Sylvain 1881 Corson 1885 Campbell 1896 Parloa 1898 Richards 1899 Butterworth 1902 Lucas 1904 Carter 1904 Terrill 1905 Hunt 1908 Richards 1910 Ravenhill and Schiff 1911 Bruere 1912 Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 Frederick 1913 and 1919 Pattison 1915 Gilbreth 1927 US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932)

The terms ldquodomestic managementrdquo ldquohome-managementrdquo ldquohousehold managementrdquo ldquofamily managementrdquo ldquothe management of the house and householdrdquo are then used to describe not only common household tasks but the general appearance and train de vie of the family According to the most popular writer of Victorian conduct literature ldquoin England there is a kind of science of good household management which if it consisted merely in keeping the house respectable in its physical character might be left to the effectual working out of hired hands but happily for the women of England there is a philosophy in this science by which all their highest and best feelings are called into exercise Not only must the house be neat and clean but it must be so ordered as to suit the tastes of all as far as may be without annoyance or offence to anyrdquo (Ellis 1839 25-26 my emphasis) Such manuals are in the whole more informal lists of advices than theoretical treatises They often mingle plans principles rules and technical instructions for such things as cooking keeping and dressing food carving sewing knitting trussing mending cleaning sweeping dusting caring of furniture and beds warming ventilating destroying noxious insects washing starching ironing cleansing whitening dyeing upkeeping yards gardens and animals nursing caring for the poor marketing furnishing and decorating The subtitle of Anne Cobbettrsquos most famous Manual of Domestic Management sums up what the term ldquohousehold managementrdquo could stand for at the beginning of the 19th century Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs (Cobbett 183-) While the task of the housekeeper evolves considerably from the 1870s and 1880s ndash the housewife being more and more deprived of salaried servants and family helpers buying more and more products formerly homemade and externalizing tasks such as the education of children and the care for the sick ndash the elaboration of systems of household management develops unabated As Ellen Richards noted in 1899 ldquohousekeeping no longer means washing dishes scrubbing floors making soap and candles it means spending a given amount of money for a great variety of ready-prepared articles and so using the commodities as to produce the greatest satisfaction and the best possible mental moral and physical resultsrdquo (Richards 1899 103)

School and classroom management is also considered Books on ldquoschool managementrdquo begin to appear at the beginning of the 19th century in Great Britain but become common from the 1860s and greatly develop in the United States at the very beginning of the 20th century (Catlow 1813 Gill 1857 Morrison 1859 Joyce 1863 Wickersham 1864 Harding 1872 Holbrook 1873 Kellogg 1880 Baldwin 1881 Raub 1882 Landon 1883 Major 1883 White 1893 Tompkins 1895 Collar and Crook 1901 Dutton 1903 Seeley 1903 J Taylor 1903 Chancellor 1904 and 1910 Prince 1906 Bagley 1907 Perry 1908 Arnold 1908 and 1916 Salisbury 1911 Rice 1913 Bennett 1917)

10

This literature is mainly written by progressive principals superintendent and teachers in normal school in order to present a new method of educating children as opposed to the mainly authoritarian and coercitive military-like style of the old system otherwise discarded under the names of the Police System or the Force System School managementrsquos theories share the same set of principles with other fields of management thought here examined but adds a recuring use of the term ldquoorganizationrdquo As a teacher in school management admits ldquowhatever difference there may be between a book on school management and one on the management of any other organization is only a difference in detailsrdquo (Tompkins 1895 32)

It is of course sometimes difficult to draw clear-cut distinctions between these publications Some authors eventually deal with the three topics in the same book or in separate publications John Henry Walsh writes for instance a Manual of Domestic Economy (1853) another of Domestic Medicine and Surgery (1858) edits a cookery book (1858) and authors books on dog management (1859) and horse management (1861) Apothecary James Nelson is the first to add hints on manners and education to his medical essay on the management of children (Nelson 1753) a practice soon to be imitated More generally farm management manuals often contain a chapter on the medical care of animals And the farm and the household are long inseparable The gentleman farmer Arthur Young notes for instance in 1770 that ldquoanother point of some consequence in a gentlemans oeconomical management is house-keeping so far as it concerns the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 240) And when established in 1923 the American Bureau of Home Economics is a part of the Department of Agriculture When it develops into a literary branch household management comes to absorb topics such as infancy management garden management and diseases management Esther Copleyrsquos cook book published in the 1820s presents the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts (Copley 182-) The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine similarly displays numerous advices on medicines as well as hints on husbandry and rural economy There is also a continuum between the management of women during pregnancy in labour in child-bed and the management of the children and of home Until the last quarter of the 19th century child management constitutes a part of the books on the domestic duties of housewives (Parkes 1825 Child 1831 Beecher 1841 Walsh 1853 Beeton 1861 Beecher and Stowe 1869 Mann 1878) Up to these years as Smuts remarks ldquomost of the burden of medical care fell on the women of the familyrdquo even among the well-to-do (Smuts 1959 13)

Similarly animal management falls under both the head of farm management and medical management Let us note here that the literature on horse management is considerable in the 19th century and goes beyond their use for farming (Flint 1815 Lawrence 1830 Nimrod 1831 Youatt 1834 Capt M 1842 Hieover 1848 Horlock and Weir 1855 Mayhem 1864 Mahon 1865 Graves and Prudden 1868 Sherer 1868 McClure 1870 Gough 1878 Reynolds 1882 Sample 1882 Magner 1886 Galvayne 1888 Cook 1891 Heard 1893 Armatage 1896 Adye 1903 Bell 1904 Axe 1905) The term ldquomanagementrdquo is commonly applied to the training handling and directing of a horse in its paces from the 16th century probably in consequence of the confusing proximity between the word ldquomanagerdquo and the French word ldquomanegravegerdquo (riding stable) Books on dogs management are also common (Ellis 1749 Cook 1826 Loudon 1851 Horlock 1852 Hill 1881 Sample 1882) as well as on sheep

11

mules cattle swine pigs and poultry (Daubenton 1782 Moubray 1816 Williams 1849 Youatt 1855 Jacques 1866 Graves and Prudden 1868 Sherer 1868 Vaniman 1885 Periam 188- Heard 1893) The same author may decline his system of management to various races of animals in the same book or in different ones such as William Youatt writting successively upon the management of horses (1834) sheeps (1836) cattle (1837) dogs (1854) and hogs (1855) or George Armatage dissertating about The Varieties and Management in Health and Disease of sheeps (1873) cattle (1893) and horses (1894)

The word ldquomanagementrdquo is often casted as a general umbrella to depict a broad field on interest For instance school management often includes ldquonot only school economy proper but also school government and school ethicsrdquo as well as school requisites school work and management of the teacher as states an American superintendent (Raub 1882 11-12) Some books might use the term in their title and no further in which case we suspect some editorsrsquo final suggestion to their authors On the contrary books might treat our four themes without using repetitively the notion of management And indeed many books are specifically devoted to child care from the end of the Middle Ages and to husbandry household administration and education from Antiquity We limit ouserves to those which made a thorough use of the term ldquomanagementrdquo to reflect upon their subject for we suggest that it is the mark of a peculiar way of thinking Moreover there exists an obvious discrepancy between the authorsrsquo cultural background and the epochs when they were writting even if many books are published and republished over times both in Great Britain and the United States Some are English other Americans and one or two books here considered are translations from the French But from the middle of the 18th century to the end of the 19th and whatever the part of the ocean we look at the word ldquomanagementrdquo keeps a stable meaning The great change will come as we should see at the beginning of the 20th century Finally the books herein examined did not have the same diffusion Some books have been widely read and served as models in each one in its peculiar field while others knew a single and confidential edition In infant management for instance the famous William Cadogan and Hugh Smith stood as authorities at the end of the 18th century The statistician agronomist and empirical scientist Arthur Young who imagined ldquosystems of managementrdquo as early as 1768 was similarly a reference in farm management In household administration Catharine Beecher Isbella Beeton and Ellen Richards have been popular references and still are Beecher authored ldquothe best-known treatises on domestic economy of the nineteenth centuty (Matthews 1987 31) Isbella Beetonrsquos 1861 book which popularized the expression ldquohousehold managementrdquo sold over sixty thousands copies in its first year of publication and almost two millions copies by 1868 (Humble 2000 vii) And Ellen Richards is considered as the ldquoprophetrdquo of home economics ldquoits interpreter its conservator its inspirer and to use her own word its engineerrdquo to quote another home economics proeminent figure (Bevier 1911 214)

The Logic Underlying the Early Uses of the Term ldquoManagementrdquo

In spite of obvious practical discrepancies the three types of literature here analyzed have common features First of all they are popular pedagogical and technical While they are often written by scholarly educated authors they are not theoretical or scientific treatises but aim at a relatively large and uneducated public

12

The title of one of these caracteristically stipulates that it is ldquowritten in a plain familiar stile to render it intelligible and useful to all mothers and those who have the management of infantsrdquo (Herdman 1804) As such advices on mothersrsquo and childrenrsquos management are often offered under the form of letters a format specially adopted for the friendly delivery of advices Most prefaces and introduction exhibit the same concern for intelligibility

Taken as a single corpus the books herein considered show a conceptual coherence and share a common understanding of the term ldquomanagementrdquo To manage then means to care to be industrious and to make efficient to drive and improve to arrange and act in a systematic way to count and calculate

If most of the books here gathered consist merely in descriptive lists of empirical practices some attempt at formulating general principles and laws out of it Whether explicitely or implicitely these principles are linked to one another and form a kind of system Indeed the care should be efficient accounting should be regular in order to gain appropriate knowledge gaining knowledge should be useful for training keeping records and setting time-tables has an important influence in promoting regularity etc As states pioneering educator Joseph Baldwin ldquoschool management is the art of so directing school affairs as to produce system order and efficiencyrdquo (Baldwin 1881 15)

Care One of the first predominant meaning of the term management is to look after to

take care to breed to cultivate to maintain The principle of care is the nodal point of the different understanding of the literature on management in the 18th ang 19th century Of course infants and children management means their proper care In this case authors may use the terms ldquonursing or maternal managementrdquo indifferently (Barrett 1875 10) The notion of ldquomanagementrdquo is more generally applied to the care of fragile human beings subject to diseases and accidents such as pregnant mothers sick-persons and old people ldquoThe care is allrdquo in farm management as well as writes the pamphleteer farmer and journalist William Cobbett (Cobbett 1821 113) The proper care given to the soil the animals and the equipment forms the core of what is meant in this literature by ldquomanagementrdquo

This principle of care signifies the prevention of depletion and if necessary the medical treatment of diseases ldquoManagement in health and diseaserdquo is a much common formula Treating illness is thus a necessary part of a careful management and the terms ldquomanagementrdquo and ldquotreatmentrdquo are often synonymous Logically books on infant management are predominantly written by physicians and those on animal management by veterinaries But to care for is not the business of the sole doctor and the very reason for the existence of such books is that as Thomas Williams states it ldquoa knowledge of the proper management of domestic animals and particularly of the causes preventives symptoms and treatment of the various complaintsthey are subject to should be possessed by every farmerrdquo (Williams 1849 9)

Hygiene cleanliness and sanitation are dominant elements in writtings on management and even on school management ldquoSchool hygiene and school management are inseparablerdquo states for instance the president of an American normal school (Salisbury 1911 54) Books on household management often devote a chapter to this issue

13

In a way a proper medical management consists in preventing diseases more than in curing it not in turning every mother into a physician but into a superintendent capable of giving effect to the prescriptions of a physician As a general rule states a scottish doctor and physiologist ldquowhere the child is well managed medicine of any kind is very rarely requiredrdquo (Combe 1840 77) An English doctor warns for himself his readers in these terms ldquoI shall not trouble you with the curative part of diseases incident to children that being altogether the concern of the physician [] This present system of nursing is intended only to manage children so as to prevent illnessrdquo (Smith 1792 163-164) An anonymous writer similarly states ldquoI wish to enable my fair readers to manage the infants committed to their care without being obliged to call in a physician for every trifling indispositionrdquo (Anonymous 1811 39) Similarly a horse breeder advises that ldquoa judicious change of food efficient stable management and proper arrangements for work can accomplish all that is necessary for the conservation of health in sound horses in a better and safer manner than the exhibition of medicamentsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 98)

To care is also the leading principle structuring the different methods of household management Their objective is invariably as an author sums it up ldquothe maximum of health physical mental and moralrdquo (Terrill 1905 14) According to Ellen Richards who is considered as the mother of home economics ldquothe ideal of lsquohomersquo is protection from dangers from within bad habits bad food bad air dirt and abuse shelter in fact from all stunting agencies just as the gardener protects his tender plants until they become strong enough to stand by themselvesrdquo (Richards 1910 73) Let us note here that this predominance of the principle of care in the first meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo should not receive a gender explaination as analysis and histories of household management often occasion Farming was predominantly a manly practice and it stressed the importance of caring as much as the more womanly activities of the household Similarly caring is a pivotal element of the more womanly activities of class management as well as of the more manly activities of school management

More generally the usual application of the term ldquomanagementrdquo includes such operations as the breeding rearing curing and proper care of living beings including crops plants bees and animals as well as of peculiar parts of the body such as the teeth and eyes of human beings and the horses feet and legs Some authors may talk about ldquomoralrdquo and ldquomental managementrdquo of children and adults (for example Thompson 1841) and eventually of the moral management of insane persons (Haslam 1817 Millingen 1841) But it is also widely applied to the careful maintenance of the house and of the farming tools In the second half of the 19th century several engineers and machinists adopt this meaning of the term management to describe the maintenance and repairing of motors machines boilers and diverse kinds of machinery Emory Edwardsrsquo book still reedited today typically gives ldquosome general rules for the care and management of steam-engines and boilersrdquo (Edwards 1882 390) Writers using in this perspective the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo were not marginal and included personalities such as Zerah Colburn editor of one of Britainrsquos leading technical journal in the middle on the 19th century (Ward 1847 Colburn 1851 Bourne 1861 Watson 1867 Roper 1875 and 1889 Shock 1880 Edwards 1882 Smith 1882 Sinclair 1885 Tompkins 1889 Lieckfeld 1896 Moulson et alii 1898 Houghtaling 1899 Biggs 189- Homans 1902 Tulley 1907)

14

Industry and Efficiency Industry and efficiency form the second structuring managerial principle of the

arts of nursing husbandry and housekeeping For our authors nothing is worst than keeping idle the soil animals or men Medical advisers repeatedly stress the importance of exercises for the proper development of children But it is in farm household and school management that these principles of industry and efficiency is the most prevalent

At the end of the 18th century the experimental agronomist Arthur Young try to call attention to the extent of land lying waste in Great Britain (Young 1773) The word economy is thus used commonly in the sense of thrift and of a judicious use of resource The insistence on the profitability of a farm or of a particular crop then means more their productivity than a potential pecuniary profit on a market To the authors here considered the purpose of farm management is not to produce a lot but to produce more with less As an example the advocate of ldquoscientific agriculturerdquo Charles Fox in his text book on farm management makes it clear that ldquothe object of the practical farmer is to raise from a given area of land the largest quantity of the most profitable produce at the least costrdquo (Fox 1854 3) Meanwhile he hardly talks about buying selling and markets

In household management to be industrious and keep good hours is a necessity As states the Housekeeperrsquos magazine in 1825 ldquoabsolute idleness is inexcusable in a woman because the needle is always at hand for those intervals in which she cannot be otherwise employedrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) Similarly in their famous book on housekeeping Catharine Beecher and Harriet Stowe warn their readers about their ldquoobligation to spend every hour for some useful endrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 215) Besides being industrious a housekeeper must be efficient wether in making or in spending The purpose of the Cassells Household Guide is thus to show ldquohow by the minimum of expenditure the maximum of comfort and of luxury may be obtainedrdquo (Cassells Household Guide 1869 1) In this perspective notes a regular contributor to the Ladies Home Journal magazine economy in the home ldquomeans that everything is put to its proper use and there is no wasterdquo and most of all ldquothat the most precious thing (sic) in it mdash the mother mdash shall not be misused or wastedrdquo (Parloa 1898 258 and 352) That is careful management means frugality in the use of money equipment and human beings According to Ellen Richards it is the increasing resort to calculation on a money basis which has led to this emphasis on efficiency ldquoin these days of consolidation for the purpose of cutting down expenses days of close calculation of cost when everything is reduced to a money basis in production it is not surprising that discussion should have arisen over the great waste involved in the keeping up of fifty kitchen-fires to do the work that five would dordquo (Richards 1899 1)

Industry is a disciplining tool much recommended by school and classroom management writers ldquoThe art of school management states characteristically an educational author consists very much in the art of giving enough and suitable employment Work must be given if good order is not obtained give morerdquo (Kellogg 1880 80) Similarly states an American superintendent ldquothe secret of success in managing small children as well as larger ones lies in giving them plenty to dordquo (Raub 1882 193) This principle of industry as in the cases of farm and household management comes generally along with the principle of efficiency According to John Gill for instance whose text-book on school management was a set text in many of the training colleges for teachers which were established after 1850 (Mugglestone 2006 291) school management or ldquoschool organization is a system of arrangements

15

designed to secure constant employment efficient instruction and moral control In other words it aims at providing the means of instructing and educating the greatest number in the most efficient manner and by the most economical expenditure of time and labourrdquo (Gill 1857 56) For another writer in school management ldquothe teachers work in school naturally falls into three great divisions which taken in logical order are mdash (1) organisation (2) discipline (3) teaching and unless all three receive due attention the work is not likely to be performed with that efficiency that economy of time and labour both of the teacher and of the pupils and that absence of friction which should characterise the operation of every good schoolrdquo (Landon 1883 109) Rice in his bestseller on scientific management in schools asserts that ldquoin the strict sense scientific management in education can only be defined as a system of management specifically directed toward the elimination of waste in teaching so that the children attending the schools may be duly rewarded for the expenditure of their time and effortrdquo (Rice 1913 viii) As puts it a professor of education in a book which went through more than thirty reprintings from 1907 to 1927 (Callahan 1962 7) the problem of classroom management ldquois a problem of economy it seeks to determine in what manner the working unit of the school plant may be made to return the largest dividend upon the material investment of time energy and moneyrdquo (Bagley 1907 2) Or as sums up another professor of education and author of a book on ldquoschool efficiencyrdquo ldquothe problem of school management is to give [people] as much as possible for their moneyrdquo (Bennett 1917 1-2)

From another perspective the very purpose of school management is to form future industrious citizens An English inspector of board schools insists for instance upon ldquothe true objects and aims of school management which are the promoting of the good habits of cheerful industry all-conquering thoroughness orderly disposition of time and labor and the practice of useful activityrdquo (Holbrook 1873 179) According to a much cited professor of education writing a generation later ldquothe aim of the school may be formulated as social efficiency Whatever the school undertakes to accomplish must be judged in the light of this standardrdquo that is to turn every child into a ldquosocially efficient individualrdquo (Bagley 1907 7-8) As states professor of pedagogy Arnold Tompkins ldquoit is needless to urge that a school thoroughly organized and managed with its regular exact and punctual requirement in performance of duty is a most powerful means of bringing the pupil into the habit and spirit of industrial life [] The public school artfully managed is the very institution to supply to society members who are not simply industrious by force of conviction and habit but who have the joy of industry in the heartrdquo (Tompkins 1895 206-207)

Handling Driving Improving Perhaps the most common significance of the verb ldquoto managerdquo from its first uses

at the end of the 16th century is ldquoto handlerdquo ldquoto conductrdquo or ldquoto carry onrdquo (Murray 1908 104-105) The verb is applied to inanimate things such as weapons instuments vehicules and affairs to actions and operations to institutions such as households and states and to animals primarily horses and cattle

In many of the texts here considered the word management means altogether breeding training and curing It often refers to the training of a particular animal the horse being by far the main sort considered with dogs coming in a second position The managing of an animal refers for instance to its breeding rearing taming ldquobreaking or learningrdquo (Ellis 1749 ChII) exercising subduing educating

16

conducting and driving That is managing means more ndash or less ndash than rude disciplining For instance goodness and patience rather than ldquomain strength and stupid harshnessrdquo (Graves and Prudden 1868 38) are systematically recommended in the management of horses ldquoKindness goes far in managing these noble animalsrdquo confirms the cavalry officer Mahon (1865 49) An anonymous mother also writes that children ldquoare much better and more easily managed by kindness and it is quite easy to be firm with a child without being angry or severerdquo (Anonymous 1884 62) For most of authors on school and classroom management cooperation more than discpline is the basis of a sound eduction as military methods of instruction are rejected in a distant past ldquoReproof and privations writes an educational pioneer are the only punishments ordinarily needed in school or family The management should be so systematic and vigorous as to render severer punishments unnecessaryrdquo (Baldwin 1881 166)

This meaning of management also appears on the books considering the rearing of infants and children which purpose is their rise and progress as well as in books on school and classroom management In both cases a good management mostly consists in giving proper habits ndash that is organized reactions For instance writes an American professor of pedagogy ldquothe school should be managed with the conscious purpose of forming habits of orderrdquo (Tompkins 1895 203) A very influential professor of education could even formulate a ldquolaw of habit-buildingrdquo ldquoFocalization of consciousness upon the process to be automatized plus attentive repetition of this process permitting no exceptions until automatism resultsrdquo (Bagley 1907 16) This educating process also applies to the training of household servants a subject of a foremost intest for the early writers on household management In some cases notes Mary Elizabeth Carter servants ldquomay like boys and girls have to be taught and trained in habits of cleanliness and orderrdquo (Carter 1904 115) It also applies to the education of the future housewife which become part of the syllabus of ldquoDomestic Sciencerdquo in universities at the end of the 19th century Logically the term management was commonly applied from the middle of the 19th century to the tasks of the teacher in charge of developing his or her pupils along physical mental and moral lines Besides many books on school management note that the old days teacher was mainly superintending while the modern one is mainly teaching Most also states that teaching has become a profession and as such necessitates a proper training ldquoThe teacher writes an editor of the New York School Journal must study to be a good teacher the art of school management in its best sense turns upon thatrdquo (Kellogg 1880 78)

By essence conduct books devise ways of improving their readersrsquo behavior As scientific disciplines develop the housewife is for instance to gain knowledge in chemistry physics and psychology In her first best-selling book Catharine Beecher who can envision the task of housewife as a ldquoprofessionrdquo (Beecher 1841 5) recommend that domestic economy should be made ldquoa regular part of school educationrdquo and not taught at home by the mothers often ignorant of the true rules of this science (Ibid 63)

For behind the idea of training lies the principle of progress As early as the 17th century enlighted farmers began to shake the bounds of tradition by submitting agriculture to rational scrutiny and experiment (Best 1642) In the 19th century the home which may seem like the bastion of tradition was subject to many methods for improving its running

The very purpose of most of the early books on management is the education of their reader A majority of it aims conscienciously at being pedagogical and popular sharing this common faith in the power of knowledge and in the benefits of mass

17

education which made its way through Europe and the United States from the 18th century The doctor Anthony Thompson characteristically states that ldquothe most judicious plan of medical management may be devised and the plainest directions for its fulfilment may be delivered to the attendants of the sick-room but without more information on the subject than is at present possessed by the females of a household and especially by those whose duty it is to superintend the execution of the orders of the Physician little benefit can be anticipated to the invalidrdquo (Thompson 1841 vii)

Order Arrangement System Regulation Order arrangement system and regulation are watchwords of the 18th and 19th

century literature on management and especially of the literature on farm and household management The expressions ldquosystem of managingrdquo ldquoplan of managementrdquo ldquomethod of managementrdquo are found in almost every book here considered The very idea of management seem to imply the notion of a regular and ordered system The Housekeeperrsquos magazine even talks about the ldquobest-regulated familyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg3 52) and Catharine Beecher of ldquoa systematic and well-regulated familyrdquo (Beecher 1841 126) For a widely read authoress of books on household administration for instance ldquomethod and order are two most important factors in the management of the householdrdquo (Parloa 1898 61) Regarding accounts writes the author of a ldquosystem of practical domestic economyrdquo ldquoregularity is the very life and soul of economyrdquo (Anonymous 1827 380) The setting of a routine and the search for regularity are especially praised in the rearing of children and of animals Thus according to a horse expert ldquoone of the first things desirable in stable management is rule by rule I mean a regular way of doing thingsrdquo (Hieover 1848 90) Similarly school management thinkers praise order and system and order ldquoSystem in school management is a necessityrdquo states one of them (Raub 1882 196) ldquoOrderliness in general matters of school management writes another is a right upon which it is unnecessary to insist The child has the right to expect regular periods for school work orderly entrance and dismissal etc care of clothing uniformity in certain aspects of discipline and the likerdquo (Arnold 1908 174) As states an English inspector of board schools ldquoThe first requisite of good management in all schools is orderrdquo (Major 1883 209) For a fourth author on this subject an ldquoimportant device in school management is the adoption of a self-regulating system [] A school is a sort of mechanism and all its movements must be regular to avoid confusion and waste of timerdquo (White 1893 94-95) As recognizes Dr Arnold Tompkins of Illinois University for whom ldquono means ever devised is more potent than an efficient system of school managementrdquo ldquowe are quite strictly materialists in school management setting objective and fixed forms and rules hard and fast over against a growing and pulsating liferdquo (Tompkins 1895 208 and 14)

Arthur Young who was to become Secretary to the English Board of Agriculture could be called the Frederick Taylor of farm management not in the sense that he animated and inspired a school but in the sense that he attempted to ldquoreduce multifarious fugitive subjects to some degree of order and even principlesrdquo articulated into a rational ldquosystem of general managementrdquo (Young 1770b 2-3) His purpose being to see husbandry ldquobuilt upon as just and philosophic principles as the art of medicinerdquo (Ibid 175) Young thus applied an experimental and scientific outlook to husbandry Talking about accounts he states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) He thus draws ldquoschemes of conducting farmsrdquo

18

with an eye to constant improvements (Young 1770b 34) To him the superiority of the gentleman over the common farmer lay in his capacity to acquire new knowledge not in his application of old ones To him it is thus important to devise a ldquoplan of agricultural operationrdquo (Young 1770a vol 2 471) What he calls the ldquosystem of managementrdquo or ldquotrain of managementrdquo of a farm is nothing but the division arrangement and proportionning of its land cattle and labour Young thus elaborate methods and calculus for a efficient division of work which he calls ldquodisposition of the teamsrdquo (Young 1770b 25) and which takes the form of distribution of ploughs horses ox and laborers He proposes for instance a table with the distribution of 16 servants 11 laborers and 16 boys for the ploughs harrowing team carried over brought over rolling horse hoeing road team ox team ditto carting extra team shepherd exen steers swine cows Young also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men As it sums it up himslef a certain portion of time a certain portion of space and ldquoa certain portion of hands are assigned to each businessrdquo (Ibid 60)

According to a prolific author of conduct books ldquothat house only is well conducted where there is a strict attention paid to order and regularity To do every thing in its proper time to keep every thing in its right place and to use every thing for its proper use is the very essence of good managementrdquo (Taylor 1815 27) Similarly according to the author of a Modern System of Domestic Cookery a ldquosystem of domestic management is the foundation of all the comfort and welfare of private familiesrdquo (Radcliffe 1823 1) But Catharine Beecher is the first one to devise in 1841 such a ldquosystematic plan of domestic economyrdquo (Beecher 1841 157) in a book notes a literature teacher specialist of Catharine Beecher which ldquowent through fifteen editions between 1841 and 1856 and established Beecher as the nations foremost authority on household practicerdquo (Tonkovich in Beecher and Stowe 1869 xiii) According to her philosophy ldquoit is wise therefore for all persons to devise a general plan which they will at least keep in view and aim to accomplish and by which a proper proportion of time shall be secured for all the duties of liferdquo (Ibid 158) She thus advocates a ldquosystematic employment of timerdquo (Ibid 160 Beecher and Stowe 1870 196) Beecher and her sister Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote in a later book ldquoEvery young lady can systematize her pursuits to a certain extent She can have a particular day for mending her wardrobe and for arranging her trunks closets and drawers She can keep her work-basket her desk at school and all her other conveniences in their proper places and in regular order She can have regular periods for reading walking visiting study and domestic pursuits And by following this method in youth she will form a taste for regularity and a habit of system which will prove a blessing to her through liferdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 202) The housekeeper should not limit her division and arrangement of work to the servants but strive for ldquothe apportioning of regular employment to the various members of a family If a housekeeper can secure the cooperation of all her family she will find that lsquomany hands make light workrsquordquo (Beecher 1841 163) Adding that ldquoa woman is under obligations so to arrange the hours and pursuits of her family as to promote systematic and habitual industryrdquo (Ibid 185) For that purpose she draws plans of houses and domestic conveniences (Ibid ch XXIV)

Both Young and Beecher show the conspicuous features that exhibit the literature on farm and household management a quest for regularity and order systematicity planning selection as well as the arrangement of work and division of labor But elaboration of methods and plans are also common in medical management literature The doctor Cadogan proposes as early as 1748 a ldquoPlan of Nursingrdquo (Cadogan 1748 21)

19

This systematic frame of mind is first expressed by medical farm and household management writers not so much in a desire to standardize but in a constant effort to codify That is routines are not systematically reduced to a measurable standard but they are carefully specified often regarding a specific time and place The very idea of writting a book imply this logic of formalizing and codifying a set of practices The most methodic books circumscribe the mother farmer and housekeeperrsquos tasks and codify it in every detail Most of the books on infant management codify the childrenrsquos dress from the shoes to the cap their cleanliness bathing foods drinks exercise amusements sleep education and employments Isabella Beetonrsquos 1861 book codified every aspect of household management and even every aspect of a diner given at home or in paying visits of condoleance This very idea of codification is best exemplified by the recurring planning tools proposed by most of these books such as detailed plans of houses diagrams of kitchen schedules work orders tables of duties calendars reminder cards and files bulletin boards ledgers accounting books individual calendars or written menus to be posted in pantry and kitchen (Cf for instance figure below from US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932 202) An author even recommends the use of ldquoprinted rules

in bath room [] giving a few very simple admonitions upon what is lsquogood formrsquo in a lavatory of any sortrdquo (Carter 1904 93) For the ldquohousehold engineerrdquo Christine Frederick ldquostandard practice means then written directions as to method and tools and timerdquo (Frederick 1919 152)

Even if most of English and American homes employed less than ten servants and therefore knew in a limited degree the division labor Nevertheless remarks the author of a ldquodomestic economy and household sciencerdquo manual ldquoin most households it is found necessary to divide the work which has to be done amongst various people

20

and to have some of these especially trained for certain parts of it such as cooking the food cleaning the house and waiting upon the inmates The arranging of all this work has to be thought of and planned by the master and mistress who are the responsible controllers and heads of the house Thus the duties of servants their relations to their employers and their good management or handling are also matters with which domestic economy has to dealrdquo (Mann 1878 5)

Much of the books on school management devote a chapter or a whole part to ldquoorganizationrdquo which usally contains instructions regarding the number and size of the classes the distribution of the staff the syllabus of work for each class the classification of the scholars and the time table It may picture plans of the school or at least of the ideal classroom and some even specify the way children should be gathered and circulate wtihin their class (Cf right time table and plan of a school reproduced from Collar and Crook 1901 41) For an influential writer on school management ldquothe particulars embraced under organization comprise the arrangements of the rooms classification of the children duties of the master subordinates distribution of work and time tablesrdquo (Gill 1857 57) Under the head of organization the rector of a Glasgow school thus describe for instance ldquothe arrangement of desks most suitable to the efficient management of a schoolrdquo (Morrison 1859 44) Another author talks about ldquothe distribution of the teaching powerrdquo (Landon 1883 110)

According to the authors of farm management books good husbandry is not a matter of duplicating age-old recipes but a matter of choices and of planning choice of a location of a farm og a kind of farming (intensive or extensive) of crops of livestock of horses of equipment of implements of calendar etc All these parameters interacts As such states Young husbandry can never arrive at perfection ldquoif the exact degree of every vegetable cultivated be not known in relation to soil and management and in a word if all the the various branches of this complex art be not so thoroughly sifted and examined as to be familiar in every combinationrdquo (Young 1770b 150-151) A century later Robert Scott Burn advises his readers to select their animals with regards to ldquothe soil its cropping size locality and climaterdquo (Burn 1877 29) Richard Reynolds states for himself that ldquoalmost every treatise upon the management of farm-horses contain formulae of food allowances applicable for use at certain seasons and during the performance of certain agricultural operationsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 52) Similarly the proper selection of a new house of servants of food of menus of activities for the children and even ldquothe choice of friendsrdquo and new acquaintances (Parkes 1825 Part I Conversations II and III) are important dimensions of household management For a household editor for the Ladies Home Journal if a housekeeper ldquodoes not know that round steak at 20 cents a pound possesses as much nutriment as the

21

porterhouse at 26 cents she will not expend wisely or economically She should know something of the idea of a lsquobalanced mealrsquo and what foods will give it the place of milk fruit and eggs in the diet what are healthful meat substitutes and the nourishment of various kinds of breads vegetables and cerealsrdquo (Frederick 1913 105)

Most of the book on children management describe curricula proper to their development For instance in his Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children written in 1792 Smith formulates ldquorulesrdquo describes ldquobest methodsrdquo and offers detailed prescriptions for the management of children ldquolet their breakfast at six or seven in the morning be half a pint of new milk with about two ounces of bread in it mdash the second meal should be half a pint of good broth with the same quantity of bread let this be given about ten or eleven in the morning mdash the third meal about two or three in the afternoon should be broth in like manner mdash and their supper about six in the evening new milk and bread the same as for breakfastrdquo (Smith 1792 140) Most of books on children management give advices regarding their different stages of life and notably the periods of weaning and of dentition Samuel Smiles the famous surgeon presents ldquoin a tabular form what [he] conceive[s] ought to be the proper disposition of time in childhood boyhood adolescenceand adult age in order to the attainment of a full development of the mental faculties with a corresponding healthy completion of the physical structurerdquo (Smiles 1838 188) As such for each period of age he precises ldquothe hours that should be devoted to exercise exercise with instruction tuition relaxation and sleeprdquo (Cf table below from Ibid 188) Similarly many household management books propose plans for the distribution of tasks settled down to the day and even down to the quarter of an hour (Butterworth 1902 27-28) According to the Housekeeperrsquos magazine ldquoearly rising and a good disposition of time is essential to Economyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) As early as 1825 Frances Parkes proposes a ldquosystem of Domestic Dutyrdquo (Parkes 1825 22) which regulates the ldquodisposal of timerdquo (Ibid 16) ldquoAs much time is saved or rather gained by a regular disposal of each division of the day I recommend to you to plan the whole out every morning and as far as you can command circumstances to pursue that plan steadilyrdquo (Ibid 317) Almanachs are important tools of farm and household regulation of time and farming operations also obeys to calendars and a precise chronological pattern The combination of these different parameters require an ordered mind as it is repeatedly remarked in farm management books ldquoA time-table is to a school what grammar is to a languagerdquo says an Irish head-master who participated in the task of ldquointroducing among the national schools [of Ireland] an improved and uniform organization and of diffusing among the national teachers a more extensive practical knowledge of school keepingrdquo (Joyce 1863 37 and vii) As such he codifies a regular day at school hour by hour beginning in such a manner ldquoldquo955 to 10 Inspection as to cleanliness mdash At five minutes to ten the children should be arranged according to their divisions and drafts either in the playground or in the school- room and the teacher after a hasty glance to see that their hands faces and hair are clean and neat marches all to their several places This preliminary business should not encroach on the school time the first lessons should be actually commencing at 10 oclockrdquo (Ibid 59) For another writer on school management it is obvious that ldquothere must be a well devised program distributing the time properly among the various classes and that it must be inflexibly followedrdquo (Kellogg 1880 92) Such time-tables are a common feature of school management books

The question of ldquoarrangementrdquo that is of planning space is a common feature of farm and household management books ldquoA place for everything and everything in its

22

placerdquo is a recurring moto of 18th and 19th centuries management books Books on farm management thus frequently offer developments the arrangement of the fields and even latter on the planning of farm buildings fields or poultry houses (Dickson 1853) As early as 1768 Arthur Young underline the ldquogeneral benefit which arises from a judicious arrangement of a farmrdquo by a farmer and especially ldquothe arranging his lands properly for his cropsrdquo (Young 1768 156-157 and 158) Another author underlines that ldquobesides a most rigid and accurate set of account booksrdquo ldquoan accurate plan of each field should also be had showing the position of drains with their outfalls position of fences and gates and another detailing the mode of cropping and the part of the rotation under which at the stated intervals it comes to be placedrdquo (Burn 1877 29) Warren in his classic book on farm management proposes schemes of farm layout location size and shape of fields (Warren 1913 365-368) Regarding household management such author may propose ldquoplans of houses suited to townsrdquo (Walsh 1853 96) this one a plan of the pantries (Parloa 1898 15) while another calls for ldquoscientific house-planningrdquo (Bruere 1912 174) Ellen Richards prescriptions for the arrangement of a house include such elements as windows walls sink bathtub florrs woodwork stair rails and supports plumbing vaccum cleaner gas burners screens etc (Richards 1911) Beecher and Stowe add to their sketch of ldquomodel cottage-ground plan and roomsrdquo ldquoIn the description and arrangement the leading aim is to show how time labor and expense are saved not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangementrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 24) For the real purpose of planning is often both order and efficiency For instance

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

6

The purpose of this paper is not to track back in the depth of history the sketches or seeds of modern management conspicuous features it is not interested in the ldquomodernity of the pastrdquo Neither does it try to reconstruct practices from the writtings It considers on the contrary the writtings for themselves and assumes that they carry a certain endogenous logic Instead of assuming an universal definition of the term ldquomanagementrdquo whether all-inclusive or restrained to business or factorylike activities this paper assumes that the meanings carried over the four last centuries by the notion of management depend upon historical and cultural contexts but nevertheless share a core of basic ideas Medical care husbandry housekeeping and school government are not forerunners of business management practices but some of the authors who codified these activities furnished an intellectual frame of mind used by corporate management thinkers The discrepancies between these mental systems should not be discarded but on the contrary put under the microscope for we might learn more about management by inquiring the different meanings of the same word ldquomanagementrdquo throught the centuries than by searching back for practices which however close from todayrsquos definition of the term ldquomanagementrdquo were characterized by different words and took sense within a very different system of thinking and valuing

Since its appearance in the English language in the 16th century until the beginning of the 20th century the word ldquomanagementrdquo did not mean primarily business management It was mainly used to talk about husbandry and health care From the 1830s household management came to synthetize elements of these two disciplines which nevertheless followed their own path While school management literature mostly developed from the 1860s Of course the risk of squashing details and homogenizing miscellaneous topics is great when such broad and diverse literatures are handled by young hands That is why the analysis is confined to the broad lines and the general features of the texts herein considered For these four fields of expression undoubtely display a shared set of principles and mental dispositions exhibiting a common consideration for caring a spirit of system and order exigences of industry and efficiency the idea of a possible improvement of things and beings as well as a extensive recourse to accouting and recording methods

That is these first systematic ways of thinking management show features very similar to what will be business management in the 20th century Nevertheless their authors cannot be considered as the scattered progenitors or precursors of modern management systems methods and tools like few spots of enlighted forerunners in a sea of dark ignorance and traditional beliefs waiting for the business corporation and its professional managers to gather and systematize their insights If some management thinkers such as Frank and Lillian Gilbreth may have transposed technics and experiments elaborated at home to the factories they were reorganizing it was not a common practice ndash the reverse became more common from the 1910s The builders of the systematic management schemes and of the scientific management movement were inspired by the mechanicsrsquo practices accountantsrsquo tools and scientific engineersrsquo dispositions of mind not by the important literature on medical farm school and household management (Nelson 1975 Chandler 1977 Merkle 1980 Noble 1984 Shenhav 1999) Reversely we can suppose that scientific management technics and methods were easily translated to the household the farm and the school because management theories and a managerial frame of mind preexisted in these fields

Our first hypothesis is that management was first and foremost applied to insects animals infants pupils sick persons pregnant mothers limbs symptomes diseases elements such as the soil and the air organizations but more rarely to autonomous

7

adult human beings That is the application of the word to laborers implied a shift in its meaning and may inform us about the representation of laborers in the managersrsquo minds The supervision of people is seen as something highly personal and hard to systematize

Secondly several of the main principles which form today the core of business management have blossomed and have been articulated together within small going concerns independantly from the capitalist sphere in technically low-developed environnements and without provoking the formation of a distinct class of managers whether professional or not Assumptions which seem to run counter to the idea common since Chandler that technological development organization size and capitalist motives are the usual forces of management evolution It would only be the case for the business corporation

Thirdly the early repetitive uses of the terms ldquomanagementrdquo shows the penetration of the scientific outlook into a well-structured discourse on government And here I would agree with Weber and Sombart when they define an enterprise not as a capitalist institution but as a rational one

Thirdly the study of the discourses on medical management farm management household management and school management from the end of the 18th century to the first quater of the 20th also throws light on the structuration of a forgotten root of the managerial rationality the principle of care Meanwile it shows the very marginal importance of the principle of control which is to become central in business management thought

Finally this analysis throws light on the institutional framework common to three of these four ways of thinking management the family We will thus risk an institutional answer to the question why did the understanding of the word ldquomanagementrdquo shaped from the times of Frederick Taylor come to supersede the early ways of thinking it

The First Meanings of the Term ldquoManagementrdquo

The forms ldquomanagingrdquo ldquoto managerdquo ldquomanagedrdquo ldquomanagerrdquo ldquomanageablerdquo and ldquomanagementrdquo are attested from the second half of the 16th century with the broad and principal reference to the handling of public or private affairs with skill tact or care (Murray 1908 104-106) Until the middle of the 18th century the word lsquomanagerdquo and its declinaisons remain infrequent From this date to the end of the nineteenth century four types of literatures make a repetitive use of the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo which are texts on husbandry medical care of the mother and her infant household administration and school supervision

From the middle of the 18th century some English and American farmers begin to use abundantly the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo to describe the direction of the various activities of husbandry (Ellis 1744 1749 1750 Young 1768 1770a 1770b The Complete Farmer 1777 Moubray 1816 Cobbett 1821 OrsquoConnor 1843 Thomas 1844 Dickson 1853 Andrews 1853 Tegetmeier 1854 Macdonald 1865 Curtis 1879 Ward and Lock 1881 Smith 1898 Taft 1898)

These books are very distinct from the general treatises of political economy then circulating which consider with a theoretical outlook the impact of laws on trade and agriculture as a national issue They rather focus on the farm as a single unit in a very empirical perspective which plants to cultivate when to saw how much yield is expected are the kind of issues they address Often compiling examples and cases

8

most of these books are practical catalogues of advices for the care of the farmrsquos livestock horses soil cooking food dairy equipment and buildings Some do nevertheless intend to extract general principles out of the myriad of husbandry practices Arthur Young stands among other as the great theorician of farm management from the end of the 18th century

The second corpus of literature widely using the term management concern the care of the mother and her infant (Cadogan 1748 Hill 1754 Theobald 1764 White 1773 Hamilton 1781 Moss 1781 Underwood 1789 Smith 1792 Clarke 1793 Seaman 1800 Hume 1802 Herdman 1804 Bard 1807 Anonymous 1811 Taylor 1816 Appleton 1820 Flint 1826 Fox 1834 Alcott 1836 Evanson and Maunsell 1836 Charles 1838 Chavasse 1839 1843 Bull 1840 Combe 1840 Cory 1844 Hancorn 1844 Hogg 1849 Barker 1865 Powers 1866 Getchell 1868 Vines 1868 Braidwood 1874 Barrett 1875 Dix 1880 Duncan 1880 Keeting 1881 Anonymous 1884 Bruen 1887 Starr 1889 Griffith 1898)

Most of these books focus on infants till weaning while latter books may apply the term ldquomanagementrdquo to the handling of older children and even of adolescents (Abbott 1871 Shearer 1904) In the whole ldquowritten for the young and inexperienced motherrdquo (Bull 1840 iii) they display in a plain familiar style medical and para-medical advices descriptions of pathologies and treatments as well as hints on moral and physical education with a particular view on hygiene Most of these books pay a great attention to the motherrsquos and her childrenrsquos environment and sanitary condition Here is an example of the classical exposition as sumed up by two irish professors of medecine in a much quoted treatise (Evanson and Maunsell 1836 14) ldquoThe subjects treated of in the ensuing chapters naturally divide themselves under two heads viz 1 Those which relate to the management of children in order to the preservation of their health and the removal or prevention of any cause that might obstruct their moral and physical development and 2 Those which relate to the detection discrimination and treatment of diseases to which the constitution of the child is liablerdquo The common book on infant management thus teaches mothers the proper superintendance of its health growth and development in their multiple dimension ldquohow often to bathe suitable diet air exercise and a regular manner of livingrdquo as writes the physician the Princess of Wales (Underwood 1789 10) as well as drinking motions rest sleep clothing retentions secretions excretions diseases passions and cultivation of the mind For example an anonymous american matronrsquos treatise on the nurture and management of infants written in 1811 treats the following topics the washing of infants their clothing how often should they be changed their combing their feeding the curing of begnign indispositions and slight and common complaints (such as wind in the stomach and bowels retention of the urine sore ears and eyes vomiting convulsions fever cutting of the tongue) exercise and rest teething ldquoteaching infants the right use of their handsrdquo (left- of righthanded) setting them on their feet ldquodirections as to the best manner and time of weaning infants and the diet best adapted to promote their health after they are weanedrdquo as weel as ldquothe early regulation of the infant temper and dispositionrdquo (Anomymous 1811) Some treatises and manuals are dedicated to the care of a peculiar organ disease or symptom and occasionally to onersquos general health (Bell 1779 Wilson 1847 Baird 1867 Vines 1868 Godfrey 1872 Drewry 1875 Bulkley 1875 Angell 1878 Lyman 1884) In particular the management of teeth is considered for himself (James 1814 Parmly 1819 Clark 1835 Spooner 1836 Knapp 1840 Palmer 1853)

From the beginning of the 19th century blossom books and magazines of advices to middle-class women not only in their quality of mothers and nurses but also as mistresses of a family housekeepers and cooks (Taylor 1815 Radcliffe 1823 Parkes

9

1825 The Economist and General Adviser 1825 The Modern Housekeeper 1826 Anonymous 1827 Copley 182- Child 1829 and 1831 Ellis 1839 Cobbett [183-] Beecher 1841 Walsh 1853 Beeton 1861 Cassells Household Guide 1869 Beecher and Stowe 1870 Caddy 1877 Mann 1878 Parloa 1879 Sylvain 1881 Corson 1885 Campbell 1896 Parloa 1898 Richards 1899 Butterworth 1902 Lucas 1904 Carter 1904 Terrill 1905 Hunt 1908 Richards 1910 Ravenhill and Schiff 1911 Bruere 1912 Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 Frederick 1913 and 1919 Pattison 1915 Gilbreth 1927 US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932)

The terms ldquodomestic managementrdquo ldquohome-managementrdquo ldquohousehold managementrdquo ldquofamily managementrdquo ldquothe management of the house and householdrdquo are then used to describe not only common household tasks but the general appearance and train de vie of the family According to the most popular writer of Victorian conduct literature ldquoin England there is a kind of science of good household management which if it consisted merely in keeping the house respectable in its physical character might be left to the effectual working out of hired hands but happily for the women of England there is a philosophy in this science by which all their highest and best feelings are called into exercise Not only must the house be neat and clean but it must be so ordered as to suit the tastes of all as far as may be without annoyance or offence to anyrdquo (Ellis 1839 25-26 my emphasis) Such manuals are in the whole more informal lists of advices than theoretical treatises They often mingle plans principles rules and technical instructions for such things as cooking keeping and dressing food carving sewing knitting trussing mending cleaning sweeping dusting caring of furniture and beds warming ventilating destroying noxious insects washing starching ironing cleansing whitening dyeing upkeeping yards gardens and animals nursing caring for the poor marketing furnishing and decorating The subtitle of Anne Cobbettrsquos most famous Manual of Domestic Management sums up what the term ldquohousehold managementrdquo could stand for at the beginning of the 19th century Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs (Cobbett 183-) While the task of the housekeeper evolves considerably from the 1870s and 1880s ndash the housewife being more and more deprived of salaried servants and family helpers buying more and more products formerly homemade and externalizing tasks such as the education of children and the care for the sick ndash the elaboration of systems of household management develops unabated As Ellen Richards noted in 1899 ldquohousekeeping no longer means washing dishes scrubbing floors making soap and candles it means spending a given amount of money for a great variety of ready-prepared articles and so using the commodities as to produce the greatest satisfaction and the best possible mental moral and physical resultsrdquo (Richards 1899 103)

School and classroom management is also considered Books on ldquoschool managementrdquo begin to appear at the beginning of the 19th century in Great Britain but become common from the 1860s and greatly develop in the United States at the very beginning of the 20th century (Catlow 1813 Gill 1857 Morrison 1859 Joyce 1863 Wickersham 1864 Harding 1872 Holbrook 1873 Kellogg 1880 Baldwin 1881 Raub 1882 Landon 1883 Major 1883 White 1893 Tompkins 1895 Collar and Crook 1901 Dutton 1903 Seeley 1903 J Taylor 1903 Chancellor 1904 and 1910 Prince 1906 Bagley 1907 Perry 1908 Arnold 1908 and 1916 Salisbury 1911 Rice 1913 Bennett 1917)

10

This literature is mainly written by progressive principals superintendent and teachers in normal school in order to present a new method of educating children as opposed to the mainly authoritarian and coercitive military-like style of the old system otherwise discarded under the names of the Police System or the Force System School managementrsquos theories share the same set of principles with other fields of management thought here examined but adds a recuring use of the term ldquoorganizationrdquo As a teacher in school management admits ldquowhatever difference there may be between a book on school management and one on the management of any other organization is only a difference in detailsrdquo (Tompkins 1895 32)

It is of course sometimes difficult to draw clear-cut distinctions between these publications Some authors eventually deal with the three topics in the same book or in separate publications John Henry Walsh writes for instance a Manual of Domestic Economy (1853) another of Domestic Medicine and Surgery (1858) edits a cookery book (1858) and authors books on dog management (1859) and horse management (1861) Apothecary James Nelson is the first to add hints on manners and education to his medical essay on the management of children (Nelson 1753) a practice soon to be imitated More generally farm management manuals often contain a chapter on the medical care of animals And the farm and the household are long inseparable The gentleman farmer Arthur Young notes for instance in 1770 that ldquoanother point of some consequence in a gentlemans oeconomical management is house-keeping so far as it concerns the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 240) And when established in 1923 the American Bureau of Home Economics is a part of the Department of Agriculture When it develops into a literary branch household management comes to absorb topics such as infancy management garden management and diseases management Esther Copleyrsquos cook book published in the 1820s presents the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts (Copley 182-) The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine similarly displays numerous advices on medicines as well as hints on husbandry and rural economy There is also a continuum between the management of women during pregnancy in labour in child-bed and the management of the children and of home Until the last quarter of the 19th century child management constitutes a part of the books on the domestic duties of housewives (Parkes 1825 Child 1831 Beecher 1841 Walsh 1853 Beeton 1861 Beecher and Stowe 1869 Mann 1878) Up to these years as Smuts remarks ldquomost of the burden of medical care fell on the women of the familyrdquo even among the well-to-do (Smuts 1959 13)

Similarly animal management falls under both the head of farm management and medical management Let us note here that the literature on horse management is considerable in the 19th century and goes beyond their use for farming (Flint 1815 Lawrence 1830 Nimrod 1831 Youatt 1834 Capt M 1842 Hieover 1848 Horlock and Weir 1855 Mayhem 1864 Mahon 1865 Graves and Prudden 1868 Sherer 1868 McClure 1870 Gough 1878 Reynolds 1882 Sample 1882 Magner 1886 Galvayne 1888 Cook 1891 Heard 1893 Armatage 1896 Adye 1903 Bell 1904 Axe 1905) The term ldquomanagementrdquo is commonly applied to the training handling and directing of a horse in its paces from the 16th century probably in consequence of the confusing proximity between the word ldquomanagerdquo and the French word ldquomanegravegerdquo (riding stable) Books on dogs management are also common (Ellis 1749 Cook 1826 Loudon 1851 Horlock 1852 Hill 1881 Sample 1882) as well as on sheep

11

mules cattle swine pigs and poultry (Daubenton 1782 Moubray 1816 Williams 1849 Youatt 1855 Jacques 1866 Graves and Prudden 1868 Sherer 1868 Vaniman 1885 Periam 188- Heard 1893) The same author may decline his system of management to various races of animals in the same book or in different ones such as William Youatt writting successively upon the management of horses (1834) sheeps (1836) cattle (1837) dogs (1854) and hogs (1855) or George Armatage dissertating about The Varieties and Management in Health and Disease of sheeps (1873) cattle (1893) and horses (1894)

The word ldquomanagementrdquo is often casted as a general umbrella to depict a broad field on interest For instance school management often includes ldquonot only school economy proper but also school government and school ethicsrdquo as well as school requisites school work and management of the teacher as states an American superintendent (Raub 1882 11-12) Some books might use the term in their title and no further in which case we suspect some editorsrsquo final suggestion to their authors On the contrary books might treat our four themes without using repetitively the notion of management And indeed many books are specifically devoted to child care from the end of the Middle Ages and to husbandry household administration and education from Antiquity We limit ouserves to those which made a thorough use of the term ldquomanagementrdquo to reflect upon their subject for we suggest that it is the mark of a peculiar way of thinking Moreover there exists an obvious discrepancy between the authorsrsquo cultural background and the epochs when they were writting even if many books are published and republished over times both in Great Britain and the United States Some are English other Americans and one or two books here considered are translations from the French But from the middle of the 18th century to the end of the 19th and whatever the part of the ocean we look at the word ldquomanagementrdquo keeps a stable meaning The great change will come as we should see at the beginning of the 20th century Finally the books herein examined did not have the same diffusion Some books have been widely read and served as models in each one in its peculiar field while others knew a single and confidential edition In infant management for instance the famous William Cadogan and Hugh Smith stood as authorities at the end of the 18th century The statistician agronomist and empirical scientist Arthur Young who imagined ldquosystems of managementrdquo as early as 1768 was similarly a reference in farm management In household administration Catharine Beecher Isbella Beeton and Ellen Richards have been popular references and still are Beecher authored ldquothe best-known treatises on domestic economy of the nineteenth centuty (Matthews 1987 31) Isbella Beetonrsquos 1861 book which popularized the expression ldquohousehold managementrdquo sold over sixty thousands copies in its first year of publication and almost two millions copies by 1868 (Humble 2000 vii) And Ellen Richards is considered as the ldquoprophetrdquo of home economics ldquoits interpreter its conservator its inspirer and to use her own word its engineerrdquo to quote another home economics proeminent figure (Bevier 1911 214)

The Logic Underlying the Early Uses of the Term ldquoManagementrdquo

In spite of obvious practical discrepancies the three types of literature here analyzed have common features First of all they are popular pedagogical and technical While they are often written by scholarly educated authors they are not theoretical or scientific treatises but aim at a relatively large and uneducated public

12

The title of one of these caracteristically stipulates that it is ldquowritten in a plain familiar stile to render it intelligible and useful to all mothers and those who have the management of infantsrdquo (Herdman 1804) As such advices on mothersrsquo and childrenrsquos management are often offered under the form of letters a format specially adopted for the friendly delivery of advices Most prefaces and introduction exhibit the same concern for intelligibility

Taken as a single corpus the books herein considered show a conceptual coherence and share a common understanding of the term ldquomanagementrdquo To manage then means to care to be industrious and to make efficient to drive and improve to arrange and act in a systematic way to count and calculate

If most of the books here gathered consist merely in descriptive lists of empirical practices some attempt at formulating general principles and laws out of it Whether explicitely or implicitely these principles are linked to one another and form a kind of system Indeed the care should be efficient accounting should be regular in order to gain appropriate knowledge gaining knowledge should be useful for training keeping records and setting time-tables has an important influence in promoting regularity etc As states pioneering educator Joseph Baldwin ldquoschool management is the art of so directing school affairs as to produce system order and efficiencyrdquo (Baldwin 1881 15)

Care One of the first predominant meaning of the term management is to look after to

take care to breed to cultivate to maintain The principle of care is the nodal point of the different understanding of the literature on management in the 18th ang 19th century Of course infants and children management means their proper care In this case authors may use the terms ldquonursing or maternal managementrdquo indifferently (Barrett 1875 10) The notion of ldquomanagementrdquo is more generally applied to the care of fragile human beings subject to diseases and accidents such as pregnant mothers sick-persons and old people ldquoThe care is allrdquo in farm management as well as writes the pamphleteer farmer and journalist William Cobbett (Cobbett 1821 113) The proper care given to the soil the animals and the equipment forms the core of what is meant in this literature by ldquomanagementrdquo

This principle of care signifies the prevention of depletion and if necessary the medical treatment of diseases ldquoManagement in health and diseaserdquo is a much common formula Treating illness is thus a necessary part of a careful management and the terms ldquomanagementrdquo and ldquotreatmentrdquo are often synonymous Logically books on infant management are predominantly written by physicians and those on animal management by veterinaries But to care for is not the business of the sole doctor and the very reason for the existence of such books is that as Thomas Williams states it ldquoa knowledge of the proper management of domestic animals and particularly of the causes preventives symptoms and treatment of the various complaintsthey are subject to should be possessed by every farmerrdquo (Williams 1849 9)

Hygiene cleanliness and sanitation are dominant elements in writtings on management and even on school management ldquoSchool hygiene and school management are inseparablerdquo states for instance the president of an American normal school (Salisbury 1911 54) Books on household management often devote a chapter to this issue

13

In a way a proper medical management consists in preventing diseases more than in curing it not in turning every mother into a physician but into a superintendent capable of giving effect to the prescriptions of a physician As a general rule states a scottish doctor and physiologist ldquowhere the child is well managed medicine of any kind is very rarely requiredrdquo (Combe 1840 77) An English doctor warns for himself his readers in these terms ldquoI shall not trouble you with the curative part of diseases incident to children that being altogether the concern of the physician [] This present system of nursing is intended only to manage children so as to prevent illnessrdquo (Smith 1792 163-164) An anonymous writer similarly states ldquoI wish to enable my fair readers to manage the infants committed to their care without being obliged to call in a physician for every trifling indispositionrdquo (Anonymous 1811 39) Similarly a horse breeder advises that ldquoa judicious change of food efficient stable management and proper arrangements for work can accomplish all that is necessary for the conservation of health in sound horses in a better and safer manner than the exhibition of medicamentsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 98)

To care is also the leading principle structuring the different methods of household management Their objective is invariably as an author sums it up ldquothe maximum of health physical mental and moralrdquo (Terrill 1905 14) According to Ellen Richards who is considered as the mother of home economics ldquothe ideal of lsquohomersquo is protection from dangers from within bad habits bad food bad air dirt and abuse shelter in fact from all stunting agencies just as the gardener protects his tender plants until they become strong enough to stand by themselvesrdquo (Richards 1910 73) Let us note here that this predominance of the principle of care in the first meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo should not receive a gender explaination as analysis and histories of household management often occasion Farming was predominantly a manly practice and it stressed the importance of caring as much as the more womanly activities of the household Similarly caring is a pivotal element of the more womanly activities of class management as well as of the more manly activities of school management

More generally the usual application of the term ldquomanagementrdquo includes such operations as the breeding rearing curing and proper care of living beings including crops plants bees and animals as well as of peculiar parts of the body such as the teeth and eyes of human beings and the horses feet and legs Some authors may talk about ldquomoralrdquo and ldquomental managementrdquo of children and adults (for example Thompson 1841) and eventually of the moral management of insane persons (Haslam 1817 Millingen 1841) But it is also widely applied to the careful maintenance of the house and of the farming tools In the second half of the 19th century several engineers and machinists adopt this meaning of the term management to describe the maintenance and repairing of motors machines boilers and diverse kinds of machinery Emory Edwardsrsquo book still reedited today typically gives ldquosome general rules for the care and management of steam-engines and boilersrdquo (Edwards 1882 390) Writers using in this perspective the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo were not marginal and included personalities such as Zerah Colburn editor of one of Britainrsquos leading technical journal in the middle on the 19th century (Ward 1847 Colburn 1851 Bourne 1861 Watson 1867 Roper 1875 and 1889 Shock 1880 Edwards 1882 Smith 1882 Sinclair 1885 Tompkins 1889 Lieckfeld 1896 Moulson et alii 1898 Houghtaling 1899 Biggs 189- Homans 1902 Tulley 1907)

14

Industry and Efficiency Industry and efficiency form the second structuring managerial principle of the

arts of nursing husbandry and housekeeping For our authors nothing is worst than keeping idle the soil animals or men Medical advisers repeatedly stress the importance of exercises for the proper development of children But it is in farm household and school management that these principles of industry and efficiency is the most prevalent

At the end of the 18th century the experimental agronomist Arthur Young try to call attention to the extent of land lying waste in Great Britain (Young 1773) The word economy is thus used commonly in the sense of thrift and of a judicious use of resource The insistence on the profitability of a farm or of a particular crop then means more their productivity than a potential pecuniary profit on a market To the authors here considered the purpose of farm management is not to produce a lot but to produce more with less As an example the advocate of ldquoscientific agriculturerdquo Charles Fox in his text book on farm management makes it clear that ldquothe object of the practical farmer is to raise from a given area of land the largest quantity of the most profitable produce at the least costrdquo (Fox 1854 3) Meanwhile he hardly talks about buying selling and markets

In household management to be industrious and keep good hours is a necessity As states the Housekeeperrsquos magazine in 1825 ldquoabsolute idleness is inexcusable in a woman because the needle is always at hand for those intervals in which she cannot be otherwise employedrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) Similarly in their famous book on housekeeping Catharine Beecher and Harriet Stowe warn their readers about their ldquoobligation to spend every hour for some useful endrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 215) Besides being industrious a housekeeper must be efficient wether in making or in spending The purpose of the Cassells Household Guide is thus to show ldquohow by the minimum of expenditure the maximum of comfort and of luxury may be obtainedrdquo (Cassells Household Guide 1869 1) In this perspective notes a regular contributor to the Ladies Home Journal magazine economy in the home ldquomeans that everything is put to its proper use and there is no wasterdquo and most of all ldquothat the most precious thing (sic) in it mdash the mother mdash shall not be misused or wastedrdquo (Parloa 1898 258 and 352) That is careful management means frugality in the use of money equipment and human beings According to Ellen Richards it is the increasing resort to calculation on a money basis which has led to this emphasis on efficiency ldquoin these days of consolidation for the purpose of cutting down expenses days of close calculation of cost when everything is reduced to a money basis in production it is not surprising that discussion should have arisen over the great waste involved in the keeping up of fifty kitchen-fires to do the work that five would dordquo (Richards 1899 1)

Industry is a disciplining tool much recommended by school and classroom management writers ldquoThe art of school management states characteristically an educational author consists very much in the art of giving enough and suitable employment Work must be given if good order is not obtained give morerdquo (Kellogg 1880 80) Similarly states an American superintendent ldquothe secret of success in managing small children as well as larger ones lies in giving them plenty to dordquo (Raub 1882 193) This principle of industry as in the cases of farm and household management comes generally along with the principle of efficiency According to John Gill for instance whose text-book on school management was a set text in many of the training colleges for teachers which were established after 1850 (Mugglestone 2006 291) school management or ldquoschool organization is a system of arrangements

15

designed to secure constant employment efficient instruction and moral control In other words it aims at providing the means of instructing and educating the greatest number in the most efficient manner and by the most economical expenditure of time and labourrdquo (Gill 1857 56) For another writer in school management ldquothe teachers work in school naturally falls into three great divisions which taken in logical order are mdash (1) organisation (2) discipline (3) teaching and unless all three receive due attention the work is not likely to be performed with that efficiency that economy of time and labour both of the teacher and of the pupils and that absence of friction which should characterise the operation of every good schoolrdquo (Landon 1883 109) Rice in his bestseller on scientific management in schools asserts that ldquoin the strict sense scientific management in education can only be defined as a system of management specifically directed toward the elimination of waste in teaching so that the children attending the schools may be duly rewarded for the expenditure of their time and effortrdquo (Rice 1913 viii) As puts it a professor of education in a book which went through more than thirty reprintings from 1907 to 1927 (Callahan 1962 7) the problem of classroom management ldquois a problem of economy it seeks to determine in what manner the working unit of the school plant may be made to return the largest dividend upon the material investment of time energy and moneyrdquo (Bagley 1907 2) Or as sums up another professor of education and author of a book on ldquoschool efficiencyrdquo ldquothe problem of school management is to give [people] as much as possible for their moneyrdquo (Bennett 1917 1-2)

From another perspective the very purpose of school management is to form future industrious citizens An English inspector of board schools insists for instance upon ldquothe true objects and aims of school management which are the promoting of the good habits of cheerful industry all-conquering thoroughness orderly disposition of time and labor and the practice of useful activityrdquo (Holbrook 1873 179) According to a much cited professor of education writing a generation later ldquothe aim of the school may be formulated as social efficiency Whatever the school undertakes to accomplish must be judged in the light of this standardrdquo that is to turn every child into a ldquosocially efficient individualrdquo (Bagley 1907 7-8) As states professor of pedagogy Arnold Tompkins ldquoit is needless to urge that a school thoroughly organized and managed with its regular exact and punctual requirement in performance of duty is a most powerful means of bringing the pupil into the habit and spirit of industrial life [] The public school artfully managed is the very institution to supply to society members who are not simply industrious by force of conviction and habit but who have the joy of industry in the heartrdquo (Tompkins 1895 206-207)

Handling Driving Improving Perhaps the most common significance of the verb ldquoto managerdquo from its first uses

at the end of the 16th century is ldquoto handlerdquo ldquoto conductrdquo or ldquoto carry onrdquo (Murray 1908 104-105) The verb is applied to inanimate things such as weapons instuments vehicules and affairs to actions and operations to institutions such as households and states and to animals primarily horses and cattle

In many of the texts here considered the word management means altogether breeding training and curing It often refers to the training of a particular animal the horse being by far the main sort considered with dogs coming in a second position The managing of an animal refers for instance to its breeding rearing taming ldquobreaking or learningrdquo (Ellis 1749 ChII) exercising subduing educating

16

conducting and driving That is managing means more ndash or less ndash than rude disciplining For instance goodness and patience rather than ldquomain strength and stupid harshnessrdquo (Graves and Prudden 1868 38) are systematically recommended in the management of horses ldquoKindness goes far in managing these noble animalsrdquo confirms the cavalry officer Mahon (1865 49) An anonymous mother also writes that children ldquoare much better and more easily managed by kindness and it is quite easy to be firm with a child without being angry or severerdquo (Anonymous 1884 62) For most of authors on school and classroom management cooperation more than discpline is the basis of a sound eduction as military methods of instruction are rejected in a distant past ldquoReproof and privations writes an educational pioneer are the only punishments ordinarily needed in school or family The management should be so systematic and vigorous as to render severer punishments unnecessaryrdquo (Baldwin 1881 166)

This meaning of management also appears on the books considering the rearing of infants and children which purpose is their rise and progress as well as in books on school and classroom management In both cases a good management mostly consists in giving proper habits ndash that is organized reactions For instance writes an American professor of pedagogy ldquothe school should be managed with the conscious purpose of forming habits of orderrdquo (Tompkins 1895 203) A very influential professor of education could even formulate a ldquolaw of habit-buildingrdquo ldquoFocalization of consciousness upon the process to be automatized plus attentive repetition of this process permitting no exceptions until automatism resultsrdquo (Bagley 1907 16) This educating process also applies to the training of household servants a subject of a foremost intest for the early writers on household management In some cases notes Mary Elizabeth Carter servants ldquomay like boys and girls have to be taught and trained in habits of cleanliness and orderrdquo (Carter 1904 115) It also applies to the education of the future housewife which become part of the syllabus of ldquoDomestic Sciencerdquo in universities at the end of the 19th century Logically the term management was commonly applied from the middle of the 19th century to the tasks of the teacher in charge of developing his or her pupils along physical mental and moral lines Besides many books on school management note that the old days teacher was mainly superintending while the modern one is mainly teaching Most also states that teaching has become a profession and as such necessitates a proper training ldquoThe teacher writes an editor of the New York School Journal must study to be a good teacher the art of school management in its best sense turns upon thatrdquo (Kellogg 1880 78)

By essence conduct books devise ways of improving their readersrsquo behavior As scientific disciplines develop the housewife is for instance to gain knowledge in chemistry physics and psychology In her first best-selling book Catharine Beecher who can envision the task of housewife as a ldquoprofessionrdquo (Beecher 1841 5) recommend that domestic economy should be made ldquoa regular part of school educationrdquo and not taught at home by the mothers often ignorant of the true rules of this science (Ibid 63)

For behind the idea of training lies the principle of progress As early as the 17th century enlighted farmers began to shake the bounds of tradition by submitting agriculture to rational scrutiny and experiment (Best 1642) In the 19th century the home which may seem like the bastion of tradition was subject to many methods for improving its running

The very purpose of most of the early books on management is the education of their reader A majority of it aims conscienciously at being pedagogical and popular sharing this common faith in the power of knowledge and in the benefits of mass

17

education which made its way through Europe and the United States from the 18th century The doctor Anthony Thompson characteristically states that ldquothe most judicious plan of medical management may be devised and the plainest directions for its fulfilment may be delivered to the attendants of the sick-room but without more information on the subject than is at present possessed by the females of a household and especially by those whose duty it is to superintend the execution of the orders of the Physician little benefit can be anticipated to the invalidrdquo (Thompson 1841 vii)

Order Arrangement System Regulation Order arrangement system and regulation are watchwords of the 18th and 19th

century literature on management and especially of the literature on farm and household management The expressions ldquosystem of managingrdquo ldquoplan of managementrdquo ldquomethod of managementrdquo are found in almost every book here considered The very idea of management seem to imply the notion of a regular and ordered system The Housekeeperrsquos magazine even talks about the ldquobest-regulated familyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg3 52) and Catharine Beecher of ldquoa systematic and well-regulated familyrdquo (Beecher 1841 126) For a widely read authoress of books on household administration for instance ldquomethod and order are two most important factors in the management of the householdrdquo (Parloa 1898 61) Regarding accounts writes the author of a ldquosystem of practical domestic economyrdquo ldquoregularity is the very life and soul of economyrdquo (Anonymous 1827 380) The setting of a routine and the search for regularity are especially praised in the rearing of children and of animals Thus according to a horse expert ldquoone of the first things desirable in stable management is rule by rule I mean a regular way of doing thingsrdquo (Hieover 1848 90) Similarly school management thinkers praise order and system and order ldquoSystem in school management is a necessityrdquo states one of them (Raub 1882 196) ldquoOrderliness in general matters of school management writes another is a right upon which it is unnecessary to insist The child has the right to expect regular periods for school work orderly entrance and dismissal etc care of clothing uniformity in certain aspects of discipline and the likerdquo (Arnold 1908 174) As states an English inspector of board schools ldquoThe first requisite of good management in all schools is orderrdquo (Major 1883 209) For a fourth author on this subject an ldquoimportant device in school management is the adoption of a self-regulating system [] A school is a sort of mechanism and all its movements must be regular to avoid confusion and waste of timerdquo (White 1893 94-95) As recognizes Dr Arnold Tompkins of Illinois University for whom ldquono means ever devised is more potent than an efficient system of school managementrdquo ldquowe are quite strictly materialists in school management setting objective and fixed forms and rules hard and fast over against a growing and pulsating liferdquo (Tompkins 1895 208 and 14)

Arthur Young who was to become Secretary to the English Board of Agriculture could be called the Frederick Taylor of farm management not in the sense that he animated and inspired a school but in the sense that he attempted to ldquoreduce multifarious fugitive subjects to some degree of order and even principlesrdquo articulated into a rational ldquosystem of general managementrdquo (Young 1770b 2-3) His purpose being to see husbandry ldquobuilt upon as just and philosophic principles as the art of medicinerdquo (Ibid 175) Young thus applied an experimental and scientific outlook to husbandry Talking about accounts he states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) He thus draws ldquoschemes of conducting farmsrdquo

18

with an eye to constant improvements (Young 1770b 34) To him the superiority of the gentleman over the common farmer lay in his capacity to acquire new knowledge not in his application of old ones To him it is thus important to devise a ldquoplan of agricultural operationrdquo (Young 1770a vol 2 471) What he calls the ldquosystem of managementrdquo or ldquotrain of managementrdquo of a farm is nothing but the division arrangement and proportionning of its land cattle and labour Young thus elaborate methods and calculus for a efficient division of work which he calls ldquodisposition of the teamsrdquo (Young 1770b 25) and which takes the form of distribution of ploughs horses ox and laborers He proposes for instance a table with the distribution of 16 servants 11 laborers and 16 boys for the ploughs harrowing team carried over brought over rolling horse hoeing road team ox team ditto carting extra team shepherd exen steers swine cows Young also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men As it sums it up himslef a certain portion of time a certain portion of space and ldquoa certain portion of hands are assigned to each businessrdquo (Ibid 60)

According to a prolific author of conduct books ldquothat house only is well conducted where there is a strict attention paid to order and regularity To do every thing in its proper time to keep every thing in its right place and to use every thing for its proper use is the very essence of good managementrdquo (Taylor 1815 27) Similarly according to the author of a Modern System of Domestic Cookery a ldquosystem of domestic management is the foundation of all the comfort and welfare of private familiesrdquo (Radcliffe 1823 1) But Catharine Beecher is the first one to devise in 1841 such a ldquosystematic plan of domestic economyrdquo (Beecher 1841 157) in a book notes a literature teacher specialist of Catharine Beecher which ldquowent through fifteen editions between 1841 and 1856 and established Beecher as the nations foremost authority on household practicerdquo (Tonkovich in Beecher and Stowe 1869 xiii) According to her philosophy ldquoit is wise therefore for all persons to devise a general plan which they will at least keep in view and aim to accomplish and by which a proper proportion of time shall be secured for all the duties of liferdquo (Ibid 158) She thus advocates a ldquosystematic employment of timerdquo (Ibid 160 Beecher and Stowe 1870 196) Beecher and her sister Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote in a later book ldquoEvery young lady can systematize her pursuits to a certain extent She can have a particular day for mending her wardrobe and for arranging her trunks closets and drawers She can keep her work-basket her desk at school and all her other conveniences in their proper places and in regular order She can have regular periods for reading walking visiting study and domestic pursuits And by following this method in youth she will form a taste for regularity and a habit of system which will prove a blessing to her through liferdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 202) The housekeeper should not limit her division and arrangement of work to the servants but strive for ldquothe apportioning of regular employment to the various members of a family If a housekeeper can secure the cooperation of all her family she will find that lsquomany hands make light workrsquordquo (Beecher 1841 163) Adding that ldquoa woman is under obligations so to arrange the hours and pursuits of her family as to promote systematic and habitual industryrdquo (Ibid 185) For that purpose she draws plans of houses and domestic conveniences (Ibid ch XXIV)

Both Young and Beecher show the conspicuous features that exhibit the literature on farm and household management a quest for regularity and order systematicity planning selection as well as the arrangement of work and division of labor But elaboration of methods and plans are also common in medical management literature The doctor Cadogan proposes as early as 1748 a ldquoPlan of Nursingrdquo (Cadogan 1748 21)

19

This systematic frame of mind is first expressed by medical farm and household management writers not so much in a desire to standardize but in a constant effort to codify That is routines are not systematically reduced to a measurable standard but they are carefully specified often regarding a specific time and place The very idea of writting a book imply this logic of formalizing and codifying a set of practices The most methodic books circumscribe the mother farmer and housekeeperrsquos tasks and codify it in every detail Most of the books on infant management codify the childrenrsquos dress from the shoes to the cap their cleanliness bathing foods drinks exercise amusements sleep education and employments Isabella Beetonrsquos 1861 book codified every aspect of household management and even every aspect of a diner given at home or in paying visits of condoleance This very idea of codification is best exemplified by the recurring planning tools proposed by most of these books such as detailed plans of houses diagrams of kitchen schedules work orders tables of duties calendars reminder cards and files bulletin boards ledgers accounting books individual calendars or written menus to be posted in pantry and kitchen (Cf for instance figure below from US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932 202) An author even recommends the use of ldquoprinted rules

in bath room [] giving a few very simple admonitions upon what is lsquogood formrsquo in a lavatory of any sortrdquo (Carter 1904 93) For the ldquohousehold engineerrdquo Christine Frederick ldquostandard practice means then written directions as to method and tools and timerdquo (Frederick 1919 152)

Even if most of English and American homes employed less than ten servants and therefore knew in a limited degree the division labor Nevertheless remarks the author of a ldquodomestic economy and household sciencerdquo manual ldquoin most households it is found necessary to divide the work which has to be done amongst various people

20

and to have some of these especially trained for certain parts of it such as cooking the food cleaning the house and waiting upon the inmates The arranging of all this work has to be thought of and planned by the master and mistress who are the responsible controllers and heads of the house Thus the duties of servants their relations to their employers and their good management or handling are also matters with which domestic economy has to dealrdquo (Mann 1878 5)

Much of the books on school management devote a chapter or a whole part to ldquoorganizationrdquo which usally contains instructions regarding the number and size of the classes the distribution of the staff the syllabus of work for each class the classification of the scholars and the time table It may picture plans of the school or at least of the ideal classroom and some even specify the way children should be gathered and circulate wtihin their class (Cf right time table and plan of a school reproduced from Collar and Crook 1901 41) For an influential writer on school management ldquothe particulars embraced under organization comprise the arrangements of the rooms classification of the children duties of the master subordinates distribution of work and time tablesrdquo (Gill 1857 57) Under the head of organization the rector of a Glasgow school thus describe for instance ldquothe arrangement of desks most suitable to the efficient management of a schoolrdquo (Morrison 1859 44) Another author talks about ldquothe distribution of the teaching powerrdquo (Landon 1883 110)

According to the authors of farm management books good husbandry is not a matter of duplicating age-old recipes but a matter of choices and of planning choice of a location of a farm og a kind of farming (intensive or extensive) of crops of livestock of horses of equipment of implements of calendar etc All these parameters interacts As such states Young husbandry can never arrive at perfection ldquoif the exact degree of every vegetable cultivated be not known in relation to soil and management and in a word if all the the various branches of this complex art be not so thoroughly sifted and examined as to be familiar in every combinationrdquo (Young 1770b 150-151) A century later Robert Scott Burn advises his readers to select their animals with regards to ldquothe soil its cropping size locality and climaterdquo (Burn 1877 29) Richard Reynolds states for himself that ldquoalmost every treatise upon the management of farm-horses contain formulae of food allowances applicable for use at certain seasons and during the performance of certain agricultural operationsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 52) Similarly the proper selection of a new house of servants of food of menus of activities for the children and even ldquothe choice of friendsrdquo and new acquaintances (Parkes 1825 Part I Conversations II and III) are important dimensions of household management For a household editor for the Ladies Home Journal if a housekeeper ldquodoes not know that round steak at 20 cents a pound possesses as much nutriment as the

21

porterhouse at 26 cents she will not expend wisely or economically She should know something of the idea of a lsquobalanced mealrsquo and what foods will give it the place of milk fruit and eggs in the diet what are healthful meat substitutes and the nourishment of various kinds of breads vegetables and cerealsrdquo (Frederick 1913 105)

Most of the book on children management describe curricula proper to their development For instance in his Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children written in 1792 Smith formulates ldquorulesrdquo describes ldquobest methodsrdquo and offers detailed prescriptions for the management of children ldquolet their breakfast at six or seven in the morning be half a pint of new milk with about two ounces of bread in it mdash the second meal should be half a pint of good broth with the same quantity of bread let this be given about ten or eleven in the morning mdash the third meal about two or three in the afternoon should be broth in like manner mdash and their supper about six in the evening new milk and bread the same as for breakfastrdquo (Smith 1792 140) Most of books on children management give advices regarding their different stages of life and notably the periods of weaning and of dentition Samuel Smiles the famous surgeon presents ldquoin a tabular form what [he] conceive[s] ought to be the proper disposition of time in childhood boyhood adolescenceand adult age in order to the attainment of a full development of the mental faculties with a corresponding healthy completion of the physical structurerdquo (Smiles 1838 188) As such for each period of age he precises ldquothe hours that should be devoted to exercise exercise with instruction tuition relaxation and sleeprdquo (Cf table below from Ibid 188) Similarly many household management books propose plans for the distribution of tasks settled down to the day and even down to the quarter of an hour (Butterworth 1902 27-28) According to the Housekeeperrsquos magazine ldquoearly rising and a good disposition of time is essential to Economyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) As early as 1825 Frances Parkes proposes a ldquosystem of Domestic Dutyrdquo (Parkes 1825 22) which regulates the ldquodisposal of timerdquo (Ibid 16) ldquoAs much time is saved or rather gained by a regular disposal of each division of the day I recommend to you to plan the whole out every morning and as far as you can command circumstances to pursue that plan steadilyrdquo (Ibid 317) Almanachs are important tools of farm and household regulation of time and farming operations also obeys to calendars and a precise chronological pattern The combination of these different parameters require an ordered mind as it is repeatedly remarked in farm management books ldquoA time-table is to a school what grammar is to a languagerdquo says an Irish head-master who participated in the task of ldquointroducing among the national schools [of Ireland] an improved and uniform organization and of diffusing among the national teachers a more extensive practical knowledge of school keepingrdquo (Joyce 1863 37 and vii) As such he codifies a regular day at school hour by hour beginning in such a manner ldquoldquo955 to 10 Inspection as to cleanliness mdash At five minutes to ten the children should be arranged according to their divisions and drafts either in the playground or in the school- room and the teacher after a hasty glance to see that their hands faces and hair are clean and neat marches all to their several places This preliminary business should not encroach on the school time the first lessons should be actually commencing at 10 oclockrdquo (Ibid 59) For another writer on school management it is obvious that ldquothere must be a well devised program distributing the time properly among the various classes and that it must be inflexibly followedrdquo (Kellogg 1880 92) Such time-tables are a common feature of school management books

The question of ldquoarrangementrdquo that is of planning space is a common feature of farm and household management books ldquoA place for everything and everything in its

22

placerdquo is a recurring moto of 18th and 19th centuries management books Books on farm management thus frequently offer developments the arrangement of the fields and even latter on the planning of farm buildings fields or poultry houses (Dickson 1853) As early as 1768 Arthur Young underline the ldquogeneral benefit which arises from a judicious arrangement of a farmrdquo by a farmer and especially ldquothe arranging his lands properly for his cropsrdquo (Young 1768 156-157 and 158) Another author underlines that ldquobesides a most rigid and accurate set of account booksrdquo ldquoan accurate plan of each field should also be had showing the position of drains with their outfalls position of fences and gates and another detailing the mode of cropping and the part of the rotation under which at the stated intervals it comes to be placedrdquo (Burn 1877 29) Warren in his classic book on farm management proposes schemes of farm layout location size and shape of fields (Warren 1913 365-368) Regarding household management such author may propose ldquoplans of houses suited to townsrdquo (Walsh 1853 96) this one a plan of the pantries (Parloa 1898 15) while another calls for ldquoscientific house-planningrdquo (Bruere 1912 174) Ellen Richards prescriptions for the arrangement of a house include such elements as windows walls sink bathtub florrs woodwork stair rails and supports plumbing vaccum cleaner gas burners screens etc (Richards 1911) Beecher and Stowe add to their sketch of ldquomodel cottage-ground plan and roomsrdquo ldquoIn the description and arrangement the leading aim is to show how time labor and expense are saved not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangementrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 24) For the real purpose of planning is often both order and efficiency For instance

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

7

adult human beings That is the application of the word to laborers implied a shift in its meaning and may inform us about the representation of laborers in the managersrsquo minds The supervision of people is seen as something highly personal and hard to systematize

Secondly several of the main principles which form today the core of business management have blossomed and have been articulated together within small going concerns independantly from the capitalist sphere in technically low-developed environnements and without provoking the formation of a distinct class of managers whether professional or not Assumptions which seem to run counter to the idea common since Chandler that technological development organization size and capitalist motives are the usual forces of management evolution It would only be the case for the business corporation

Thirdly the early repetitive uses of the terms ldquomanagementrdquo shows the penetration of the scientific outlook into a well-structured discourse on government And here I would agree with Weber and Sombart when they define an enterprise not as a capitalist institution but as a rational one

Thirdly the study of the discourses on medical management farm management household management and school management from the end of the 18th century to the first quater of the 20th also throws light on the structuration of a forgotten root of the managerial rationality the principle of care Meanwile it shows the very marginal importance of the principle of control which is to become central in business management thought

Finally this analysis throws light on the institutional framework common to three of these four ways of thinking management the family We will thus risk an institutional answer to the question why did the understanding of the word ldquomanagementrdquo shaped from the times of Frederick Taylor come to supersede the early ways of thinking it

The First Meanings of the Term ldquoManagementrdquo

The forms ldquomanagingrdquo ldquoto managerdquo ldquomanagedrdquo ldquomanagerrdquo ldquomanageablerdquo and ldquomanagementrdquo are attested from the second half of the 16th century with the broad and principal reference to the handling of public or private affairs with skill tact or care (Murray 1908 104-106) Until the middle of the 18th century the word lsquomanagerdquo and its declinaisons remain infrequent From this date to the end of the nineteenth century four types of literatures make a repetitive use of the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo which are texts on husbandry medical care of the mother and her infant household administration and school supervision

From the middle of the 18th century some English and American farmers begin to use abundantly the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo to describe the direction of the various activities of husbandry (Ellis 1744 1749 1750 Young 1768 1770a 1770b The Complete Farmer 1777 Moubray 1816 Cobbett 1821 OrsquoConnor 1843 Thomas 1844 Dickson 1853 Andrews 1853 Tegetmeier 1854 Macdonald 1865 Curtis 1879 Ward and Lock 1881 Smith 1898 Taft 1898)

These books are very distinct from the general treatises of political economy then circulating which consider with a theoretical outlook the impact of laws on trade and agriculture as a national issue They rather focus on the farm as a single unit in a very empirical perspective which plants to cultivate when to saw how much yield is expected are the kind of issues they address Often compiling examples and cases

8

most of these books are practical catalogues of advices for the care of the farmrsquos livestock horses soil cooking food dairy equipment and buildings Some do nevertheless intend to extract general principles out of the myriad of husbandry practices Arthur Young stands among other as the great theorician of farm management from the end of the 18th century

The second corpus of literature widely using the term management concern the care of the mother and her infant (Cadogan 1748 Hill 1754 Theobald 1764 White 1773 Hamilton 1781 Moss 1781 Underwood 1789 Smith 1792 Clarke 1793 Seaman 1800 Hume 1802 Herdman 1804 Bard 1807 Anonymous 1811 Taylor 1816 Appleton 1820 Flint 1826 Fox 1834 Alcott 1836 Evanson and Maunsell 1836 Charles 1838 Chavasse 1839 1843 Bull 1840 Combe 1840 Cory 1844 Hancorn 1844 Hogg 1849 Barker 1865 Powers 1866 Getchell 1868 Vines 1868 Braidwood 1874 Barrett 1875 Dix 1880 Duncan 1880 Keeting 1881 Anonymous 1884 Bruen 1887 Starr 1889 Griffith 1898)

Most of these books focus on infants till weaning while latter books may apply the term ldquomanagementrdquo to the handling of older children and even of adolescents (Abbott 1871 Shearer 1904) In the whole ldquowritten for the young and inexperienced motherrdquo (Bull 1840 iii) they display in a plain familiar style medical and para-medical advices descriptions of pathologies and treatments as well as hints on moral and physical education with a particular view on hygiene Most of these books pay a great attention to the motherrsquos and her childrenrsquos environment and sanitary condition Here is an example of the classical exposition as sumed up by two irish professors of medecine in a much quoted treatise (Evanson and Maunsell 1836 14) ldquoThe subjects treated of in the ensuing chapters naturally divide themselves under two heads viz 1 Those which relate to the management of children in order to the preservation of their health and the removal or prevention of any cause that might obstruct their moral and physical development and 2 Those which relate to the detection discrimination and treatment of diseases to which the constitution of the child is liablerdquo The common book on infant management thus teaches mothers the proper superintendance of its health growth and development in their multiple dimension ldquohow often to bathe suitable diet air exercise and a regular manner of livingrdquo as writes the physician the Princess of Wales (Underwood 1789 10) as well as drinking motions rest sleep clothing retentions secretions excretions diseases passions and cultivation of the mind For example an anonymous american matronrsquos treatise on the nurture and management of infants written in 1811 treats the following topics the washing of infants their clothing how often should they be changed their combing their feeding the curing of begnign indispositions and slight and common complaints (such as wind in the stomach and bowels retention of the urine sore ears and eyes vomiting convulsions fever cutting of the tongue) exercise and rest teething ldquoteaching infants the right use of their handsrdquo (left- of righthanded) setting them on their feet ldquodirections as to the best manner and time of weaning infants and the diet best adapted to promote their health after they are weanedrdquo as weel as ldquothe early regulation of the infant temper and dispositionrdquo (Anomymous 1811) Some treatises and manuals are dedicated to the care of a peculiar organ disease or symptom and occasionally to onersquos general health (Bell 1779 Wilson 1847 Baird 1867 Vines 1868 Godfrey 1872 Drewry 1875 Bulkley 1875 Angell 1878 Lyman 1884) In particular the management of teeth is considered for himself (James 1814 Parmly 1819 Clark 1835 Spooner 1836 Knapp 1840 Palmer 1853)

From the beginning of the 19th century blossom books and magazines of advices to middle-class women not only in their quality of mothers and nurses but also as mistresses of a family housekeepers and cooks (Taylor 1815 Radcliffe 1823 Parkes

9

1825 The Economist and General Adviser 1825 The Modern Housekeeper 1826 Anonymous 1827 Copley 182- Child 1829 and 1831 Ellis 1839 Cobbett [183-] Beecher 1841 Walsh 1853 Beeton 1861 Cassells Household Guide 1869 Beecher and Stowe 1870 Caddy 1877 Mann 1878 Parloa 1879 Sylvain 1881 Corson 1885 Campbell 1896 Parloa 1898 Richards 1899 Butterworth 1902 Lucas 1904 Carter 1904 Terrill 1905 Hunt 1908 Richards 1910 Ravenhill and Schiff 1911 Bruere 1912 Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 Frederick 1913 and 1919 Pattison 1915 Gilbreth 1927 US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932)

The terms ldquodomestic managementrdquo ldquohome-managementrdquo ldquohousehold managementrdquo ldquofamily managementrdquo ldquothe management of the house and householdrdquo are then used to describe not only common household tasks but the general appearance and train de vie of the family According to the most popular writer of Victorian conduct literature ldquoin England there is a kind of science of good household management which if it consisted merely in keeping the house respectable in its physical character might be left to the effectual working out of hired hands but happily for the women of England there is a philosophy in this science by which all their highest and best feelings are called into exercise Not only must the house be neat and clean but it must be so ordered as to suit the tastes of all as far as may be without annoyance or offence to anyrdquo (Ellis 1839 25-26 my emphasis) Such manuals are in the whole more informal lists of advices than theoretical treatises They often mingle plans principles rules and technical instructions for such things as cooking keeping and dressing food carving sewing knitting trussing mending cleaning sweeping dusting caring of furniture and beds warming ventilating destroying noxious insects washing starching ironing cleansing whitening dyeing upkeeping yards gardens and animals nursing caring for the poor marketing furnishing and decorating The subtitle of Anne Cobbettrsquos most famous Manual of Domestic Management sums up what the term ldquohousehold managementrdquo could stand for at the beginning of the 19th century Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs (Cobbett 183-) While the task of the housekeeper evolves considerably from the 1870s and 1880s ndash the housewife being more and more deprived of salaried servants and family helpers buying more and more products formerly homemade and externalizing tasks such as the education of children and the care for the sick ndash the elaboration of systems of household management develops unabated As Ellen Richards noted in 1899 ldquohousekeeping no longer means washing dishes scrubbing floors making soap and candles it means spending a given amount of money for a great variety of ready-prepared articles and so using the commodities as to produce the greatest satisfaction and the best possible mental moral and physical resultsrdquo (Richards 1899 103)

School and classroom management is also considered Books on ldquoschool managementrdquo begin to appear at the beginning of the 19th century in Great Britain but become common from the 1860s and greatly develop in the United States at the very beginning of the 20th century (Catlow 1813 Gill 1857 Morrison 1859 Joyce 1863 Wickersham 1864 Harding 1872 Holbrook 1873 Kellogg 1880 Baldwin 1881 Raub 1882 Landon 1883 Major 1883 White 1893 Tompkins 1895 Collar and Crook 1901 Dutton 1903 Seeley 1903 J Taylor 1903 Chancellor 1904 and 1910 Prince 1906 Bagley 1907 Perry 1908 Arnold 1908 and 1916 Salisbury 1911 Rice 1913 Bennett 1917)

10

This literature is mainly written by progressive principals superintendent and teachers in normal school in order to present a new method of educating children as opposed to the mainly authoritarian and coercitive military-like style of the old system otherwise discarded under the names of the Police System or the Force System School managementrsquos theories share the same set of principles with other fields of management thought here examined but adds a recuring use of the term ldquoorganizationrdquo As a teacher in school management admits ldquowhatever difference there may be between a book on school management and one on the management of any other organization is only a difference in detailsrdquo (Tompkins 1895 32)

It is of course sometimes difficult to draw clear-cut distinctions between these publications Some authors eventually deal with the three topics in the same book or in separate publications John Henry Walsh writes for instance a Manual of Domestic Economy (1853) another of Domestic Medicine and Surgery (1858) edits a cookery book (1858) and authors books on dog management (1859) and horse management (1861) Apothecary James Nelson is the first to add hints on manners and education to his medical essay on the management of children (Nelson 1753) a practice soon to be imitated More generally farm management manuals often contain a chapter on the medical care of animals And the farm and the household are long inseparable The gentleman farmer Arthur Young notes for instance in 1770 that ldquoanother point of some consequence in a gentlemans oeconomical management is house-keeping so far as it concerns the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 240) And when established in 1923 the American Bureau of Home Economics is a part of the Department of Agriculture When it develops into a literary branch household management comes to absorb topics such as infancy management garden management and diseases management Esther Copleyrsquos cook book published in the 1820s presents the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts (Copley 182-) The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine similarly displays numerous advices on medicines as well as hints on husbandry and rural economy There is also a continuum between the management of women during pregnancy in labour in child-bed and the management of the children and of home Until the last quarter of the 19th century child management constitutes a part of the books on the domestic duties of housewives (Parkes 1825 Child 1831 Beecher 1841 Walsh 1853 Beeton 1861 Beecher and Stowe 1869 Mann 1878) Up to these years as Smuts remarks ldquomost of the burden of medical care fell on the women of the familyrdquo even among the well-to-do (Smuts 1959 13)

Similarly animal management falls under both the head of farm management and medical management Let us note here that the literature on horse management is considerable in the 19th century and goes beyond their use for farming (Flint 1815 Lawrence 1830 Nimrod 1831 Youatt 1834 Capt M 1842 Hieover 1848 Horlock and Weir 1855 Mayhem 1864 Mahon 1865 Graves and Prudden 1868 Sherer 1868 McClure 1870 Gough 1878 Reynolds 1882 Sample 1882 Magner 1886 Galvayne 1888 Cook 1891 Heard 1893 Armatage 1896 Adye 1903 Bell 1904 Axe 1905) The term ldquomanagementrdquo is commonly applied to the training handling and directing of a horse in its paces from the 16th century probably in consequence of the confusing proximity between the word ldquomanagerdquo and the French word ldquomanegravegerdquo (riding stable) Books on dogs management are also common (Ellis 1749 Cook 1826 Loudon 1851 Horlock 1852 Hill 1881 Sample 1882) as well as on sheep

11

mules cattle swine pigs and poultry (Daubenton 1782 Moubray 1816 Williams 1849 Youatt 1855 Jacques 1866 Graves and Prudden 1868 Sherer 1868 Vaniman 1885 Periam 188- Heard 1893) The same author may decline his system of management to various races of animals in the same book or in different ones such as William Youatt writting successively upon the management of horses (1834) sheeps (1836) cattle (1837) dogs (1854) and hogs (1855) or George Armatage dissertating about The Varieties and Management in Health and Disease of sheeps (1873) cattle (1893) and horses (1894)

The word ldquomanagementrdquo is often casted as a general umbrella to depict a broad field on interest For instance school management often includes ldquonot only school economy proper but also school government and school ethicsrdquo as well as school requisites school work and management of the teacher as states an American superintendent (Raub 1882 11-12) Some books might use the term in their title and no further in which case we suspect some editorsrsquo final suggestion to their authors On the contrary books might treat our four themes without using repetitively the notion of management And indeed many books are specifically devoted to child care from the end of the Middle Ages and to husbandry household administration and education from Antiquity We limit ouserves to those which made a thorough use of the term ldquomanagementrdquo to reflect upon their subject for we suggest that it is the mark of a peculiar way of thinking Moreover there exists an obvious discrepancy between the authorsrsquo cultural background and the epochs when they were writting even if many books are published and republished over times both in Great Britain and the United States Some are English other Americans and one or two books here considered are translations from the French But from the middle of the 18th century to the end of the 19th and whatever the part of the ocean we look at the word ldquomanagementrdquo keeps a stable meaning The great change will come as we should see at the beginning of the 20th century Finally the books herein examined did not have the same diffusion Some books have been widely read and served as models in each one in its peculiar field while others knew a single and confidential edition In infant management for instance the famous William Cadogan and Hugh Smith stood as authorities at the end of the 18th century The statistician agronomist and empirical scientist Arthur Young who imagined ldquosystems of managementrdquo as early as 1768 was similarly a reference in farm management In household administration Catharine Beecher Isbella Beeton and Ellen Richards have been popular references and still are Beecher authored ldquothe best-known treatises on domestic economy of the nineteenth centuty (Matthews 1987 31) Isbella Beetonrsquos 1861 book which popularized the expression ldquohousehold managementrdquo sold over sixty thousands copies in its first year of publication and almost two millions copies by 1868 (Humble 2000 vii) And Ellen Richards is considered as the ldquoprophetrdquo of home economics ldquoits interpreter its conservator its inspirer and to use her own word its engineerrdquo to quote another home economics proeminent figure (Bevier 1911 214)

The Logic Underlying the Early Uses of the Term ldquoManagementrdquo

In spite of obvious practical discrepancies the three types of literature here analyzed have common features First of all they are popular pedagogical and technical While they are often written by scholarly educated authors they are not theoretical or scientific treatises but aim at a relatively large and uneducated public

12

The title of one of these caracteristically stipulates that it is ldquowritten in a plain familiar stile to render it intelligible and useful to all mothers and those who have the management of infantsrdquo (Herdman 1804) As such advices on mothersrsquo and childrenrsquos management are often offered under the form of letters a format specially adopted for the friendly delivery of advices Most prefaces and introduction exhibit the same concern for intelligibility

Taken as a single corpus the books herein considered show a conceptual coherence and share a common understanding of the term ldquomanagementrdquo To manage then means to care to be industrious and to make efficient to drive and improve to arrange and act in a systematic way to count and calculate

If most of the books here gathered consist merely in descriptive lists of empirical practices some attempt at formulating general principles and laws out of it Whether explicitely or implicitely these principles are linked to one another and form a kind of system Indeed the care should be efficient accounting should be regular in order to gain appropriate knowledge gaining knowledge should be useful for training keeping records and setting time-tables has an important influence in promoting regularity etc As states pioneering educator Joseph Baldwin ldquoschool management is the art of so directing school affairs as to produce system order and efficiencyrdquo (Baldwin 1881 15)

Care One of the first predominant meaning of the term management is to look after to

take care to breed to cultivate to maintain The principle of care is the nodal point of the different understanding of the literature on management in the 18th ang 19th century Of course infants and children management means their proper care In this case authors may use the terms ldquonursing or maternal managementrdquo indifferently (Barrett 1875 10) The notion of ldquomanagementrdquo is more generally applied to the care of fragile human beings subject to diseases and accidents such as pregnant mothers sick-persons and old people ldquoThe care is allrdquo in farm management as well as writes the pamphleteer farmer and journalist William Cobbett (Cobbett 1821 113) The proper care given to the soil the animals and the equipment forms the core of what is meant in this literature by ldquomanagementrdquo

This principle of care signifies the prevention of depletion and if necessary the medical treatment of diseases ldquoManagement in health and diseaserdquo is a much common formula Treating illness is thus a necessary part of a careful management and the terms ldquomanagementrdquo and ldquotreatmentrdquo are often synonymous Logically books on infant management are predominantly written by physicians and those on animal management by veterinaries But to care for is not the business of the sole doctor and the very reason for the existence of such books is that as Thomas Williams states it ldquoa knowledge of the proper management of domestic animals and particularly of the causes preventives symptoms and treatment of the various complaintsthey are subject to should be possessed by every farmerrdquo (Williams 1849 9)

Hygiene cleanliness and sanitation are dominant elements in writtings on management and even on school management ldquoSchool hygiene and school management are inseparablerdquo states for instance the president of an American normal school (Salisbury 1911 54) Books on household management often devote a chapter to this issue

13

In a way a proper medical management consists in preventing diseases more than in curing it not in turning every mother into a physician but into a superintendent capable of giving effect to the prescriptions of a physician As a general rule states a scottish doctor and physiologist ldquowhere the child is well managed medicine of any kind is very rarely requiredrdquo (Combe 1840 77) An English doctor warns for himself his readers in these terms ldquoI shall not trouble you with the curative part of diseases incident to children that being altogether the concern of the physician [] This present system of nursing is intended only to manage children so as to prevent illnessrdquo (Smith 1792 163-164) An anonymous writer similarly states ldquoI wish to enable my fair readers to manage the infants committed to their care without being obliged to call in a physician for every trifling indispositionrdquo (Anonymous 1811 39) Similarly a horse breeder advises that ldquoa judicious change of food efficient stable management and proper arrangements for work can accomplish all that is necessary for the conservation of health in sound horses in a better and safer manner than the exhibition of medicamentsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 98)

To care is also the leading principle structuring the different methods of household management Their objective is invariably as an author sums it up ldquothe maximum of health physical mental and moralrdquo (Terrill 1905 14) According to Ellen Richards who is considered as the mother of home economics ldquothe ideal of lsquohomersquo is protection from dangers from within bad habits bad food bad air dirt and abuse shelter in fact from all stunting agencies just as the gardener protects his tender plants until they become strong enough to stand by themselvesrdquo (Richards 1910 73) Let us note here that this predominance of the principle of care in the first meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo should not receive a gender explaination as analysis and histories of household management often occasion Farming was predominantly a manly practice and it stressed the importance of caring as much as the more womanly activities of the household Similarly caring is a pivotal element of the more womanly activities of class management as well as of the more manly activities of school management

More generally the usual application of the term ldquomanagementrdquo includes such operations as the breeding rearing curing and proper care of living beings including crops plants bees and animals as well as of peculiar parts of the body such as the teeth and eyes of human beings and the horses feet and legs Some authors may talk about ldquomoralrdquo and ldquomental managementrdquo of children and adults (for example Thompson 1841) and eventually of the moral management of insane persons (Haslam 1817 Millingen 1841) But it is also widely applied to the careful maintenance of the house and of the farming tools In the second half of the 19th century several engineers and machinists adopt this meaning of the term management to describe the maintenance and repairing of motors machines boilers and diverse kinds of machinery Emory Edwardsrsquo book still reedited today typically gives ldquosome general rules for the care and management of steam-engines and boilersrdquo (Edwards 1882 390) Writers using in this perspective the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo were not marginal and included personalities such as Zerah Colburn editor of one of Britainrsquos leading technical journal in the middle on the 19th century (Ward 1847 Colburn 1851 Bourne 1861 Watson 1867 Roper 1875 and 1889 Shock 1880 Edwards 1882 Smith 1882 Sinclair 1885 Tompkins 1889 Lieckfeld 1896 Moulson et alii 1898 Houghtaling 1899 Biggs 189- Homans 1902 Tulley 1907)

14

Industry and Efficiency Industry and efficiency form the second structuring managerial principle of the

arts of nursing husbandry and housekeeping For our authors nothing is worst than keeping idle the soil animals or men Medical advisers repeatedly stress the importance of exercises for the proper development of children But it is in farm household and school management that these principles of industry and efficiency is the most prevalent

At the end of the 18th century the experimental agronomist Arthur Young try to call attention to the extent of land lying waste in Great Britain (Young 1773) The word economy is thus used commonly in the sense of thrift and of a judicious use of resource The insistence on the profitability of a farm or of a particular crop then means more their productivity than a potential pecuniary profit on a market To the authors here considered the purpose of farm management is not to produce a lot but to produce more with less As an example the advocate of ldquoscientific agriculturerdquo Charles Fox in his text book on farm management makes it clear that ldquothe object of the practical farmer is to raise from a given area of land the largest quantity of the most profitable produce at the least costrdquo (Fox 1854 3) Meanwhile he hardly talks about buying selling and markets

In household management to be industrious and keep good hours is a necessity As states the Housekeeperrsquos magazine in 1825 ldquoabsolute idleness is inexcusable in a woman because the needle is always at hand for those intervals in which she cannot be otherwise employedrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) Similarly in their famous book on housekeeping Catharine Beecher and Harriet Stowe warn their readers about their ldquoobligation to spend every hour for some useful endrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 215) Besides being industrious a housekeeper must be efficient wether in making or in spending The purpose of the Cassells Household Guide is thus to show ldquohow by the minimum of expenditure the maximum of comfort and of luxury may be obtainedrdquo (Cassells Household Guide 1869 1) In this perspective notes a regular contributor to the Ladies Home Journal magazine economy in the home ldquomeans that everything is put to its proper use and there is no wasterdquo and most of all ldquothat the most precious thing (sic) in it mdash the mother mdash shall not be misused or wastedrdquo (Parloa 1898 258 and 352) That is careful management means frugality in the use of money equipment and human beings According to Ellen Richards it is the increasing resort to calculation on a money basis which has led to this emphasis on efficiency ldquoin these days of consolidation for the purpose of cutting down expenses days of close calculation of cost when everything is reduced to a money basis in production it is not surprising that discussion should have arisen over the great waste involved in the keeping up of fifty kitchen-fires to do the work that five would dordquo (Richards 1899 1)

Industry is a disciplining tool much recommended by school and classroom management writers ldquoThe art of school management states characteristically an educational author consists very much in the art of giving enough and suitable employment Work must be given if good order is not obtained give morerdquo (Kellogg 1880 80) Similarly states an American superintendent ldquothe secret of success in managing small children as well as larger ones lies in giving them plenty to dordquo (Raub 1882 193) This principle of industry as in the cases of farm and household management comes generally along with the principle of efficiency According to John Gill for instance whose text-book on school management was a set text in many of the training colleges for teachers which were established after 1850 (Mugglestone 2006 291) school management or ldquoschool organization is a system of arrangements

15

designed to secure constant employment efficient instruction and moral control In other words it aims at providing the means of instructing and educating the greatest number in the most efficient manner and by the most economical expenditure of time and labourrdquo (Gill 1857 56) For another writer in school management ldquothe teachers work in school naturally falls into three great divisions which taken in logical order are mdash (1) organisation (2) discipline (3) teaching and unless all three receive due attention the work is not likely to be performed with that efficiency that economy of time and labour both of the teacher and of the pupils and that absence of friction which should characterise the operation of every good schoolrdquo (Landon 1883 109) Rice in his bestseller on scientific management in schools asserts that ldquoin the strict sense scientific management in education can only be defined as a system of management specifically directed toward the elimination of waste in teaching so that the children attending the schools may be duly rewarded for the expenditure of their time and effortrdquo (Rice 1913 viii) As puts it a professor of education in a book which went through more than thirty reprintings from 1907 to 1927 (Callahan 1962 7) the problem of classroom management ldquois a problem of economy it seeks to determine in what manner the working unit of the school plant may be made to return the largest dividend upon the material investment of time energy and moneyrdquo (Bagley 1907 2) Or as sums up another professor of education and author of a book on ldquoschool efficiencyrdquo ldquothe problem of school management is to give [people] as much as possible for their moneyrdquo (Bennett 1917 1-2)

From another perspective the very purpose of school management is to form future industrious citizens An English inspector of board schools insists for instance upon ldquothe true objects and aims of school management which are the promoting of the good habits of cheerful industry all-conquering thoroughness orderly disposition of time and labor and the practice of useful activityrdquo (Holbrook 1873 179) According to a much cited professor of education writing a generation later ldquothe aim of the school may be formulated as social efficiency Whatever the school undertakes to accomplish must be judged in the light of this standardrdquo that is to turn every child into a ldquosocially efficient individualrdquo (Bagley 1907 7-8) As states professor of pedagogy Arnold Tompkins ldquoit is needless to urge that a school thoroughly organized and managed with its regular exact and punctual requirement in performance of duty is a most powerful means of bringing the pupil into the habit and spirit of industrial life [] The public school artfully managed is the very institution to supply to society members who are not simply industrious by force of conviction and habit but who have the joy of industry in the heartrdquo (Tompkins 1895 206-207)

Handling Driving Improving Perhaps the most common significance of the verb ldquoto managerdquo from its first uses

at the end of the 16th century is ldquoto handlerdquo ldquoto conductrdquo or ldquoto carry onrdquo (Murray 1908 104-105) The verb is applied to inanimate things such as weapons instuments vehicules and affairs to actions and operations to institutions such as households and states and to animals primarily horses and cattle

In many of the texts here considered the word management means altogether breeding training and curing It often refers to the training of a particular animal the horse being by far the main sort considered with dogs coming in a second position The managing of an animal refers for instance to its breeding rearing taming ldquobreaking or learningrdquo (Ellis 1749 ChII) exercising subduing educating

16

conducting and driving That is managing means more ndash or less ndash than rude disciplining For instance goodness and patience rather than ldquomain strength and stupid harshnessrdquo (Graves and Prudden 1868 38) are systematically recommended in the management of horses ldquoKindness goes far in managing these noble animalsrdquo confirms the cavalry officer Mahon (1865 49) An anonymous mother also writes that children ldquoare much better and more easily managed by kindness and it is quite easy to be firm with a child without being angry or severerdquo (Anonymous 1884 62) For most of authors on school and classroom management cooperation more than discpline is the basis of a sound eduction as military methods of instruction are rejected in a distant past ldquoReproof and privations writes an educational pioneer are the only punishments ordinarily needed in school or family The management should be so systematic and vigorous as to render severer punishments unnecessaryrdquo (Baldwin 1881 166)

This meaning of management also appears on the books considering the rearing of infants and children which purpose is their rise and progress as well as in books on school and classroom management In both cases a good management mostly consists in giving proper habits ndash that is organized reactions For instance writes an American professor of pedagogy ldquothe school should be managed with the conscious purpose of forming habits of orderrdquo (Tompkins 1895 203) A very influential professor of education could even formulate a ldquolaw of habit-buildingrdquo ldquoFocalization of consciousness upon the process to be automatized plus attentive repetition of this process permitting no exceptions until automatism resultsrdquo (Bagley 1907 16) This educating process also applies to the training of household servants a subject of a foremost intest for the early writers on household management In some cases notes Mary Elizabeth Carter servants ldquomay like boys and girls have to be taught and trained in habits of cleanliness and orderrdquo (Carter 1904 115) It also applies to the education of the future housewife which become part of the syllabus of ldquoDomestic Sciencerdquo in universities at the end of the 19th century Logically the term management was commonly applied from the middle of the 19th century to the tasks of the teacher in charge of developing his or her pupils along physical mental and moral lines Besides many books on school management note that the old days teacher was mainly superintending while the modern one is mainly teaching Most also states that teaching has become a profession and as such necessitates a proper training ldquoThe teacher writes an editor of the New York School Journal must study to be a good teacher the art of school management in its best sense turns upon thatrdquo (Kellogg 1880 78)

By essence conduct books devise ways of improving their readersrsquo behavior As scientific disciplines develop the housewife is for instance to gain knowledge in chemistry physics and psychology In her first best-selling book Catharine Beecher who can envision the task of housewife as a ldquoprofessionrdquo (Beecher 1841 5) recommend that domestic economy should be made ldquoa regular part of school educationrdquo and not taught at home by the mothers often ignorant of the true rules of this science (Ibid 63)

For behind the idea of training lies the principle of progress As early as the 17th century enlighted farmers began to shake the bounds of tradition by submitting agriculture to rational scrutiny and experiment (Best 1642) In the 19th century the home which may seem like the bastion of tradition was subject to many methods for improving its running

The very purpose of most of the early books on management is the education of their reader A majority of it aims conscienciously at being pedagogical and popular sharing this common faith in the power of knowledge and in the benefits of mass

17

education which made its way through Europe and the United States from the 18th century The doctor Anthony Thompson characteristically states that ldquothe most judicious plan of medical management may be devised and the plainest directions for its fulfilment may be delivered to the attendants of the sick-room but without more information on the subject than is at present possessed by the females of a household and especially by those whose duty it is to superintend the execution of the orders of the Physician little benefit can be anticipated to the invalidrdquo (Thompson 1841 vii)

Order Arrangement System Regulation Order arrangement system and regulation are watchwords of the 18th and 19th

century literature on management and especially of the literature on farm and household management The expressions ldquosystem of managingrdquo ldquoplan of managementrdquo ldquomethod of managementrdquo are found in almost every book here considered The very idea of management seem to imply the notion of a regular and ordered system The Housekeeperrsquos magazine even talks about the ldquobest-regulated familyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg3 52) and Catharine Beecher of ldquoa systematic and well-regulated familyrdquo (Beecher 1841 126) For a widely read authoress of books on household administration for instance ldquomethod and order are two most important factors in the management of the householdrdquo (Parloa 1898 61) Regarding accounts writes the author of a ldquosystem of practical domestic economyrdquo ldquoregularity is the very life and soul of economyrdquo (Anonymous 1827 380) The setting of a routine and the search for regularity are especially praised in the rearing of children and of animals Thus according to a horse expert ldquoone of the first things desirable in stable management is rule by rule I mean a regular way of doing thingsrdquo (Hieover 1848 90) Similarly school management thinkers praise order and system and order ldquoSystem in school management is a necessityrdquo states one of them (Raub 1882 196) ldquoOrderliness in general matters of school management writes another is a right upon which it is unnecessary to insist The child has the right to expect regular periods for school work orderly entrance and dismissal etc care of clothing uniformity in certain aspects of discipline and the likerdquo (Arnold 1908 174) As states an English inspector of board schools ldquoThe first requisite of good management in all schools is orderrdquo (Major 1883 209) For a fourth author on this subject an ldquoimportant device in school management is the adoption of a self-regulating system [] A school is a sort of mechanism and all its movements must be regular to avoid confusion and waste of timerdquo (White 1893 94-95) As recognizes Dr Arnold Tompkins of Illinois University for whom ldquono means ever devised is more potent than an efficient system of school managementrdquo ldquowe are quite strictly materialists in school management setting objective and fixed forms and rules hard and fast over against a growing and pulsating liferdquo (Tompkins 1895 208 and 14)

Arthur Young who was to become Secretary to the English Board of Agriculture could be called the Frederick Taylor of farm management not in the sense that he animated and inspired a school but in the sense that he attempted to ldquoreduce multifarious fugitive subjects to some degree of order and even principlesrdquo articulated into a rational ldquosystem of general managementrdquo (Young 1770b 2-3) His purpose being to see husbandry ldquobuilt upon as just and philosophic principles as the art of medicinerdquo (Ibid 175) Young thus applied an experimental and scientific outlook to husbandry Talking about accounts he states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) He thus draws ldquoschemes of conducting farmsrdquo

18

with an eye to constant improvements (Young 1770b 34) To him the superiority of the gentleman over the common farmer lay in his capacity to acquire new knowledge not in his application of old ones To him it is thus important to devise a ldquoplan of agricultural operationrdquo (Young 1770a vol 2 471) What he calls the ldquosystem of managementrdquo or ldquotrain of managementrdquo of a farm is nothing but the division arrangement and proportionning of its land cattle and labour Young thus elaborate methods and calculus for a efficient division of work which he calls ldquodisposition of the teamsrdquo (Young 1770b 25) and which takes the form of distribution of ploughs horses ox and laborers He proposes for instance a table with the distribution of 16 servants 11 laborers and 16 boys for the ploughs harrowing team carried over brought over rolling horse hoeing road team ox team ditto carting extra team shepherd exen steers swine cows Young also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men As it sums it up himslef a certain portion of time a certain portion of space and ldquoa certain portion of hands are assigned to each businessrdquo (Ibid 60)

According to a prolific author of conduct books ldquothat house only is well conducted where there is a strict attention paid to order and regularity To do every thing in its proper time to keep every thing in its right place and to use every thing for its proper use is the very essence of good managementrdquo (Taylor 1815 27) Similarly according to the author of a Modern System of Domestic Cookery a ldquosystem of domestic management is the foundation of all the comfort and welfare of private familiesrdquo (Radcliffe 1823 1) But Catharine Beecher is the first one to devise in 1841 such a ldquosystematic plan of domestic economyrdquo (Beecher 1841 157) in a book notes a literature teacher specialist of Catharine Beecher which ldquowent through fifteen editions between 1841 and 1856 and established Beecher as the nations foremost authority on household practicerdquo (Tonkovich in Beecher and Stowe 1869 xiii) According to her philosophy ldquoit is wise therefore for all persons to devise a general plan which they will at least keep in view and aim to accomplish and by which a proper proportion of time shall be secured for all the duties of liferdquo (Ibid 158) She thus advocates a ldquosystematic employment of timerdquo (Ibid 160 Beecher and Stowe 1870 196) Beecher and her sister Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote in a later book ldquoEvery young lady can systematize her pursuits to a certain extent She can have a particular day for mending her wardrobe and for arranging her trunks closets and drawers She can keep her work-basket her desk at school and all her other conveniences in their proper places and in regular order She can have regular periods for reading walking visiting study and domestic pursuits And by following this method in youth she will form a taste for regularity and a habit of system which will prove a blessing to her through liferdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 202) The housekeeper should not limit her division and arrangement of work to the servants but strive for ldquothe apportioning of regular employment to the various members of a family If a housekeeper can secure the cooperation of all her family she will find that lsquomany hands make light workrsquordquo (Beecher 1841 163) Adding that ldquoa woman is under obligations so to arrange the hours and pursuits of her family as to promote systematic and habitual industryrdquo (Ibid 185) For that purpose she draws plans of houses and domestic conveniences (Ibid ch XXIV)

Both Young and Beecher show the conspicuous features that exhibit the literature on farm and household management a quest for regularity and order systematicity planning selection as well as the arrangement of work and division of labor But elaboration of methods and plans are also common in medical management literature The doctor Cadogan proposes as early as 1748 a ldquoPlan of Nursingrdquo (Cadogan 1748 21)

19

This systematic frame of mind is first expressed by medical farm and household management writers not so much in a desire to standardize but in a constant effort to codify That is routines are not systematically reduced to a measurable standard but they are carefully specified often regarding a specific time and place The very idea of writting a book imply this logic of formalizing and codifying a set of practices The most methodic books circumscribe the mother farmer and housekeeperrsquos tasks and codify it in every detail Most of the books on infant management codify the childrenrsquos dress from the shoes to the cap their cleanliness bathing foods drinks exercise amusements sleep education and employments Isabella Beetonrsquos 1861 book codified every aspect of household management and even every aspect of a diner given at home or in paying visits of condoleance This very idea of codification is best exemplified by the recurring planning tools proposed by most of these books such as detailed plans of houses diagrams of kitchen schedules work orders tables of duties calendars reminder cards and files bulletin boards ledgers accounting books individual calendars or written menus to be posted in pantry and kitchen (Cf for instance figure below from US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932 202) An author even recommends the use of ldquoprinted rules

in bath room [] giving a few very simple admonitions upon what is lsquogood formrsquo in a lavatory of any sortrdquo (Carter 1904 93) For the ldquohousehold engineerrdquo Christine Frederick ldquostandard practice means then written directions as to method and tools and timerdquo (Frederick 1919 152)

Even if most of English and American homes employed less than ten servants and therefore knew in a limited degree the division labor Nevertheless remarks the author of a ldquodomestic economy and household sciencerdquo manual ldquoin most households it is found necessary to divide the work which has to be done amongst various people

20

and to have some of these especially trained for certain parts of it such as cooking the food cleaning the house and waiting upon the inmates The arranging of all this work has to be thought of and planned by the master and mistress who are the responsible controllers and heads of the house Thus the duties of servants their relations to their employers and their good management or handling are also matters with which domestic economy has to dealrdquo (Mann 1878 5)

Much of the books on school management devote a chapter or a whole part to ldquoorganizationrdquo which usally contains instructions regarding the number and size of the classes the distribution of the staff the syllabus of work for each class the classification of the scholars and the time table It may picture plans of the school or at least of the ideal classroom and some even specify the way children should be gathered and circulate wtihin their class (Cf right time table and plan of a school reproduced from Collar and Crook 1901 41) For an influential writer on school management ldquothe particulars embraced under organization comprise the arrangements of the rooms classification of the children duties of the master subordinates distribution of work and time tablesrdquo (Gill 1857 57) Under the head of organization the rector of a Glasgow school thus describe for instance ldquothe arrangement of desks most suitable to the efficient management of a schoolrdquo (Morrison 1859 44) Another author talks about ldquothe distribution of the teaching powerrdquo (Landon 1883 110)

According to the authors of farm management books good husbandry is not a matter of duplicating age-old recipes but a matter of choices and of planning choice of a location of a farm og a kind of farming (intensive or extensive) of crops of livestock of horses of equipment of implements of calendar etc All these parameters interacts As such states Young husbandry can never arrive at perfection ldquoif the exact degree of every vegetable cultivated be not known in relation to soil and management and in a word if all the the various branches of this complex art be not so thoroughly sifted and examined as to be familiar in every combinationrdquo (Young 1770b 150-151) A century later Robert Scott Burn advises his readers to select their animals with regards to ldquothe soil its cropping size locality and climaterdquo (Burn 1877 29) Richard Reynolds states for himself that ldquoalmost every treatise upon the management of farm-horses contain formulae of food allowances applicable for use at certain seasons and during the performance of certain agricultural operationsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 52) Similarly the proper selection of a new house of servants of food of menus of activities for the children and even ldquothe choice of friendsrdquo and new acquaintances (Parkes 1825 Part I Conversations II and III) are important dimensions of household management For a household editor for the Ladies Home Journal if a housekeeper ldquodoes not know that round steak at 20 cents a pound possesses as much nutriment as the

21

porterhouse at 26 cents she will not expend wisely or economically She should know something of the idea of a lsquobalanced mealrsquo and what foods will give it the place of milk fruit and eggs in the diet what are healthful meat substitutes and the nourishment of various kinds of breads vegetables and cerealsrdquo (Frederick 1913 105)

Most of the book on children management describe curricula proper to their development For instance in his Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children written in 1792 Smith formulates ldquorulesrdquo describes ldquobest methodsrdquo and offers detailed prescriptions for the management of children ldquolet their breakfast at six or seven in the morning be half a pint of new milk with about two ounces of bread in it mdash the second meal should be half a pint of good broth with the same quantity of bread let this be given about ten or eleven in the morning mdash the third meal about two or three in the afternoon should be broth in like manner mdash and their supper about six in the evening new milk and bread the same as for breakfastrdquo (Smith 1792 140) Most of books on children management give advices regarding their different stages of life and notably the periods of weaning and of dentition Samuel Smiles the famous surgeon presents ldquoin a tabular form what [he] conceive[s] ought to be the proper disposition of time in childhood boyhood adolescenceand adult age in order to the attainment of a full development of the mental faculties with a corresponding healthy completion of the physical structurerdquo (Smiles 1838 188) As such for each period of age he precises ldquothe hours that should be devoted to exercise exercise with instruction tuition relaxation and sleeprdquo (Cf table below from Ibid 188) Similarly many household management books propose plans for the distribution of tasks settled down to the day and even down to the quarter of an hour (Butterworth 1902 27-28) According to the Housekeeperrsquos magazine ldquoearly rising and a good disposition of time is essential to Economyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) As early as 1825 Frances Parkes proposes a ldquosystem of Domestic Dutyrdquo (Parkes 1825 22) which regulates the ldquodisposal of timerdquo (Ibid 16) ldquoAs much time is saved or rather gained by a regular disposal of each division of the day I recommend to you to plan the whole out every morning and as far as you can command circumstances to pursue that plan steadilyrdquo (Ibid 317) Almanachs are important tools of farm and household regulation of time and farming operations also obeys to calendars and a precise chronological pattern The combination of these different parameters require an ordered mind as it is repeatedly remarked in farm management books ldquoA time-table is to a school what grammar is to a languagerdquo says an Irish head-master who participated in the task of ldquointroducing among the national schools [of Ireland] an improved and uniform organization and of diffusing among the national teachers a more extensive practical knowledge of school keepingrdquo (Joyce 1863 37 and vii) As such he codifies a regular day at school hour by hour beginning in such a manner ldquoldquo955 to 10 Inspection as to cleanliness mdash At five minutes to ten the children should be arranged according to their divisions and drafts either in the playground or in the school- room and the teacher after a hasty glance to see that their hands faces and hair are clean and neat marches all to their several places This preliminary business should not encroach on the school time the first lessons should be actually commencing at 10 oclockrdquo (Ibid 59) For another writer on school management it is obvious that ldquothere must be a well devised program distributing the time properly among the various classes and that it must be inflexibly followedrdquo (Kellogg 1880 92) Such time-tables are a common feature of school management books

The question of ldquoarrangementrdquo that is of planning space is a common feature of farm and household management books ldquoA place for everything and everything in its

22

placerdquo is a recurring moto of 18th and 19th centuries management books Books on farm management thus frequently offer developments the arrangement of the fields and even latter on the planning of farm buildings fields or poultry houses (Dickson 1853) As early as 1768 Arthur Young underline the ldquogeneral benefit which arises from a judicious arrangement of a farmrdquo by a farmer and especially ldquothe arranging his lands properly for his cropsrdquo (Young 1768 156-157 and 158) Another author underlines that ldquobesides a most rigid and accurate set of account booksrdquo ldquoan accurate plan of each field should also be had showing the position of drains with their outfalls position of fences and gates and another detailing the mode of cropping and the part of the rotation under which at the stated intervals it comes to be placedrdquo (Burn 1877 29) Warren in his classic book on farm management proposes schemes of farm layout location size and shape of fields (Warren 1913 365-368) Regarding household management such author may propose ldquoplans of houses suited to townsrdquo (Walsh 1853 96) this one a plan of the pantries (Parloa 1898 15) while another calls for ldquoscientific house-planningrdquo (Bruere 1912 174) Ellen Richards prescriptions for the arrangement of a house include such elements as windows walls sink bathtub florrs woodwork stair rails and supports plumbing vaccum cleaner gas burners screens etc (Richards 1911) Beecher and Stowe add to their sketch of ldquomodel cottage-ground plan and roomsrdquo ldquoIn the description and arrangement the leading aim is to show how time labor and expense are saved not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangementrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 24) For the real purpose of planning is often both order and efficiency For instance

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

8

most of these books are practical catalogues of advices for the care of the farmrsquos livestock horses soil cooking food dairy equipment and buildings Some do nevertheless intend to extract general principles out of the myriad of husbandry practices Arthur Young stands among other as the great theorician of farm management from the end of the 18th century

The second corpus of literature widely using the term management concern the care of the mother and her infant (Cadogan 1748 Hill 1754 Theobald 1764 White 1773 Hamilton 1781 Moss 1781 Underwood 1789 Smith 1792 Clarke 1793 Seaman 1800 Hume 1802 Herdman 1804 Bard 1807 Anonymous 1811 Taylor 1816 Appleton 1820 Flint 1826 Fox 1834 Alcott 1836 Evanson and Maunsell 1836 Charles 1838 Chavasse 1839 1843 Bull 1840 Combe 1840 Cory 1844 Hancorn 1844 Hogg 1849 Barker 1865 Powers 1866 Getchell 1868 Vines 1868 Braidwood 1874 Barrett 1875 Dix 1880 Duncan 1880 Keeting 1881 Anonymous 1884 Bruen 1887 Starr 1889 Griffith 1898)

Most of these books focus on infants till weaning while latter books may apply the term ldquomanagementrdquo to the handling of older children and even of adolescents (Abbott 1871 Shearer 1904) In the whole ldquowritten for the young and inexperienced motherrdquo (Bull 1840 iii) they display in a plain familiar style medical and para-medical advices descriptions of pathologies and treatments as well as hints on moral and physical education with a particular view on hygiene Most of these books pay a great attention to the motherrsquos and her childrenrsquos environment and sanitary condition Here is an example of the classical exposition as sumed up by two irish professors of medecine in a much quoted treatise (Evanson and Maunsell 1836 14) ldquoThe subjects treated of in the ensuing chapters naturally divide themselves under two heads viz 1 Those which relate to the management of children in order to the preservation of their health and the removal or prevention of any cause that might obstruct their moral and physical development and 2 Those which relate to the detection discrimination and treatment of diseases to which the constitution of the child is liablerdquo The common book on infant management thus teaches mothers the proper superintendance of its health growth and development in their multiple dimension ldquohow often to bathe suitable diet air exercise and a regular manner of livingrdquo as writes the physician the Princess of Wales (Underwood 1789 10) as well as drinking motions rest sleep clothing retentions secretions excretions diseases passions and cultivation of the mind For example an anonymous american matronrsquos treatise on the nurture and management of infants written in 1811 treats the following topics the washing of infants their clothing how often should they be changed their combing their feeding the curing of begnign indispositions and slight and common complaints (such as wind in the stomach and bowels retention of the urine sore ears and eyes vomiting convulsions fever cutting of the tongue) exercise and rest teething ldquoteaching infants the right use of their handsrdquo (left- of righthanded) setting them on their feet ldquodirections as to the best manner and time of weaning infants and the diet best adapted to promote their health after they are weanedrdquo as weel as ldquothe early regulation of the infant temper and dispositionrdquo (Anomymous 1811) Some treatises and manuals are dedicated to the care of a peculiar organ disease or symptom and occasionally to onersquos general health (Bell 1779 Wilson 1847 Baird 1867 Vines 1868 Godfrey 1872 Drewry 1875 Bulkley 1875 Angell 1878 Lyman 1884) In particular the management of teeth is considered for himself (James 1814 Parmly 1819 Clark 1835 Spooner 1836 Knapp 1840 Palmer 1853)

From the beginning of the 19th century blossom books and magazines of advices to middle-class women not only in their quality of mothers and nurses but also as mistresses of a family housekeepers and cooks (Taylor 1815 Radcliffe 1823 Parkes

9

1825 The Economist and General Adviser 1825 The Modern Housekeeper 1826 Anonymous 1827 Copley 182- Child 1829 and 1831 Ellis 1839 Cobbett [183-] Beecher 1841 Walsh 1853 Beeton 1861 Cassells Household Guide 1869 Beecher and Stowe 1870 Caddy 1877 Mann 1878 Parloa 1879 Sylvain 1881 Corson 1885 Campbell 1896 Parloa 1898 Richards 1899 Butterworth 1902 Lucas 1904 Carter 1904 Terrill 1905 Hunt 1908 Richards 1910 Ravenhill and Schiff 1911 Bruere 1912 Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 Frederick 1913 and 1919 Pattison 1915 Gilbreth 1927 US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932)

The terms ldquodomestic managementrdquo ldquohome-managementrdquo ldquohousehold managementrdquo ldquofamily managementrdquo ldquothe management of the house and householdrdquo are then used to describe not only common household tasks but the general appearance and train de vie of the family According to the most popular writer of Victorian conduct literature ldquoin England there is a kind of science of good household management which if it consisted merely in keeping the house respectable in its physical character might be left to the effectual working out of hired hands but happily for the women of England there is a philosophy in this science by which all their highest and best feelings are called into exercise Not only must the house be neat and clean but it must be so ordered as to suit the tastes of all as far as may be without annoyance or offence to anyrdquo (Ellis 1839 25-26 my emphasis) Such manuals are in the whole more informal lists of advices than theoretical treatises They often mingle plans principles rules and technical instructions for such things as cooking keeping and dressing food carving sewing knitting trussing mending cleaning sweeping dusting caring of furniture and beds warming ventilating destroying noxious insects washing starching ironing cleansing whitening dyeing upkeeping yards gardens and animals nursing caring for the poor marketing furnishing and decorating The subtitle of Anne Cobbettrsquos most famous Manual of Domestic Management sums up what the term ldquohousehold managementrdquo could stand for at the beginning of the 19th century Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs (Cobbett 183-) While the task of the housekeeper evolves considerably from the 1870s and 1880s ndash the housewife being more and more deprived of salaried servants and family helpers buying more and more products formerly homemade and externalizing tasks such as the education of children and the care for the sick ndash the elaboration of systems of household management develops unabated As Ellen Richards noted in 1899 ldquohousekeeping no longer means washing dishes scrubbing floors making soap and candles it means spending a given amount of money for a great variety of ready-prepared articles and so using the commodities as to produce the greatest satisfaction and the best possible mental moral and physical resultsrdquo (Richards 1899 103)

School and classroom management is also considered Books on ldquoschool managementrdquo begin to appear at the beginning of the 19th century in Great Britain but become common from the 1860s and greatly develop in the United States at the very beginning of the 20th century (Catlow 1813 Gill 1857 Morrison 1859 Joyce 1863 Wickersham 1864 Harding 1872 Holbrook 1873 Kellogg 1880 Baldwin 1881 Raub 1882 Landon 1883 Major 1883 White 1893 Tompkins 1895 Collar and Crook 1901 Dutton 1903 Seeley 1903 J Taylor 1903 Chancellor 1904 and 1910 Prince 1906 Bagley 1907 Perry 1908 Arnold 1908 and 1916 Salisbury 1911 Rice 1913 Bennett 1917)

10

This literature is mainly written by progressive principals superintendent and teachers in normal school in order to present a new method of educating children as opposed to the mainly authoritarian and coercitive military-like style of the old system otherwise discarded under the names of the Police System or the Force System School managementrsquos theories share the same set of principles with other fields of management thought here examined but adds a recuring use of the term ldquoorganizationrdquo As a teacher in school management admits ldquowhatever difference there may be between a book on school management and one on the management of any other organization is only a difference in detailsrdquo (Tompkins 1895 32)

It is of course sometimes difficult to draw clear-cut distinctions between these publications Some authors eventually deal with the three topics in the same book or in separate publications John Henry Walsh writes for instance a Manual of Domestic Economy (1853) another of Domestic Medicine and Surgery (1858) edits a cookery book (1858) and authors books on dog management (1859) and horse management (1861) Apothecary James Nelson is the first to add hints on manners and education to his medical essay on the management of children (Nelson 1753) a practice soon to be imitated More generally farm management manuals often contain a chapter on the medical care of animals And the farm and the household are long inseparable The gentleman farmer Arthur Young notes for instance in 1770 that ldquoanother point of some consequence in a gentlemans oeconomical management is house-keeping so far as it concerns the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 240) And when established in 1923 the American Bureau of Home Economics is a part of the Department of Agriculture When it develops into a literary branch household management comes to absorb topics such as infancy management garden management and diseases management Esther Copleyrsquos cook book published in the 1820s presents the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts (Copley 182-) The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine similarly displays numerous advices on medicines as well as hints on husbandry and rural economy There is also a continuum between the management of women during pregnancy in labour in child-bed and the management of the children and of home Until the last quarter of the 19th century child management constitutes a part of the books on the domestic duties of housewives (Parkes 1825 Child 1831 Beecher 1841 Walsh 1853 Beeton 1861 Beecher and Stowe 1869 Mann 1878) Up to these years as Smuts remarks ldquomost of the burden of medical care fell on the women of the familyrdquo even among the well-to-do (Smuts 1959 13)

Similarly animal management falls under both the head of farm management and medical management Let us note here that the literature on horse management is considerable in the 19th century and goes beyond their use for farming (Flint 1815 Lawrence 1830 Nimrod 1831 Youatt 1834 Capt M 1842 Hieover 1848 Horlock and Weir 1855 Mayhem 1864 Mahon 1865 Graves and Prudden 1868 Sherer 1868 McClure 1870 Gough 1878 Reynolds 1882 Sample 1882 Magner 1886 Galvayne 1888 Cook 1891 Heard 1893 Armatage 1896 Adye 1903 Bell 1904 Axe 1905) The term ldquomanagementrdquo is commonly applied to the training handling and directing of a horse in its paces from the 16th century probably in consequence of the confusing proximity between the word ldquomanagerdquo and the French word ldquomanegravegerdquo (riding stable) Books on dogs management are also common (Ellis 1749 Cook 1826 Loudon 1851 Horlock 1852 Hill 1881 Sample 1882) as well as on sheep

11

mules cattle swine pigs and poultry (Daubenton 1782 Moubray 1816 Williams 1849 Youatt 1855 Jacques 1866 Graves and Prudden 1868 Sherer 1868 Vaniman 1885 Periam 188- Heard 1893) The same author may decline his system of management to various races of animals in the same book or in different ones such as William Youatt writting successively upon the management of horses (1834) sheeps (1836) cattle (1837) dogs (1854) and hogs (1855) or George Armatage dissertating about The Varieties and Management in Health and Disease of sheeps (1873) cattle (1893) and horses (1894)

The word ldquomanagementrdquo is often casted as a general umbrella to depict a broad field on interest For instance school management often includes ldquonot only school economy proper but also school government and school ethicsrdquo as well as school requisites school work and management of the teacher as states an American superintendent (Raub 1882 11-12) Some books might use the term in their title and no further in which case we suspect some editorsrsquo final suggestion to their authors On the contrary books might treat our four themes without using repetitively the notion of management And indeed many books are specifically devoted to child care from the end of the Middle Ages and to husbandry household administration and education from Antiquity We limit ouserves to those which made a thorough use of the term ldquomanagementrdquo to reflect upon their subject for we suggest that it is the mark of a peculiar way of thinking Moreover there exists an obvious discrepancy between the authorsrsquo cultural background and the epochs when they were writting even if many books are published and republished over times both in Great Britain and the United States Some are English other Americans and one or two books here considered are translations from the French But from the middle of the 18th century to the end of the 19th and whatever the part of the ocean we look at the word ldquomanagementrdquo keeps a stable meaning The great change will come as we should see at the beginning of the 20th century Finally the books herein examined did not have the same diffusion Some books have been widely read and served as models in each one in its peculiar field while others knew a single and confidential edition In infant management for instance the famous William Cadogan and Hugh Smith stood as authorities at the end of the 18th century The statistician agronomist and empirical scientist Arthur Young who imagined ldquosystems of managementrdquo as early as 1768 was similarly a reference in farm management In household administration Catharine Beecher Isbella Beeton and Ellen Richards have been popular references and still are Beecher authored ldquothe best-known treatises on domestic economy of the nineteenth centuty (Matthews 1987 31) Isbella Beetonrsquos 1861 book which popularized the expression ldquohousehold managementrdquo sold over sixty thousands copies in its first year of publication and almost two millions copies by 1868 (Humble 2000 vii) And Ellen Richards is considered as the ldquoprophetrdquo of home economics ldquoits interpreter its conservator its inspirer and to use her own word its engineerrdquo to quote another home economics proeminent figure (Bevier 1911 214)

The Logic Underlying the Early Uses of the Term ldquoManagementrdquo

In spite of obvious practical discrepancies the three types of literature here analyzed have common features First of all they are popular pedagogical and technical While they are often written by scholarly educated authors they are not theoretical or scientific treatises but aim at a relatively large and uneducated public

12

The title of one of these caracteristically stipulates that it is ldquowritten in a plain familiar stile to render it intelligible and useful to all mothers and those who have the management of infantsrdquo (Herdman 1804) As such advices on mothersrsquo and childrenrsquos management are often offered under the form of letters a format specially adopted for the friendly delivery of advices Most prefaces and introduction exhibit the same concern for intelligibility

Taken as a single corpus the books herein considered show a conceptual coherence and share a common understanding of the term ldquomanagementrdquo To manage then means to care to be industrious and to make efficient to drive and improve to arrange and act in a systematic way to count and calculate

If most of the books here gathered consist merely in descriptive lists of empirical practices some attempt at formulating general principles and laws out of it Whether explicitely or implicitely these principles are linked to one another and form a kind of system Indeed the care should be efficient accounting should be regular in order to gain appropriate knowledge gaining knowledge should be useful for training keeping records and setting time-tables has an important influence in promoting regularity etc As states pioneering educator Joseph Baldwin ldquoschool management is the art of so directing school affairs as to produce system order and efficiencyrdquo (Baldwin 1881 15)

Care One of the first predominant meaning of the term management is to look after to

take care to breed to cultivate to maintain The principle of care is the nodal point of the different understanding of the literature on management in the 18th ang 19th century Of course infants and children management means their proper care In this case authors may use the terms ldquonursing or maternal managementrdquo indifferently (Barrett 1875 10) The notion of ldquomanagementrdquo is more generally applied to the care of fragile human beings subject to diseases and accidents such as pregnant mothers sick-persons and old people ldquoThe care is allrdquo in farm management as well as writes the pamphleteer farmer and journalist William Cobbett (Cobbett 1821 113) The proper care given to the soil the animals and the equipment forms the core of what is meant in this literature by ldquomanagementrdquo

This principle of care signifies the prevention of depletion and if necessary the medical treatment of diseases ldquoManagement in health and diseaserdquo is a much common formula Treating illness is thus a necessary part of a careful management and the terms ldquomanagementrdquo and ldquotreatmentrdquo are often synonymous Logically books on infant management are predominantly written by physicians and those on animal management by veterinaries But to care for is not the business of the sole doctor and the very reason for the existence of such books is that as Thomas Williams states it ldquoa knowledge of the proper management of domestic animals and particularly of the causes preventives symptoms and treatment of the various complaintsthey are subject to should be possessed by every farmerrdquo (Williams 1849 9)

Hygiene cleanliness and sanitation are dominant elements in writtings on management and even on school management ldquoSchool hygiene and school management are inseparablerdquo states for instance the president of an American normal school (Salisbury 1911 54) Books on household management often devote a chapter to this issue

13

In a way a proper medical management consists in preventing diseases more than in curing it not in turning every mother into a physician but into a superintendent capable of giving effect to the prescriptions of a physician As a general rule states a scottish doctor and physiologist ldquowhere the child is well managed medicine of any kind is very rarely requiredrdquo (Combe 1840 77) An English doctor warns for himself his readers in these terms ldquoI shall not trouble you with the curative part of diseases incident to children that being altogether the concern of the physician [] This present system of nursing is intended only to manage children so as to prevent illnessrdquo (Smith 1792 163-164) An anonymous writer similarly states ldquoI wish to enable my fair readers to manage the infants committed to their care without being obliged to call in a physician for every trifling indispositionrdquo (Anonymous 1811 39) Similarly a horse breeder advises that ldquoa judicious change of food efficient stable management and proper arrangements for work can accomplish all that is necessary for the conservation of health in sound horses in a better and safer manner than the exhibition of medicamentsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 98)

To care is also the leading principle structuring the different methods of household management Their objective is invariably as an author sums it up ldquothe maximum of health physical mental and moralrdquo (Terrill 1905 14) According to Ellen Richards who is considered as the mother of home economics ldquothe ideal of lsquohomersquo is protection from dangers from within bad habits bad food bad air dirt and abuse shelter in fact from all stunting agencies just as the gardener protects his tender plants until they become strong enough to stand by themselvesrdquo (Richards 1910 73) Let us note here that this predominance of the principle of care in the first meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo should not receive a gender explaination as analysis and histories of household management often occasion Farming was predominantly a manly practice and it stressed the importance of caring as much as the more womanly activities of the household Similarly caring is a pivotal element of the more womanly activities of class management as well as of the more manly activities of school management

More generally the usual application of the term ldquomanagementrdquo includes such operations as the breeding rearing curing and proper care of living beings including crops plants bees and animals as well as of peculiar parts of the body such as the teeth and eyes of human beings and the horses feet and legs Some authors may talk about ldquomoralrdquo and ldquomental managementrdquo of children and adults (for example Thompson 1841) and eventually of the moral management of insane persons (Haslam 1817 Millingen 1841) But it is also widely applied to the careful maintenance of the house and of the farming tools In the second half of the 19th century several engineers and machinists adopt this meaning of the term management to describe the maintenance and repairing of motors machines boilers and diverse kinds of machinery Emory Edwardsrsquo book still reedited today typically gives ldquosome general rules for the care and management of steam-engines and boilersrdquo (Edwards 1882 390) Writers using in this perspective the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo were not marginal and included personalities such as Zerah Colburn editor of one of Britainrsquos leading technical journal in the middle on the 19th century (Ward 1847 Colburn 1851 Bourne 1861 Watson 1867 Roper 1875 and 1889 Shock 1880 Edwards 1882 Smith 1882 Sinclair 1885 Tompkins 1889 Lieckfeld 1896 Moulson et alii 1898 Houghtaling 1899 Biggs 189- Homans 1902 Tulley 1907)

14

Industry and Efficiency Industry and efficiency form the second structuring managerial principle of the

arts of nursing husbandry and housekeeping For our authors nothing is worst than keeping idle the soil animals or men Medical advisers repeatedly stress the importance of exercises for the proper development of children But it is in farm household and school management that these principles of industry and efficiency is the most prevalent

At the end of the 18th century the experimental agronomist Arthur Young try to call attention to the extent of land lying waste in Great Britain (Young 1773) The word economy is thus used commonly in the sense of thrift and of a judicious use of resource The insistence on the profitability of a farm or of a particular crop then means more their productivity than a potential pecuniary profit on a market To the authors here considered the purpose of farm management is not to produce a lot but to produce more with less As an example the advocate of ldquoscientific agriculturerdquo Charles Fox in his text book on farm management makes it clear that ldquothe object of the practical farmer is to raise from a given area of land the largest quantity of the most profitable produce at the least costrdquo (Fox 1854 3) Meanwhile he hardly talks about buying selling and markets

In household management to be industrious and keep good hours is a necessity As states the Housekeeperrsquos magazine in 1825 ldquoabsolute idleness is inexcusable in a woman because the needle is always at hand for those intervals in which she cannot be otherwise employedrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) Similarly in their famous book on housekeeping Catharine Beecher and Harriet Stowe warn their readers about their ldquoobligation to spend every hour for some useful endrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 215) Besides being industrious a housekeeper must be efficient wether in making or in spending The purpose of the Cassells Household Guide is thus to show ldquohow by the minimum of expenditure the maximum of comfort and of luxury may be obtainedrdquo (Cassells Household Guide 1869 1) In this perspective notes a regular contributor to the Ladies Home Journal magazine economy in the home ldquomeans that everything is put to its proper use and there is no wasterdquo and most of all ldquothat the most precious thing (sic) in it mdash the mother mdash shall not be misused or wastedrdquo (Parloa 1898 258 and 352) That is careful management means frugality in the use of money equipment and human beings According to Ellen Richards it is the increasing resort to calculation on a money basis which has led to this emphasis on efficiency ldquoin these days of consolidation for the purpose of cutting down expenses days of close calculation of cost when everything is reduced to a money basis in production it is not surprising that discussion should have arisen over the great waste involved in the keeping up of fifty kitchen-fires to do the work that five would dordquo (Richards 1899 1)

Industry is a disciplining tool much recommended by school and classroom management writers ldquoThe art of school management states characteristically an educational author consists very much in the art of giving enough and suitable employment Work must be given if good order is not obtained give morerdquo (Kellogg 1880 80) Similarly states an American superintendent ldquothe secret of success in managing small children as well as larger ones lies in giving them plenty to dordquo (Raub 1882 193) This principle of industry as in the cases of farm and household management comes generally along with the principle of efficiency According to John Gill for instance whose text-book on school management was a set text in many of the training colleges for teachers which were established after 1850 (Mugglestone 2006 291) school management or ldquoschool organization is a system of arrangements

15

designed to secure constant employment efficient instruction and moral control In other words it aims at providing the means of instructing and educating the greatest number in the most efficient manner and by the most economical expenditure of time and labourrdquo (Gill 1857 56) For another writer in school management ldquothe teachers work in school naturally falls into three great divisions which taken in logical order are mdash (1) organisation (2) discipline (3) teaching and unless all three receive due attention the work is not likely to be performed with that efficiency that economy of time and labour both of the teacher and of the pupils and that absence of friction which should characterise the operation of every good schoolrdquo (Landon 1883 109) Rice in his bestseller on scientific management in schools asserts that ldquoin the strict sense scientific management in education can only be defined as a system of management specifically directed toward the elimination of waste in teaching so that the children attending the schools may be duly rewarded for the expenditure of their time and effortrdquo (Rice 1913 viii) As puts it a professor of education in a book which went through more than thirty reprintings from 1907 to 1927 (Callahan 1962 7) the problem of classroom management ldquois a problem of economy it seeks to determine in what manner the working unit of the school plant may be made to return the largest dividend upon the material investment of time energy and moneyrdquo (Bagley 1907 2) Or as sums up another professor of education and author of a book on ldquoschool efficiencyrdquo ldquothe problem of school management is to give [people] as much as possible for their moneyrdquo (Bennett 1917 1-2)

From another perspective the very purpose of school management is to form future industrious citizens An English inspector of board schools insists for instance upon ldquothe true objects and aims of school management which are the promoting of the good habits of cheerful industry all-conquering thoroughness orderly disposition of time and labor and the practice of useful activityrdquo (Holbrook 1873 179) According to a much cited professor of education writing a generation later ldquothe aim of the school may be formulated as social efficiency Whatever the school undertakes to accomplish must be judged in the light of this standardrdquo that is to turn every child into a ldquosocially efficient individualrdquo (Bagley 1907 7-8) As states professor of pedagogy Arnold Tompkins ldquoit is needless to urge that a school thoroughly organized and managed with its regular exact and punctual requirement in performance of duty is a most powerful means of bringing the pupil into the habit and spirit of industrial life [] The public school artfully managed is the very institution to supply to society members who are not simply industrious by force of conviction and habit but who have the joy of industry in the heartrdquo (Tompkins 1895 206-207)

Handling Driving Improving Perhaps the most common significance of the verb ldquoto managerdquo from its first uses

at the end of the 16th century is ldquoto handlerdquo ldquoto conductrdquo or ldquoto carry onrdquo (Murray 1908 104-105) The verb is applied to inanimate things such as weapons instuments vehicules and affairs to actions and operations to institutions such as households and states and to animals primarily horses and cattle

In many of the texts here considered the word management means altogether breeding training and curing It often refers to the training of a particular animal the horse being by far the main sort considered with dogs coming in a second position The managing of an animal refers for instance to its breeding rearing taming ldquobreaking or learningrdquo (Ellis 1749 ChII) exercising subduing educating

16

conducting and driving That is managing means more ndash or less ndash than rude disciplining For instance goodness and patience rather than ldquomain strength and stupid harshnessrdquo (Graves and Prudden 1868 38) are systematically recommended in the management of horses ldquoKindness goes far in managing these noble animalsrdquo confirms the cavalry officer Mahon (1865 49) An anonymous mother also writes that children ldquoare much better and more easily managed by kindness and it is quite easy to be firm with a child without being angry or severerdquo (Anonymous 1884 62) For most of authors on school and classroom management cooperation more than discpline is the basis of a sound eduction as military methods of instruction are rejected in a distant past ldquoReproof and privations writes an educational pioneer are the only punishments ordinarily needed in school or family The management should be so systematic and vigorous as to render severer punishments unnecessaryrdquo (Baldwin 1881 166)

This meaning of management also appears on the books considering the rearing of infants and children which purpose is their rise and progress as well as in books on school and classroom management In both cases a good management mostly consists in giving proper habits ndash that is organized reactions For instance writes an American professor of pedagogy ldquothe school should be managed with the conscious purpose of forming habits of orderrdquo (Tompkins 1895 203) A very influential professor of education could even formulate a ldquolaw of habit-buildingrdquo ldquoFocalization of consciousness upon the process to be automatized plus attentive repetition of this process permitting no exceptions until automatism resultsrdquo (Bagley 1907 16) This educating process also applies to the training of household servants a subject of a foremost intest for the early writers on household management In some cases notes Mary Elizabeth Carter servants ldquomay like boys and girls have to be taught and trained in habits of cleanliness and orderrdquo (Carter 1904 115) It also applies to the education of the future housewife which become part of the syllabus of ldquoDomestic Sciencerdquo in universities at the end of the 19th century Logically the term management was commonly applied from the middle of the 19th century to the tasks of the teacher in charge of developing his or her pupils along physical mental and moral lines Besides many books on school management note that the old days teacher was mainly superintending while the modern one is mainly teaching Most also states that teaching has become a profession and as such necessitates a proper training ldquoThe teacher writes an editor of the New York School Journal must study to be a good teacher the art of school management in its best sense turns upon thatrdquo (Kellogg 1880 78)

By essence conduct books devise ways of improving their readersrsquo behavior As scientific disciplines develop the housewife is for instance to gain knowledge in chemistry physics and psychology In her first best-selling book Catharine Beecher who can envision the task of housewife as a ldquoprofessionrdquo (Beecher 1841 5) recommend that domestic economy should be made ldquoa regular part of school educationrdquo and not taught at home by the mothers often ignorant of the true rules of this science (Ibid 63)

For behind the idea of training lies the principle of progress As early as the 17th century enlighted farmers began to shake the bounds of tradition by submitting agriculture to rational scrutiny and experiment (Best 1642) In the 19th century the home which may seem like the bastion of tradition was subject to many methods for improving its running

The very purpose of most of the early books on management is the education of their reader A majority of it aims conscienciously at being pedagogical and popular sharing this common faith in the power of knowledge and in the benefits of mass

17

education which made its way through Europe and the United States from the 18th century The doctor Anthony Thompson characteristically states that ldquothe most judicious plan of medical management may be devised and the plainest directions for its fulfilment may be delivered to the attendants of the sick-room but without more information on the subject than is at present possessed by the females of a household and especially by those whose duty it is to superintend the execution of the orders of the Physician little benefit can be anticipated to the invalidrdquo (Thompson 1841 vii)

Order Arrangement System Regulation Order arrangement system and regulation are watchwords of the 18th and 19th

century literature on management and especially of the literature on farm and household management The expressions ldquosystem of managingrdquo ldquoplan of managementrdquo ldquomethod of managementrdquo are found in almost every book here considered The very idea of management seem to imply the notion of a regular and ordered system The Housekeeperrsquos magazine even talks about the ldquobest-regulated familyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg3 52) and Catharine Beecher of ldquoa systematic and well-regulated familyrdquo (Beecher 1841 126) For a widely read authoress of books on household administration for instance ldquomethod and order are two most important factors in the management of the householdrdquo (Parloa 1898 61) Regarding accounts writes the author of a ldquosystem of practical domestic economyrdquo ldquoregularity is the very life and soul of economyrdquo (Anonymous 1827 380) The setting of a routine and the search for regularity are especially praised in the rearing of children and of animals Thus according to a horse expert ldquoone of the first things desirable in stable management is rule by rule I mean a regular way of doing thingsrdquo (Hieover 1848 90) Similarly school management thinkers praise order and system and order ldquoSystem in school management is a necessityrdquo states one of them (Raub 1882 196) ldquoOrderliness in general matters of school management writes another is a right upon which it is unnecessary to insist The child has the right to expect regular periods for school work orderly entrance and dismissal etc care of clothing uniformity in certain aspects of discipline and the likerdquo (Arnold 1908 174) As states an English inspector of board schools ldquoThe first requisite of good management in all schools is orderrdquo (Major 1883 209) For a fourth author on this subject an ldquoimportant device in school management is the adoption of a self-regulating system [] A school is a sort of mechanism and all its movements must be regular to avoid confusion and waste of timerdquo (White 1893 94-95) As recognizes Dr Arnold Tompkins of Illinois University for whom ldquono means ever devised is more potent than an efficient system of school managementrdquo ldquowe are quite strictly materialists in school management setting objective and fixed forms and rules hard and fast over against a growing and pulsating liferdquo (Tompkins 1895 208 and 14)

Arthur Young who was to become Secretary to the English Board of Agriculture could be called the Frederick Taylor of farm management not in the sense that he animated and inspired a school but in the sense that he attempted to ldquoreduce multifarious fugitive subjects to some degree of order and even principlesrdquo articulated into a rational ldquosystem of general managementrdquo (Young 1770b 2-3) His purpose being to see husbandry ldquobuilt upon as just and philosophic principles as the art of medicinerdquo (Ibid 175) Young thus applied an experimental and scientific outlook to husbandry Talking about accounts he states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) He thus draws ldquoschemes of conducting farmsrdquo

18

with an eye to constant improvements (Young 1770b 34) To him the superiority of the gentleman over the common farmer lay in his capacity to acquire new knowledge not in his application of old ones To him it is thus important to devise a ldquoplan of agricultural operationrdquo (Young 1770a vol 2 471) What he calls the ldquosystem of managementrdquo or ldquotrain of managementrdquo of a farm is nothing but the division arrangement and proportionning of its land cattle and labour Young thus elaborate methods and calculus for a efficient division of work which he calls ldquodisposition of the teamsrdquo (Young 1770b 25) and which takes the form of distribution of ploughs horses ox and laborers He proposes for instance a table with the distribution of 16 servants 11 laborers and 16 boys for the ploughs harrowing team carried over brought over rolling horse hoeing road team ox team ditto carting extra team shepherd exen steers swine cows Young also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men As it sums it up himslef a certain portion of time a certain portion of space and ldquoa certain portion of hands are assigned to each businessrdquo (Ibid 60)

According to a prolific author of conduct books ldquothat house only is well conducted where there is a strict attention paid to order and regularity To do every thing in its proper time to keep every thing in its right place and to use every thing for its proper use is the very essence of good managementrdquo (Taylor 1815 27) Similarly according to the author of a Modern System of Domestic Cookery a ldquosystem of domestic management is the foundation of all the comfort and welfare of private familiesrdquo (Radcliffe 1823 1) But Catharine Beecher is the first one to devise in 1841 such a ldquosystematic plan of domestic economyrdquo (Beecher 1841 157) in a book notes a literature teacher specialist of Catharine Beecher which ldquowent through fifteen editions between 1841 and 1856 and established Beecher as the nations foremost authority on household practicerdquo (Tonkovich in Beecher and Stowe 1869 xiii) According to her philosophy ldquoit is wise therefore for all persons to devise a general plan which they will at least keep in view and aim to accomplish and by which a proper proportion of time shall be secured for all the duties of liferdquo (Ibid 158) She thus advocates a ldquosystematic employment of timerdquo (Ibid 160 Beecher and Stowe 1870 196) Beecher and her sister Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote in a later book ldquoEvery young lady can systematize her pursuits to a certain extent She can have a particular day for mending her wardrobe and for arranging her trunks closets and drawers She can keep her work-basket her desk at school and all her other conveniences in their proper places and in regular order She can have regular periods for reading walking visiting study and domestic pursuits And by following this method in youth she will form a taste for regularity and a habit of system which will prove a blessing to her through liferdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 202) The housekeeper should not limit her division and arrangement of work to the servants but strive for ldquothe apportioning of regular employment to the various members of a family If a housekeeper can secure the cooperation of all her family she will find that lsquomany hands make light workrsquordquo (Beecher 1841 163) Adding that ldquoa woman is under obligations so to arrange the hours and pursuits of her family as to promote systematic and habitual industryrdquo (Ibid 185) For that purpose she draws plans of houses and domestic conveniences (Ibid ch XXIV)

Both Young and Beecher show the conspicuous features that exhibit the literature on farm and household management a quest for regularity and order systematicity planning selection as well as the arrangement of work and division of labor But elaboration of methods and plans are also common in medical management literature The doctor Cadogan proposes as early as 1748 a ldquoPlan of Nursingrdquo (Cadogan 1748 21)

19

This systematic frame of mind is first expressed by medical farm and household management writers not so much in a desire to standardize but in a constant effort to codify That is routines are not systematically reduced to a measurable standard but they are carefully specified often regarding a specific time and place The very idea of writting a book imply this logic of formalizing and codifying a set of practices The most methodic books circumscribe the mother farmer and housekeeperrsquos tasks and codify it in every detail Most of the books on infant management codify the childrenrsquos dress from the shoes to the cap their cleanliness bathing foods drinks exercise amusements sleep education and employments Isabella Beetonrsquos 1861 book codified every aspect of household management and even every aspect of a diner given at home or in paying visits of condoleance This very idea of codification is best exemplified by the recurring planning tools proposed by most of these books such as detailed plans of houses diagrams of kitchen schedules work orders tables of duties calendars reminder cards and files bulletin boards ledgers accounting books individual calendars or written menus to be posted in pantry and kitchen (Cf for instance figure below from US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932 202) An author even recommends the use of ldquoprinted rules

in bath room [] giving a few very simple admonitions upon what is lsquogood formrsquo in a lavatory of any sortrdquo (Carter 1904 93) For the ldquohousehold engineerrdquo Christine Frederick ldquostandard practice means then written directions as to method and tools and timerdquo (Frederick 1919 152)

Even if most of English and American homes employed less than ten servants and therefore knew in a limited degree the division labor Nevertheless remarks the author of a ldquodomestic economy and household sciencerdquo manual ldquoin most households it is found necessary to divide the work which has to be done amongst various people

20

and to have some of these especially trained for certain parts of it such as cooking the food cleaning the house and waiting upon the inmates The arranging of all this work has to be thought of and planned by the master and mistress who are the responsible controllers and heads of the house Thus the duties of servants their relations to their employers and their good management or handling are also matters with which domestic economy has to dealrdquo (Mann 1878 5)

Much of the books on school management devote a chapter or a whole part to ldquoorganizationrdquo which usally contains instructions regarding the number and size of the classes the distribution of the staff the syllabus of work for each class the classification of the scholars and the time table It may picture plans of the school or at least of the ideal classroom and some even specify the way children should be gathered and circulate wtihin their class (Cf right time table and plan of a school reproduced from Collar and Crook 1901 41) For an influential writer on school management ldquothe particulars embraced under organization comprise the arrangements of the rooms classification of the children duties of the master subordinates distribution of work and time tablesrdquo (Gill 1857 57) Under the head of organization the rector of a Glasgow school thus describe for instance ldquothe arrangement of desks most suitable to the efficient management of a schoolrdquo (Morrison 1859 44) Another author talks about ldquothe distribution of the teaching powerrdquo (Landon 1883 110)

According to the authors of farm management books good husbandry is not a matter of duplicating age-old recipes but a matter of choices and of planning choice of a location of a farm og a kind of farming (intensive or extensive) of crops of livestock of horses of equipment of implements of calendar etc All these parameters interacts As such states Young husbandry can never arrive at perfection ldquoif the exact degree of every vegetable cultivated be not known in relation to soil and management and in a word if all the the various branches of this complex art be not so thoroughly sifted and examined as to be familiar in every combinationrdquo (Young 1770b 150-151) A century later Robert Scott Burn advises his readers to select their animals with regards to ldquothe soil its cropping size locality and climaterdquo (Burn 1877 29) Richard Reynolds states for himself that ldquoalmost every treatise upon the management of farm-horses contain formulae of food allowances applicable for use at certain seasons and during the performance of certain agricultural operationsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 52) Similarly the proper selection of a new house of servants of food of menus of activities for the children and even ldquothe choice of friendsrdquo and new acquaintances (Parkes 1825 Part I Conversations II and III) are important dimensions of household management For a household editor for the Ladies Home Journal if a housekeeper ldquodoes not know that round steak at 20 cents a pound possesses as much nutriment as the

21

porterhouse at 26 cents she will not expend wisely or economically She should know something of the idea of a lsquobalanced mealrsquo and what foods will give it the place of milk fruit and eggs in the diet what are healthful meat substitutes and the nourishment of various kinds of breads vegetables and cerealsrdquo (Frederick 1913 105)

Most of the book on children management describe curricula proper to their development For instance in his Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children written in 1792 Smith formulates ldquorulesrdquo describes ldquobest methodsrdquo and offers detailed prescriptions for the management of children ldquolet their breakfast at six or seven in the morning be half a pint of new milk with about two ounces of bread in it mdash the second meal should be half a pint of good broth with the same quantity of bread let this be given about ten or eleven in the morning mdash the third meal about two or three in the afternoon should be broth in like manner mdash and their supper about six in the evening new milk and bread the same as for breakfastrdquo (Smith 1792 140) Most of books on children management give advices regarding their different stages of life and notably the periods of weaning and of dentition Samuel Smiles the famous surgeon presents ldquoin a tabular form what [he] conceive[s] ought to be the proper disposition of time in childhood boyhood adolescenceand adult age in order to the attainment of a full development of the mental faculties with a corresponding healthy completion of the physical structurerdquo (Smiles 1838 188) As such for each period of age he precises ldquothe hours that should be devoted to exercise exercise with instruction tuition relaxation and sleeprdquo (Cf table below from Ibid 188) Similarly many household management books propose plans for the distribution of tasks settled down to the day and even down to the quarter of an hour (Butterworth 1902 27-28) According to the Housekeeperrsquos magazine ldquoearly rising and a good disposition of time is essential to Economyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) As early as 1825 Frances Parkes proposes a ldquosystem of Domestic Dutyrdquo (Parkes 1825 22) which regulates the ldquodisposal of timerdquo (Ibid 16) ldquoAs much time is saved or rather gained by a regular disposal of each division of the day I recommend to you to plan the whole out every morning and as far as you can command circumstances to pursue that plan steadilyrdquo (Ibid 317) Almanachs are important tools of farm and household regulation of time and farming operations also obeys to calendars and a precise chronological pattern The combination of these different parameters require an ordered mind as it is repeatedly remarked in farm management books ldquoA time-table is to a school what grammar is to a languagerdquo says an Irish head-master who participated in the task of ldquointroducing among the national schools [of Ireland] an improved and uniform organization and of diffusing among the national teachers a more extensive practical knowledge of school keepingrdquo (Joyce 1863 37 and vii) As such he codifies a regular day at school hour by hour beginning in such a manner ldquoldquo955 to 10 Inspection as to cleanliness mdash At five minutes to ten the children should be arranged according to their divisions and drafts either in the playground or in the school- room and the teacher after a hasty glance to see that their hands faces and hair are clean and neat marches all to their several places This preliminary business should not encroach on the school time the first lessons should be actually commencing at 10 oclockrdquo (Ibid 59) For another writer on school management it is obvious that ldquothere must be a well devised program distributing the time properly among the various classes and that it must be inflexibly followedrdquo (Kellogg 1880 92) Such time-tables are a common feature of school management books

The question of ldquoarrangementrdquo that is of planning space is a common feature of farm and household management books ldquoA place for everything and everything in its

22

placerdquo is a recurring moto of 18th and 19th centuries management books Books on farm management thus frequently offer developments the arrangement of the fields and even latter on the planning of farm buildings fields or poultry houses (Dickson 1853) As early as 1768 Arthur Young underline the ldquogeneral benefit which arises from a judicious arrangement of a farmrdquo by a farmer and especially ldquothe arranging his lands properly for his cropsrdquo (Young 1768 156-157 and 158) Another author underlines that ldquobesides a most rigid and accurate set of account booksrdquo ldquoan accurate plan of each field should also be had showing the position of drains with their outfalls position of fences and gates and another detailing the mode of cropping and the part of the rotation under which at the stated intervals it comes to be placedrdquo (Burn 1877 29) Warren in his classic book on farm management proposes schemes of farm layout location size and shape of fields (Warren 1913 365-368) Regarding household management such author may propose ldquoplans of houses suited to townsrdquo (Walsh 1853 96) this one a plan of the pantries (Parloa 1898 15) while another calls for ldquoscientific house-planningrdquo (Bruere 1912 174) Ellen Richards prescriptions for the arrangement of a house include such elements as windows walls sink bathtub florrs woodwork stair rails and supports plumbing vaccum cleaner gas burners screens etc (Richards 1911) Beecher and Stowe add to their sketch of ldquomodel cottage-ground plan and roomsrdquo ldquoIn the description and arrangement the leading aim is to show how time labor and expense are saved not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangementrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 24) For the real purpose of planning is often both order and efficiency For instance

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

9

1825 The Economist and General Adviser 1825 The Modern Housekeeper 1826 Anonymous 1827 Copley 182- Child 1829 and 1831 Ellis 1839 Cobbett [183-] Beecher 1841 Walsh 1853 Beeton 1861 Cassells Household Guide 1869 Beecher and Stowe 1870 Caddy 1877 Mann 1878 Parloa 1879 Sylvain 1881 Corson 1885 Campbell 1896 Parloa 1898 Richards 1899 Butterworth 1902 Lucas 1904 Carter 1904 Terrill 1905 Hunt 1908 Richards 1910 Ravenhill and Schiff 1911 Bruere 1912 Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 Frederick 1913 and 1919 Pattison 1915 Gilbreth 1927 US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932)

The terms ldquodomestic managementrdquo ldquohome-managementrdquo ldquohousehold managementrdquo ldquofamily managementrdquo ldquothe management of the house and householdrdquo are then used to describe not only common household tasks but the general appearance and train de vie of the family According to the most popular writer of Victorian conduct literature ldquoin England there is a kind of science of good household management which if it consisted merely in keeping the house respectable in its physical character might be left to the effectual working out of hired hands but happily for the women of England there is a philosophy in this science by which all their highest and best feelings are called into exercise Not only must the house be neat and clean but it must be so ordered as to suit the tastes of all as far as may be without annoyance or offence to anyrdquo (Ellis 1839 25-26 my emphasis) Such manuals are in the whole more informal lists of advices than theoretical treatises They often mingle plans principles rules and technical instructions for such things as cooking keeping and dressing food carving sewing knitting trussing mending cleaning sweeping dusting caring of furniture and beds warming ventilating destroying noxious insects washing starching ironing cleansing whitening dyeing upkeeping yards gardens and animals nursing caring for the poor marketing furnishing and decorating The subtitle of Anne Cobbettrsquos most famous Manual of Domestic Management sums up what the term ldquohousehold managementrdquo could stand for at the beginning of the 19th century Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs (Cobbett 183-) While the task of the housekeeper evolves considerably from the 1870s and 1880s ndash the housewife being more and more deprived of salaried servants and family helpers buying more and more products formerly homemade and externalizing tasks such as the education of children and the care for the sick ndash the elaboration of systems of household management develops unabated As Ellen Richards noted in 1899 ldquohousekeeping no longer means washing dishes scrubbing floors making soap and candles it means spending a given amount of money for a great variety of ready-prepared articles and so using the commodities as to produce the greatest satisfaction and the best possible mental moral and physical resultsrdquo (Richards 1899 103)

School and classroom management is also considered Books on ldquoschool managementrdquo begin to appear at the beginning of the 19th century in Great Britain but become common from the 1860s and greatly develop in the United States at the very beginning of the 20th century (Catlow 1813 Gill 1857 Morrison 1859 Joyce 1863 Wickersham 1864 Harding 1872 Holbrook 1873 Kellogg 1880 Baldwin 1881 Raub 1882 Landon 1883 Major 1883 White 1893 Tompkins 1895 Collar and Crook 1901 Dutton 1903 Seeley 1903 J Taylor 1903 Chancellor 1904 and 1910 Prince 1906 Bagley 1907 Perry 1908 Arnold 1908 and 1916 Salisbury 1911 Rice 1913 Bennett 1917)

10

This literature is mainly written by progressive principals superintendent and teachers in normal school in order to present a new method of educating children as opposed to the mainly authoritarian and coercitive military-like style of the old system otherwise discarded under the names of the Police System or the Force System School managementrsquos theories share the same set of principles with other fields of management thought here examined but adds a recuring use of the term ldquoorganizationrdquo As a teacher in school management admits ldquowhatever difference there may be between a book on school management and one on the management of any other organization is only a difference in detailsrdquo (Tompkins 1895 32)

It is of course sometimes difficult to draw clear-cut distinctions between these publications Some authors eventually deal with the three topics in the same book or in separate publications John Henry Walsh writes for instance a Manual of Domestic Economy (1853) another of Domestic Medicine and Surgery (1858) edits a cookery book (1858) and authors books on dog management (1859) and horse management (1861) Apothecary James Nelson is the first to add hints on manners and education to his medical essay on the management of children (Nelson 1753) a practice soon to be imitated More generally farm management manuals often contain a chapter on the medical care of animals And the farm and the household are long inseparable The gentleman farmer Arthur Young notes for instance in 1770 that ldquoanother point of some consequence in a gentlemans oeconomical management is house-keeping so far as it concerns the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 240) And when established in 1923 the American Bureau of Home Economics is a part of the Department of Agriculture When it develops into a literary branch household management comes to absorb topics such as infancy management garden management and diseases management Esther Copleyrsquos cook book published in the 1820s presents the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts (Copley 182-) The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine similarly displays numerous advices on medicines as well as hints on husbandry and rural economy There is also a continuum between the management of women during pregnancy in labour in child-bed and the management of the children and of home Until the last quarter of the 19th century child management constitutes a part of the books on the domestic duties of housewives (Parkes 1825 Child 1831 Beecher 1841 Walsh 1853 Beeton 1861 Beecher and Stowe 1869 Mann 1878) Up to these years as Smuts remarks ldquomost of the burden of medical care fell on the women of the familyrdquo even among the well-to-do (Smuts 1959 13)

Similarly animal management falls under both the head of farm management and medical management Let us note here that the literature on horse management is considerable in the 19th century and goes beyond their use for farming (Flint 1815 Lawrence 1830 Nimrod 1831 Youatt 1834 Capt M 1842 Hieover 1848 Horlock and Weir 1855 Mayhem 1864 Mahon 1865 Graves and Prudden 1868 Sherer 1868 McClure 1870 Gough 1878 Reynolds 1882 Sample 1882 Magner 1886 Galvayne 1888 Cook 1891 Heard 1893 Armatage 1896 Adye 1903 Bell 1904 Axe 1905) The term ldquomanagementrdquo is commonly applied to the training handling and directing of a horse in its paces from the 16th century probably in consequence of the confusing proximity between the word ldquomanagerdquo and the French word ldquomanegravegerdquo (riding stable) Books on dogs management are also common (Ellis 1749 Cook 1826 Loudon 1851 Horlock 1852 Hill 1881 Sample 1882) as well as on sheep

11

mules cattle swine pigs and poultry (Daubenton 1782 Moubray 1816 Williams 1849 Youatt 1855 Jacques 1866 Graves and Prudden 1868 Sherer 1868 Vaniman 1885 Periam 188- Heard 1893) The same author may decline his system of management to various races of animals in the same book or in different ones such as William Youatt writting successively upon the management of horses (1834) sheeps (1836) cattle (1837) dogs (1854) and hogs (1855) or George Armatage dissertating about The Varieties and Management in Health and Disease of sheeps (1873) cattle (1893) and horses (1894)

The word ldquomanagementrdquo is often casted as a general umbrella to depict a broad field on interest For instance school management often includes ldquonot only school economy proper but also school government and school ethicsrdquo as well as school requisites school work and management of the teacher as states an American superintendent (Raub 1882 11-12) Some books might use the term in their title and no further in which case we suspect some editorsrsquo final suggestion to their authors On the contrary books might treat our four themes without using repetitively the notion of management And indeed many books are specifically devoted to child care from the end of the Middle Ages and to husbandry household administration and education from Antiquity We limit ouserves to those which made a thorough use of the term ldquomanagementrdquo to reflect upon their subject for we suggest that it is the mark of a peculiar way of thinking Moreover there exists an obvious discrepancy between the authorsrsquo cultural background and the epochs when they were writting even if many books are published and republished over times both in Great Britain and the United States Some are English other Americans and one or two books here considered are translations from the French But from the middle of the 18th century to the end of the 19th and whatever the part of the ocean we look at the word ldquomanagementrdquo keeps a stable meaning The great change will come as we should see at the beginning of the 20th century Finally the books herein examined did not have the same diffusion Some books have been widely read and served as models in each one in its peculiar field while others knew a single and confidential edition In infant management for instance the famous William Cadogan and Hugh Smith stood as authorities at the end of the 18th century The statistician agronomist and empirical scientist Arthur Young who imagined ldquosystems of managementrdquo as early as 1768 was similarly a reference in farm management In household administration Catharine Beecher Isbella Beeton and Ellen Richards have been popular references and still are Beecher authored ldquothe best-known treatises on domestic economy of the nineteenth centuty (Matthews 1987 31) Isbella Beetonrsquos 1861 book which popularized the expression ldquohousehold managementrdquo sold over sixty thousands copies in its first year of publication and almost two millions copies by 1868 (Humble 2000 vii) And Ellen Richards is considered as the ldquoprophetrdquo of home economics ldquoits interpreter its conservator its inspirer and to use her own word its engineerrdquo to quote another home economics proeminent figure (Bevier 1911 214)

The Logic Underlying the Early Uses of the Term ldquoManagementrdquo

In spite of obvious practical discrepancies the three types of literature here analyzed have common features First of all they are popular pedagogical and technical While they are often written by scholarly educated authors they are not theoretical or scientific treatises but aim at a relatively large and uneducated public

12

The title of one of these caracteristically stipulates that it is ldquowritten in a plain familiar stile to render it intelligible and useful to all mothers and those who have the management of infantsrdquo (Herdman 1804) As such advices on mothersrsquo and childrenrsquos management are often offered under the form of letters a format specially adopted for the friendly delivery of advices Most prefaces and introduction exhibit the same concern for intelligibility

Taken as a single corpus the books herein considered show a conceptual coherence and share a common understanding of the term ldquomanagementrdquo To manage then means to care to be industrious and to make efficient to drive and improve to arrange and act in a systematic way to count and calculate

If most of the books here gathered consist merely in descriptive lists of empirical practices some attempt at formulating general principles and laws out of it Whether explicitely or implicitely these principles are linked to one another and form a kind of system Indeed the care should be efficient accounting should be regular in order to gain appropriate knowledge gaining knowledge should be useful for training keeping records and setting time-tables has an important influence in promoting regularity etc As states pioneering educator Joseph Baldwin ldquoschool management is the art of so directing school affairs as to produce system order and efficiencyrdquo (Baldwin 1881 15)

Care One of the first predominant meaning of the term management is to look after to

take care to breed to cultivate to maintain The principle of care is the nodal point of the different understanding of the literature on management in the 18th ang 19th century Of course infants and children management means their proper care In this case authors may use the terms ldquonursing or maternal managementrdquo indifferently (Barrett 1875 10) The notion of ldquomanagementrdquo is more generally applied to the care of fragile human beings subject to diseases and accidents such as pregnant mothers sick-persons and old people ldquoThe care is allrdquo in farm management as well as writes the pamphleteer farmer and journalist William Cobbett (Cobbett 1821 113) The proper care given to the soil the animals and the equipment forms the core of what is meant in this literature by ldquomanagementrdquo

This principle of care signifies the prevention of depletion and if necessary the medical treatment of diseases ldquoManagement in health and diseaserdquo is a much common formula Treating illness is thus a necessary part of a careful management and the terms ldquomanagementrdquo and ldquotreatmentrdquo are often synonymous Logically books on infant management are predominantly written by physicians and those on animal management by veterinaries But to care for is not the business of the sole doctor and the very reason for the existence of such books is that as Thomas Williams states it ldquoa knowledge of the proper management of domestic animals and particularly of the causes preventives symptoms and treatment of the various complaintsthey are subject to should be possessed by every farmerrdquo (Williams 1849 9)

Hygiene cleanliness and sanitation are dominant elements in writtings on management and even on school management ldquoSchool hygiene and school management are inseparablerdquo states for instance the president of an American normal school (Salisbury 1911 54) Books on household management often devote a chapter to this issue

13

In a way a proper medical management consists in preventing diseases more than in curing it not in turning every mother into a physician but into a superintendent capable of giving effect to the prescriptions of a physician As a general rule states a scottish doctor and physiologist ldquowhere the child is well managed medicine of any kind is very rarely requiredrdquo (Combe 1840 77) An English doctor warns for himself his readers in these terms ldquoI shall not trouble you with the curative part of diseases incident to children that being altogether the concern of the physician [] This present system of nursing is intended only to manage children so as to prevent illnessrdquo (Smith 1792 163-164) An anonymous writer similarly states ldquoI wish to enable my fair readers to manage the infants committed to their care without being obliged to call in a physician for every trifling indispositionrdquo (Anonymous 1811 39) Similarly a horse breeder advises that ldquoa judicious change of food efficient stable management and proper arrangements for work can accomplish all that is necessary for the conservation of health in sound horses in a better and safer manner than the exhibition of medicamentsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 98)

To care is also the leading principle structuring the different methods of household management Their objective is invariably as an author sums it up ldquothe maximum of health physical mental and moralrdquo (Terrill 1905 14) According to Ellen Richards who is considered as the mother of home economics ldquothe ideal of lsquohomersquo is protection from dangers from within bad habits bad food bad air dirt and abuse shelter in fact from all stunting agencies just as the gardener protects his tender plants until they become strong enough to stand by themselvesrdquo (Richards 1910 73) Let us note here that this predominance of the principle of care in the first meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo should not receive a gender explaination as analysis and histories of household management often occasion Farming was predominantly a manly practice and it stressed the importance of caring as much as the more womanly activities of the household Similarly caring is a pivotal element of the more womanly activities of class management as well as of the more manly activities of school management

More generally the usual application of the term ldquomanagementrdquo includes such operations as the breeding rearing curing and proper care of living beings including crops plants bees and animals as well as of peculiar parts of the body such as the teeth and eyes of human beings and the horses feet and legs Some authors may talk about ldquomoralrdquo and ldquomental managementrdquo of children and adults (for example Thompson 1841) and eventually of the moral management of insane persons (Haslam 1817 Millingen 1841) But it is also widely applied to the careful maintenance of the house and of the farming tools In the second half of the 19th century several engineers and machinists adopt this meaning of the term management to describe the maintenance and repairing of motors machines boilers and diverse kinds of machinery Emory Edwardsrsquo book still reedited today typically gives ldquosome general rules for the care and management of steam-engines and boilersrdquo (Edwards 1882 390) Writers using in this perspective the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo were not marginal and included personalities such as Zerah Colburn editor of one of Britainrsquos leading technical journal in the middle on the 19th century (Ward 1847 Colburn 1851 Bourne 1861 Watson 1867 Roper 1875 and 1889 Shock 1880 Edwards 1882 Smith 1882 Sinclair 1885 Tompkins 1889 Lieckfeld 1896 Moulson et alii 1898 Houghtaling 1899 Biggs 189- Homans 1902 Tulley 1907)

14

Industry and Efficiency Industry and efficiency form the second structuring managerial principle of the

arts of nursing husbandry and housekeeping For our authors nothing is worst than keeping idle the soil animals or men Medical advisers repeatedly stress the importance of exercises for the proper development of children But it is in farm household and school management that these principles of industry and efficiency is the most prevalent

At the end of the 18th century the experimental agronomist Arthur Young try to call attention to the extent of land lying waste in Great Britain (Young 1773) The word economy is thus used commonly in the sense of thrift and of a judicious use of resource The insistence on the profitability of a farm or of a particular crop then means more their productivity than a potential pecuniary profit on a market To the authors here considered the purpose of farm management is not to produce a lot but to produce more with less As an example the advocate of ldquoscientific agriculturerdquo Charles Fox in his text book on farm management makes it clear that ldquothe object of the practical farmer is to raise from a given area of land the largest quantity of the most profitable produce at the least costrdquo (Fox 1854 3) Meanwhile he hardly talks about buying selling and markets

In household management to be industrious and keep good hours is a necessity As states the Housekeeperrsquos magazine in 1825 ldquoabsolute idleness is inexcusable in a woman because the needle is always at hand for those intervals in which she cannot be otherwise employedrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) Similarly in their famous book on housekeeping Catharine Beecher and Harriet Stowe warn their readers about their ldquoobligation to spend every hour for some useful endrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 215) Besides being industrious a housekeeper must be efficient wether in making or in spending The purpose of the Cassells Household Guide is thus to show ldquohow by the minimum of expenditure the maximum of comfort and of luxury may be obtainedrdquo (Cassells Household Guide 1869 1) In this perspective notes a regular contributor to the Ladies Home Journal magazine economy in the home ldquomeans that everything is put to its proper use and there is no wasterdquo and most of all ldquothat the most precious thing (sic) in it mdash the mother mdash shall not be misused or wastedrdquo (Parloa 1898 258 and 352) That is careful management means frugality in the use of money equipment and human beings According to Ellen Richards it is the increasing resort to calculation on a money basis which has led to this emphasis on efficiency ldquoin these days of consolidation for the purpose of cutting down expenses days of close calculation of cost when everything is reduced to a money basis in production it is not surprising that discussion should have arisen over the great waste involved in the keeping up of fifty kitchen-fires to do the work that five would dordquo (Richards 1899 1)

Industry is a disciplining tool much recommended by school and classroom management writers ldquoThe art of school management states characteristically an educational author consists very much in the art of giving enough and suitable employment Work must be given if good order is not obtained give morerdquo (Kellogg 1880 80) Similarly states an American superintendent ldquothe secret of success in managing small children as well as larger ones lies in giving them plenty to dordquo (Raub 1882 193) This principle of industry as in the cases of farm and household management comes generally along with the principle of efficiency According to John Gill for instance whose text-book on school management was a set text in many of the training colleges for teachers which were established after 1850 (Mugglestone 2006 291) school management or ldquoschool organization is a system of arrangements

15

designed to secure constant employment efficient instruction and moral control In other words it aims at providing the means of instructing and educating the greatest number in the most efficient manner and by the most economical expenditure of time and labourrdquo (Gill 1857 56) For another writer in school management ldquothe teachers work in school naturally falls into three great divisions which taken in logical order are mdash (1) organisation (2) discipline (3) teaching and unless all three receive due attention the work is not likely to be performed with that efficiency that economy of time and labour both of the teacher and of the pupils and that absence of friction which should characterise the operation of every good schoolrdquo (Landon 1883 109) Rice in his bestseller on scientific management in schools asserts that ldquoin the strict sense scientific management in education can only be defined as a system of management specifically directed toward the elimination of waste in teaching so that the children attending the schools may be duly rewarded for the expenditure of their time and effortrdquo (Rice 1913 viii) As puts it a professor of education in a book which went through more than thirty reprintings from 1907 to 1927 (Callahan 1962 7) the problem of classroom management ldquois a problem of economy it seeks to determine in what manner the working unit of the school plant may be made to return the largest dividend upon the material investment of time energy and moneyrdquo (Bagley 1907 2) Or as sums up another professor of education and author of a book on ldquoschool efficiencyrdquo ldquothe problem of school management is to give [people] as much as possible for their moneyrdquo (Bennett 1917 1-2)

From another perspective the very purpose of school management is to form future industrious citizens An English inspector of board schools insists for instance upon ldquothe true objects and aims of school management which are the promoting of the good habits of cheerful industry all-conquering thoroughness orderly disposition of time and labor and the practice of useful activityrdquo (Holbrook 1873 179) According to a much cited professor of education writing a generation later ldquothe aim of the school may be formulated as social efficiency Whatever the school undertakes to accomplish must be judged in the light of this standardrdquo that is to turn every child into a ldquosocially efficient individualrdquo (Bagley 1907 7-8) As states professor of pedagogy Arnold Tompkins ldquoit is needless to urge that a school thoroughly organized and managed with its regular exact and punctual requirement in performance of duty is a most powerful means of bringing the pupil into the habit and spirit of industrial life [] The public school artfully managed is the very institution to supply to society members who are not simply industrious by force of conviction and habit but who have the joy of industry in the heartrdquo (Tompkins 1895 206-207)

Handling Driving Improving Perhaps the most common significance of the verb ldquoto managerdquo from its first uses

at the end of the 16th century is ldquoto handlerdquo ldquoto conductrdquo or ldquoto carry onrdquo (Murray 1908 104-105) The verb is applied to inanimate things such as weapons instuments vehicules and affairs to actions and operations to institutions such as households and states and to animals primarily horses and cattle

In many of the texts here considered the word management means altogether breeding training and curing It often refers to the training of a particular animal the horse being by far the main sort considered with dogs coming in a second position The managing of an animal refers for instance to its breeding rearing taming ldquobreaking or learningrdquo (Ellis 1749 ChII) exercising subduing educating

16

conducting and driving That is managing means more ndash or less ndash than rude disciplining For instance goodness and patience rather than ldquomain strength and stupid harshnessrdquo (Graves and Prudden 1868 38) are systematically recommended in the management of horses ldquoKindness goes far in managing these noble animalsrdquo confirms the cavalry officer Mahon (1865 49) An anonymous mother also writes that children ldquoare much better and more easily managed by kindness and it is quite easy to be firm with a child without being angry or severerdquo (Anonymous 1884 62) For most of authors on school and classroom management cooperation more than discpline is the basis of a sound eduction as military methods of instruction are rejected in a distant past ldquoReproof and privations writes an educational pioneer are the only punishments ordinarily needed in school or family The management should be so systematic and vigorous as to render severer punishments unnecessaryrdquo (Baldwin 1881 166)

This meaning of management also appears on the books considering the rearing of infants and children which purpose is their rise and progress as well as in books on school and classroom management In both cases a good management mostly consists in giving proper habits ndash that is organized reactions For instance writes an American professor of pedagogy ldquothe school should be managed with the conscious purpose of forming habits of orderrdquo (Tompkins 1895 203) A very influential professor of education could even formulate a ldquolaw of habit-buildingrdquo ldquoFocalization of consciousness upon the process to be automatized plus attentive repetition of this process permitting no exceptions until automatism resultsrdquo (Bagley 1907 16) This educating process also applies to the training of household servants a subject of a foremost intest for the early writers on household management In some cases notes Mary Elizabeth Carter servants ldquomay like boys and girls have to be taught and trained in habits of cleanliness and orderrdquo (Carter 1904 115) It also applies to the education of the future housewife which become part of the syllabus of ldquoDomestic Sciencerdquo in universities at the end of the 19th century Logically the term management was commonly applied from the middle of the 19th century to the tasks of the teacher in charge of developing his or her pupils along physical mental and moral lines Besides many books on school management note that the old days teacher was mainly superintending while the modern one is mainly teaching Most also states that teaching has become a profession and as such necessitates a proper training ldquoThe teacher writes an editor of the New York School Journal must study to be a good teacher the art of school management in its best sense turns upon thatrdquo (Kellogg 1880 78)

By essence conduct books devise ways of improving their readersrsquo behavior As scientific disciplines develop the housewife is for instance to gain knowledge in chemistry physics and psychology In her first best-selling book Catharine Beecher who can envision the task of housewife as a ldquoprofessionrdquo (Beecher 1841 5) recommend that domestic economy should be made ldquoa regular part of school educationrdquo and not taught at home by the mothers often ignorant of the true rules of this science (Ibid 63)

For behind the idea of training lies the principle of progress As early as the 17th century enlighted farmers began to shake the bounds of tradition by submitting agriculture to rational scrutiny and experiment (Best 1642) In the 19th century the home which may seem like the bastion of tradition was subject to many methods for improving its running

The very purpose of most of the early books on management is the education of their reader A majority of it aims conscienciously at being pedagogical and popular sharing this common faith in the power of knowledge and in the benefits of mass

17

education which made its way through Europe and the United States from the 18th century The doctor Anthony Thompson characteristically states that ldquothe most judicious plan of medical management may be devised and the plainest directions for its fulfilment may be delivered to the attendants of the sick-room but without more information on the subject than is at present possessed by the females of a household and especially by those whose duty it is to superintend the execution of the orders of the Physician little benefit can be anticipated to the invalidrdquo (Thompson 1841 vii)

Order Arrangement System Regulation Order arrangement system and regulation are watchwords of the 18th and 19th

century literature on management and especially of the literature on farm and household management The expressions ldquosystem of managingrdquo ldquoplan of managementrdquo ldquomethod of managementrdquo are found in almost every book here considered The very idea of management seem to imply the notion of a regular and ordered system The Housekeeperrsquos magazine even talks about the ldquobest-regulated familyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg3 52) and Catharine Beecher of ldquoa systematic and well-regulated familyrdquo (Beecher 1841 126) For a widely read authoress of books on household administration for instance ldquomethod and order are two most important factors in the management of the householdrdquo (Parloa 1898 61) Regarding accounts writes the author of a ldquosystem of practical domestic economyrdquo ldquoregularity is the very life and soul of economyrdquo (Anonymous 1827 380) The setting of a routine and the search for regularity are especially praised in the rearing of children and of animals Thus according to a horse expert ldquoone of the first things desirable in stable management is rule by rule I mean a regular way of doing thingsrdquo (Hieover 1848 90) Similarly school management thinkers praise order and system and order ldquoSystem in school management is a necessityrdquo states one of them (Raub 1882 196) ldquoOrderliness in general matters of school management writes another is a right upon which it is unnecessary to insist The child has the right to expect regular periods for school work orderly entrance and dismissal etc care of clothing uniformity in certain aspects of discipline and the likerdquo (Arnold 1908 174) As states an English inspector of board schools ldquoThe first requisite of good management in all schools is orderrdquo (Major 1883 209) For a fourth author on this subject an ldquoimportant device in school management is the adoption of a self-regulating system [] A school is a sort of mechanism and all its movements must be regular to avoid confusion and waste of timerdquo (White 1893 94-95) As recognizes Dr Arnold Tompkins of Illinois University for whom ldquono means ever devised is more potent than an efficient system of school managementrdquo ldquowe are quite strictly materialists in school management setting objective and fixed forms and rules hard and fast over against a growing and pulsating liferdquo (Tompkins 1895 208 and 14)

Arthur Young who was to become Secretary to the English Board of Agriculture could be called the Frederick Taylor of farm management not in the sense that he animated and inspired a school but in the sense that he attempted to ldquoreduce multifarious fugitive subjects to some degree of order and even principlesrdquo articulated into a rational ldquosystem of general managementrdquo (Young 1770b 2-3) His purpose being to see husbandry ldquobuilt upon as just and philosophic principles as the art of medicinerdquo (Ibid 175) Young thus applied an experimental and scientific outlook to husbandry Talking about accounts he states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) He thus draws ldquoschemes of conducting farmsrdquo

18

with an eye to constant improvements (Young 1770b 34) To him the superiority of the gentleman over the common farmer lay in his capacity to acquire new knowledge not in his application of old ones To him it is thus important to devise a ldquoplan of agricultural operationrdquo (Young 1770a vol 2 471) What he calls the ldquosystem of managementrdquo or ldquotrain of managementrdquo of a farm is nothing but the division arrangement and proportionning of its land cattle and labour Young thus elaborate methods and calculus for a efficient division of work which he calls ldquodisposition of the teamsrdquo (Young 1770b 25) and which takes the form of distribution of ploughs horses ox and laborers He proposes for instance a table with the distribution of 16 servants 11 laborers and 16 boys for the ploughs harrowing team carried over brought over rolling horse hoeing road team ox team ditto carting extra team shepherd exen steers swine cows Young also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men As it sums it up himslef a certain portion of time a certain portion of space and ldquoa certain portion of hands are assigned to each businessrdquo (Ibid 60)

According to a prolific author of conduct books ldquothat house only is well conducted where there is a strict attention paid to order and regularity To do every thing in its proper time to keep every thing in its right place and to use every thing for its proper use is the very essence of good managementrdquo (Taylor 1815 27) Similarly according to the author of a Modern System of Domestic Cookery a ldquosystem of domestic management is the foundation of all the comfort and welfare of private familiesrdquo (Radcliffe 1823 1) But Catharine Beecher is the first one to devise in 1841 such a ldquosystematic plan of domestic economyrdquo (Beecher 1841 157) in a book notes a literature teacher specialist of Catharine Beecher which ldquowent through fifteen editions between 1841 and 1856 and established Beecher as the nations foremost authority on household practicerdquo (Tonkovich in Beecher and Stowe 1869 xiii) According to her philosophy ldquoit is wise therefore for all persons to devise a general plan which they will at least keep in view and aim to accomplish and by which a proper proportion of time shall be secured for all the duties of liferdquo (Ibid 158) She thus advocates a ldquosystematic employment of timerdquo (Ibid 160 Beecher and Stowe 1870 196) Beecher and her sister Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote in a later book ldquoEvery young lady can systematize her pursuits to a certain extent She can have a particular day for mending her wardrobe and for arranging her trunks closets and drawers She can keep her work-basket her desk at school and all her other conveniences in their proper places and in regular order She can have regular periods for reading walking visiting study and domestic pursuits And by following this method in youth she will form a taste for regularity and a habit of system which will prove a blessing to her through liferdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 202) The housekeeper should not limit her division and arrangement of work to the servants but strive for ldquothe apportioning of regular employment to the various members of a family If a housekeeper can secure the cooperation of all her family she will find that lsquomany hands make light workrsquordquo (Beecher 1841 163) Adding that ldquoa woman is under obligations so to arrange the hours and pursuits of her family as to promote systematic and habitual industryrdquo (Ibid 185) For that purpose she draws plans of houses and domestic conveniences (Ibid ch XXIV)

Both Young and Beecher show the conspicuous features that exhibit the literature on farm and household management a quest for regularity and order systematicity planning selection as well as the arrangement of work and division of labor But elaboration of methods and plans are also common in medical management literature The doctor Cadogan proposes as early as 1748 a ldquoPlan of Nursingrdquo (Cadogan 1748 21)

19

This systematic frame of mind is first expressed by medical farm and household management writers not so much in a desire to standardize but in a constant effort to codify That is routines are not systematically reduced to a measurable standard but they are carefully specified often regarding a specific time and place The very idea of writting a book imply this logic of formalizing and codifying a set of practices The most methodic books circumscribe the mother farmer and housekeeperrsquos tasks and codify it in every detail Most of the books on infant management codify the childrenrsquos dress from the shoes to the cap their cleanliness bathing foods drinks exercise amusements sleep education and employments Isabella Beetonrsquos 1861 book codified every aspect of household management and even every aspect of a diner given at home or in paying visits of condoleance This very idea of codification is best exemplified by the recurring planning tools proposed by most of these books such as detailed plans of houses diagrams of kitchen schedules work orders tables of duties calendars reminder cards and files bulletin boards ledgers accounting books individual calendars or written menus to be posted in pantry and kitchen (Cf for instance figure below from US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932 202) An author even recommends the use of ldquoprinted rules

in bath room [] giving a few very simple admonitions upon what is lsquogood formrsquo in a lavatory of any sortrdquo (Carter 1904 93) For the ldquohousehold engineerrdquo Christine Frederick ldquostandard practice means then written directions as to method and tools and timerdquo (Frederick 1919 152)

Even if most of English and American homes employed less than ten servants and therefore knew in a limited degree the division labor Nevertheless remarks the author of a ldquodomestic economy and household sciencerdquo manual ldquoin most households it is found necessary to divide the work which has to be done amongst various people

20

and to have some of these especially trained for certain parts of it such as cooking the food cleaning the house and waiting upon the inmates The arranging of all this work has to be thought of and planned by the master and mistress who are the responsible controllers and heads of the house Thus the duties of servants their relations to their employers and their good management or handling are also matters with which domestic economy has to dealrdquo (Mann 1878 5)

Much of the books on school management devote a chapter or a whole part to ldquoorganizationrdquo which usally contains instructions regarding the number and size of the classes the distribution of the staff the syllabus of work for each class the classification of the scholars and the time table It may picture plans of the school or at least of the ideal classroom and some even specify the way children should be gathered and circulate wtihin their class (Cf right time table and plan of a school reproduced from Collar and Crook 1901 41) For an influential writer on school management ldquothe particulars embraced under organization comprise the arrangements of the rooms classification of the children duties of the master subordinates distribution of work and time tablesrdquo (Gill 1857 57) Under the head of organization the rector of a Glasgow school thus describe for instance ldquothe arrangement of desks most suitable to the efficient management of a schoolrdquo (Morrison 1859 44) Another author talks about ldquothe distribution of the teaching powerrdquo (Landon 1883 110)

According to the authors of farm management books good husbandry is not a matter of duplicating age-old recipes but a matter of choices and of planning choice of a location of a farm og a kind of farming (intensive or extensive) of crops of livestock of horses of equipment of implements of calendar etc All these parameters interacts As such states Young husbandry can never arrive at perfection ldquoif the exact degree of every vegetable cultivated be not known in relation to soil and management and in a word if all the the various branches of this complex art be not so thoroughly sifted and examined as to be familiar in every combinationrdquo (Young 1770b 150-151) A century later Robert Scott Burn advises his readers to select their animals with regards to ldquothe soil its cropping size locality and climaterdquo (Burn 1877 29) Richard Reynolds states for himself that ldquoalmost every treatise upon the management of farm-horses contain formulae of food allowances applicable for use at certain seasons and during the performance of certain agricultural operationsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 52) Similarly the proper selection of a new house of servants of food of menus of activities for the children and even ldquothe choice of friendsrdquo and new acquaintances (Parkes 1825 Part I Conversations II and III) are important dimensions of household management For a household editor for the Ladies Home Journal if a housekeeper ldquodoes not know that round steak at 20 cents a pound possesses as much nutriment as the

21

porterhouse at 26 cents she will not expend wisely or economically She should know something of the idea of a lsquobalanced mealrsquo and what foods will give it the place of milk fruit and eggs in the diet what are healthful meat substitutes and the nourishment of various kinds of breads vegetables and cerealsrdquo (Frederick 1913 105)

Most of the book on children management describe curricula proper to their development For instance in his Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children written in 1792 Smith formulates ldquorulesrdquo describes ldquobest methodsrdquo and offers detailed prescriptions for the management of children ldquolet their breakfast at six or seven in the morning be half a pint of new milk with about two ounces of bread in it mdash the second meal should be half a pint of good broth with the same quantity of bread let this be given about ten or eleven in the morning mdash the third meal about two or three in the afternoon should be broth in like manner mdash and their supper about six in the evening new milk and bread the same as for breakfastrdquo (Smith 1792 140) Most of books on children management give advices regarding their different stages of life and notably the periods of weaning and of dentition Samuel Smiles the famous surgeon presents ldquoin a tabular form what [he] conceive[s] ought to be the proper disposition of time in childhood boyhood adolescenceand adult age in order to the attainment of a full development of the mental faculties with a corresponding healthy completion of the physical structurerdquo (Smiles 1838 188) As such for each period of age he precises ldquothe hours that should be devoted to exercise exercise with instruction tuition relaxation and sleeprdquo (Cf table below from Ibid 188) Similarly many household management books propose plans for the distribution of tasks settled down to the day and even down to the quarter of an hour (Butterworth 1902 27-28) According to the Housekeeperrsquos magazine ldquoearly rising and a good disposition of time is essential to Economyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) As early as 1825 Frances Parkes proposes a ldquosystem of Domestic Dutyrdquo (Parkes 1825 22) which regulates the ldquodisposal of timerdquo (Ibid 16) ldquoAs much time is saved or rather gained by a regular disposal of each division of the day I recommend to you to plan the whole out every morning and as far as you can command circumstances to pursue that plan steadilyrdquo (Ibid 317) Almanachs are important tools of farm and household regulation of time and farming operations also obeys to calendars and a precise chronological pattern The combination of these different parameters require an ordered mind as it is repeatedly remarked in farm management books ldquoA time-table is to a school what grammar is to a languagerdquo says an Irish head-master who participated in the task of ldquointroducing among the national schools [of Ireland] an improved and uniform organization and of diffusing among the national teachers a more extensive practical knowledge of school keepingrdquo (Joyce 1863 37 and vii) As such he codifies a regular day at school hour by hour beginning in such a manner ldquoldquo955 to 10 Inspection as to cleanliness mdash At five minutes to ten the children should be arranged according to their divisions and drafts either in the playground or in the school- room and the teacher after a hasty glance to see that their hands faces and hair are clean and neat marches all to their several places This preliminary business should not encroach on the school time the first lessons should be actually commencing at 10 oclockrdquo (Ibid 59) For another writer on school management it is obvious that ldquothere must be a well devised program distributing the time properly among the various classes and that it must be inflexibly followedrdquo (Kellogg 1880 92) Such time-tables are a common feature of school management books

The question of ldquoarrangementrdquo that is of planning space is a common feature of farm and household management books ldquoA place for everything and everything in its

22

placerdquo is a recurring moto of 18th and 19th centuries management books Books on farm management thus frequently offer developments the arrangement of the fields and even latter on the planning of farm buildings fields or poultry houses (Dickson 1853) As early as 1768 Arthur Young underline the ldquogeneral benefit which arises from a judicious arrangement of a farmrdquo by a farmer and especially ldquothe arranging his lands properly for his cropsrdquo (Young 1768 156-157 and 158) Another author underlines that ldquobesides a most rigid and accurate set of account booksrdquo ldquoan accurate plan of each field should also be had showing the position of drains with their outfalls position of fences and gates and another detailing the mode of cropping and the part of the rotation under which at the stated intervals it comes to be placedrdquo (Burn 1877 29) Warren in his classic book on farm management proposes schemes of farm layout location size and shape of fields (Warren 1913 365-368) Regarding household management such author may propose ldquoplans of houses suited to townsrdquo (Walsh 1853 96) this one a plan of the pantries (Parloa 1898 15) while another calls for ldquoscientific house-planningrdquo (Bruere 1912 174) Ellen Richards prescriptions for the arrangement of a house include such elements as windows walls sink bathtub florrs woodwork stair rails and supports plumbing vaccum cleaner gas burners screens etc (Richards 1911) Beecher and Stowe add to their sketch of ldquomodel cottage-ground plan and roomsrdquo ldquoIn the description and arrangement the leading aim is to show how time labor and expense are saved not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangementrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 24) For the real purpose of planning is often both order and efficiency For instance

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

10

This literature is mainly written by progressive principals superintendent and teachers in normal school in order to present a new method of educating children as opposed to the mainly authoritarian and coercitive military-like style of the old system otherwise discarded under the names of the Police System or the Force System School managementrsquos theories share the same set of principles with other fields of management thought here examined but adds a recuring use of the term ldquoorganizationrdquo As a teacher in school management admits ldquowhatever difference there may be between a book on school management and one on the management of any other organization is only a difference in detailsrdquo (Tompkins 1895 32)

It is of course sometimes difficult to draw clear-cut distinctions between these publications Some authors eventually deal with the three topics in the same book or in separate publications John Henry Walsh writes for instance a Manual of Domestic Economy (1853) another of Domestic Medicine and Surgery (1858) edits a cookery book (1858) and authors books on dog management (1859) and horse management (1861) Apothecary James Nelson is the first to add hints on manners and education to his medical essay on the management of children (Nelson 1753) a practice soon to be imitated More generally farm management manuals often contain a chapter on the medical care of animals And the farm and the household are long inseparable The gentleman farmer Arthur Young notes for instance in 1770 that ldquoanother point of some consequence in a gentlemans oeconomical management is house-keeping so far as it concerns the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 240) And when established in 1923 the American Bureau of Home Economics is a part of the Department of Agriculture When it develops into a literary branch household management comes to absorb topics such as infancy management garden management and diseases management Esther Copleyrsquos cook book published in the 1820s presents the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts (Copley 182-) The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine similarly displays numerous advices on medicines as well as hints on husbandry and rural economy There is also a continuum between the management of women during pregnancy in labour in child-bed and the management of the children and of home Until the last quarter of the 19th century child management constitutes a part of the books on the domestic duties of housewives (Parkes 1825 Child 1831 Beecher 1841 Walsh 1853 Beeton 1861 Beecher and Stowe 1869 Mann 1878) Up to these years as Smuts remarks ldquomost of the burden of medical care fell on the women of the familyrdquo even among the well-to-do (Smuts 1959 13)

Similarly animal management falls under both the head of farm management and medical management Let us note here that the literature on horse management is considerable in the 19th century and goes beyond their use for farming (Flint 1815 Lawrence 1830 Nimrod 1831 Youatt 1834 Capt M 1842 Hieover 1848 Horlock and Weir 1855 Mayhem 1864 Mahon 1865 Graves and Prudden 1868 Sherer 1868 McClure 1870 Gough 1878 Reynolds 1882 Sample 1882 Magner 1886 Galvayne 1888 Cook 1891 Heard 1893 Armatage 1896 Adye 1903 Bell 1904 Axe 1905) The term ldquomanagementrdquo is commonly applied to the training handling and directing of a horse in its paces from the 16th century probably in consequence of the confusing proximity between the word ldquomanagerdquo and the French word ldquomanegravegerdquo (riding stable) Books on dogs management are also common (Ellis 1749 Cook 1826 Loudon 1851 Horlock 1852 Hill 1881 Sample 1882) as well as on sheep

11

mules cattle swine pigs and poultry (Daubenton 1782 Moubray 1816 Williams 1849 Youatt 1855 Jacques 1866 Graves and Prudden 1868 Sherer 1868 Vaniman 1885 Periam 188- Heard 1893) The same author may decline his system of management to various races of animals in the same book or in different ones such as William Youatt writting successively upon the management of horses (1834) sheeps (1836) cattle (1837) dogs (1854) and hogs (1855) or George Armatage dissertating about The Varieties and Management in Health and Disease of sheeps (1873) cattle (1893) and horses (1894)

The word ldquomanagementrdquo is often casted as a general umbrella to depict a broad field on interest For instance school management often includes ldquonot only school economy proper but also school government and school ethicsrdquo as well as school requisites school work and management of the teacher as states an American superintendent (Raub 1882 11-12) Some books might use the term in their title and no further in which case we suspect some editorsrsquo final suggestion to their authors On the contrary books might treat our four themes without using repetitively the notion of management And indeed many books are specifically devoted to child care from the end of the Middle Ages and to husbandry household administration and education from Antiquity We limit ouserves to those which made a thorough use of the term ldquomanagementrdquo to reflect upon their subject for we suggest that it is the mark of a peculiar way of thinking Moreover there exists an obvious discrepancy between the authorsrsquo cultural background and the epochs when they were writting even if many books are published and republished over times both in Great Britain and the United States Some are English other Americans and one or two books here considered are translations from the French But from the middle of the 18th century to the end of the 19th and whatever the part of the ocean we look at the word ldquomanagementrdquo keeps a stable meaning The great change will come as we should see at the beginning of the 20th century Finally the books herein examined did not have the same diffusion Some books have been widely read and served as models in each one in its peculiar field while others knew a single and confidential edition In infant management for instance the famous William Cadogan and Hugh Smith stood as authorities at the end of the 18th century The statistician agronomist and empirical scientist Arthur Young who imagined ldquosystems of managementrdquo as early as 1768 was similarly a reference in farm management In household administration Catharine Beecher Isbella Beeton and Ellen Richards have been popular references and still are Beecher authored ldquothe best-known treatises on domestic economy of the nineteenth centuty (Matthews 1987 31) Isbella Beetonrsquos 1861 book which popularized the expression ldquohousehold managementrdquo sold over sixty thousands copies in its first year of publication and almost two millions copies by 1868 (Humble 2000 vii) And Ellen Richards is considered as the ldquoprophetrdquo of home economics ldquoits interpreter its conservator its inspirer and to use her own word its engineerrdquo to quote another home economics proeminent figure (Bevier 1911 214)

The Logic Underlying the Early Uses of the Term ldquoManagementrdquo

In spite of obvious practical discrepancies the three types of literature here analyzed have common features First of all they are popular pedagogical and technical While they are often written by scholarly educated authors they are not theoretical or scientific treatises but aim at a relatively large and uneducated public

12

The title of one of these caracteristically stipulates that it is ldquowritten in a plain familiar stile to render it intelligible and useful to all mothers and those who have the management of infantsrdquo (Herdman 1804) As such advices on mothersrsquo and childrenrsquos management are often offered under the form of letters a format specially adopted for the friendly delivery of advices Most prefaces and introduction exhibit the same concern for intelligibility

Taken as a single corpus the books herein considered show a conceptual coherence and share a common understanding of the term ldquomanagementrdquo To manage then means to care to be industrious and to make efficient to drive and improve to arrange and act in a systematic way to count and calculate

If most of the books here gathered consist merely in descriptive lists of empirical practices some attempt at formulating general principles and laws out of it Whether explicitely or implicitely these principles are linked to one another and form a kind of system Indeed the care should be efficient accounting should be regular in order to gain appropriate knowledge gaining knowledge should be useful for training keeping records and setting time-tables has an important influence in promoting regularity etc As states pioneering educator Joseph Baldwin ldquoschool management is the art of so directing school affairs as to produce system order and efficiencyrdquo (Baldwin 1881 15)

Care One of the first predominant meaning of the term management is to look after to

take care to breed to cultivate to maintain The principle of care is the nodal point of the different understanding of the literature on management in the 18th ang 19th century Of course infants and children management means their proper care In this case authors may use the terms ldquonursing or maternal managementrdquo indifferently (Barrett 1875 10) The notion of ldquomanagementrdquo is more generally applied to the care of fragile human beings subject to diseases and accidents such as pregnant mothers sick-persons and old people ldquoThe care is allrdquo in farm management as well as writes the pamphleteer farmer and journalist William Cobbett (Cobbett 1821 113) The proper care given to the soil the animals and the equipment forms the core of what is meant in this literature by ldquomanagementrdquo

This principle of care signifies the prevention of depletion and if necessary the medical treatment of diseases ldquoManagement in health and diseaserdquo is a much common formula Treating illness is thus a necessary part of a careful management and the terms ldquomanagementrdquo and ldquotreatmentrdquo are often synonymous Logically books on infant management are predominantly written by physicians and those on animal management by veterinaries But to care for is not the business of the sole doctor and the very reason for the existence of such books is that as Thomas Williams states it ldquoa knowledge of the proper management of domestic animals and particularly of the causes preventives symptoms and treatment of the various complaintsthey are subject to should be possessed by every farmerrdquo (Williams 1849 9)

Hygiene cleanliness and sanitation are dominant elements in writtings on management and even on school management ldquoSchool hygiene and school management are inseparablerdquo states for instance the president of an American normal school (Salisbury 1911 54) Books on household management often devote a chapter to this issue

13

In a way a proper medical management consists in preventing diseases more than in curing it not in turning every mother into a physician but into a superintendent capable of giving effect to the prescriptions of a physician As a general rule states a scottish doctor and physiologist ldquowhere the child is well managed medicine of any kind is very rarely requiredrdquo (Combe 1840 77) An English doctor warns for himself his readers in these terms ldquoI shall not trouble you with the curative part of diseases incident to children that being altogether the concern of the physician [] This present system of nursing is intended only to manage children so as to prevent illnessrdquo (Smith 1792 163-164) An anonymous writer similarly states ldquoI wish to enable my fair readers to manage the infants committed to their care without being obliged to call in a physician for every trifling indispositionrdquo (Anonymous 1811 39) Similarly a horse breeder advises that ldquoa judicious change of food efficient stable management and proper arrangements for work can accomplish all that is necessary for the conservation of health in sound horses in a better and safer manner than the exhibition of medicamentsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 98)

To care is also the leading principle structuring the different methods of household management Their objective is invariably as an author sums it up ldquothe maximum of health physical mental and moralrdquo (Terrill 1905 14) According to Ellen Richards who is considered as the mother of home economics ldquothe ideal of lsquohomersquo is protection from dangers from within bad habits bad food bad air dirt and abuse shelter in fact from all stunting agencies just as the gardener protects his tender plants until they become strong enough to stand by themselvesrdquo (Richards 1910 73) Let us note here that this predominance of the principle of care in the first meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo should not receive a gender explaination as analysis and histories of household management often occasion Farming was predominantly a manly practice and it stressed the importance of caring as much as the more womanly activities of the household Similarly caring is a pivotal element of the more womanly activities of class management as well as of the more manly activities of school management

More generally the usual application of the term ldquomanagementrdquo includes such operations as the breeding rearing curing and proper care of living beings including crops plants bees and animals as well as of peculiar parts of the body such as the teeth and eyes of human beings and the horses feet and legs Some authors may talk about ldquomoralrdquo and ldquomental managementrdquo of children and adults (for example Thompson 1841) and eventually of the moral management of insane persons (Haslam 1817 Millingen 1841) But it is also widely applied to the careful maintenance of the house and of the farming tools In the second half of the 19th century several engineers and machinists adopt this meaning of the term management to describe the maintenance and repairing of motors machines boilers and diverse kinds of machinery Emory Edwardsrsquo book still reedited today typically gives ldquosome general rules for the care and management of steam-engines and boilersrdquo (Edwards 1882 390) Writers using in this perspective the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo were not marginal and included personalities such as Zerah Colburn editor of one of Britainrsquos leading technical journal in the middle on the 19th century (Ward 1847 Colburn 1851 Bourne 1861 Watson 1867 Roper 1875 and 1889 Shock 1880 Edwards 1882 Smith 1882 Sinclair 1885 Tompkins 1889 Lieckfeld 1896 Moulson et alii 1898 Houghtaling 1899 Biggs 189- Homans 1902 Tulley 1907)

14

Industry and Efficiency Industry and efficiency form the second structuring managerial principle of the

arts of nursing husbandry and housekeeping For our authors nothing is worst than keeping idle the soil animals or men Medical advisers repeatedly stress the importance of exercises for the proper development of children But it is in farm household and school management that these principles of industry and efficiency is the most prevalent

At the end of the 18th century the experimental agronomist Arthur Young try to call attention to the extent of land lying waste in Great Britain (Young 1773) The word economy is thus used commonly in the sense of thrift and of a judicious use of resource The insistence on the profitability of a farm or of a particular crop then means more their productivity than a potential pecuniary profit on a market To the authors here considered the purpose of farm management is not to produce a lot but to produce more with less As an example the advocate of ldquoscientific agriculturerdquo Charles Fox in his text book on farm management makes it clear that ldquothe object of the practical farmer is to raise from a given area of land the largest quantity of the most profitable produce at the least costrdquo (Fox 1854 3) Meanwhile he hardly talks about buying selling and markets

In household management to be industrious and keep good hours is a necessity As states the Housekeeperrsquos magazine in 1825 ldquoabsolute idleness is inexcusable in a woman because the needle is always at hand for those intervals in which she cannot be otherwise employedrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) Similarly in their famous book on housekeeping Catharine Beecher and Harriet Stowe warn their readers about their ldquoobligation to spend every hour for some useful endrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 215) Besides being industrious a housekeeper must be efficient wether in making or in spending The purpose of the Cassells Household Guide is thus to show ldquohow by the minimum of expenditure the maximum of comfort and of luxury may be obtainedrdquo (Cassells Household Guide 1869 1) In this perspective notes a regular contributor to the Ladies Home Journal magazine economy in the home ldquomeans that everything is put to its proper use and there is no wasterdquo and most of all ldquothat the most precious thing (sic) in it mdash the mother mdash shall not be misused or wastedrdquo (Parloa 1898 258 and 352) That is careful management means frugality in the use of money equipment and human beings According to Ellen Richards it is the increasing resort to calculation on a money basis which has led to this emphasis on efficiency ldquoin these days of consolidation for the purpose of cutting down expenses days of close calculation of cost when everything is reduced to a money basis in production it is not surprising that discussion should have arisen over the great waste involved in the keeping up of fifty kitchen-fires to do the work that five would dordquo (Richards 1899 1)

Industry is a disciplining tool much recommended by school and classroom management writers ldquoThe art of school management states characteristically an educational author consists very much in the art of giving enough and suitable employment Work must be given if good order is not obtained give morerdquo (Kellogg 1880 80) Similarly states an American superintendent ldquothe secret of success in managing small children as well as larger ones lies in giving them plenty to dordquo (Raub 1882 193) This principle of industry as in the cases of farm and household management comes generally along with the principle of efficiency According to John Gill for instance whose text-book on school management was a set text in many of the training colleges for teachers which were established after 1850 (Mugglestone 2006 291) school management or ldquoschool organization is a system of arrangements

15

designed to secure constant employment efficient instruction and moral control In other words it aims at providing the means of instructing and educating the greatest number in the most efficient manner and by the most economical expenditure of time and labourrdquo (Gill 1857 56) For another writer in school management ldquothe teachers work in school naturally falls into three great divisions which taken in logical order are mdash (1) organisation (2) discipline (3) teaching and unless all three receive due attention the work is not likely to be performed with that efficiency that economy of time and labour both of the teacher and of the pupils and that absence of friction which should characterise the operation of every good schoolrdquo (Landon 1883 109) Rice in his bestseller on scientific management in schools asserts that ldquoin the strict sense scientific management in education can only be defined as a system of management specifically directed toward the elimination of waste in teaching so that the children attending the schools may be duly rewarded for the expenditure of their time and effortrdquo (Rice 1913 viii) As puts it a professor of education in a book which went through more than thirty reprintings from 1907 to 1927 (Callahan 1962 7) the problem of classroom management ldquois a problem of economy it seeks to determine in what manner the working unit of the school plant may be made to return the largest dividend upon the material investment of time energy and moneyrdquo (Bagley 1907 2) Or as sums up another professor of education and author of a book on ldquoschool efficiencyrdquo ldquothe problem of school management is to give [people] as much as possible for their moneyrdquo (Bennett 1917 1-2)

From another perspective the very purpose of school management is to form future industrious citizens An English inspector of board schools insists for instance upon ldquothe true objects and aims of school management which are the promoting of the good habits of cheerful industry all-conquering thoroughness orderly disposition of time and labor and the practice of useful activityrdquo (Holbrook 1873 179) According to a much cited professor of education writing a generation later ldquothe aim of the school may be formulated as social efficiency Whatever the school undertakes to accomplish must be judged in the light of this standardrdquo that is to turn every child into a ldquosocially efficient individualrdquo (Bagley 1907 7-8) As states professor of pedagogy Arnold Tompkins ldquoit is needless to urge that a school thoroughly organized and managed with its regular exact and punctual requirement in performance of duty is a most powerful means of bringing the pupil into the habit and spirit of industrial life [] The public school artfully managed is the very institution to supply to society members who are not simply industrious by force of conviction and habit but who have the joy of industry in the heartrdquo (Tompkins 1895 206-207)

Handling Driving Improving Perhaps the most common significance of the verb ldquoto managerdquo from its first uses

at the end of the 16th century is ldquoto handlerdquo ldquoto conductrdquo or ldquoto carry onrdquo (Murray 1908 104-105) The verb is applied to inanimate things such as weapons instuments vehicules and affairs to actions and operations to institutions such as households and states and to animals primarily horses and cattle

In many of the texts here considered the word management means altogether breeding training and curing It often refers to the training of a particular animal the horse being by far the main sort considered with dogs coming in a second position The managing of an animal refers for instance to its breeding rearing taming ldquobreaking or learningrdquo (Ellis 1749 ChII) exercising subduing educating

16

conducting and driving That is managing means more ndash or less ndash than rude disciplining For instance goodness and patience rather than ldquomain strength and stupid harshnessrdquo (Graves and Prudden 1868 38) are systematically recommended in the management of horses ldquoKindness goes far in managing these noble animalsrdquo confirms the cavalry officer Mahon (1865 49) An anonymous mother also writes that children ldquoare much better and more easily managed by kindness and it is quite easy to be firm with a child without being angry or severerdquo (Anonymous 1884 62) For most of authors on school and classroom management cooperation more than discpline is the basis of a sound eduction as military methods of instruction are rejected in a distant past ldquoReproof and privations writes an educational pioneer are the only punishments ordinarily needed in school or family The management should be so systematic and vigorous as to render severer punishments unnecessaryrdquo (Baldwin 1881 166)

This meaning of management also appears on the books considering the rearing of infants and children which purpose is their rise and progress as well as in books on school and classroom management In both cases a good management mostly consists in giving proper habits ndash that is organized reactions For instance writes an American professor of pedagogy ldquothe school should be managed with the conscious purpose of forming habits of orderrdquo (Tompkins 1895 203) A very influential professor of education could even formulate a ldquolaw of habit-buildingrdquo ldquoFocalization of consciousness upon the process to be automatized plus attentive repetition of this process permitting no exceptions until automatism resultsrdquo (Bagley 1907 16) This educating process also applies to the training of household servants a subject of a foremost intest for the early writers on household management In some cases notes Mary Elizabeth Carter servants ldquomay like boys and girls have to be taught and trained in habits of cleanliness and orderrdquo (Carter 1904 115) It also applies to the education of the future housewife which become part of the syllabus of ldquoDomestic Sciencerdquo in universities at the end of the 19th century Logically the term management was commonly applied from the middle of the 19th century to the tasks of the teacher in charge of developing his or her pupils along physical mental and moral lines Besides many books on school management note that the old days teacher was mainly superintending while the modern one is mainly teaching Most also states that teaching has become a profession and as such necessitates a proper training ldquoThe teacher writes an editor of the New York School Journal must study to be a good teacher the art of school management in its best sense turns upon thatrdquo (Kellogg 1880 78)

By essence conduct books devise ways of improving their readersrsquo behavior As scientific disciplines develop the housewife is for instance to gain knowledge in chemistry physics and psychology In her first best-selling book Catharine Beecher who can envision the task of housewife as a ldquoprofessionrdquo (Beecher 1841 5) recommend that domestic economy should be made ldquoa regular part of school educationrdquo and not taught at home by the mothers often ignorant of the true rules of this science (Ibid 63)

For behind the idea of training lies the principle of progress As early as the 17th century enlighted farmers began to shake the bounds of tradition by submitting agriculture to rational scrutiny and experiment (Best 1642) In the 19th century the home which may seem like the bastion of tradition was subject to many methods for improving its running

The very purpose of most of the early books on management is the education of their reader A majority of it aims conscienciously at being pedagogical and popular sharing this common faith in the power of knowledge and in the benefits of mass

17

education which made its way through Europe and the United States from the 18th century The doctor Anthony Thompson characteristically states that ldquothe most judicious plan of medical management may be devised and the plainest directions for its fulfilment may be delivered to the attendants of the sick-room but without more information on the subject than is at present possessed by the females of a household and especially by those whose duty it is to superintend the execution of the orders of the Physician little benefit can be anticipated to the invalidrdquo (Thompson 1841 vii)

Order Arrangement System Regulation Order arrangement system and regulation are watchwords of the 18th and 19th

century literature on management and especially of the literature on farm and household management The expressions ldquosystem of managingrdquo ldquoplan of managementrdquo ldquomethod of managementrdquo are found in almost every book here considered The very idea of management seem to imply the notion of a regular and ordered system The Housekeeperrsquos magazine even talks about the ldquobest-regulated familyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg3 52) and Catharine Beecher of ldquoa systematic and well-regulated familyrdquo (Beecher 1841 126) For a widely read authoress of books on household administration for instance ldquomethod and order are two most important factors in the management of the householdrdquo (Parloa 1898 61) Regarding accounts writes the author of a ldquosystem of practical domestic economyrdquo ldquoregularity is the very life and soul of economyrdquo (Anonymous 1827 380) The setting of a routine and the search for regularity are especially praised in the rearing of children and of animals Thus according to a horse expert ldquoone of the first things desirable in stable management is rule by rule I mean a regular way of doing thingsrdquo (Hieover 1848 90) Similarly school management thinkers praise order and system and order ldquoSystem in school management is a necessityrdquo states one of them (Raub 1882 196) ldquoOrderliness in general matters of school management writes another is a right upon which it is unnecessary to insist The child has the right to expect regular periods for school work orderly entrance and dismissal etc care of clothing uniformity in certain aspects of discipline and the likerdquo (Arnold 1908 174) As states an English inspector of board schools ldquoThe first requisite of good management in all schools is orderrdquo (Major 1883 209) For a fourth author on this subject an ldquoimportant device in school management is the adoption of a self-regulating system [] A school is a sort of mechanism and all its movements must be regular to avoid confusion and waste of timerdquo (White 1893 94-95) As recognizes Dr Arnold Tompkins of Illinois University for whom ldquono means ever devised is more potent than an efficient system of school managementrdquo ldquowe are quite strictly materialists in school management setting objective and fixed forms and rules hard and fast over against a growing and pulsating liferdquo (Tompkins 1895 208 and 14)

Arthur Young who was to become Secretary to the English Board of Agriculture could be called the Frederick Taylor of farm management not in the sense that he animated and inspired a school but in the sense that he attempted to ldquoreduce multifarious fugitive subjects to some degree of order and even principlesrdquo articulated into a rational ldquosystem of general managementrdquo (Young 1770b 2-3) His purpose being to see husbandry ldquobuilt upon as just and philosophic principles as the art of medicinerdquo (Ibid 175) Young thus applied an experimental and scientific outlook to husbandry Talking about accounts he states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) He thus draws ldquoschemes of conducting farmsrdquo

18

with an eye to constant improvements (Young 1770b 34) To him the superiority of the gentleman over the common farmer lay in his capacity to acquire new knowledge not in his application of old ones To him it is thus important to devise a ldquoplan of agricultural operationrdquo (Young 1770a vol 2 471) What he calls the ldquosystem of managementrdquo or ldquotrain of managementrdquo of a farm is nothing but the division arrangement and proportionning of its land cattle and labour Young thus elaborate methods and calculus for a efficient division of work which he calls ldquodisposition of the teamsrdquo (Young 1770b 25) and which takes the form of distribution of ploughs horses ox and laborers He proposes for instance a table with the distribution of 16 servants 11 laborers and 16 boys for the ploughs harrowing team carried over brought over rolling horse hoeing road team ox team ditto carting extra team shepherd exen steers swine cows Young also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men As it sums it up himslef a certain portion of time a certain portion of space and ldquoa certain portion of hands are assigned to each businessrdquo (Ibid 60)

According to a prolific author of conduct books ldquothat house only is well conducted where there is a strict attention paid to order and regularity To do every thing in its proper time to keep every thing in its right place and to use every thing for its proper use is the very essence of good managementrdquo (Taylor 1815 27) Similarly according to the author of a Modern System of Domestic Cookery a ldquosystem of domestic management is the foundation of all the comfort and welfare of private familiesrdquo (Radcliffe 1823 1) But Catharine Beecher is the first one to devise in 1841 such a ldquosystematic plan of domestic economyrdquo (Beecher 1841 157) in a book notes a literature teacher specialist of Catharine Beecher which ldquowent through fifteen editions between 1841 and 1856 and established Beecher as the nations foremost authority on household practicerdquo (Tonkovich in Beecher and Stowe 1869 xiii) According to her philosophy ldquoit is wise therefore for all persons to devise a general plan which they will at least keep in view and aim to accomplish and by which a proper proportion of time shall be secured for all the duties of liferdquo (Ibid 158) She thus advocates a ldquosystematic employment of timerdquo (Ibid 160 Beecher and Stowe 1870 196) Beecher and her sister Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote in a later book ldquoEvery young lady can systematize her pursuits to a certain extent She can have a particular day for mending her wardrobe and for arranging her trunks closets and drawers She can keep her work-basket her desk at school and all her other conveniences in their proper places and in regular order She can have regular periods for reading walking visiting study and domestic pursuits And by following this method in youth she will form a taste for regularity and a habit of system which will prove a blessing to her through liferdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 202) The housekeeper should not limit her division and arrangement of work to the servants but strive for ldquothe apportioning of regular employment to the various members of a family If a housekeeper can secure the cooperation of all her family she will find that lsquomany hands make light workrsquordquo (Beecher 1841 163) Adding that ldquoa woman is under obligations so to arrange the hours and pursuits of her family as to promote systematic and habitual industryrdquo (Ibid 185) For that purpose she draws plans of houses and domestic conveniences (Ibid ch XXIV)

Both Young and Beecher show the conspicuous features that exhibit the literature on farm and household management a quest for regularity and order systematicity planning selection as well as the arrangement of work and division of labor But elaboration of methods and plans are also common in medical management literature The doctor Cadogan proposes as early as 1748 a ldquoPlan of Nursingrdquo (Cadogan 1748 21)

19

This systematic frame of mind is first expressed by medical farm and household management writers not so much in a desire to standardize but in a constant effort to codify That is routines are not systematically reduced to a measurable standard but they are carefully specified often regarding a specific time and place The very idea of writting a book imply this logic of formalizing and codifying a set of practices The most methodic books circumscribe the mother farmer and housekeeperrsquos tasks and codify it in every detail Most of the books on infant management codify the childrenrsquos dress from the shoes to the cap their cleanliness bathing foods drinks exercise amusements sleep education and employments Isabella Beetonrsquos 1861 book codified every aspect of household management and even every aspect of a diner given at home or in paying visits of condoleance This very idea of codification is best exemplified by the recurring planning tools proposed by most of these books such as detailed plans of houses diagrams of kitchen schedules work orders tables of duties calendars reminder cards and files bulletin boards ledgers accounting books individual calendars or written menus to be posted in pantry and kitchen (Cf for instance figure below from US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932 202) An author even recommends the use of ldquoprinted rules

in bath room [] giving a few very simple admonitions upon what is lsquogood formrsquo in a lavatory of any sortrdquo (Carter 1904 93) For the ldquohousehold engineerrdquo Christine Frederick ldquostandard practice means then written directions as to method and tools and timerdquo (Frederick 1919 152)

Even if most of English and American homes employed less than ten servants and therefore knew in a limited degree the division labor Nevertheless remarks the author of a ldquodomestic economy and household sciencerdquo manual ldquoin most households it is found necessary to divide the work which has to be done amongst various people

20

and to have some of these especially trained for certain parts of it such as cooking the food cleaning the house and waiting upon the inmates The arranging of all this work has to be thought of and planned by the master and mistress who are the responsible controllers and heads of the house Thus the duties of servants their relations to their employers and their good management or handling are also matters with which domestic economy has to dealrdquo (Mann 1878 5)

Much of the books on school management devote a chapter or a whole part to ldquoorganizationrdquo which usally contains instructions regarding the number and size of the classes the distribution of the staff the syllabus of work for each class the classification of the scholars and the time table It may picture plans of the school or at least of the ideal classroom and some even specify the way children should be gathered and circulate wtihin their class (Cf right time table and plan of a school reproduced from Collar and Crook 1901 41) For an influential writer on school management ldquothe particulars embraced under organization comprise the arrangements of the rooms classification of the children duties of the master subordinates distribution of work and time tablesrdquo (Gill 1857 57) Under the head of organization the rector of a Glasgow school thus describe for instance ldquothe arrangement of desks most suitable to the efficient management of a schoolrdquo (Morrison 1859 44) Another author talks about ldquothe distribution of the teaching powerrdquo (Landon 1883 110)

According to the authors of farm management books good husbandry is not a matter of duplicating age-old recipes but a matter of choices and of planning choice of a location of a farm og a kind of farming (intensive or extensive) of crops of livestock of horses of equipment of implements of calendar etc All these parameters interacts As such states Young husbandry can never arrive at perfection ldquoif the exact degree of every vegetable cultivated be not known in relation to soil and management and in a word if all the the various branches of this complex art be not so thoroughly sifted and examined as to be familiar in every combinationrdquo (Young 1770b 150-151) A century later Robert Scott Burn advises his readers to select their animals with regards to ldquothe soil its cropping size locality and climaterdquo (Burn 1877 29) Richard Reynolds states for himself that ldquoalmost every treatise upon the management of farm-horses contain formulae of food allowances applicable for use at certain seasons and during the performance of certain agricultural operationsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 52) Similarly the proper selection of a new house of servants of food of menus of activities for the children and even ldquothe choice of friendsrdquo and new acquaintances (Parkes 1825 Part I Conversations II and III) are important dimensions of household management For a household editor for the Ladies Home Journal if a housekeeper ldquodoes not know that round steak at 20 cents a pound possesses as much nutriment as the

21

porterhouse at 26 cents she will not expend wisely or economically She should know something of the idea of a lsquobalanced mealrsquo and what foods will give it the place of milk fruit and eggs in the diet what are healthful meat substitutes and the nourishment of various kinds of breads vegetables and cerealsrdquo (Frederick 1913 105)

Most of the book on children management describe curricula proper to their development For instance in his Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children written in 1792 Smith formulates ldquorulesrdquo describes ldquobest methodsrdquo and offers detailed prescriptions for the management of children ldquolet their breakfast at six or seven in the morning be half a pint of new milk with about two ounces of bread in it mdash the second meal should be half a pint of good broth with the same quantity of bread let this be given about ten or eleven in the morning mdash the third meal about two or three in the afternoon should be broth in like manner mdash and their supper about six in the evening new milk and bread the same as for breakfastrdquo (Smith 1792 140) Most of books on children management give advices regarding their different stages of life and notably the periods of weaning and of dentition Samuel Smiles the famous surgeon presents ldquoin a tabular form what [he] conceive[s] ought to be the proper disposition of time in childhood boyhood adolescenceand adult age in order to the attainment of a full development of the mental faculties with a corresponding healthy completion of the physical structurerdquo (Smiles 1838 188) As such for each period of age he precises ldquothe hours that should be devoted to exercise exercise with instruction tuition relaxation and sleeprdquo (Cf table below from Ibid 188) Similarly many household management books propose plans for the distribution of tasks settled down to the day and even down to the quarter of an hour (Butterworth 1902 27-28) According to the Housekeeperrsquos magazine ldquoearly rising and a good disposition of time is essential to Economyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) As early as 1825 Frances Parkes proposes a ldquosystem of Domestic Dutyrdquo (Parkes 1825 22) which regulates the ldquodisposal of timerdquo (Ibid 16) ldquoAs much time is saved or rather gained by a regular disposal of each division of the day I recommend to you to plan the whole out every morning and as far as you can command circumstances to pursue that plan steadilyrdquo (Ibid 317) Almanachs are important tools of farm and household regulation of time and farming operations also obeys to calendars and a precise chronological pattern The combination of these different parameters require an ordered mind as it is repeatedly remarked in farm management books ldquoA time-table is to a school what grammar is to a languagerdquo says an Irish head-master who participated in the task of ldquointroducing among the national schools [of Ireland] an improved and uniform organization and of diffusing among the national teachers a more extensive practical knowledge of school keepingrdquo (Joyce 1863 37 and vii) As such he codifies a regular day at school hour by hour beginning in such a manner ldquoldquo955 to 10 Inspection as to cleanliness mdash At five minutes to ten the children should be arranged according to their divisions and drafts either in the playground or in the school- room and the teacher after a hasty glance to see that their hands faces and hair are clean and neat marches all to their several places This preliminary business should not encroach on the school time the first lessons should be actually commencing at 10 oclockrdquo (Ibid 59) For another writer on school management it is obvious that ldquothere must be a well devised program distributing the time properly among the various classes and that it must be inflexibly followedrdquo (Kellogg 1880 92) Such time-tables are a common feature of school management books

The question of ldquoarrangementrdquo that is of planning space is a common feature of farm and household management books ldquoA place for everything and everything in its

22

placerdquo is a recurring moto of 18th and 19th centuries management books Books on farm management thus frequently offer developments the arrangement of the fields and even latter on the planning of farm buildings fields or poultry houses (Dickson 1853) As early as 1768 Arthur Young underline the ldquogeneral benefit which arises from a judicious arrangement of a farmrdquo by a farmer and especially ldquothe arranging his lands properly for his cropsrdquo (Young 1768 156-157 and 158) Another author underlines that ldquobesides a most rigid and accurate set of account booksrdquo ldquoan accurate plan of each field should also be had showing the position of drains with their outfalls position of fences and gates and another detailing the mode of cropping and the part of the rotation under which at the stated intervals it comes to be placedrdquo (Burn 1877 29) Warren in his classic book on farm management proposes schemes of farm layout location size and shape of fields (Warren 1913 365-368) Regarding household management such author may propose ldquoplans of houses suited to townsrdquo (Walsh 1853 96) this one a plan of the pantries (Parloa 1898 15) while another calls for ldquoscientific house-planningrdquo (Bruere 1912 174) Ellen Richards prescriptions for the arrangement of a house include such elements as windows walls sink bathtub florrs woodwork stair rails and supports plumbing vaccum cleaner gas burners screens etc (Richards 1911) Beecher and Stowe add to their sketch of ldquomodel cottage-ground plan and roomsrdquo ldquoIn the description and arrangement the leading aim is to show how time labor and expense are saved not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangementrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 24) For the real purpose of planning is often both order and efficiency For instance

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

11

mules cattle swine pigs and poultry (Daubenton 1782 Moubray 1816 Williams 1849 Youatt 1855 Jacques 1866 Graves and Prudden 1868 Sherer 1868 Vaniman 1885 Periam 188- Heard 1893) The same author may decline his system of management to various races of animals in the same book or in different ones such as William Youatt writting successively upon the management of horses (1834) sheeps (1836) cattle (1837) dogs (1854) and hogs (1855) or George Armatage dissertating about The Varieties and Management in Health and Disease of sheeps (1873) cattle (1893) and horses (1894)

The word ldquomanagementrdquo is often casted as a general umbrella to depict a broad field on interest For instance school management often includes ldquonot only school economy proper but also school government and school ethicsrdquo as well as school requisites school work and management of the teacher as states an American superintendent (Raub 1882 11-12) Some books might use the term in their title and no further in which case we suspect some editorsrsquo final suggestion to their authors On the contrary books might treat our four themes without using repetitively the notion of management And indeed many books are specifically devoted to child care from the end of the Middle Ages and to husbandry household administration and education from Antiquity We limit ouserves to those which made a thorough use of the term ldquomanagementrdquo to reflect upon their subject for we suggest that it is the mark of a peculiar way of thinking Moreover there exists an obvious discrepancy between the authorsrsquo cultural background and the epochs when they were writting even if many books are published and republished over times both in Great Britain and the United States Some are English other Americans and one or two books here considered are translations from the French But from the middle of the 18th century to the end of the 19th and whatever the part of the ocean we look at the word ldquomanagementrdquo keeps a stable meaning The great change will come as we should see at the beginning of the 20th century Finally the books herein examined did not have the same diffusion Some books have been widely read and served as models in each one in its peculiar field while others knew a single and confidential edition In infant management for instance the famous William Cadogan and Hugh Smith stood as authorities at the end of the 18th century The statistician agronomist and empirical scientist Arthur Young who imagined ldquosystems of managementrdquo as early as 1768 was similarly a reference in farm management In household administration Catharine Beecher Isbella Beeton and Ellen Richards have been popular references and still are Beecher authored ldquothe best-known treatises on domestic economy of the nineteenth centuty (Matthews 1987 31) Isbella Beetonrsquos 1861 book which popularized the expression ldquohousehold managementrdquo sold over sixty thousands copies in its first year of publication and almost two millions copies by 1868 (Humble 2000 vii) And Ellen Richards is considered as the ldquoprophetrdquo of home economics ldquoits interpreter its conservator its inspirer and to use her own word its engineerrdquo to quote another home economics proeminent figure (Bevier 1911 214)

The Logic Underlying the Early Uses of the Term ldquoManagementrdquo

In spite of obvious practical discrepancies the three types of literature here analyzed have common features First of all they are popular pedagogical and technical While they are often written by scholarly educated authors they are not theoretical or scientific treatises but aim at a relatively large and uneducated public

12

The title of one of these caracteristically stipulates that it is ldquowritten in a plain familiar stile to render it intelligible and useful to all mothers and those who have the management of infantsrdquo (Herdman 1804) As such advices on mothersrsquo and childrenrsquos management are often offered under the form of letters a format specially adopted for the friendly delivery of advices Most prefaces and introduction exhibit the same concern for intelligibility

Taken as a single corpus the books herein considered show a conceptual coherence and share a common understanding of the term ldquomanagementrdquo To manage then means to care to be industrious and to make efficient to drive and improve to arrange and act in a systematic way to count and calculate

If most of the books here gathered consist merely in descriptive lists of empirical practices some attempt at formulating general principles and laws out of it Whether explicitely or implicitely these principles are linked to one another and form a kind of system Indeed the care should be efficient accounting should be regular in order to gain appropriate knowledge gaining knowledge should be useful for training keeping records and setting time-tables has an important influence in promoting regularity etc As states pioneering educator Joseph Baldwin ldquoschool management is the art of so directing school affairs as to produce system order and efficiencyrdquo (Baldwin 1881 15)

Care One of the first predominant meaning of the term management is to look after to

take care to breed to cultivate to maintain The principle of care is the nodal point of the different understanding of the literature on management in the 18th ang 19th century Of course infants and children management means their proper care In this case authors may use the terms ldquonursing or maternal managementrdquo indifferently (Barrett 1875 10) The notion of ldquomanagementrdquo is more generally applied to the care of fragile human beings subject to diseases and accidents such as pregnant mothers sick-persons and old people ldquoThe care is allrdquo in farm management as well as writes the pamphleteer farmer and journalist William Cobbett (Cobbett 1821 113) The proper care given to the soil the animals and the equipment forms the core of what is meant in this literature by ldquomanagementrdquo

This principle of care signifies the prevention of depletion and if necessary the medical treatment of diseases ldquoManagement in health and diseaserdquo is a much common formula Treating illness is thus a necessary part of a careful management and the terms ldquomanagementrdquo and ldquotreatmentrdquo are often synonymous Logically books on infant management are predominantly written by physicians and those on animal management by veterinaries But to care for is not the business of the sole doctor and the very reason for the existence of such books is that as Thomas Williams states it ldquoa knowledge of the proper management of domestic animals and particularly of the causes preventives symptoms and treatment of the various complaintsthey are subject to should be possessed by every farmerrdquo (Williams 1849 9)

Hygiene cleanliness and sanitation are dominant elements in writtings on management and even on school management ldquoSchool hygiene and school management are inseparablerdquo states for instance the president of an American normal school (Salisbury 1911 54) Books on household management often devote a chapter to this issue

13

In a way a proper medical management consists in preventing diseases more than in curing it not in turning every mother into a physician but into a superintendent capable of giving effect to the prescriptions of a physician As a general rule states a scottish doctor and physiologist ldquowhere the child is well managed medicine of any kind is very rarely requiredrdquo (Combe 1840 77) An English doctor warns for himself his readers in these terms ldquoI shall not trouble you with the curative part of diseases incident to children that being altogether the concern of the physician [] This present system of nursing is intended only to manage children so as to prevent illnessrdquo (Smith 1792 163-164) An anonymous writer similarly states ldquoI wish to enable my fair readers to manage the infants committed to their care without being obliged to call in a physician for every trifling indispositionrdquo (Anonymous 1811 39) Similarly a horse breeder advises that ldquoa judicious change of food efficient stable management and proper arrangements for work can accomplish all that is necessary for the conservation of health in sound horses in a better and safer manner than the exhibition of medicamentsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 98)

To care is also the leading principle structuring the different methods of household management Their objective is invariably as an author sums it up ldquothe maximum of health physical mental and moralrdquo (Terrill 1905 14) According to Ellen Richards who is considered as the mother of home economics ldquothe ideal of lsquohomersquo is protection from dangers from within bad habits bad food bad air dirt and abuse shelter in fact from all stunting agencies just as the gardener protects his tender plants until they become strong enough to stand by themselvesrdquo (Richards 1910 73) Let us note here that this predominance of the principle of care in the first meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo should not receive a gender explaination as analysis and histories of household management often occasion Farming was predominantly a manly practice and it stressed the importance of caring as much as the more womanly activities of the household Similarly caring is a pivotal element of the more womanly activities of class management as well as of the more manly activities of school management

More generally the usual application of the term ldquomanagementrdquo includes such operations as the breeding rearing curing and proper care of living beings including crops plants bees and animals as well as of peculiar parts of the body such as the teeth and eyes of human beings and the horses feet and legs Some authors may talk about ldquomoralrdquo and ldquomental managementrdquo of children and adults (for example Thompson 1841) and eventually of the moral management of insane persons (Haslam 1817 Millingen 1841) But it is also widely applied to the careful maintenance of the house and of the farming tools In the second half of the 19th century several engineers and machinists adopt this meaning of the term management to describe the maintenance and repairing of motors machines boilers and diverse kinds of machinery Emory Edwardsrsquo book still reedited today typically gives ldquosome general rules for the care and management of steam-engines and boilersrdquo (Edwards 1882 390) Writers using in this perspective the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo were not marginal and included personalities such as Zerah Colburn editor of one of Britainrsquos leading technical journal in the middle on the 19th century (Ward 1847 Colburn 1851 Bourne 1861 Watson 1867 Roper 1875 and 1889 Shock 1880 Edwards 1882 Smith 1882 Sinclair 1885 Tompkins 1889 Lieckfeld 1896 Moulson et alii 1898 Houghtaling 1899 Biggs 189- Homans 1902 Tulley 1907)

14

Industry and Efficiency Industry and efficiency form the second structuring managerial principle of the

arts of nursing husbandry and housekeeping For our authors nothing is worst than keeping idle the soil animals or men Medical advisers repeatedly stress the importance of exercises for the proper development of children But it is in farm household and school management that these principles of industry and efficiency is the most prevalent

At the end of the 18th century the experimental agronomist Arthur Young try to call attention to the extent of land lying waste in Great Britain (Young 1773) The word economy is thus used commonly in the sense of thrift and of a judicious use of resource The insistence on the profitability of a farm or of a particular crop then means more their productivity than a potential pecuniary profit on a market To the authors here considered the purpose of farm management is not to produce a lot but to produce more with less As an example the advocate of ldquoscientific agriculturerdquo Charles Fox in his text book on farm management makes it clear that ldquothe object of the practical farmer is to raise from a given area of land the largest quantity of the most profitable produce at the least costrdquo (Fox 1854 3) Meanwhile he hardly talks about buying selling and markets

In household management to be industrious and keep good hours is a necessity As states the Housekeeperrsquos magazine in 1825 ldquoabsolute idleness is inexcusable in a woman because the needle is always at hand for those intervals in which she cannot be otherwise employedrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) Similarly in their famous book on housekeeping Catharine Beecher and Harriet Stowe warn their readers about their ldquoobligation to spend every hour for some useful endrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 215) Besides being industrious a housekeeper must be efficient wether in making or in spending The purpose of the Cassells Household Guide is thus to show ldquohow by the minimum of expenditure the maximum of comfort and of luxury may be obtainedrdquo (Cassells Household Guide 1869 1) In this perspective notes a regular contributor to the Ladies Home Journal magazine economy in the home ldquomeans that everything is put to its proper use and there is no wasterdquo and most of all ldquothat the most precious thing (sic) in it mdash the mother mdash shall not be misused or wastedrdquo (Parloa 1898 258 and 352) That is careful management means frugality in the use of money equipment and human beings According to Ellen Richards it is the increasing resort to calculation on a money basis which has led to this emphasis on efficiency ldquoin these days of consolidation for the purpose of cutting down expenses days of close calculation of cost when everything is reduced to a money basis in production it is not surprising that discussion should have arisen over the great waste involved in the keeping up of fifty kitchen-fires to do the work that five would dordquo (Richards 1899 1)

Industry is a disciplining tool much recommended by school and classroom management writers ldquoThe art of school management states characteristically an educational author consists very much in the art of giving enough and suitable employment Work must be given if good order is not obtained give morerdquo (Kellogg 1880 80) Similarly states an American superintendent ldquothe secret of success in managing small children as well as larger ones lies in giving them plenty to dordquo (Raub 1882 193) This principle of industry as in the cases of farm and household management comes generally along with the principle of efficiency According to John Gill for instance whose text-book on school management was a set text in many of the training colleges for teachers which were established after 1850 (Mugglestone 2006 291) school management or ldquoschool organization is a system of arrangements

15

designed to secure constant employment efficient instruction and moral control In other words it aims at providing the means of instructing and educating the greatest number in the most efficient manner and by the most economical expenditure of time and labourrdquo (Gill 1857 56) For another writer in school management ldquothe teachers work in school naturally falls into three great divisions which taken in logical order are mdash (1) organisation (2) discipline (3) teaching and unless all three receive due attention the work is not likely to be performed with that efficiency that economy of time and labour both of the teacher and of the pupils and that absence of friction which should characterise the operation of every good schoolrdquo (Landon 1883 109) Rice in his bestseller on scientific management in schools asserts that ldquoin the strict sense scientific management in education can only be defined as a system of management specifically directed toward the elimination of waste in teaching so that the children attending the schools may be duly rewarded for the expenditure of their time and effortrdquo (Rice 1913 viii) As puts it a professor of education in a book which went through more than thirty reprintings from 1907 to 1927 (Callahan 1962 7) the problem of classroom management ldquois a problem of economy it seeks to determine in what manner the working unit of the school plant may be made to return the largest dividend upon the material investment of time energy and moneyrdquo (Bagley 1907 2) Or as sums up another professor of education and author of a book on ldquoschool efficiencyrdquo ldquothe problem of school management is to give [people] as much as possible for their moneyrdquo (Bennett 1917 1-2)

From another perspective the very purpose of school management is to form future industrious citizens An English inspector of board schools insists for instance upon ldquothe true objects and aims of school management which are the promoting of the good habits of cheerful industry all-conquering thoroughness orderly disposition of time and labor and the practice of useful activityrdquo (Holbrook 1873 179) According to a much cited professor of education writing a generation later ldquothe aim of the school may be formulated as social efficiency Whatever the school undertakes to accomplish must be judged in the light of this standardrdquo that is to turn every child into a ldquosocially efficient individualrdquo (Bagley 1907 7-8) As states professor of pedagogy Arnold Tompkins ldquoit is needless to urge that a school thoroughly organized and managed with its regular exact and punctual requirement in performance of duty is a most powerful means of bringing the pupil into the habit and spirit of industrial life [] The public school artfully managed is the very institution to supply to society members who are not simply industrious by force of conviction and habit but who have the joy of industry in the heartrdquo (Tompkins 1895 206-207)

Handling Driving Improving Perhaps the most common significance of the verb ldquoto managerdquo from its first uses

at the end of the 16th century is ldquoto handlerdquo ldquoto conductrdquo or ldquoto carry onrdquo (Murray 1908 104-105) The verb is applied to inanimate things such as weapons instuments vehicules and affairs to actions and operations to institutions such as households and states and to animals primarily horses and cattle

In many of the texts here considered the word management means altogether breeding training and curing It often refers to the training of a particular animal the horse being by far the main sort considered with dogs coming in a second position The managing of an animal refers for instance to its breeding rearing taming ldquobreaking or learningrdquo (Ellis 1749 ChII) exercising subduing educating

16

conducting and driving That is managing means more ndash or less ndash than rude disciplining For instance goodness and patience rather than ldquomain strength and stupid harshnessrdquo (Graves and Prudden 1868 38) are systematically recommended in the management of horses ldquoKindness goes far in managing these noble animalsrdquo confirms the cavalry officer Mahon (1865 49) An anonymous mother also writes that children ldquoare much better and more easily managed by kindness and it is quite easy to be firm with a child without being angry or severerdquo (Anonymous 1884 62) For most of authors on school and classroom management cooperation more than discpline is the basis of a sound eduction as military methods of instruction are rejected in a distant past ldquoReproof and privations writes an educational pioneer are the only punishments ordinarily needed in school or family The management should be so systematic and vigorous as to render severer punishments unnecessaryrdquo (Baldwin 1881 166)

This meaning of management also appears on the books considering the rearing of infants and children which purpose is their rise and progress as well as in books on school and classroom management In both cases a good management mostly consists in giving proper habits ndash that is organized reactions For instance writes an American professor of pedagogy ldquothe school should be managed with the conscious purpose of forming habits of orderrdquo (Tompkins 1895 203) A very influential professor of education could even formulate a ldquolaw of habit-buildingrdquo ldquoFocalization of consciousness upon the process to be automatized plus attentive repetition of this process permitting no exceptions until automatism resultsrdquo (Bagley 1907 16) This educating process also applies to the training of household servants a subject of a foremost intest for the early writers on household management In some cases notes Mary Elizabeth Carter servants ldquomay like boys and girls have to be taught and trained in habits of cleanliness and orderrdquo (Carter 1904 115) It also applies to the education of the future housewife which become part of the syllabus of ldquoDomestic Sciencerdquo in universities at the end of the 19th century Logically the term management was commonly applied from the middle of the 19th century to the tasks of the teacher in charge of developing his or her pupils along physical mental and moral lines Besides many books on school management note that the old days teacher was mainly superintending while the modern one is mainly teaching Most also states that teaching has become a profession and as such necessitates a proper training ldquoThe teacher writes an editor of the New York School Journal must study to be a good teacher the art of school management in its best sense turns upon thatrdquo (Kellogg 1880 78)

By essence conduct books devise ways of improving their readersrsquo behavior As scientific disciplines develop the housewife is for instance to gain knowledge in chemistry physics and psychology In her first best-selling book Catharine Beecher who can envision the task of housewife as a ldquoprofessionrdquo (Beecher 1841 5) recommend that domestic economy should be made ldquoa regular part of school educationrdquo and not taught at home by the mothers often ignorant of the true rules of this science (Ibid 63)

For behind the idea of training lies the principle of progress As early as the 17th century enlighted farmers began to shake the bounds of tradition by submitting agriculture to rational scrutiny and experiment (Best 1642) In the 19th century the home which may seem like the bastion of tradition was subject to many methods for improving its running

The very purpose of most of the early books on management is the education of their reader A majority of it aims conscienciously at being pedagogical and popular sharing this common faith in the power of knowledge and in the benefits of mass

17

education which made its way through Europe and the United States from the 18th century The doctor Anthony Thompson characteristically states that ldquothe most judicious plan of medical management may be devised and the plainest directions for its fulfilment may be delivered to the attendants of the sick-room but without more information on the subject than is at present possessed by the females of a household and especially by those whose duty it is to superintend the execution of the orders of the Physician little benefit can be anticipated to the invalidrdquo (Thompson 1841 vii)

Order Arrangement System Regulation Order arrangement system and regulation are watchwords of the 18th and 19th

century literature on management and especially of the literature on farm and household management The expressions ldquosystem of managingrdquo ldquoplan of managementrdquo ldquomethod of managementrdquo are found in almost every book here considered The very idea of management seem to imply the notion of a regular and ordered system The Housekeeperrsquos magazine even talks about the ldquobest-regulated familyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg3 52) and Catharine Beecher of ldquoa systematic and well-regulated familyrdquo (Beecher 1841 126) For a widely read authoress of books on household administration for instance ldquomethod and order are two most important factors in the management of the householdrdquo (Parloa 1898 61) Regarding accounts writes the author of a ldquosystem of practical domestic economyrdquo ldquoregularity is the very life and soul of economyrdquo (Anonymous 1827 380) The setting of a routine and the search for regularity are especially praised in the rearing of children and of animals Thus according to a horse expert ldquoone of the first things desirable in stable management is rule by rule I mean a regular way of doing thingsrdquo (Hieover 1848 90) Similarly school management thinkers praise order and system and order ldquoSystem in school management is a necessityrdquo states one of them (Raub 1882 196) ldquoOrderliness in general matters of school management writes another is a right upon which it is unnecessary to insist The child has the right to expect regular periods for school work orderly entrance and dismissal etc care of clothing uniformity in certain aspects of discipline and the likerdquo (Arnold 1908 174) As states an English inspector of board schools ldquoThe first requisite of good management in all schools is orderrdquo (Major 1883 209) For a fourth author on this subject an ldquoimportant device in school management is the adoption of a self-regulating system [] A school is a sort of mechanism and all its movements must be regular to avoid confusion and waste of timerdquo (White 1893 94-95) As recognizes Dr Arnold Tompkins of Illinois University for whom ldquono means ever devised is more potent than an efficient system of school managementrdquo ldquowe are quite strictly materialists in school management setting objective and fixed forms and rules hard and fast over against a growing and pulsating liferdquo (Tompkins 1895 208 and 14)

Arthur Young who was to become Secretary to the English Board of Agriculture could be called the Frederick Taylor of farm management not in the sense that he animated and inspired a school but in the sense that he attempted to ldquoreduce multifarious fugitive subjects to some degree of order and even principlesrdquo articulated into a rational ldquosystem of general managementrdquo (Young 1770b 2-3) His purpose being to see husbandry ldquobuilt upon as just and philosophic principles as the art of medicinerdquo (Ibid 175) Young thus applied an experimental and scientific outlook to husbandry Talking about accounts he states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) He thus draws ldquoschemes of conducting farmsrdquo

18

with an eye to constant improvements (Young 1770b 34) To him the superiority of the gentleman over the common farmer lay in his capacity to acquire new knowledge not in his application of old ones To him it is thus important to devise a ldquoplan of agricultural operationrdquo (Young 1770a vol 2 471) What he calls the ldquosystem of managementrdquo or ldquotrain of managementrdquo of a farm is nothing but the division arrangement and proportionning of its land cattle and labour Young thus elaborate methods and calculus for a efficient division of work which he calls ldquodisposition of the teamsrdquo (Young 1770b 25) and which takes the form of distribution of ploughs horses ox and laborers He proposes for instance a table with the distribution of 16 servants 11 laborers and 16 boys for the ploughs harrowing team carried over brought over rolling horse hoeing road team ox team ditto carting extra team shepherd exen steers swine cows Young also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men As it sums it up himslef a certain portion of time a certain portion of space and ldquoa certain portion of hands are assigned to each businessrdquo (Ibid 60)

According to a prolific author of conduct books ldquothat house only is well conducted where there is a strict attention paid to order and regularity To do every thing in its proper time to keep every thing in its right place and to use every thing for its proper use is the very essence of good managementrdquo (Taylor 1815 27) Similarly according to the author of a Modern System of Domestic Cookery a ldquosystem of domestic management is the foundation of all the comfort and welfare of private familiesrdquo (Radcliffe 1823 1) But Catharine Beecher is the first one to devise in 1841 such a ldquosystematic plan of domestic economyrdquo (Beecher 1841 157) in a book notes a literature teacher specialist of Catharine Beecher which ldquowent through fifteen editions between 1841 and 1856 and established Beecher as the nations foremost authority on household practicerdquo (Tonkovich in Beecher and Stowe 1869 xiii) According to her philosophy ldquoit is wise therefore for all persons to devise a general plan which they will at least keep in view and aim to accomplish and by which a proper proportion of time shall be secured for all the duties of liferdquo (Ibid 158) She thus advocates a ldquosystematic employment of timerdquo (Ibid 160 Beecher and Stowe 1870 196) Beecher and her sister Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote in a later book ldquoEvery young lady can systematize her pursuits to a certain extent She can have a particular day for mending her wardrobe and for arranging her trunks closets and drawers She can keep her work-basket her desk at school and all her other conveniences in their proper places and in regular order She can have regular periods for reading walking visiting study and domestic pursuits And by following this method in youth she will form a taste for regularity and a habit of system which will prove a blessing to her through liferdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 202) The housekeeper should not limit her division and arrangement of work to the servants but strive for ldquothe apportioning of regular employment to the various members of a family If a housekeeper can secure the cooperation of all her family she will find that lsquomany hands make light workrsquordquo (Beecher 1841 163) Adding that ldquoa woman is under obligations so to arrange the hours and pursuits of her family as to promote systematic and habitual industryrdquo (Ibid 185) For that purpose she draws plans of houses and domestic conveniences (Ibid ch XXIV)

Both Young and Beecher show the conspicuous features that exhibit the literature on farm and household management a quest for regularity and order systematicity planning selection as well as the arrangement of work and division of labor But elaboration of methods and plans are also common in medical management literature The doctor Cadogan proposes as early as 1748 a ldquoPlan of Nursingrdquo (Cadogan 1748 21)

19

This systematic frame of mind is first expressed by medical farm and household management writers not so much in a desire to standardize but in a constant effort to codify That is routines are not systematically reduced to a measurable standard but they are carefully specified often regarding a specific time and place The very idea of writting a book imply this logic of formalizing and codifying a set of practices The most methodic books circumscribe the mother farmer and housekeeperrsquos tasks and codify it in every detail Most of the books on infant management codify the childrenrsquos dress from the shoes to the cap their cleanliness bathing foods drinks exercise amusements sleep education and employments Isabella Beetonrsquos 1861 book codified every aspect of household management and even every aspect of a diner given at home or in paying visits of condoleance This very idea of codification is best exemplified by the recurring planning tools proposed by most of these books such as detailed plans of houses diagrams of kitchen schedules work orders tables of duties calendars reminder cards and files bulletin boards ledgers accounting books individual calendars or written menus to be posted in pantry and kitchen (Cf for instance figure below from US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932 202) An author even recommends the use of ldquoprinted rules

in bath room [] giving a few very simple admonitions upon what is lsquogood formrsquo in a lavatory of any sortrdquo (Carter 1904 93) For the ldquohousehold engineerrdquo Christine Frederick ldquostandard practice means then written directions as to method and tools and timerdquo (Frederick 1919 152)

Even if most of English and American homes employed less than ten servants and therefore knew in a limited degree the division labor Nevertheless remarks the author of a ldquodomestic economy and household sciencerdquo manual ldquoin most households it is found necessary to divide the work which has to be done amongst various people

20

and to have some of these especially trained for certain parts of it such as cooking the food cleaning the house and waiting upon the inmates The arranging of all this work has to be thought of and planned by the master and mistress who are the responsible controllers and heads of the house Thus the duties of servants their relations to their employers and their good management or handling are also matters with which domestic economy has to dealrdquo (Mann 1878 5)

Much of the books on school management devote a chapter or a whole part to ldquoorganizationrdquo which usally contains instructions regarding the number and size of the classes the distribution of the staff the syllabus of work for each class the classification of the scholars and the time table It may picture plans of the school or at least of the ideal classroom and some even specify the way children should be gathered and circulate wtihin their class (Cf right time table and plan of a school reproduced from Collar and Crook 1901 41) For an influential writer on school management ldquothe particulars embraced under organization comprise the arrangements of the rooms classification of the children duties of the master subordinates distribution of work and time tablesrdquo (Gill 1857 57) Under the head of organization the rector of a Glasgow school thus describe for instance ldquothe arrangement of desks most suitable to the efficient management of a schoolrdquo (Morrison 1859 44) Another author talks about ldquothe distribution of the teaching powerrdquo (Landon 1883 110)

According to the authors of farm management books good husbandry is not a matter of duplicating age-old recipes but a matter of choices and of planning choice of a location of a farm og a kind of farming (intensive or extensive) of crops of livestock of horses of equipment of implements of calendar etc All these parameters interacts As such states Young husbandry can never arrive at perfection ldquoif the exact degree of every vegetable cultivated be not known in relation to soil and management and in a word if all the the various branches of this complex art be not so thoroughly sifted and examined as to be familiar in every combinationrdquo (Young 1770b 150-151) A century later Robert Scott Burn advises his readers to select their animals with regards to ldquothe soil its cropping size locality and climaterdquo (Burn 1877 29) Richard Reynolds states for himself that ldquoalmost every treatise upon the management of farm-horses contain formulae of food allowances applicable for use at certain seasons and during the performance of certain agricultural operationsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 52) Similarly the proper selection of a new house of servants of food of menus of activities for the children and even ldquothe choice of friendsrdquo and new acquaintances (Parkes 1825 Part I Conversations II and III) are important dimensions of household management For a household editor for the Ladies Home Journal if a housekeeper ldquodoes not know that round steak at 20 cents a pound possesses as much nutriment as the

21

porterhouse at 26 cents she will not expend wisely or economically She should know something of the idea of a lsquobalanced mealrsquo and what foods will give it the place of milk fruit and eggs in the diet what are healthful meat substitutes and the nourishment of various kinds of breads vegetables and cerealsrdquo (Frederick 1913 105)

Most of the book on children management describe curricula proper to their development For instance in his Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children written in 1792 Smith formulates ldquorulesrdquo describes ldquobest methodsrdquo and offers detailed prescriptions for the management of children ldquolet their breakfast at six or seven in the morning be half a pint of new milk with about two ounces of bread in it mdash the second meal should be half a pint of good broth with the same quantity of bread let this be given about ten or eleven in the morning mdash the third meal about two or three in the afternoon should be broth in like manner mdash and their supper about six in the evening new milk and bread the same as for breakfastrdquo (Smith 1792 140) Most of books on children management give advices regarding their different stages of life and notably the periods of weaning and of dentition Samuel Smiles the famous surgeon presents ldquoin a tabular form what [he] conceive[s] ought to be the proper disposition of time in childhood boyhood adolescenceand adult age in order to the attainment of a full development of the mental faculties with a corresponding healthy completion of the physical structurerdquo (Smiles 1838 188) As such for each period of age he precises ldquothe hours that should be devoted to exercise exercise with instruction tuition relaxation and sleeprdquo (Cf table below from Ibid 188) Similarly many household management books propose plans for the distribution of tasks settled down to the day and even down to the quarter of an hour (Butterworth 1902 27-28) According to the Housekeeperrsquos magazine ldquoearly rising and a good disposition of time is essential to Economyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) As early as 1825 Frances Parkes proposes a ldquosystem of Domestic Dutyrdquo (Parkes 1825 22) which regulates the ldquodisposal of timerdquo (Ibid 16) ldquoAs much time is saved or rather gained by a regular disposal of each division of the day I recommend to you to plan the whole out every morning and as far as you can command circumstances to pursue that plan steadilyrdquo (Ibid 317) Almanachs are important tools of farm and household regulation of time and farming operations also obeys to calendars and a precise chronological pattern The combination of these different parameters require an ordered mind as it is repeatedly remarked in farm management books ldquoA time-table is to a school what grammar is to a languagerdquo says an Irish head-master who participated in the task of ldquointroducing among the national schools [of Ireland] an improved and uniform organization and of diffusing among the national teachers a more extensive practical knowledge of school keepingrdquo (Joyce 1863 37 and vii) As such he codifies a regular day at school hour by hour beginning in such a manner ldquoldquo955 to 10 Inspection as to cleanliness mdash At five minutes to ten the children should be arranged according to their divisions and drafts either in the playground or in the school- room and the teacher after a hasty glance to see that their hands faces and hair are clean and neat marches all to their several places This preliminary business should not encroach on the school time the first lessons should be actually commencing at 10 oclockrdquo (Ibid 59) For another writer on school management it is obvious that ldquothere must be a well devised program distributing the time properly among the various classes and that it must be inflexibly followedrdquo (Kellogg 1880 92) Such time-tables are a common feature of school management books

The question of ldquoarrangementrdquo that is of planning space is a common feature of farm and household management books ldquoA place for everything and everything in its

22

placerdquo is a recurring moto of 18th and 19th centuries management books Books on farm management thus frequently offer developments the arrangement of the fields and even latter on the planning of farm buildings fields or poultry houses (Dickson 1853) As early as 1768 Arthur Young underline the ldquogeneral benefit which arises from a judicious arrangement of a farmrdquo by a farmer and especially ldquothe arranging his lands properly for his cropsrdquo (Young 1768 156-157 and 158) Another author underlines that ldquobesides a most rigid and accurate set of account booksrdquo ldquoan accurate plan of each field should also be had showing the position of drains with their outfalls position of fences and gates and another detailing the mode of cropping and the part of the rotation under which at the stated intervals it comes to be placedrdquo (Burn 1877 29) Warren in his classic book on farm management proposes schemes of farm layout location size and shape of fields (Warren 1913 365-368) Regarding household management such author may propose ldquoplans of houses suited to townsrdquo (Walsh 1853 96) this one a plan of the pantries (Parloa 1898 15) while another calls for ldquoscientific house-planningrdquo (Bruere 1912 174) Ellen Richards prescriptions for the arrangement of a house include such elements as windows walls sink bathtub florrs woodwork stair rails and supports plumbing vaccum cleaner gas burners screens etc (Richards 1911) Beecher and Stowe add to their sketch of ldquomodel cottage-ground plan and roomsrdquo ldquoIn the description and arrangement the leading aim is to show how time labor and expense are saved not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangementrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 24) For the real purpose of planning is often both order and efficiency For instance

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

12

The title of one of these caracteristically stipulates that it is ldquowritten in a plain familiar stile to render it intelligible and useful to all mothers and those who have the management of infantsrdquo (Herdman 1804) As such advices on mothersrsquo and childrenrsquos management are often offered under the form of letters a format specially adopted for the friendly delivery of advices Most prefaces and introduction exhibit the same concern for intelligibility

Taken as a single corpus the books herein considered show a conceptual coherence and share a common understanding of the term ldquomanagementrdquo To manage then means to care to be industrious and to make efficient to drive and improve to arrange and act in a systematic way to count and calculate

If most of the books here gathered consist merely in descriptive lists of empirical practices some attempt at formulating general principles and laws out of it Whether explicitely or implicitely these principles are linked to one another and form a kind of system Indeed the care should be efficient accounting should be regular in order to gain appropriate knowledge gaining knowledge should be useful for training keeping records and setting time-tables has an important influence in promoting regularity etc As states pioneering educator Joseph Baldwin ldquoschool management is the art of so directing school affairs as to produce system order and efficiencyrdquo (Baldwin 1881 15)

Care One of the first predominant meaning of the term management is to look after to

take care to breed to cultivate to maintain The principle of care is the nodal point of the different understanding of the literature on management in the 18th ang 19th century Of course infants and children management means their proper care In this case authors may use the terms ldquonursing or maternal managementrdquo indifferently (Barrett 1875 10) The notion of ldquomanagementrdquo is more generally applied to the care of fragile human beings subject to diseases and accidents such as pregnant mothers sick-persons and old people ldquoThe care is allrdquo in farm management as well as writes the pamphleteer farmer and journalist William Cobbett (Cobbett 1821 113) The proper care given to the soil the animals and the equipment forms the core of what is meant in this literature by ldquomanagementrdquo

This principle of care signifies the prevention of depletion and if necessary the medical treatment of diseases ldquoManagement in health and diseaserdquo is a much common formula Treating illness is thus a necessary part of a careful management and the terms ldquomanagementrdquo and ldquotreatmentrdquo are often synonymous Logically books on infant management are predominantly written by physicians and those on animal management by veterinaries But to care for is not the business of the sole doctor and the very reason for the existence of such books is that as Thomas Williams states it ldquoa knowledge of the proper management of domestic animals and particularly of the causes preventives symptoms and treatment of the various complaintsthey are subject to should be possessed by every farmerrdquo (Williams 1849 9)

Hygiene cleanliness and sanitation are dominant elements in writtings on management and even on school management ldquoSchool hygiene and school management are inseparablerdquo states for instance the president of an American normal school (Salisbury 1911 54) Books on household management often devote a chapter to this issue

13

In a way a proper medical management consists in preventing diseases more than in curing it not in turning every mother into a physician but into a superintendent capable of giving effect to the prescriptions of a physician As a general rule states a scottish doctor and physiologist ldquowhere the child is well managed medicine of any kind is very rarely requiredrdquo (Combe 1840 77) An English doctor warns for himself his readers in these terms ldquoI shall not trouble you with the curative part of diseases incident to children that being altogether the concern of the physician [] This present system of nursing is intended only to manage children so as to prevent illnessrdquo (Smith 1792 163-164) An anonymous writer similarly states ldquoI wish to enable my fair readers to manage the infants committed to their care without being obliged to call in a physician for every trifling indispositionrdquo (Anonymous 1811 39) Similarly a horse breeder advises that ldquoa judicious change of food efficient stable management and proper arrangements for work can accomplish all that is necessary for the conservation of health in sound horses in a better and safer manner than the exhibition of medicamentsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 98)

To care is also the leading principle structuring the different methods of household management Their objective is invariably as an author sums it up ldquothe maximum of health physical mental and moralrdquo (Terrill 1905 14) According to Ellen Richards who is considered as the mother of home economics ldquothe ideal of lsquohomersquo is protection from dangers from within bad habits bad food bad air dirt and abuse shelter in fact from all stunting agencies just as the gardener protects his tender plants until they become strong enough to stand by themselvesrdquo (Richards 1910 73) Let us note here that this predominance of the principle of care in the first meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo should not receive a gender explaination as analysis and histories of household management often occasion Farming was predominantly a manly practice and it stressed the importance of caring as much as the more womanly activities of the household Similarly caring is a pivotal element of the more womanly activities of class management as well as of the more manly activities of school management

More generally the usual application of the term ldquomanagementrdquo includes such operations as the breeding rearing curing and proper care of living beings including crops plants bees and animals as well as of peculiar parts of the body such as the teeth and eyes of human beings and the horses feet and legs Some authors may talk about ldquomoralrdquo and ldquomental managementrdquo of children and adults (for example Thompson 1841) and eventually of the moral management of insane persons (Haslam 1817 Millingen 1841) But it is also widely applied to the careful maintenance of the house and of the farming tools In the second half of the 19th century several engineers and machinists adopt this meaning of the term management to describe the maintenance and repairing of motors machines boilers and diverse kinds of machinery Emory Edwardsrsquo book still reedited today typically gives ldquosome general rules for the care and management of steam-engines and boilersrdquo (Edwards 1882 390) Writers using in this perspective the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo were not marginal and included personalities such as Zerah Colburn editor of one of Britainrsquos leading technical journal in the middle on the 19th century (Ward 1847 Colburn 1851 Bourne 1861 Watson 1867 Roper 1875 and 1889 Shock 1880 Edwards 1882 Smith 1882 Sinclair 1885 Tompkins 1889 Lieckfeld 1896 Moulson et alii 1898 Houghtaling 1899 Biggs 189- Homans 1902 Tulley 1907)

14

Industry and Efficiency Industry and efficiency form the second structuring managerial principle of the

arts of nursing husbandry and housekeeping For our authors nothing is worst than keeping idle the soil animals or men Medical advisers repeatedly stress the importance of exercises for the proper development of children But it is in farm household and school management that these principles of industry and efficiency is the most prevalent

At the end of the 18th century the experimental agronomist Arthur Young try to call attention to the extent of land lying waste in Great Britain (Young 1773) The word economy is thus used commonly in the sense of thrift and of a judicious use of resource The insistence on the profitability of a farm or of a particular crop then means more their productivity than a potential pecuniary profit on a market To the authors here considered the purpose of farm management is not to produce a lot but to produce more with less As an example the advocate of ldquoscientific agriculturerdquo Charles Fox in his text book on farm management makes it clear that ldquothe object of the practical farmer is to raise from a given area of land the largest quantity of the most profitable produce at the least costrdquo (Fox 1854 3) Meanwhile he hardly talks about buying selling and markets

In household management to be industrious and keep good hours is a necessity As states the Housekeeperrsquos magazine in 1825 ldquoabsolute idleness is inexcusable in a woman because the needle is always at hand for those intervals in which she cannot be otherwise employedrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) Similarly in their famous book on housekeeping Catharine Beecher and Harriet Stowe warn their readers about their ldquoobligation to spend every hour for some useful endrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 215) Besides being industrious a housekeeper must be efficient wether in making or in spending The purpose of the Cassells Household Guide is thus to show ldquohow by the minimum of expenditure the maximum of comfort and of luxury may be obtainedrdquo (Cassells Household Guide 1869 1) In this perspective notes a regular contributor to the Ladies Home Journal magazine economy in the home ldquomeans that everything is put to its proper use and there is no wasterdquo and most of all ldquothat the most precious thing (sic) in it mdash the mother mdash shall not be misused or wastedrdquo (Parloa 1898 258 and 352) That is careful management means frugality in the use of money equipment and human beings According to Ellen Richards it is the increasing resort to calculation on a money basis which has led to this emphasis on efficiency ldquoin these days of consolidation for the purpose of cutting down expenses days of close calculation of cost when everything is reduced to a money basis in production it is not surprising that discussion should have arisen over the great waste involved in the keeping up of fifty kitchen-fires to do the work that five would dordquo (Richards 1899 1)

Industry is a disciplining tool much recommended by school and classroom management writers ldquoThe art of school management states characteristically an educational author consists very much in the art of giving enough and suitable employment Work must be given if good order is not obtained give morerdquo (Kellogg 1880 80) Similarly states an American superintendent ldquothe secret of success in managing small children as well as larger ones lies in giving them plenty to dordquo (Raub 1882 193) This principle of industry as in the cases of farm and household management comes generally along with the principle of efficiency According to John Gill for instance whose text-book on school management was a set text in many of the training colleges for teachers which were established after 1850 (Mugglestone 2006 291) school management or ldquoschool organization is a system of arrangements

15

designed to secure constant employment efficient instruction and moral control In other words it aims at providing the means of instructing and educating the greatest number in the most efficient manner and by the most economical expenditure of time and labourrdquo (Gill 1857 56) For another writer in school management ldquothe teachers work in school naturally falls into three great divisions which taken in logical order are mdash (1) organisation (2) discipline (3) teaching and unless all three receive due attention the work is not likely to be performed with that efficiency that economy of time and labour both of the teacher and of the pupils and that absence of friction which should characterise the operation of every good schoolrdquo (Landon 1883 109) Rice in his bestseller on scientific management in schools asserts that ldquoin the strict sense scientific management in education can only be defined as a system of management specifically directed toward the elimination of waste in teaching so that the children attending the schools may be duly rewarded for the expenditure of their time and effortrdquo (Rice 1913 viii) As puts it a professor of education in a book which went through more than thirty reprintings from 1907 to 1927 (Callahan 1962 7) the problem of classroom management ldquois a problem of economy it seeks to determine in what manner the working unit of the school plant may be made to return the largest dividend upon the material investment of time energy and moneyrdquo (Bagley 1907 2) Or as sums up another professor of education and author of a book on ldquoschool efficiencyrdquo ldquothe problem of school management is to give [people] as much as possible for their moneyrdquo (Bennett 1917 1-2)

From another perspective the very purpose of school management is to form future industrious citizens An English inspector of board schools insists for instance upon ldquothe true objects and aims of school management which are the promoting of the good habits of cheerful industry all-conquering thoroughness orderly disposition of time and labor and the practice of useful activityrdquo (Holbrook 1873 179) According to a much cited professor of education writing a generation later ldquothe aim of the school may be formulated as social efficiency Whatever the school undertakes to accomplish must be judged in the light of this standardrdquo that is to turn every child into a ldquosocially efficient individualrdquo (Bagley 1907 7-8) As states professor of pedagogy Arnold Tompkins ldquoit is needless to urge that a school thoroughly organized and managed with its regular exact and punctual requirement in performance of duty is a most powerful means of bringing the pupil into the habit and spirit of industrial life [] The public school artfully managed is the very institution to supply to society members who are not simply industrious by force of conviction and habit but who have the joy of industry in the heartrdquo (Tompkins 1895 206-207)

Handling Driving Improving Perhaps the most common significance of the verb ldquoto managerdquo from its first uses

at the end of the 16th century is ldquoto handlerdquo ldquoto conductrdquo or ldquoto carry onrdquo (Murray 1908 104-105) The verb is applied to inanimate things such as weapons instuments vehicules and affairs to actions and operations to institutions such as households and states and to animals primarily horses and cattle

In many of the texts here considered the word management means altogether breeding training and curing It often refers to the training of a particular animal the horse being by far the main sort considered with dogs coming in a second position The managing of an animal refers for instance to its breeding rearing taming ldquobreaking or learningrdquo (Ellis 1749 ChII) exercising subduing educating

16

conducting and driving That is managing means more ndash or less ndash than rude disciplining For instance goodness and patience rather than ldquomain strength and stupid harshnessrdquo (Graves and Prudden 1868 38) are systematically recommended in the management of horses ldquoKindness goes far in managing these noble animalsrdquo confirms the cavalry officer Mahon (1865 49) An anonymous mother also writes that children ldquoare much better and more easily managed by kindness and it is quite easy to be firm with a child without being angry or severerdquo (Anonymous 1884 62) For most of authors on school and classroom management cooperation more than discpline is the basis of a sound eduction as military methods of instruction are rejected in a distant past ldquoReproof and privations writes an educational pioneer are the only punishments ordinarily needed in school or family The management should be so systematic and vigorous as to render severer punishments unnecessaryrdquo (Baldwin 1881 166)

This meaning of management also appears on the books considering the rearing of infants and children which purpose is their rise and progress as well as in books on school and classroom management In both cases a good management mostly consists in giving proper habits ndash that is organized reactions For instance writes an American professor of pedagogy ldquothe school should be managed with the conscious purpose of forming habits of orderrdquo (Tompkins 1895 203) A very influential professor of education could even formulate a ldquolaw of habit-buildingrdquo ldquoFocalization of consciousness upon the process to be automatized plus attentive repetition of this process permitting no exceptions until automatism resultsrdquo (Bagley 1907 16) This educating process also applies to the training of household servants a subject of a foremost intest for the early writers on household management In some cases notes Mary Elizabeth Carter servants ldquomay like boys and girls have to be taught and trained in habits of cleanliness and orderrdquo (Carter 1904 115) It also applies to the education of the future housewife which become part of the syllabus of ldquoDomestic Sciencerdquo in universities at the end of the 19th century Logically the term management was commonly applied from the middle of the 19th century to the tasks of the teacher in charge of developing his or her pupils along physical mental and moral lines Besides many books on school management note that the old days teacher was mainly superintending while the modern one is mainly teaching Most also states that teaching has become a profession and as such necessitates a proper training ldquoThe teacher writes an editor of the New York School Journal must study to be a good teacher the art of school management in its best sense turns upon thatrdquo (Kellogg 1880 78)

By essence conduct books devise ways of improving their readersrsquo behavior As scientific disciplines develop the housewife is for instance to gain knowledge in chemistry physics and psychology In her first best-selling book Catharine Beecher who can envision the task of housewife as a ldquoprofessionrdquo (Beecher 1841 5) recommend that domestic economy should be made ldquoa regular part of school educationrdquo and not taught at home by the mothers often ignorant of the true rules of this science (Ibid 63)

For behind the idea of training lies the principle of progress As early as the 17th century enlighted farmers began to shake the bounds of tradition by submitting agriculture to rational scrutiny and experiment (Best 1642) In the 19th century the home which may seem like the bastion of tradition was subject to many methods for improving its running

The very purpose of most of the early books on management is the education of their reader A majority of it aims conscienciously at being pedagogical and popular sharing this common faith in the power of knowledge and in the benefits of mass

17

education which made its way through Europe and the United States from the 18th century The doctor Anthony Thompson characteristically states that ldquothe most judicious plan of medical management may be devised and the plainest directions for its fulfilment may be delivered to the attendants of the sick-room but without more information on the subject than is at present possessed by the females of a household and especially by those whose duty it is to superintend the execution of the orders of the Physician little benefit can be anticipated to the invalidrdquo (Thompson 1841 vii)

Order Arrangement System Regulation Order arrangement system and regulation are watchwords of the 18th and 19th

century literature on management and especially of the literature on farm and household management The expressions ldquosystem of managingrdquo ldquoplan of managementrdquo ldquomethod of managementrdquo are found in almost every book here considered The very idea of management seem to imply the notion of a regular and ordered system The Housekeeperrsquos magazine even talks about the ldquobest-regulated familyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg3 52) and Catharine Beecher of ldquoa systematic and well-regulated familyrdquo (Beecher 1841 126) For a widely read authoress of books on household administration for instance ldquomethod and order are two most important factors in the management of the householdrdquo (Parloa 1898 61) Regarding accounts writes the author of a ldquosystem of practical domestic economyrdquo ldquoregularity is the very life and soul of economyrdquo (Anonymous 1827 380) The setting of a routine and the search for regularity are especially praised in the rearing of children and of animals Thus according to a horse expert ldquoone of the first things desirable in stable management is rule by rule I mean a regular way of doing thingsrdquo (Hieover 1848 90) Similarly school management thinkers praise order and system and order ldquoSystem in school management is a necessityrdquo states one of them (Raub 1882 196) ldquoOrderliness in general matters of school management writes another is a right upon which it is unnecessary to insist The child has the right to expect regular periods for school work orderly entrance and dismissal etc care of clothing uniformity in certain aspects of discipline and the likerdquo (Arnold 1908 174) As states an English inspector of board schools ldquoThe first requisite of good management in all schools is orderrdquo (Major 1883 209) For a fourth author on this subject an ldquoimportant device in school management is the adoption of a self-regulating system [] A school is a sort of mechanism and all its movements must be regular to avoid confusion and waste of timerdquo (White 1893 94-95) As recognizes Dr Arnold Tompkins of Illinois University for whom ldquono means ever devised is more potent than an efficient system of school managementrdquo ldquowe are quite strictly materialists in school management setting objective and fixed forms and rules hard and fast over against a growing and pulsating liferdquo (Tompkins 1895 208 and 14)

Arthur Young who was to become Secretary to the English Board of Agriculture could be called the Frederick Taylor of farm management not in the sense that he animated and inspired a school but in the sense that he attempted to ldquoreduce multifarious fugitive subjects to some degree of order and even principlesrdquo articulated into a rational ldquosystem of general managementrdquo (Young 1770b 2-3) His purpose being to see husbandry ldquobuilt upon as just and philosophic principles as the art of medicinerdquo (Ibid 175) Young thus applied an experimental and scientific outlook to husbandry Talking about accounts he states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) He thus draws ldquoschemes of conducting farmsrdquo

18

with an eye to constant improvements (Young 1770b 34) To him the superiority of the gentleman over the common farmer lay in his capacity to acquire new knowledge not in his application of old ones To him it is thus important to devise a ldquoplan of agricultural operationrdquo (Young 1770a vol 2 471) What he calls the ldquosystem of managementrdquo or ldquotrain of managementrdquo of a farm is nothing but the division arrangement and proportionning of its land cattle and labour Young thus elaborate methods and calculus for a efficient division of work which he calls ldquodisposition of the teamsrdquo (Young 1770b 25) and which takes the form of distribution of ploughs horses ox and laborers He proposes for instance a table with the distribution of 16 servants 11 laborers and 16 boys for the ploughs harrowing team carried over brought over rolling horse hoeing road team ox team ditto carting extra team shepherd exen steers swine cows Young also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men As it sums it up himslef a certain portion of time a certain portion of space and ldquoa certain portion of hands are assigned to each businessrdquo (Ibid 60)

According to a prolific author of conduct books ldquothat house only is well conducted where there is a strict attention paid to order and regularity To do every thing in its proper time to keep every thing in its right place and to use every thing for its proper use is the very essence of good managementrdquo (Taylor 1815 27) Similarly according to the author of a Modern System of Domestic Cookery a ldquosystem of domestic management is the foundation of all the comfort and welfare of private familiesrdquo (Radcliffe 1823 1) But Catharine Beecher is the first one to devise in 1841 such a ldquosystematic plan of domestic economyrdquo (Beecher 1841 157) in a book notes a literature teacher specialist of Catharine Beecher which ldquowent through fifteen editions between 1841 and 1856 and established Beecher as the nations foremost authority on household practicerdquo (Tonkovich in Beecher and Stowe 1869 xiii) According to her philosophy ldquoit is wise therefore for all persons to devise a general plan which they will at least keep in view and aim to accomplish and by which a proper proportion of time shall be secured for all the duties of liferdquo (Ibid 158) She thus advocates a ldquosystematic employment of timerdquo (Ibid 160 Beecher and Stowe 1870 196) Beecher and her sister Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote in a later book ldquoEvery young lady can systematize her pursuits to a certain extent She can have a particular day for mending her wardrobe and for arranging her trunks closets and drawers She can keep her work-basket her desk at school and all her other conveniences in their proper places and in regular order She can have regular periods for reading walking visiting study and domestic pursuits And by following this method in youth she will form a taste for regularity and a habit of system which will prove a blessing to her through liferdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 202) The housekeeper should not limit her division and arrangement of work to the servants but strive for ldquothe apportioning of regular employment to the various members of a family If a housekeeper can secure the cooperation of all her family she will find that lsquomany hands make light workrsquordquo (Beecher 1841 163) Adding that ldquoa woman is under obligations so to arrange the hours and pursuits of her family as to promote systematic and habitual industryrdquo (Ibid 185) For that purpose she draws plans of houses and domestic conveniences (Ibid ch XXIV)

Both Young and Beecher show the conspicuous features that exhibit the literature on farm and household management a quest for regularity and order systematicity planning selection as well as the arrangement of work and division of labor But elaboration of methods and plans are also common in medical management literature The doctor Cadogan proposes as early as 1748 a ldquoPlan of Nursingrdquo (Cadogan 1748 21)

19

This systematic frame of mind is first expressed by medical farm and household management writers not so much in a desire to standardize but in a constant effort to codify That is routines are not systematically reduced to a measurable standard but they are carefully specified often regarding a specific time and place The very idea of writting a book imply this logic of formalizing and codifying a set of practices The most methodic books circumscribe the mother farmer and housekeeperrsquos tasks and codify it in every detail Most of the books on infant management codify the childrenrsquos dress from the shoes to the cap their cleanliness bathing foods drinks exercise amusements sleep education and employments Isabella Beetonrsquos 1861 book codified every aspect of household management and even every aspect of a diner given at home or in paying visits of condoleance This very idea of codification is best exemplified by the recurring planning tools proposed by most of these books such as detailed plans of houses diagrams of kitchen schedules work orders tables of duties calendars reminder cards and files bulletin boards ledgers accounting books individual calendars or written menus to be posted in pantry and kitchen (Cf for instance figure below from US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932 202) An author even recommends the use of ldquoprinted rules

in bath room [] giving a few very simple admonitions upon what is lsquogood formrsquo in a lavatory of any sortrdquo (Carter 1904 93) For the ldquohousehold engineerrdquo Christine Frederick ldquostandard practice means then written directions as to method and tools and timerdquo (Frederick 1919 152)

Even if most of English and American homes employed less than ten servants and therefore knew in a limited degree the division labor Nevertheless remarks the author of a ldquodomestic economy and household sciencerdquo manual ldquoin most households it is found necessary to divide the work which has to be done amongst various people

20

and to have some of these especially trained for certain parts of it such as cooking the food cleaning the house and waiting upon the inmates The arranging of all this work has to be thought of and planned by the master and mistress who are the responsible controllers and heads of the house Thus the duties of servants their relations to their employers and their good management or handling are also matters with which domestic economy has to dealrdquo (Mann 1878 5)

Much of the books on school management devote a chapter or a whole part to ldquoorganizationrdquo which usally contains instructions regarding the number and size of the classes the distribution of the staff the syllabus of work for each class the classification of the scholars and the time table It may picture plans of the school or at least of the ideal classroom and some even specify the way children should be gathered and circulate wtihin their class (Cf right time table and plan of a school reproduced from Collar and Crook 1901 41) For an influential writer on school management ldquothe particulars embraced under organization comprise the arrangements of the rooms classification of the children duties of the master subordinates distribution of work and time tablesrdquo (Gill 1857 57) Under the head of organization the rector of a Glasgow school thus describe for instance ldquothe arrangement of desks most suitable to the efficient management of a schoolrdquo (Morrison 1859 44) Another author talks about ldquothe distribution of the teaching powerrdquo (Landon 1883 110)

According to the authors of farm management books good husbandry is not a matter of duplicating age-old recipes but a matter of choices and of planning choice of a location of a farm og a kind of farming (intensive or extensive) of crops of livestock of horses of equipment of implements of calendar etc All these parameters interacts As such states Young husbandry can never arrive at perfection ldquoif the exact degree of every vegetable cultivated be not known in relation to soil and management and in a word if all the the various branches of this complex art be not so thoroughly sifted and examined as to be familiar in every combinationrdquo (Young 1770b 150-151) A century later Robert Scott Burn advises his readers to select their animals with regards to ldquothe soil its cropping size locality and climaterdquo (Burn 1877 29) Richard Reynolds states for himself that ldquoalmost every treatise upon the management of farm-horses contain formulae of food allowances applicable for use at certain seasons and during the performance of certain agricultural operationsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 52) Similarly the proper selection of a new house of servants of food of menus of activities for the children and even ldquothe choice of friendsrdquo and new acquaintances (Parkes 1825 Part I Conversations II and III) are important dimensions of household management For a household editor for the Ladies Home Journal if a housekeeper ldquodoes not know that round steak at 20 cents a pound possesses as much nutriment as the

21

porterhouse at 26 cents she will not expend wisely or economically She should know something of the idea of a lsquobalanced mealrsquo and what foods will give it the place of milk fruit and eggs in the diet what are healthful meat substitutes and the nourishment of various kinds of breads vegetables and cerealsrdquo (Frederick 1913 105)

Most of the book on children management describe curricula proper to their development For instance in his Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children written in 1792 Smith formulates ldquorulesrdquo describes ldquobest methodsrdquo and offers detailed prescriptions for the management of children ldquolet their breakfast at six or seven in the morning be half a pint of new milk with about two ounces of bread in it mdash the second meal should be half a pint of good broth with the same quantity of bread let this be given about ten or eleven in the morning mdash the third meal about two or three in the afternoon should be broth in like manner mdash and their supper about six in the evening new milk and bread the same as for breakfastrdquo (Smith 1792 140) Most of books on children management give advices regarding their different stages of life and notably the periods of weaning and of dentition Samuel Smiles the famous surgeon presents ldquoin a tabular form what [he] conceive[s] ought to be the proper disposition of time in childhood boyhood adolescenceand adult age in order to the attainment of a full development of the mental faculties with a corresponding healthy completion of the physical structurerdquo (Smiles 1838 188) As such for each period of age he precises ldquothe hours that should be devoted to exercise exercise with instruction tuition relaxation and sleeprdquo (Cf table below from Ibid 188) Similarly many household management books propose plans for the distribution of tasks settled down to the day and even down to the quarter of an hour (Butterworth 1902 27-28) According to the Housekeeperrsquos magazine ldquoearly rising and a good disposition of time is essential to Economyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) As early as 1825 Frances Parkes proposes a ldquosystem of Domestic Dutyrdquo (Parkes 1825 22) which regulates the ldquodisposal of timerdquo (Ibid 16) ldquoAs much time is saved or rather gained by a regular disposal of each division of the day I recommend to you to plan the whole out every morning and as far as you can command circumstances to pursue that plan steadilyrdquo (Ibid 317) Almanachs are important tools of farm and household regulation of time and farming operations also obeys to calendars and a precise chronological pattern The combination of these different parameters require an ordered mind as it is repeatedly remarked in farm management books ldquoA time-table is to a school what grammar is to a languagerdquo says an Irish head-master who participated in the task of ldquointroducing among the national schools [of Ireland] an improved and uniform organization and of diffusing among the national teachers a more extensive practical knowledge of school keepingrdquo (Joyce 1863 37 and vii) As such he codifies a regular day at school hour by hour beginning in such a manner ldquoldquo955 to 10 Inspection as to cleanliness mdash At five minutes to ten the children should be arranged according to their divisions and drafts either in the playground or in the school- room and the teacher after a hasty glance to see that their hands faces and hair are clean and neat marches all to their several places This preliminary business should not encroach on the school time the first lessons should be actually commencing at 10 oclockrdquo (Ibid 59) For another writer on school management it is obvious that ldquothere must be a well devised program distributing the time properly among the various classes and that it must be inflexibly followedrdquo (Kellogg 1880 92) Such time-tables are a common feature of school management books

The question of ldquoarrangementrdquo that is of planning space is a common feature of farm and household management books ldquoA place for everything and everything in its

22

placerdquo is a recurring moto of 18th and 19th centuries management books Books on farm management thus frequently offer developments the arrangement of the fields and even latter on the planning of farm buildings fields or poultry houses (Dickson 1853) As early as 1768 Arthur Young underline the ldquogeneral benefit which arises from a judicious arrangement of a farmrdquo by a farmer and especially ldquothe arranging his lands properly for his cropsrdquo (Young 1768 156-157 and 158) Another author underlines that ldquobesides a most rigid and accurate set of account booksrdquo ldquoan accurate plan of each field should also be had showing the position of drains with their outfalls position of fences and gates and another detailing the mode of cropping and the part of the rotation under which at the stated intervals it comes to be placedrdquo (Burn 1877 29) Warren in his classic book on farm management proposes schemes of farm layout location size and shape of fields (Warren 1913 365-368) Regarding household management such author may propose ldquoplans of houses suited to townsrdquo (Walsh 1853 96) this one a plan of the pantries (Parloa 1898 15) while another calls for ldquoscientific house-planningrdquo (Bruere 1912 174) Ellen Richards prescriptions for the arrangement of a house include such elements as windows walls sink bathtub florrs woodwork stair rails and supports plumbing vaccum cleaner gas burners screens etc (Richards 1911) Beecher and Stowe add to their sketch of ldquomodel cottage-ground plan and roomsrdquo ldquoIn the description and arrangement the leading aim is to show how time labor and expense are saved not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangementrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 24) For the real purpose of planning is often both order and efficiency For instance

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

13

In a way a proper medical management consists in preventing diseases more than in curing it not in turning every mother into a physician but into a superintendent capable of giving effect to the prescriptions of a physician As a general rule states a scottish doctor and physiologist ldquowhere the child is well managed medicine of any kind is very rarely requiredrdquo (Combe 1840 77) An English doctor warns for himself his readers in these terms ldquoI shall not trouble you with the curative part of diseases incident to children that being altogether the concern of the physician [] This present system of nursing is intended only to manage children so as to prevent illnessrdquo (Smith 1792 163-164) An anonymous writer similarly states ldquoI wish to enable my fair readers to manage the infants committed to their care without being obliged to call in a physician for every trifling indispositionrdquo (Anonymous 1811 39) Similarly a horse breeder advises that ldquoa judicious change of food efficient stable management and proper arrangements for work can accomplish all that is necessary for the conservation of health in sound horses in a better and safer manner than the exhibition of medicamentsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 98)

To care is also the leading principle structuring the different methods of household management Their objective is invariably as an author sums it up ldquothe maximum of health physical mental and moralrdquo (Terrill 1905 14) According to Ellen Richards who is considered as the mother of home economics ldquothe ideal of lsquohomersquo is protection from dangers from within bad habits bad food bad air dirt and abuse shelter in fact from all stunting agencies just as the gardener protects his tender plants until they become strong enough to stand by themselvesrdquo (Richards 1910 73) Let us note here that this predominance of the principle of care in the first meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo should not receive a gender explaination as analysis and histories of household management often occasion Farming was predominantly a manly practice and it stressed the importance of caring as much as the more womanly activities of the household Similarly caring is a pivotal element of the more womanly activities of class management as well as of the more manly activities of school management

More generally the usual application of the term ldquomanagementrdquo includes such operations as the breeding rearing curing and proper care of living beings including crops plants bees and animals as well as of peculiar parts of the body such as the teeth and eyes of human beings and the horses feet and legs Some authors may talk about ldquomoralrdquo and ldquomental managementrdquo of children and adults (for example Thompson 1841) and eventually of the moral management of insane persons (Haslam 1817 Millingen 1841) But it is also widely applied to the careful maintenance of the house and of the farming tools In the second half of the 19th century several engineers and machinists adopt this meaning of the term management to describe the maintenance and repairing of motors machines boilers and diverse kinds of machinery Emory Edwardsrsquo book still reedited today typically gives ldquosome general rules for the care and management of steam-engines and boilersrdquo (Edwards 1882 390) Writers using in this perspective the notion of ldquomanagementrdquo were not marginal and included personalities such as Zerah Colburn editor of one of Britainrsquos leading technical journal in the middle on the 19th century (Ward 1847 Colburn 1851 Bourne 1861 Watson 1867 Roper 1875 and 1889 Shock 1880 Edwards 1882 Smith 1882 Sinclair 1885 Tompkins 1889 Lieckfeld 1896 Moulson et alii 1898 Houghtaling 1899 Biggs 189- Homans 1902 Tulley 1907)

14

Industry and Efficiency Industry and efficiency form the second structuring managerial principle of the

arts of nursing husbandry and housekeeping For our authors nothing is worst than keeping idle the soil animals or men Medical advisers repeatedly stress the importance of exercises for the proper development of children But it is in farm household and school management that these principles of industry and efficiency is the most prevalent

At the end of the 18th century the experimental agronomist Arthur Young try to call attention to the extent of land lying waste in Great Britain (Young 1773) The word economy is thus used commonly in the sense of thrift and of a judicious use of resource The insistence on the profitability of a farm or of a particular crop then means more their productivity than a potential pecuniary profit on a market To the authors here considered the purpose of farm management is not to produce a lot but to produce more with less As an example the advocate of ldquoscientific agriculturerdquo Charles Fox in his text book on farm management makes it clear that ldquothe object of the practical farmer is to raise from a given area of land the largest quantity of the most profitable produce at the least costrdquo (Fox 1854 3) Meanwhile he hardly talks about buying selling and markets

In household management to be industrious and keep good hours is a necessity As states the Housekeeperrsquos magazine in 1825 ldquoabsolute idleness is inexcusable in a woman because the needle is always at hand for those intervals in which she cannot be otherwise employedrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) Similarly in their famous book on housekeeping Catharine Beecher and Harriet Stowe warn their readers about their ldquoobligation to spend every hour for some useful endrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 215) Besides being industrious a housekeeper must be efficient wether in making or in spending The purpose of the Cassells Household Guide is thus to show ldquohow by the minimum of expenditure the maximum of comfort and of luxury may be obtainedrdquo (Cassells Household Guide 1869 1) In this perspective notes a regular contributor to the Ladies Home Journal magazine economy in the home ldquomeans that everything is put to its proper use and there is no wasterdquo and most of all ldquothat the most precious thing (sic) in it mdash the mother mdash shall not be misused or wastedrdquo (Parloa 1898 258 and 352) That is careful management means frugality in the use of money equipment and human beings According to Ellen Richards it is the increasing resort to calculation on a money basis which has led to this emphasis on efficiency ldquoin these days of consolidation for the purpose of cutting down expenses days of close calculation of cost when everything is reduced to a money basis in production it is not surprising that discussion should have arisen over the great waste involved in the keeping up of fifty kitchen-fires to do the work that five would dordquo (Richards 1899 1)

Industry is a disciplining tool much recommended by school and classroom management writers ldquoThe art of school management states characteristically an educational author consists very much in the art of giving enough and suitable employment Work must be given if good order is not obtained give morerdquo (Kellogg 1880 80) Similarly states an American superintendent ldquothe secret of success in managing small children as well as larger ones lies in giving them plenty to dordquo (Raub 1882 193) This principle of industry as in the cases of farm and household management comes generally along with the principle of efficiency According to John Gill for instance whose text-book on school management was a set text in many of the training colleges for teachers which were established after 1850 (Mugglestone 2006 291) school management or ldquoschool organization is a system of arrangements

15

designed to secure constant employment efficient instruction and moral control In other words it aims at providing the means of instructing and educating the greatest number in the most efficient manner and by the most economical expenditure of time and labourrdquo (Gill 1857 56) For another writer in school management ldquothe teachers work in school naturally falls into three great divisions which taken in logical order are mdash (1) organisation (2) discipline (3) teaching and unless all three receive due attention the work is not likely to be performed with that efficiency that economy of time and labour both of the teacher and of the pupils and that absence of friction which should characterise the operation of every good schoolrdquo (Landon 1883 109) Rice in his bestseller on scientific management in schools asserts that ldquoin the strict sense scientific management in education can only be defined as a system of management specifically directed toward the elimination of waste in teaching so that the children attending the schools may be duly rewarded for the expenditure of their time and effortrdquo (Rice 1913 viii) As puts it a professor of education in a book which went through more than thirty reprintings from 1907 to 1927 (Callahan 1962 7) the problem of classroom management ldquois a problem of economy it seeks to determine in what manner the working unit of the school plant may be made to return the largest dividend upon the material investment of time energy and moneyrdquo (Bagley 1907 2) Or as sums up another professor of education and author of a book on ldquoschool efficiencyrdquo ldquothe problem of school management is to give [people] as much as possible for their moneyrdquo (Bennett 1917 1-2)

From another perspective the very purpose of school management is to form future industrious citizens An English inspector of board schools insists for instance upon ldquothe true objects and aims of school management which are the promoting of the good habits of cheerful industry all-conquering thoroughness orderly disposition of time and labor and the practice of useful activityrdquo (Holbrook 1873 179) According to a much cited professor of education writing a generation later ldquothe aim of the school may be formulated as social efficiency Whatever the school undertakes to accomplish must be judged in the light of this standardrdquo that is to turn every child into a ldquosocially efficient individualrdquo (Bagley 1907 7-8) As states professor of pedagogy Arnold Tompkins ldquoit is needless to urge that a school thoroughly organized and managed with its regular exact and punctual requirement in performance of duty is a most powerful means of bringing the pupil into the habit and spirit of industrial life [] The public school artfully managed is the very institution to supply to society members who are not simply industrious by force of conviction and habit but who have the joy of industry in the heartrdquo (Tompkins 1895 206-207)

Handling Driving Improving Perhaps the most common significance of the verb ldquoto managerdquo from its first uses

at the end of the 16th century is ldquoto handlerdquo ldquoto conductrdquo or ldquoto carry onrdquo (Murray 1908 104-105) The verb is applied to inanimate things such as weapons instuments vehicules and affairs to actions and operations to institutions such as households and states and to animals primarily horses and cattle

In many of the texts here considered the word management means altogether breeding training and curing It often refers to the training of a particular animal the horse being by far the main sort considered with dogs coming in a second position The managing of an animal refers for instance to its breeding rearing taming ldquobreaking or learningrdquo (Ellis 1749 ChII) exercising subduing educating

16

conducting and driving That is managing means more ndash or less ndash than rude disciplining For instance goodness and patience rather than ldquomain strength and stupid harshnessrdquo (Graves and Prudden 1868 38) are systematically recommended in the management of horses ldquoKindness goes far in managing these noble animalsrdquo confirms the cavalry officer Mahon (1865 49) An anonymous mother also writes that children ldquoare much better and more easily managed by kindness and it is quite easy to be firm with a child without being angry or severerdquo (Anonymous 1884 62) For most of authors on school and classroom management cooperation more than discpline is the basis of a sound eduction as military methods of instruction are rejected in a distant past ldquoReproof and privations writes an educational pioneer are the only punishments ordinarily needed in school or family The management should be so systematic and vigorous as to render severer punishments unnecessaryrdquo (Baldwin 1881 166)

This meaning of management also appears on the books considering the rearing of infants and children which purpose is their rise and progress as well as in books on school and classroom management In both cases a good management mostly consists in giving proper habits ndash that is organized reactions For instance writes an American professor of pedagogy ldquothe school should be managed with the conscious purpose of forming habits of orderrdquo (Tompkins 1895 203) A very influential professor of education could even formulate a ldquolaw of habit-buildingrdquo ldquoFocalization of consciousness upon the process to be automatized plus attentive repetition of this process permitting no exceptions until automatism resultsrdquo (Bagley 1907 16) This educating process also applies to the training of household servants a subject of a foremost intest for the early writers on household management In some cases notes Mary Elizabeth Carter servants ldquomay like boys and girls have to be taught and trained in habits of cleanliness and orderrdquo (Carter 1904 115) It also applies to the education of the future housewife which become part of the syllabus of ldquoDomestic Sciencerdquo in universities at the end of the 19th century Logically the term management was commonly applied from the middle of the 19th century to the tasks of the teacher in charge of developing his or her pupils along physical mental and moral lines Besides many books on school management note that the old days teacher was mainly superintending while the modern one is mainly teaching Most also states that teaching has become a profession and as such necessitates a proper training ldquoThe teacher writes an editor of the New York School Journal must study to be a good teacher the art of school management in its best sense turns upon thatrdquo (Kellogg 1880 78)

By essence conduct books devise ways of improving their readersrsquo behavior As scientific disciplines develop the housewife is for instance to gain knowledge in chemistry physics and psychology In her first best-selling book Catharine Beecher who can envision the task of housewife as a ldquoprofessionrdquo (Beecher 1841 5) recommend that domestic economy should be made ldquoa regular part of school educationrdquo and not taught at home by the mothers often ignorant of the true rules of this science (Ibid 63)

For behind the idea of training lies the principle of progress As early as the 17th century enlighted farmers began to shake the bounds of tradition by submitting agriculture to rational scrutiny and experiment (Best 1642) In the 19th century the home which may seem like the bastion of tradition was subject to many methods for improving its running

The very purpose of most of the early books on management is the education of their reader A majority of it aims conscienciously at being pedagogical and popular sharing this common faith in the power of knowledge and in the benefits of mass

17

education which made its way through Europe and the United States from the 18th century The doctor Anthony Thompson characteristically states that ldquothe most judicious plan of medical management may be devised and the plainest directions for its fulfilment may be delivered to the attendants of the sick-room but without more information on the subject than is at present possessed by the females of a household and especially by those whose duty it is to superintend the execution of the orders of the Physician little benefit can be anticipated to the invalidrdquo (Thompson 1841 vii)

Order Arrangement System Regulation Order arrangement system and regulation are watchwords of the 18th and 19th

century literature on management and especially of the literature on farm and household management The expressions ldquosystem of managingrdquo ldquoplan of managementrdquo ldquomethod of managementrdquo are found in almost every book here considered The very idea of management seem to imply the notion of a regular and ordered system The Housekeeperrsquos magazine even talks about the ldquobest-regulated familyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg3 52) and Catharine Beecher of ldquoa systematic and well-regulated familyrdquo (Beecher 1841 126) For a widely read authoress of books on household administration for instance ldquomethod and order are two most important factors in the management of the householdrdquo (Parloa 1898 61) Regarding accounts writes the author of a ldquosystem of practical domestic economyrdquo ldquoregularity is the very life and soul of economyrdquo (Anonymous 1827 380) The setting of a routine and the search for regularity are especially praised in the rearing of children and of animals Thus according to a horse expert ldquoone of the first things desirable in stable management is rule by rule I mean a regular way of doing thingsrdquo (Hieover 1848 90) Similarly school management thinkers praise order and system and order ldquoSystem in school management is a necessityrdquo states one of them (Raub 1882 196) ldquoOrderliness in general matters of school management writes another is a right upon which it is unnecessary to insist The child has the right to expect regular periods for school work orderly entrance and dismissal etc care of clothing uniformity in certain aspects of discipline and the likerdquo (Arnold 1908 174) As states an English inspector of board schools ldquoThe first requisite of good management in all schools is orderrdquo (Major 1883 209) For a fourth author on this subject an ldquoimportant device in school management is the adoption of a self-regulating system [] A school is a sort of mechanism and all its movements must be regular to avoid confusion and waste of timerdquo (White 1893 94-95) As recognizes Dr Arnold Tompkins of Illinois University for whom ldquono means ever devised is more potent than an efficient system of school managementrdquo ldquowe are quite strictly materialists in school management setting objective and fixed forms and rules hard and fast over against a growing and pulsating liferdquo (Tompkins 1895 208 and 14)

Arthur Young who was to become Secretary to the English Board of Agriculture could be called the Frederick Taylor of farm management not in the sense that he animated and inspired a school but in the sense that he attempted to ldquoreduce multifarious fugitive subjects to some degree of order and even principlesrdquo articulated into a rational ldquosystem of general managementrdquo (Young 1770b 2-3) His purpose being to see husbandry ldquobuilt upon as just and philosophic principles as the art of medicinerdquo (Ibid 175) Young thus applied an experimental and scientific outlook to husbandry Talking about accounts he states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) He thus draws ldquoschemes of conducting farmsrdquo

18

with an eye to constant improvements (Young 1770b 34) To him the superiority of the gentleman over the common farmer lay in his capacity to acquire new knowledge not in his application of old ones To him it is thus important to devise a ldquoplan of agricultural operationrdquo (Young 1770a vol 2 471) What he calls the ldquosystem of managementrdquo or ldquotrain of managementrdquo of a farm is nothing but the division arrangement and proportionning of its land cattle and labour Young thus elaborate methods and calculus for a efficient division of work which he calls ldquodisposition of the teamsrdquo (Young 1770b 25) and which takes the form of distribution of ploughs horses ox and laborers He proposes for instance a table with the distribution of 16 servants 11 laborers and 16 boys for the ploughs harrowing team carried over brought over rolling horse hoeing road team ox team ditto carting extra team shepherd exen steers swine cows Young also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men As it sums it up himslef a certain portion of time a certain portion of space and ldquoa certain portion of hands are assigned to each businessrdquo (Ibid 60)

According to a prolific author of conduct books ldquothat house only is well conducted where there is a strict attention paid to order and regularity To do every thing in its proper time to keep every thing in its right place and to use every thing for its proper use is the very essence of good managementrdquo (Taylor 1815 27) Similarly according to the author of a Modern System of Domestic Cookery a ldquosystem of domestic management is the foundation of all the comfort and welfare of private familiesrdquo (Radcliffe 1823 1) But Catharine Beecher is the first one to devise in 1841 such a ldquosystematic plan of domestic economyrdquo (Beecher 1841 157) in a book notes a literature teacher specialist of Catharine Beecher which ldquowent through fifteen editions between 1841 and 1856 and established Beecher as the nations foremost authority on household practicerdquo (Tonkovich in Beecher and Stowe 1869 xiii) According to her philosophy ldquoit is wise therefore for all persons to devise a general plan which they will at least keep in view and aim to accomplish and by which a proper proportion of time shall be secured for all the duties of liferdquo (Ibid 158) She thus advocates a ldquosystematic employment of timerdquo (Ibid 160 Beecher and Stowe 1870 196) Beecher and her sister Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote in a later book ldquoEvery young lady can systematize her pursuits to a certain extent She can have a particular day for mending her wardrobe and for arranging her trunks closets and drawers She can keep her work-basket her desk at school and all her other conveniences in their proper places and in regular order She can have regular periods for reading walking visiting study and domestic pursuits And by following this method in youth she will form a taste for regularity and a habit of system which will prove a blessing to her through liferdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 202) The housekeeper should not limit her division and arrangement of work to the servants but strive for ldquothe apportioning of regular employment to the various members of a family If a housekeeper can secure the cooperation of all her family she will find that lsquomany hands make light workrsquordquo (Beecher 1841 163) Adding that ldquoa woman is under obligations so to arrange the hours and pursuits of her family as to promote systematic and habitual industryrdquo (Ibid 185) For that purpose she draws plans of houses and domestic conveniences (Ibid ch XXIV)

Both Young and Beecher show the conspicuous features that exhibit the literature on farm and household management a quest for regularity and order systematicity planning selection as well as the arrangement of work and division of labor But elaboration of methods and plans are also common in medical management literature The doctor Cadogan proposes as early as 1748 a ldquoPlan of Nursingrdquo (Cadogan 1748 21)

19

This systematic frame of mind is first expressed by medical farm and household management writers not so much in a desire to standardize but in a constant effort to codify That is routines are not systematically reduced to a measurable standard but they are carefully specified often regarding a specific time and place The very idea of writting a book imply this logic of formalizing and codifying a set of practices The most methodic books circumscribe the mother farmer and housekeeperrsquos tasks and codify it in every detail Most of the books on infant management codify the childrenrsquos dress from the shoes to the cap their cleanliness bathing foods drinks exercise amusements sleep education and employments Isabella Beetonrsquos 1861 book codified every aspect of household management and even every aspect of a diner given at home or in paying visits of condoleance This very idea of codification is best exemplified by the recurring planning tools proposed by most of these books such as detailed plans of houses diagrams of kitchen schedules work orders tables of duties calendars reminder cards and files bulletin boards ledgers accounting books individual calendars or written menus to be posted in pantry and kitchen (Cf for instance figure below from US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932 202) An author even recommends the use of ldquoprinted rules

in bath room [] giving a few very simple admonitions upon what is lsquogood formrsquo in a lavatory of any sortrdquo (Carter 1904 93) For the ldquohousehold engineerrdquo Christine Frederick ldquostandard practice means then written directions as to method and tools and timerdquo (Frederick 1919 152)

Even if most of English and American homes employed less than ten servants and therefore knew in a limited degree the division labor Nevertheless remarks the author of a ldquodomestic economy and household sciencerdquo manual ldquoin most households it is found necessary to divide the work which has to be done amongst various people

20

and to have some of these especially trained for certain parts of it such as cooking the food cleaning the house and waiting upon the inmates The arranging of all this work has to be thought of and planned by the master and mistress who are the responsible controllers and heads of the house Thus the duties of servants their relations to their employers and their good management or handling are also matters with which domestic economy has to dealrdquo (Mann 1878 5)

Much of the books on school management devote a chapter or a whole part to ldquoorganizationrdquo which usally contains instructions regarding the number and size of the classes the distribution of the staff the syllabus of work for each class the classification of the scholars and the time table It may picture plans of the school or at least of the ideal classroom and some even specify the way children should be gathered and circulate wtihin their class (Cf right time table and plan of a school reproduced from Collar and Crook 1901 41) For an influential writer on school management ldquothe particulars embraced under organization comprise the arrangements of the rooms classification of the children duties of the master subordinates distribution of work and time tablesrdquo (Gill 1857 57) Under the head of organization the rector of a Glasgow school thus describe for instance ldquothe arrangement of desks most suitable to the efficient management of a schoolrdquo (Morrison 1859 44) Another author talks about ldquothe distribution of the teaching powerrdquo (Landon 1883 110)

According to the authors of farm management books good husbandry is not a matter of duplicating age-old recipes but a matter of choices and of planning choice of a location of a farm og a kind of farming (intensive or extensive) of crops of livestock of horses of equipment of implements of calendar etc All these parameters interacts As such states Young husbandry can never arrive at perfection ldquoif the exact degree of every vegetable cultivated be not known in relation to soil and management and in a word if all the the various branches of this complex art be not so thoroughly sifted and examined as to be familiar in every combinationrdquo (Young 1770b 150-151) A century later Robert Scott Burn advises his readers to select their animals with regards to ldquothe soil its cropping size locality and climaterdquo (Burn 1877 29) Richard Reynolds states for himself that ldquoalmost every treatise upon the management of farm-horses contain formulae of food allowances applicable for use at certain seasons and during the performance of certain agricultural operationsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 52) Similarly the proper selection of a new house of servants of food of menus of activities for the children and even ldquothe choice of friendsrdquo and new acquaintances (Parkes 1825 Part I Conversations II and III) are important dimensions of household management For a household editor for the Ladies Home Journal if a housekeeper ldquodoes not know that round steak at 20 cents a pound possesses as much nutriment as the

21

porterhouse at 26 cents she will not expend wisely or economically She should know something of the idea of a lsquobalanced mealrsquo and what foods will give it the place of milk fruit and eggs in the diet what are healthful meat substitutes and the nourishment of various kinds of breads vegetables and cerealsrdquo (Frederick 1913 105)

Most of the book on children management describe curricula proper to their development For instance in his Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children written in 1792 Smith formulates ldquorulesrdquo describes ldquobest methodsrdquo and offers detailed prescriptions for the management of children ldquolet their breakfast at six or seven in the morning be half a pint of new milk with about two ounces of bread in it mdash the second meal should be half a pint of good broth with the same quantity of bread let this be given about ten or eleven in the morning mdash the third meal about two or three in the afternoon should be broth in like manner mdash and their supper about six in the evening new milk and bread the same as for breakfastrdquo (Smith 1792 140) Most of books on children management give advices regarding their different stages of life and notably the periods of weaning and of dentition Samuel Smiles the famous surgeon presents ldquoin a tabular form what [he] conceive[s] ought to be the proper disposition of time in childhood boyhood adolescenceand adult age in order to the attainment of a full development of the mental faculties with a corresponding healthy completion of the physical structurerdquo (Smiles 1838 188) As such for each period of age he precises ldquothe hours that should be devoted to exercise exercise with instruction tuition relaxation and sleeprdquo (Cf table below from Ibid 188) Similarly many household management books propose plans for the distribution of tasks settled down to the day and even down to the quarter of an hour (Butterworth 1902 27-28) According to the Housekeeperrsquos magazine ldquoearly rising and a good disposition of time is essential to Economyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) As early as 1825 Frances Parkes proposes a ldquosystem of Domestic Dutyrdquo (Parkes 1825 22) which regulates the ldquodisposal of timerdquo (Ibid 16) ldquoAs much time is saved or rather gained by a regular disposal of each division of the day I recommend to you to plan the whole out every morning and as far as you can command circumstances to pursue that plan steadilyrdquo (Ibid 317) Almanachs are important tools of farm and household regulation of time and farming operations also obeys to calendars and a precise chronological pattern The combination of these different parameters require an ordered mind as it is repeatedly remarked in farm management books ldquoA time-table is to a school what grammar is to a languagerdquo says an Irish head-master who participated in the task of ldquointroducing among the national schools [of Ireland] an improved and uniform organization and of diffusing among the national teachers a more extensive practical knowledge of school keepingrdquo (Joyce 1863 37 and vii) As such he codifies a regular day at school hour by hour beginning in such a manner ldquoldquo955 to 10 Inspection as to cleanliness mdash At five minutes to ten the children should be arranged according to their divisions and drafts either in the playground or in the school- room and the teacher after a hasty glance to see that their hands faces and hair are clean and neat marches all to their several places This preliminary business should not encroach on the school time the first lessons should be actually commencing at 10 oclockrdquo (Ibid 59) For another writer on school management it is obvious that ldquothere must be a well devised program distributing the time properly among the various classes and that it must be inflexibly followedrdquo (Kellogg 1880 92) Such time-tables are a common feature of school management books

The question of ldquoarrangementrdquo that is of planning space is a common feature of farm and household management books ldquoA place for everything and everything in its

22

placerdquo is a recurring moto of 18th and 19th centuries management books Books on farm management thus frequently offer developments the arrangement of the fields and even latter on the planning of farm buildings fields or poultry houses (Dickson 1853) As early as 1768 Arthur Young underline the ldquogeneral benefit which arises from a judicious arrangement of a farmrdquo by a farmer and especially ldquothe arranging his lands properly for his cropsrdquo (Young 1768 156-157 and 158) Another author underlines that ldquobesides a most rigid and accurate set of account booksrdquo ldquoan accurate plan of each field should also be had showing the position of drains with their outfalls position of fences and gates and another detailing the mode of cropping and the part of the rotation under which at the stated intervals it comes to be placedrdquo (Burn 1877 29) Warren in his classic book on farm management proposes schemes of farm layout location size and shape of fields (Warren 1913 365-368) Regarding household management such author may propose ldquoplans of houses suited to townsrdquo (Walsh 1853 96) this one a plan of the pantries (Parloa 1898 15) while another calls for ldquoscientific house-planningrdquo (Bruere 1912 174) Ellen Richards prescriptions for the arrangement of a house include such elements as windows walls sink bathtub florrs woodwork stair rails and supports plumbing vaccum cleaner gas burners screens etc (Richards 1911) Beecher and Stowe add to their sketch of ldquomodel cottage-ground plan and roomsrdquo ldquoIn the description and arrangement the leading aim is to show how time labor and expense are saved not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangementrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 24) For the real purpose of planning is often both order and efficiency For instance

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

14

Industry and Efficiency Industry and efficiency form the second structuring managerial principle of the

arts of nursing husbandry and housekeeping For our authors nothing is worst than keeping idle the soil animals or men Medical advisers repeatedly stress the importance of exercises for the proper development of children But it is in farm household and school management that these principles of industry and efficiency is the most prevalent

At the end of the 18th century the experimental agronomist Arthur Young try to call attention to the extent of land lying waste in Great Britain (Young 1773) The word economy is thus used commonly in the sense of thrift and of a judicious use of resource The insistence on the profitability of a farm or of a particular crop then means more their productivity than a potential pecuniary profit on a market To the authors here considered the purpose of farm management is not to produce a lot but to produce more with less As an example the advocate of ldquoscientific agriculturerdquo Charles Fox in his text book on farm management makes it clear that ldquothe object of the practical farmer is to raise from a given area of land the largest quantity of the most profitable produce at the least costrdquo (Fox 1854 3) Meanwhile he hardly talks about buying selling and markets

In household management to be industrious and keep good hours is a necessity As states the Housekeeperrsquos magazine in 1825 ldquoabsolute idleness is inexcusable in a woman because the needle is always at hand for those intervals in which she cannot be otherwise employedrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) Similarly in their famous book on housekeeping Catharine Beecher and Harriet Stowe warn their readers about their ldquoobligation to spend every hour for some useful endrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 215) Besides being industrious a housekeeper must be efficient wether in making or in spending The purpose of the Cassells Household Guide is thus to show ldquohow by the minimum of expenditure the maximum of comfort and of luxury may be obtainedrdquo (Cassells Household Guide 1869 1) In this perspective notes a regular contributor to the Ladies Home Journal magazine economy in the home ldquomeans that everything is put to its proper use and there is no wasterdquo and most of all ldquothat the most precious thing (sic) in it mdash the mother mdash shall not be misused or wastedrdquo (Parloa 1898 258 and 352) That is careful management means frugality in the use of money equipment and human beings According to Ellen Richards it is the increasing resort to calculation on a money basis which has led to this emphasis on efficiency ldquoin these days of consolidation for the purpose of cutting down expenses days of close calculation of cost when everything is reduced to a money basis in production it is not surprising that discussion should have arisen over the great waste involved in the keeping up of fifty kitchen-fires to do the work that five would dordquo (Richards 1899 1)

Industry is a disciplining tool much recommended by school and classroom management writers ldquoThe art of school management states characteristically an educational author consists very much in the art of giving enough and suitable employment Work must be given if good order is not obtained give morerdquo (Kellogg 1880 80) Similarly states an American superintendent ldquothe secret of success in managing small children as well as larger ones lies in giving them plenty to dordquo (Raub 1882 193) This principle of industry as in the cases of farm and household management comes generally along with the principle of efficiency According to John Gill for instance whose text-book on school management was a set text in many of the training colleges for teachers which were established after 1850 (Mugglestone 2006 291) school management or ldquoschool organization is a system of arrangements

15

designed to secure constant employment efficient instruction and moral control In other words it aims at providing the means of instructing and educating the greatest number in the most efficient manner and by the most economical expenditure of time and labourrdquo (Gill 1857 56) For another writer in school management ldquothe teachers work in school naturally falls into three great divisions which taken in logical order are mdash (1) organisation (2) discipline (3) teaching and unless all three receive due attention the work is not likely to be performed with that efficiency that economy of time and labour both of the teacher and of the pupils and that absence of friction which should characterise the operation of every good schoolrdquo (Landon 1883 109) Rice in his bestseller on scientific management in schools asserts that ldquoin the strict sense scientific management in education can only be defined as a system of management specifically directed toward the elimination of waste in teaching so that the children attending the schools may be duly rewarded for the expenditure of their time and effortrdquo (Rice 1913 viii) As puts it a professor of education in a book which went through more than thirty reprintings from 1907 to 1927 (Callahan 1962 7) the problem of classroom management ldquois a problem of economy it seeks to determine in what manner the working unit of the school plant may be made to return the largest dividend upon the material investment of time energy and moneyrdquo (Bagley 1907 2) Or as sums up another professor of education and author of a book on ldquoschool efficiencyrdquo ldquothe problem of school management is to give [people] as much as possible for their moneyrdquo (Bennett 1917 1-2)

From another perspective the very purpose of school management is to form future industrious citizens An English inspector of board schools insists for instance upon ldquothe true objects and aims of school management which are the promoting of the good habits of cheerful industry all-conquering thoroughness orderly disposition of time and labor and the practice of useful activityrdquo (Holbrook 1873 179) According to a much cited professor of education writing a generation later ldquothe aim of the school may be formulated as social efficiency Whatever the school undertakes to accomplish must be judged in the light of this standardrdquo that is to turn every child into a ldquosocially efficient individualrdquo (Bagley 1907 7-8) As states professor of pedagogy Arnold Tompkins ldquoit is needless to urge that a school thoroughly organized and managed with its regular exact and punctual requirement in performance of duty is a most powerful means of bringing the pupil into the habit and spirit of industrial life [] The public school artfully managed is the very institution to supply to society members who are not simply industrious by force of conviction and habit but who have the joy of industry in the heartrdquo (Tompkins 1895 206-207)

Handling Driving Improving Perhaps the most common significance of the verb ldquoto managerdquo from its first uses

at the end of the 16th century is ldquoto handlerdquo ldquoto conductrdquo or ldquoto carry onrdquo (Murray 1908 104-105) The verb is applied to inanimate things such as weapons instuments vehicules and affairs to actions and operations to institutions such as households and states and to animals primarily horses and cattle

In many of the texts here considered the word management means altogether breeding training and curing It often refers to the training of a particular animal the horse being by far the main sort considered with dogs coming in a second position The managing of an animal refers for instance to its breeding rearing taming ldquobreaking or learningrdquo (Ellis 1749 ChII) exercising subduing educating

16

conducting and driving That is managing means more ndash or less ndash than rude disciplining For instance goodness and patience rather than ldquomain strength and stupid harshnessrdquo (Graves and Prudden 1868 38) are systematically recommended in the management of horses ldquoKindness goes far in managing these noble animalsrdquo confirms the cavalry officer Mahon (1865 49) An anonymous mother also writes that children ldquoare much better and more easily managed by kindness and it is quite easy to be firm with a child without being angry or severerdquo (Anonymous 1884 62) For most of authors on school and classroom management cooperation more than discpline is the basis of a sound eduction as military methods of instruction are rejected in a distant past ldquoReproof and privations writes an educational pioneer are the only punishments ordinarily needed in school or family The management should be so systematic and vigorous as to render severer punishments unnecessaryrdquo (Baldwin 1881 166)

This meaning of management also appears on the books considering the rearing of infants and children which purpose is their rise and progress as well as in books on school and classroom management In both cases a good management mostly consists in giving proper habits ndash that is organized reactions For instance writes an American professor of pedagogy ldquothe school should be managed with the conscious purpose of forming habits of orderrdquo (Tompkins 1895 203) A very influential professor of education could even formulate a ldquolaw of habit-buildingrdquo ldquoFocalization of consciousness upon the process to be automatized plus attentive repetition of this process permitting no exceptions until automatism resultsrdquo (Bagley 1907 16) This educating process also applies to the training of household servants a subject of a foremost intest for the early writers on household management In some cases notes Mary Elizabeth Carter servants ldquomay like boys and girls have to be taught and trained in habits of cleanliness and orderrdquo (Carter 1904 115) It also applies to the education of the future housewife which become part of the syllabus of ldquoDomestic Sciencerdquo in universities at the end of the 19th century Logically the term management was commonly applied from the middle of the 19th century to the tasks of the teacher in charge of developing his or her pupils along physical mental and moral lines Besides many books on school management note that the old days teacher was mainly superintending while the modern one is mainly teaching Most also states that teaching has become a profession and as such necessitates a proper training ldquoThe teacher writes an editor of the New York School Journal must study to be a good teacher the art of school management in its best sense turns upon thatrdquo (Kellogg 1880 78)

By essence conduct books devise ways of improving their readersrsquo behavior As scientific disciplines develop the housewife is for instance to gain knowledge in chemistry physics and psychology In her first best-selling book Catharine Beecher who can envision the task of housewife as a ldquoprofessionrdquo (Beecher 1841 5) recommend that domestic economy should be made ldquoa regular part of school educationrdquo and not taught at home by the mothers often ignorant of the true rules of this science (Ibid 63)

For behind the idea of training lies the principle of progress As early as the 17th century enlighted farmers began to shake the bounds of tradition by submitting agriculture to rational scrutiny and experiment (Best 1642) In the 19th century the home which may seem like the bastion of tradition was subject to many methods for improving its running

The very purpose of most of the early books on management is the education of their reader A majority of it aims conscienciously at being pedagogical and popular sharing this common faith in the power of knowledge and in the benefits of mass

17

education which made its way through Europe and the United States from the 18th century The doctor Anthony Thompson characteristically states that ldquothe most judicious plan of medical management may be devised and the plainest directions for its fulfilment may be delivered to the attendants of the sick-room but without more information on the subject than is at present possessed by the females of a household and especially by those whose duty it is to superintend the execution of the orders of the Physician little benefit can be anticipated to the invalidrdquo (Thompson 1841 vii)

Order Arrangement System Regulation Order arrangement system and regulation are watchwords of the 18th and 19th

century literature on management and especially of the literature on farm and household management The expressions ldquosystem of managingrdquo ldquoplan of managementrdquo ldquomethod of managementrdquo are found in almost every book here considered The very idea of management seem to imply the notion of a regular and ordered system The Housekeeperrsquos magazine even talks about the ldquobest-regulated familyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg3 52) and Catharine Beecher of ldquoa systematic and well-regulated familyrdquo (Beecher 1841 126) For a widely read authoress of books on household administration for instance ldquomethod and order are two most important factors in the management of the householdrdquo (Parloa 1898 61) Regarding accounts writes the author of a ldquosystem of practical domestic economyrdquo ldquoregularity is the very life and soul of economyrdquo (Anonymous 1827 380) The setting of a routine and the search for regularity are especially praised in the rearing of children and of animals Thus according to a horse expert ldquoone of the first things desirable in stable management is rule by rule I mean a regular way of doing thingsrdquo (Hieover 1848 90) Similarly school management thinkers praise order and system and order ldquoSystem in school management is a necessityrdquo states one of them (Raub 1882 196) ldquoOrderliness in general matters of school management writes another is a right upon which it is unnecessary to insist The child has the right to expect regular periods for school work orderly entrance and dismissal etc care of clothing uniformity in certain aspects of discipline and the likerdquo (Arnold 1908 174) As states an English inspector of board schools ldquoThe first requisite of good management in all schools is orderrdquo (Major 1883 209) For a fourth author on this subject an ldquoimportant device in school management is the adoption of a self-regulating system [] A school is a sort of mechanism and all its movements must be regular to avoid confusion and waste of timerdquo (White 1893 94-95) As recognizes Dr Arnold Tompkins of Illinois University for whom ldquono means ever devised is more potent than an efficient system of school managementrdquo ldquowe are quite strictly materialists in school management setting objective and fixed forms and rules hard and fast over against a growing and pulsating liferdquo (Tompkins 1895 208 and 14)

Arthur Young who was to become Secretary to the English Board of Agriculture could be called the Frederick Taylor of farm management not in the sense that he animated and inspired a school but in the sense that he attempted to ldquoreduce multifarious fugitive subjects to some degree of order and even principlesrdquo articulated into a rational ldquosystem of general managementrdquo (Young 1770b 2-3) His purpose being to see husbandry ldquobuilt upon as just and philosophic principles as the art of medicinerdquo (Ibid 175) Young thus applied an experimental and scientific outlook to husbandry Talking about accounts he states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) He thus draws ldquoschemes of conducting farmsrdquo

18

with an eye to constant improvements (Young 1770b 34) To him the superiority of the gentleman over the common farmer lay in his capacity to acquire new knowledge not in his application of old ones To him it is thus important to devise a ldquoplan of agricultural operationrdquo (Young 1770a vol 2 471) What he calls the ldquosystem of managementrdquo or ldquotrain of managementrdquo of a farm is nothing but the division arrangement and proportionning of its land cattle and labour Young thus elaborate methods and calculus for a efficient division of work which he calls ldquodisposition of the teamsrdquo (Young 1770b 25) and which takes the form of distribution of ploughs horses ox and laborers He proposes for instance a table with the distribution of 16 servants 11 laborers and 16 boys for the ploughs harrowing team carried over brought over rolling horse hoeing road team ox team ditto carting extra team shepherd exen steers swine cows Young also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men As it sums it up himslef a certain portion of time a certain portion of space and ldquoa certain portion of hands are assigned to each businessrdquo (Ibid 60)

According to a prolific author of conduct books ldquothat house only is well conducted where there is a strict attention paid to order and regularity To do every thing in its proper time to keep every thing in its right place and to use every thing for its proper use is the very essence of good managementrdquo (Taylor 1815 27) Similarly according to the author of a Modern System of Domestic Cookery a ldquosystem of domestic management is the foundation of all the comfort and welfare of private familiesrdquo (Radcliffe 1823 1) But Catharine Beecher is the first one to devise in 1841 such a ldquosystematic plan of domestic economyrdquo (Beecher 1841 157) in a book notes a literature teacher specialist of Catharine Beecher which ldquowent through fifteen editions between 1841 and 1856 and established Beecher as the nations foremost authority on household practicerdquo (Tonkovich in Beecher and Stowe 1869 xiii) According to her philosophy ldquoit is wise therefore for all persons to devise a general plan which they will at least keep in view and aim to accomplish and by which a proper proportion of time shall be secured for all the duties of liferdquo (Ibid 158) She thus advocates a ldquosystematic employment of timerdquo (Ibid 160 Beecher and Stowe 1870 196) Beecher and her sister Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote in a later book ldquoEvery young lady can systematize her pursuits to a certain extent She can have a particular day for mending her wardrobe and for arranging her trunks closets and drawers She can keep her work-basket her desk at school and all her other conveniences in their proper places and in regular order She can have regular periods for reading walking visiting study and domestic pursuits And by following this method in youth she will form a taste for regularity and a habit of system which will prove a blessing to her through liferdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 202) The housekeeper should not limit her division and arrangement of work to the servants but strive for ldquothe apportioning of regular employment to the various members of a family If a housekeeper can secure the cooperation of all her family she will find that lsquomany hands make light workrsquordquo (Beecher 1841 163) Adding that ldquoa woman is under obligations so to arrange the hours and pursuits of her family as to promote systematic and habitual industryrdquo (Ibid 185) For that purpose she draws plans of houses and domestic conveniences (Ibid ch XXIV)

Both Young and Beecher show the conspicuous features that exhibit the literature on farm and household management a quest for regularity and order systematicity planning selection as well as the arrangement of work and division of labor But elaboration of methods and plans are also common in medical management literature The doctor Cadogan proposes as early as 1748 a ldquoPlan of Nursingrdquo (Cadogan 1748 21)

19

This systematic frame of mind is first expressed by medical farm and household management writers not so much in a desire to standardize but in a constant effort to codify That is routines are not systematically reduced to a measurable standard but they are carefully specified often regarding a specific time and place The very idea of writting a book imply this logic of formalizing and codifying a set of practices The most methodic books circumscribe the mother farmer and housekeeperrsquos tasks and codify it in every detail Most of the books on infant management codify the childrenrsquos dress from the shoes to the cap their cleanliness bathing foods drinks exercise amusements sleep education and employments Isabella Beetonrsquos 1861 book codified every aspect of household management and even every aspect of a diner given at home or in paying visits of condoleance This very idea of codification is best exemplified by the recurring planning tools proposed by most of these books such as detailed plans of houses diagrams of kitchen schedules work orders tables of duties calendars reminder cards and files bulletin boards ledgers accounting books individual calendars or written menus to be posted in pantry and kitchen (Cf for instance figure below from US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932 202) An author even recommends the use of ldquoprinted rules

in bath room [] giving a few very simple admonitions upon what is lsquogood formrsquo in a lavatory of any sortrdquo (Carter 1904 93) For the ldquohousehold engineerrdquo Christine Frederick ldquostandard practice means then written directions as to method and tools and timerdquo (Frederick 1919 152)

Even if most of English and American homes employed less than ten servants and therefore knew in a limited degree the division labor Nevertheless remarks the author of a ldquodomestic economy and household sciencerdquo manual ldquoin most households it is found necessary to divide the work which has to be done amongst various people

20

and to have some of these especially trained for certain parts of it such as cooking the food cleaning the house and waiting upon the inmates The arranging of all this work has to be thought of and planned by the master and mistress who are the responsible controllers and heads of the house Thus the duties of servants their relations to their employers and their good management or handling are also matters with which domestic economy has to dealrdquo (Mann 1878 5)

Much of the books on school management devote a chapter or a whole part to ldquoorganizationrdquo which usally contains instructions regarding the number and size of the classes the distribution of the staff the syllabus of work for each class the classification of the scholars and the time table It may picture plans of the school or at least of the ideal classroom and some even specify the way children should be gathered and circulate wtihin their class (Cf right time table and plan of a school reproduced from Collar and Crook 1901 41) For an influential writer on school management ldquothe particulars embraced under organization comprise the arrangements of the rooms classification of the children duties of the master subordinates distribution of work and time tablesrdquo (Gill 1857 57) Under the head of organization the rector of a Glasgow school thus describe for instance ldquothe arrangement of desks most suitable to the efficient management of a schoolrdquo (Morrison 1859 44) Another author talks about ldquothe distribution of the teaching powerrdquo (Landon 1883 110)

According to the authors of farm management books good husbandry is not a matter of duplicating age-old recipes but a matter of choices and of planning choice of a location of a farm og a kind of farming (intensive or extensive) of crops of livestock of horses of equipment of implements of calendar etc All these parameters interacts As such states Young husbandry can never arrive at perfection ldquoif the exact degree of every vegetable cultivated be not known in relation to soil and management and in a word if all the the various branches of this complex art be not so thoroughly sifted and examined as to be familiar in every combinationrdquo (Young 1770b 150-151) A century later Robert Scott Burn advises his readers to select their animals with regards to ldquothe soil its cropping size locality and climaterdquo (Burn 1877 29) Richard Reynolds states for himself that ldquoalmost every treatise upon the management of farm-horses contain formulae of food allowances applicable for use at certain seasons and during the performance of certain agricultural operationsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 52) Similarly the proper selection of a new house of servants of food of menus of activities for the children and even ldquothe choice of friendsrdquo and new acquaintances (Parkes 1825 Part I Conversations II and III) are important dimensions of household management For a household editor for the Ladies Home Journal if a housekeeper ldquodoes not know that round steak at 20 cents a pound possesses as much nutriment as the

21

porterhouse at 26 cents she will not expend wisely or economically She should know something of the idea of a lsquobalanced mealrsquo and what foods will give it the place of milk fruit and eggs in the diet what are healthful meat substitutes and the nourishment of various kinds of breads vegetables and cerealsrdquo (Frederick 1913 105)

Most of the book on children management describe curricula proper to their development For instance in his Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children written in 1792 Smith formulates ldquorulesrdquo describes ldquobest methodsrdquo and offers detailed prescriptions for the management of children ldquolet their breakfast at six or seven in the morning be half a pint of new milk with about two ounces of bread in it mdash the second meal should be half a pint of good broth with the same quantity of bread let this be given about ten or eleven in the morning mdash the third meal about two or three in the afternoon should be broth in like manner mdash and their supper about six in the evening new milk and bread the same as for breakfastrdquo (Smith 1792 140) Most of books on children management give advices regarding their different stages of life and notably the periods of weaning and of dentition Samuel Smiles the famous surgeon presents ldquoin a tabular form what [he] conceive[s] ought to be the proper disposition of time in childhood boyhood adolescenceand adult age in order to the attainment of a full development of the mental faculties with a corresponding healthy completion of the physical structurerdquo (Smiles 1838 188) As such for each period of age he precises ldquothe hours that should be devoted to exercise exercise with instruction tuition relaxation and sleeprdquo (Cf table below from Ibid 188) Similarly many household management books propose plans for the distribution of tasks settled down to the day and even down to the quarter of an hour (Butterworth 1902 27-28) According to the Housekeeperrsquos magazine ldquoearly rising and a good disposition of time is essential to Economyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) As early as 1825 Frances Parkes proposes a ldquosystem of Domestic Dutyrdquo (Parkes 1825 22) which regulates the ldquodisposal of timerdquo (Ibid 16) ldquoAs much time is saved or rather gained by a regular disposal of each division of the day I recommend to you to plan the whole out every morning and as far as you can command circumstances to pursue that plan steadilyrdquo (Ibid 317) Almanachs are important tools of farm and household regulation of time and farming operations also obeys to calendars and a precise chronological pattern The combination of these different parameters require an ordered mind as it is repeatedly remarked in farm management books ldquoA time-table is to a school what grammar is to a languagerdquo says an Irish head-master who participated in the task of ldquointroducing among the national schools [of Ireland] an improved and uniform organization and of diffusing among the national teachers a more extensive practical knowledge of school keepingrdquo (Joyce 1863 37 and vii) As such he codifies a regular day at school hour by hour beginning in such a manner ldquoldquo955 to 10 Inspection as to cleanliness mdash At five minutes to ten the children should be arranged according to their divisions and drafts either in the playground or in the school- room and the teacher after a hasty glance to see that their hands faces and hair are clean and neat marches all to their several places This preliminary business should not encroach on the school time the first lessons should be actually commencing at 10 oclockrdquo (Ibid 59) For another writer on school management it is obvious that ldquothere must be a well devised program distributing the time properly among the various classes and that it must be inflexibly followedrdquo (Kellogg 1880 92) Such time-tables are a common feature of school management books

The question of ldquoarrangementrdquo that is of planning space is a common feature of farm and household management books ldquoA place for everything and everything in its

22

placerdquo is a recurring moto of 18th and 19th centuries management books Books on farm management thus frequently offer developments the arrangement of the fields and even latter on the planning of farm buildings fields or poultry houses (Dickson 1853) As early as 1768 Arthur Young underline the ldquogeneral benefit which arises from a judicious arrangement of a farmrdquo by a farmer and especially ldquothe arranging his lands properly for his cropsrdquo (Young 1768 156-157 and 158) Another author underlines that ldquobesides a most rigid and accurate set of account booksrdquo ldquoan accurate plan of each field should also be had showing the position of drains with their outfalls position of fences and gates and another detailing the mode of cropping and the part of the rotation under which at the stated intervals it comes to be placedrdquo (Burn 1877 29) Warren in his classic book on farm management proposes schemes of farm layout location size and shape of fields (Warren 1913 365-368) Regarding household management such author may propose ldquoplans of houses suited to townsrdquo (Walsh 1853 96) this one a plan of the pantries (Parloa 1898 15) while another calls for ldquoscientific house-planningrdquo (Bruere 1912 174) Ellen Richards prescriptions for the arrangement of a house include such elements as windows walls sink bathtub florrs woodwork stair rails and supports plumbing vaccum cleaner gas burners screens etc (Richards 1911) Beecher and Stowe add to their sketch of ldquomodel cottage-ground plan and roomsrdquo ldquoIn the description and arrangement the leading aim is to show how time labor and expense are saved not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangementrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 24) For the real purpose of planning is often both order and efficiency For instance

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

15

designed to secure constant employment efficient instruction and moral control In other words it aims at providing the means of instructing and educating the greatest number in the most efficient manner and by the most economical expenditure of time and labourrdquo (Gill 1857 56) For another writer in school management ldquothe teachers work in school naturally falls into three great divisions which taken in logical order are mdash (1) organisation (2) discipline (3) teaching and unless all three receive due attention the work is not likely to be performed with that efficiency that economy of time and labour both of the teacher and of the pupils and that absence of friction which should characterise the operation of every good schoolrdquo (Landon 1883 109) Rice in his bestseller on scientific management in schools asserts that ldquoin the strict sense scientific management in education can only be defined as a system of management specifically directed toward the elimination of waste in teaching so that the children attending the schools may be duly rewarded for the expenditure of their time and effortrdquo (Rice 1913 viii) As puts it a professor of education in a book which went through more than thirty reprintings from 1907 to 1927 (Callahan 1962 7) the problem of classroom management ldquois a problem of economy it seeks to determine in what manner the working unit of the school plant may be made to return the largest dividend upon the material investment of time energy and moneyrdquo (Bagley 1907 2) Or as sums up another professor of education and author of a book on ldquoschool efficiencyrdquo ldquothe problem of school management is to give [people] as much as possible for their moneyrdquo (Bennett 1917 1-2)

From another perspective the very purpose of school management is to form future industrious citizens An English inspector of board schools insists for instance upon ldquothe true objects and aims of school management which are the promoting of the good habits of cheerful industry all-conquering thoroughness orderly disposition of time and labor and the practice of useful activityrdquo (Holbrook 1873 179) According to a much cited professor of education writing a generation later ldquothe aim of the school may be formulated as social efficiency Whatever the school undertakes to accomplish must be judged in the light of this standardrdquo that is to turn every child into a ldquosocially efficient individualrdquo (Bagley 1907 7-8) As states professor of pedagogy Arnold Tompkins ldquoit is needless to urge that a school thoroughly organized and managed with its regular exact and punctual requirement in performance of duty is a most powerful means of bringing the pupil into the habit and spirit of industrial life [] The public school artfully managed is the very institution to supply to society members who are not simply industrious by force of conviction and habit but who have the joy of industry in the heartrdquo (Tompkins 1895 206-207)

Handling Driving Improving Perhaps the most common significance of the verb ldquoto managerdquo from its first uses

at the end of the 16th century is ldquoto handlerdquo ldquoto conductrdquo or ldquoto carry onrdquo (Murray 1908 104-105) The verb is applied to inanimate things such as weapons instuments vehicules and affairs to actions and operations to institutions such as households and states and to animals primarily horses and cattle

In many of the texts here considered the word management means altogether breeding training and curing It often refers to the training of a particular animal the horse being by far the main sort considered with dogs coming in a second position The managing of an animal refers for instance to its breeding rearing taming ldquobreaking or learningrdquo (Ellis 1749 ChII) exercising subduing educating

16

conducting and driving That is managing means more ndash or less ndash than rude disciplining For instance goodness and patience rather than ldquomain strength and stupid harshnessrdquo (Graves and Prudden 1868 38) are systematically recommended in the management of horses ldquoKindness goes far in managing these noble animalsrdquo confirms the cavalry officer Mahon (1865 49) An anonymous mother also writes that children ldquoare much better and more easily managed by kindness and it is quite easy to be firm with a child without being angry or severerdquo (Anonymous 1884 62) For most of authors on school and classroom management cooperation more than discpline is the basis of a sound eduction as military methods of instruction are rejected in a distant past ldquoReproof and privations writes an educational pioneer are the only punishments ordinarily needed in school or family The management should be so systematic and vigorous as to render severer punishments unnecessaryrdquo (Baldwin 1881 166)

This meaning of management also appears on the books considering the rearing of infants and children which purpose is their rise and progress as well as in books on school and classroom management In both cases a good management mostly consists in giving proper habits ndash that is organized reactions For instance writes an American professor of pedagogy ldquothe school should be managed with the conscious purpose of forming habits of orderrdquo (Tompkins 1895 203) A very influential professor of education could even formulate a ldquolaw of habit-buildingrdquo ldquoFocalization of consciousness upon the process to be automatized plus attentive repetition of this process permitting no exceptions until automatism resultsrdquo (Bagley 1907 16) This educating process also applies to the training of household servants a subject of a foremost intest for the early writers on household management In some cases notes Mary Elizabeth Carter servants ldquomay like boys and girls have to be taught and trained in habits of cleanliness and orderrdquo (Carter 1904 115) It also applies to the education of the future housewife which become part of the syllabus of ldquoDomestic Sciencerdquo in universities at the end of the 19th century Logically the term management was commonly applied from the middle of the 19th century to the tasks of the teacher in charge of developing his or her pupils along physical mental and moral lines Besides many books on school management note that the old days teacher was mainly superintending while the modern one is mainly teaching Most also states that teaching has become a profession and as such necessitates a proper training ldquoThe teacher writes an editor of the New York School Journal must study to be a good teacher the art of school management in its best sense turns upon thatrdquo (Kellogg 1880 78)

By essence conduct books devise ways of improving their readersrsquo behavior As scientific disciplines develop the housewife is for instance to gain knowledge in chemistry physics and psychology In her first best-selling book Catharine Beecher who can envision the task of housewife as a ldquoprofessionrdquo (Beecher 1841 5) recommend that domestic economy should be made ldquoa regular part of school educationrdquo and not taught at home by the mothers often ignorant of the true rules of this science (Ibid 63)

For behind the idea of training lies the principle of progress As early as the 17th century enlighted farmers began to shake the bounds of tradition by submitting agriculture to rational scrutiny and experiment (Best 1642) In the 19th century the home which may seem like the bastion of tradition was subject to many methods for improving its running

The very purpose of most of the early books on management is the education of their reader A majority of it aims conscienciously at being pedagogical and popular sharing this common faith in the power of knowledge and in the benefits of mass

17

education which made its way through Europe and the United States from the 18th century The doctor Anthony Thompson characteristically states that ldquothe most judicious plan of medical management may be devised and the plainest directions for its fulfilment may be delivered to the attendants of the sick-room but without more information on the subject than is at present possessed by the females of a household and especially by those whose duty it is to superintend the execution of the orders of the Physician little benefit can be anticipated to the invalidrdquo (Thompson 1841 vii)

Order Arrangement System Regulation Order arrangement system and regulation are watchwords of the 18th and 19th

century literature on management and especially of the literature on farm and household management The expressions ldquosystem of managingrdquo ldquoplan of managementrdquo ldquomethod of managementrdquo are found in almost every book here considered The very idea of management seem to imply the notion of a regular and ordered system The Housekeeperrsquos magazine even talks about the ldquobest-regulated familyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg3 52) and Catharine Beecher of ldquoa systematic and well-regulated familyrdquo (Beecher 1841 126) For a widely read authoress of books on household administration for instance ldquomethod and order are two most important factors in the management of the householdrdquo (Parloa 1898 61) Regarding accounts writes the author of a ldquosystem of practical domestic economyrdquo ldquoregularity is the very life and soul of economyrdquo (Anonymous 1827 380) The setting of a routine and the search for regularity are especially praised in the rearing of children and of animals Thus according to a horse expert ldquoone of the first things desirable in stable management is rule by rule I mean a regular way of doing thingsrdquo (Hieover 1848 90) Similarly school management thinkers praise order and system and order ldquoSystem in school management is a necessityrdquo states one of them (Raub 1882 196) ldquoOrderliness in general matters of school management writes another is a right upon which it is unnecessary to insist The child has the right to expect regular periods for school work orderly entrance and dismissal etc care of clothing uniformity in certain aspects of discipline and the likerdquo (Arnold 1908 174) As states an English inspector of board schools ldquoThe first requisite of good management in all schools is orderrdquo (Major 1883 209) For a fourth author on this subject an ldquoimportant device in school management is the adoption of a self-regulating system [] A school is a sort of mechanism and all its movements must be regular to avoid confusion and waste of timerdquo (White 1893 94-95) As recognizes Dr Arnold Tompkins of Illinois University for whom ldquono means ever devised is more potent than an efficient system of school managementrdquo ldquowe are quite strictly materialists in school management setting objective and fixed forms and rules hard and fast over against a growing and pulsating liferdquo (Tompkins 1895 208 and 14)

Arthur Young who was to become Secretary to the English Board of Agriculture could be called the Frederick Taylor of farm management not in the sense that he animated and inspired a school but in the sense that he attempted to ldquoreduce multifarious fugitive subjects to some degree of order and even principlesrdquo articulated into a rational ldquosystem of general managementrdquo (Young 1770b 2-3) His purpose being to see husbandry ldquobuilt upon as just and philosophic principles as the art of medicinerdquo (Ibid 175) Young thus applied an experimental and scientific outlook to husbandry Talking about accounts he states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) He thus draws ldquoschemes of conducting farmsrdquo

18

with an eye to constant improvements (Young 1770b 34) To him the superiority of the gentleman over the common farmer lay in his capacity to acquire new knowledge not in his application of old ones To him it is thus important to devise a ldquoplan of agricultural operationrdquo (Young 1770a vol 2 471) What he calls the ldquosystem of managementrdquo or ldquotrain of managementrdquo of a farm is nothing but the division arrangement and proportionning of its land cattle and labour Young thus elaborate methods and calculus for a efficient division of work which he calls ldquodisposition of the teamsrdquo (Young 1770b 25) and which takes the form of distribution of ploughs horses ox and laborers He proposes for instance a table with the distribution of 16 servants 11 laborers and 16 boys for the ploughs harrowing team carried over brought over rolling horse hoeing road team ox team ditto carting extra team shepherd exen steers swine cows Young also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men As it sums it up himslef a certain portion of time a certain portion of space and ldquoa certain portion of hands are assigned to each businessrdquo (Ibid 60)

According to a prolific author of conduct books ldquothat house only is well conducted where there is a strict attention paid to order and regularity To do every thing in its proper time to keep every thing in its right place and to use every thing for its proper use is the very essence of good managementrdquo (Taylor 1815 27) Similarly according to the author of a Modern System of Domestic Cookery a ldquosystem of domestic management is the foundation of all the comfort and welfare of private familiesrdquo (Radcliffe 1823 1) But Catharine Beecher is the first one to devise in 1841 such a ldquosystematic plan of domestic economyrdquo (Beecher 1841 157) in a book notes a literature teacher specialist of Catharine Beecher which ldquowent through fifteen editions between 1841 and 1856 and established Beecher as the nations foremost authority on household practicerdquo (Tonkovich in Beecher and Stowe 1869 xiii) According to her philosophy ldquoit is wise therefore for all persons to devise a general plan which they will at least keep in view and aim to accomplish and by which a proper proportion of time shall be secured for all the duties of liferdquo (Ibid 158) She thus advocates a ldquosystematic employment of timerdquo (Ibid 160 Beecher and Stowe 1870 196) Beecher and her sister Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote in a later book ldquoEvery young lady can systematize her pursuits to a certain extent She can have a particular day for mending her wardrobe and for arranging her trunks closets and drawers She can keep her work-basket her desk at school and all her other conveniences in their proper places and in regular order She can have regular periods for reading walking visiting study and domestic pursuits And by following this method in youth she will form a taste for regularity and a habit of system which will prove a blessing to her through liferdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 202) The housekeeper should not limit her division and arrangement of work to the servants but strive for ldquothe apportioning of regular employment to the various members of a family If a housekeeper can secure the cooperation of all her family she will find that lsquomany hands make light workrsquordquo (Beecher 1841 163) Adding that ldquoa woman is under obligations so to arrange the hours and pursuits of her family as to promote systematic and habitual industryrdquo (Ibid 185) For that purpose she draws plans of houses and domestic conveniences (Ibid ch XXIV)

Both Young and Beecher show the conspicuous features that exhibit the literature on farm and household management a quest for regularity and order systematicity planning selection as well as the arrangement of work and division of labor But elaboration of methods and plans are also common in medical management literature The doctor Cadogan proposes as early as 1748 a ldquoPlan of Nursingrdquo (Cadogan 1748 21)

19

This systematic frame of mind is first expressed by medical farm and household management writers not so much in a desire to standardize but in a constant effort to codify That is routines are not systematically reduced to a measurable standard but they are carefully specified often regarding a specific time and place The very idea of writting a book imply this logic of formalizing and codifying a set of practices The most methodic books circumscribe the mother farmer and housekeeperrsquos tasks and codify it in every detail Most of the books on infant management codify the childrenrsquos dress from the shoes to the cap their cleanliness bathing foods drinks exercise amusements sleep education and employments Isabella Beetonrsquos 1861 book codified every aspect of household management and even every aspect of a diner given at home or in paying visits of condoleance This very idea of codification is best exemplified by the recurring planning tools proposed by most of these books such as detailed plans of houses diagrams of kitchen schedules work orders tables of duties calendars reminder cards and files bulletin boards ledgers accounting books individual calendars or written menus to be posted in pantry and kitchen (Cf for instance figure below from US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932 202) An author even recommends the use of ldquoprinted rules

in bath room [] giving a few very simple admonitions upon what is lsquogood formrsquo in a lavatory of any sortrdquo (Carter 1904 93) For the ldquohousehold engineerrdquo Christine Frederick ldquostandard practice means then written directions as to method and tools and timerdquo (Frederick 1919 152)

Even if most of English and American homes employed less than ten servants and therefore knew in a limited degree the division labor Nevertheless remarks the author of a ldquodomestic economy and household sciencerdquo manual ldquoin most households it is found necessary to divide the work which has to be done amongst various people

20

and to have some of these especially trained for certain parts of it such as cooking the food cleaning the house and waiting upon the inmates The arranging of all this work has to be thought of and planned by the master and mistress who are the responsible controllers and heads of the house Thus the duties of servants their relations to their employers and their good management or handling are also matters with which domestic economy has to dealrdquo (Mann 1878 5)

Much of the books on school management devote a chapter or a whole part to ldquoorganizationrdquo which usally contains instructions regarding the number and size of the classes the distribution of the staff the syllabus of work for each class the classification of the scholars and the time table It may picture plans of the school or at least of the ideal classroom and some even specify the way children should be gathered and circulate wtihin their class (Cf right time table and plan of a school reproduced from Collar and Crook 1901 41) For an influential writer on school management ldquothe particulars embraced under organization comprise the arrangements of the rooms classification of the children duties of the master subordinates distribution of work and time tablesrdquo (Gill 1857 57) Under the head of organization the rector of a Glasgow school thus describe for instance ldquothe arrangement of desks most suitable to the efficient management of a schoolrdquo (Morrison 1859 44) Another author talks about ldquothe distribution of the teaching powerrdquo (Landon 1883 110)

According to the authors of farm management books good husbandry is not a matter of duplicating age-old recipes but a matter of choices and of planning choice of a location of a farm og a kind of farming (intensive or extensive) of crops of livestock of horses of equipment of implements of calendar etc All these parameters interacts As such states Young husbandry can never arrive at perfection ldquoif the exact degree of every vegetable cultivated be not known in relation to soil and management and in a word if all the the various branches of this complex art be not so thoroughly sifted and examined as to be familiar in every combinationrdquo (Young 1770b 150-151) A century later Robert Scott Burn advises his readers to select their animals with regards to ldquothe soil its cropping size locality and climaterdquo (Burn 1877 29) Richard Reynolds states for himself that ldquoalmost every treatise upon the management of farm-horses contain formulae of food allowances applicable for use at certain seasons and during the performance of certain agricultural operationsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 52) Similarly the proper selection of a new house of servants of food of menus of activities for the children and even ldquothe choice of friendsrdquo and new acquaintances (Parkes 1825 Part I Conversations II and III) are important dimensions of household management For a household editor for the Ladies Home Journal if a housekeeper ldquodoes not know that round steak at 20 cents a pound possesses as much nutriment as the

21

porterhouse at 26 cents she will not expend wisely or economically She should know something of the idea of a lsquobalanced mealrsquo and what foods will give it the place of milk fruit and eggs in the diet what are healthful meat substitutes and the nourishment of various kinds of breads vegetables and cerealsrdquo (Frederick 1913 105)

Most of the book on children management describe curricula proper to their development For instance in his Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children written in 1792 Smith formulates ldquorulesrdquo describes ldquobest methodsrdquo and offers detailed prescriptions for the management of children ldquolet their breakfast at six or seven in the morning be half a pint of new milk with about two ounces of bread in it mdash the second meal should be half a pint of good broth with the same quantity of bread let this be given about ten or eleven in the morning mdash the third meal about two or three in the afternoon should be broth in like manner mdash and their supper about six in the evening new milk and bread the same as for breakfastrdquo (Smith 1792 140) Most of books on children management give advices regarding their different stages of life and notably the periods of weaning and of dentition Samuel Smiles the famous surgeon presents ldquoin a tabular form what [he] conceive[s] ought to be the proper disposition of time in childhood boyhood adolescenceand adult age in order to the attainment of a full development of the mental faculties with a corresponding healthy completion of the physical structurerdquo (Smiles 1838 188) As such for each period of age he precises ldquothe hours that should be devoted to exercise exercise with instruction tuition relaxation and sleeprdquo (Cf table below from Ibid 188) Similarly many household management books propose plans for the distribution of tasks settled down to the day and even down to the quarter of an hour (Butterworth 1902 27-28) According to the Housekeeperrsquos magazine ldquoearly rising and a good disposition of time is essential to Economyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) As early as 1825 Frances Parkes proposes a ldquosystem of Domestic Dutyrdquo (Parkes 1825 22) which regulates the ldquodisposal of timerdquo (Ibid 16) ldquoAs much time is saved or rather gained by a regular disposal of each division of the day I recommend to you to plan the whole out every morning and as far as you can command circumstances to pursue that plan steadilyrdquo (Ibid 317) Almanachs are important tools of farm and household regulation of time and farming operations also obeys to calendars and a precise chronological pattern The combination of these different parameters require an ordered mind as it is repeatedly remarked in farm management books ldquoA time-table is to a school what grammar is to a languagerdquo says an Irish head-master who participated in the task of ldquointroducing among the national schools [of Ireland] an improved and uniform organization and of diffusing among the national teachers a more extensive practical knowledge of school keepingrdquo (Joyce 1863 37 and vii) As such he codifies a regular day at school hour by hour beginning in such a manner ldquoldquo955 to 10 Inspection as to cleanliness mdash At five minutes to ten the children should be arranged according to their divisions and drafts either in the playground or in the school- room and the teacher after a hasty glance to see that their hands faces and hair are clean and neat marches all to their several places This preliminary business should not encroach on the school time the first lessons should be actually commencing at 10 oclockrdquo (Ibid 59) For another writer on school management it is obvious that ldquothere must be a well devised program distributing the time properly among the various classes and that it must be inflexibly followedrdquo (Kellogg 1880 92) Such time-tables are a common feature of school management books

The question of ldquoarrangementrdquo that is of planning space is a common feature of farm and household management books ldquoA place for everything and everything in its

22

placerdquo is a recurring moto of 18th and 19th centuries management books Books on farm management thus frequently offer developments the arrangement of the fields and even latter on the planning of farm buildings fields or poultry houses (Dickson 1853) As early as 1768 Arthur Young underline the ldquogeneral benefit which arises from a judicious arrangement of a farmrdquo by a farmer and especially ldquothe arranging his lands properly for his cropsrdquo (Young 1768 156-157 and 158) Another author underlines that ldquobesides a most rigid and accurate set of account booksrdquo ldquoan accurate plan of each field should also be had showing the position of drains with their outfalls position of fences and gates and another detailing the mode of cropping and the part of the rotation under which at the stated intervals it comes to be placedrdquo (Burn 1877 29) Warren in his classic book on farm management proposes schemes of farm layout location size and shape of fields (Warren 1913 365-368) Regarding household management such author may propose ldquoplans of houses suited to townsrdquo (Walsh 1853 96) this one a plan of the pantries (Parloa 1898 15) while another calls for ldquoscientific house-planningrdquo (Bruere 1912 174) Ellen Richards prescriptions for the arrangement of a house include such elements as windows walls sink bathtub florrs woodwork stair rails and supports plumbing vaccum cleaner gas burners screens etc (Richards 1911) Beecher and Stowe add to their sketch of ldquomodel cottage-ground plan and roomsrdquo ldquoIn the description and arrangement the leading aim is to show how time labor and expense are saved not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangementrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 24) For the real purpose of planning is often both order and efficiency For instance

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

16

conducting and driving That is managing means more ndash or less ndash than rude disciplining For instance goodness and patience rather than ldquomain strength and stupid harshnessrdquo (Graves and Prudden 1868 38) are systematically recommended in the management of horses ldquoKindness goes far in managing these noble animalsrdquo confirms the cavalry officer Mahon (1865 49) An anonymous mother also writes that children ldquoare much better and more easily managed by kindness and it is quite easy to be firm with a child without being angry or severerdquo (Anonymous 1884 62) For most of authors on school and classroom management cooperation more than discpline is the basis of a sound eduction as military methods of instruction are rejected in a distant past ldquoReproof and privations writes an educational pioneer are the only punishments ordinarily needed in school or family The management should be so systematic and vigorous as to render severer punishments unnecessaryrdquo (Baldwin 1881 166)

This meaning of management also appears on the books considering the rearing of infants and children which purpose is their rise and progress as well as in books on school and classroom management In both cases a good management mostly consists in giving proper habits ndash that is organized reactions For instance writes an American professor of pedagogy ldquothe school should be managed with the conscious purpose of forming habits of orderrdquo (Tompkins 1895 203) A very influential professor of education could even formulate a ldquolaw of habit-buildingrdquo ldquoFocalization of consciousness upon the process to be automatized plus attentive repetition of this process permitting no exceptions until automatism resultsrdquo (Bagley 1907 16) This educating process also applies to the training of household servants a subject of a foremost intest for the early writers on household management In some cases notes Mary Elizabeth Carter servants ldquomay like boys and girls have to be taught and trained in habits of cleanliness and orderrdquo (Carter 1904 115) It also applies to the education of the future housewife which become part of the syllabus of ldquoDomestic Sciencerdquo in universities at the end of the 19th century Logically the term management was commonly applied from the middle of the 19th century to the tasks of the teacher in charge of developing his or her pupils along physical mental and moral lines Besides many books on school management note that the old days teacher was mainly superintending while the modern one is mainly teaching Most also states that teaching has become a profession and as such necessitates a proper training ldquoThe teacher writes an editor of the New York School Journal must study to be a good teacher the art of school management in its best sense turns upon thatrdquo (Kellogg 1880 78)

By essence conduct books devise ways of improving their readersrsquo behavior As scientific disciplines develop the housewife is for instance to gain knowledge in chemistry physics and psychology In her first best-selling book Catharine Beecher who can envision the task of housewife as a ldquoprofessionrdquo (Beecher 1841 5) recommend that domestic economy should be made ldquoa regular part of school educationrdquo and not taught at home by the mothers often ignorant of the true rules of this science (Ibid 63)

For behind the idea of training lies the principle of progress As early as the 17th century enlighted farmers began to shake the bounds of tradition by submitting agriculture to rational scrutiny and experiment (Best 1642) In the 19th century the home which may seem like the bastion of tradition was subject to many methods for improving its running

The very purpose of most of the early books on management is the education of their reader A majority of it aims conscienciously at being pedagogical and popular sharing this common faith in the power of knowledge and in the benefits of mass

17

education which made its way through Europe and the United States from the 18th century The doctor Anthony Thompson characteristically states that ldquothe most judicious plan of medical management may be devised and the plainest directions for its fulfilment may be delivered to the attendants of the sick-room but without more information on the subject than is at present possessed by the females of a household and especially by those whose duty it is to superintend the execution of the orders of the Physician little benefit can be anticipated to the invalidrdquo (Thompson 1841 vii)

Order Arrangement System Regulation Order arrangement system and regulation are watchwords of the 18th and 19th

century literature on management and especially of the literature on farm and household management The expressions ldquosystem of managingrdquo ldquoplan of managementrdquo ldquomethod of managementrdquo are found in almost every book here considered The very idea of management seem to imply the notion of a regular and ordered system The Housekeeperrsquos magazine even talks about the ldquobest-regulated familyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg3 52) and Catharine Beecher of ldquoa systematic and well-regulated familyrdquo (Beecher 1841 126) For a widely read authoress of books on household administration for instance ldquomethod and order are two most important factors in the management of the householdrdquo (Parloa 1898 61) Regarding accounts writes the author of a ldquosystem of practical domestic economyrdquo ldquoregularity is the very life and soul of economyrdquo (Anonymous 1827 380) The setting of a routine and the search for regularity are especially praised in the rearing of children and of animals Thus according to a horse expert ldquoone of the first things desirable in stable management is rule by rule I mean a regular way of doing thingsrdquo (Hieover 1848 90) Similarly school management thinkers praise order and system and order ldquoSystem in school management is a necessityrdquo states one of them (Raub 1882 196) ldquoOrderliness in general matters of school management writes another is a right upon which it is unnecessary to insist The child has the right to expect regular periods for school work orderly entrance and dismissal etc care of clothing uniformity in certain aspects of discipline and the likerdquo (Arnold 1908 174) As states an English inspector of board schools ldquoThe first requisite of good management in all schools is orderrdquo (Major 1883 209) For a fourth author on this subject an ldquoimportant device in school management is the adoption of a self-regulating system [] A school is a sort of mechanism and all its movements must be regular to avoid confusion and waste of timerdquo (White 1893 94-95) As recognizes Dr Arnold Tompkins of Illinois University for whom ldquono means ever devised is more potent than an efficient system of school managementrdquo ldquowe are quite strictly materialists in school management setting objective and fixed forms and rules hard and fast over against a growing and pulsating liferdquo (Tompkins 1895 208 and 14)

Arthur Young who was to become Secretary to the English Board of Agriculture could be called the Frederick Taylor of farm management not in the sense that he animated and inspired a school but in the sense that he attempted to ldquoreduce multifarious fugitive subjects to some degree of order and even principlesrdquo articulated into a rational ldquosystem of general managementrdquo (Young 1770b 2-3) His purpose being to see husbandry ldquobuilt upon as just and philosophic principles as the art of medicinerdquo (Ibid 175) Young thus applied an experimental and scientific outlook to husbandry Talking about accounts he states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) He thus draws ldquoschemes of conducting farmsrdquo

18

with an eye to constant improvements (Young 1770b 34) To him the superiority of the gentleman over the common farmer lay in his capacity to acquire new knowledge not in his application of old ones To him it is thus important to devise a ldquoplan of agricultural operationrdquo (Young 1770a vol 2 471) What he calls the ldquosystem of managementrdquo or ldquotrain of managementrdquo of a farm is nothing but the division arrangement and proportionning of its land cattle and labour Young thus elaborate methods and calculus for a efficient division of work which he calls ldquodisposition of the teamsrdquo (Young 1770b 25) and which takes the form of distribution of ploughs horses ox and laborers He proposes for instance a table with the distribution of 16 servants 11 laborers and 16 boys for the ploughs harrowing team carried over brought over rolling horse hoeing road team ox team ditto carting extra team shepherd exen steers swine cows Young also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men As it sums it up himslef a certain portion of time a certain portion of space and ldquoa certain portion of hands are assigned to each businessrdquo (Ibid 60)

According to a prolific author of conduct books ldquothat house only is well conducted where there is a strict attention paid to order and regularity To do every thing in its proper time to keep every thing in its right place and to use every thing for its proper use is the very essence of good managementrdquo (Taylor 1815 27) Similarly according to the author of a Modern System of Domestic Cookery a ldquosystem of domestic management is the foundation of all the comfort and welfare of private familiesrdquo (Radcliffe 1823 1) But Catharine Beecher is the first one to devise in 1841 such a ldquosystematic plan of domestic economyrdquo (Beecher 1841 157) in a book notes a literature teacher specialist of Catharine Beecher which ldquowent through fifteen editions between 1841 and 1856 and established Beecher as the nations foremost authority on household practicerdquo (Tonkovich in Beecher and Stowe 1869 xiii) According to her philosophy ldquoit is wise therefore for all persons to devise a general plan which they will at least keep in view and aim to accomplish and by which a proper proportion of time shall be secured for all the duties of liferdquo (Ibid 158) She thus advocates a ldquosystematic employment of timerdquo (Ibid 160 Beecher and Stowe 1870 196) Beecher and her sister Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote in a later book ldquoEvery young lady can systematize her pursuits to a certain extent She can have a particular day for mending her wardrobe and for arranging her trunks closets and drawers She can keep her work-basket her desk at school and all her other conveniences in their proper places and in regular order She can have regular periods for reading walking visiting study and domestic pursuits And by following this method in youth she will form a taste for regularity and a habit of system which will prove a blessing to her through liferdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 202) The housekeeper should not limit her division and arrangement of work to the servants but strive for ldquothe apportioning of regular employment to the various members of a family If a housekeeper can secure the cooperation of all her family she will find that lsquomany hands make light workrsquordquo (Beecher 1841 163) Adding that ldquoa woman is under obligations so to arrange the hours and pursuits of her family as to promote systematic and habitual industryrdquo (Ibid 185) For that purpose she draws plans of houses and domestic conveniences (Ibid ch XXIV)

Both Young and Beecher show the conspicuous features that exhibit the literature on farm and household management a quest for regularity and order systematicity planning selection as well as the arrangement of work and division of labor But elaboration of methods and plans are also common in medical management literature The doctor Cadogan proposes as early as 1748 a ldquoPlan of Nursingrdquo (Cadogan 1748 21)

19

This systematic frame of mind is first expressed by medical farm and household management writers not so much in a desire to standardize but in a constant effort to codify That is routines are not systematically reduced to a measurable standard but they are carefully specified often regarding a specific time and place The very idea of writting a book imply this logic of formalizing and codifying a set of practices The most methodic books circumscribe the mother farmer and housekeeperrsquos tasks and codify it in every detail Most of the books on infant management codify the childrenrsquos dress from the shoes to the cap their cleanliness bathing foods drinks exercise amusements sleep education and employments Isabella Beetonrsquos 1861 book codified every aspect of household management and even every aspect of a diner given at home or in paying visits of condoleance This very idea of codification is best exemplified by the recurring planning tools proposed by most of these books such as detailed plans of houses diagrams of kitchen schedules work orders tables of duties calendars reminder cards and files bulletin boards ledgers accounting books individual calendars or written menus to be posted in pantry and kitchen (Cf for instance figure below from US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932 202) An author even recommends the use of ldquoprinted rules

in bath room [] giving a few very simple admonitions upon what is lsquogood formrsquo in a lavatory of any sortrdquo (Carter 1904 93) For the ldquohousehold engineerrdquo Christine Frederick ldquostandard practice means then written directions as to method and tools and timerdquo (Frederick 1919 152)

Even if most of English and American homes employed less than ten servants and therefore knew in a limited degree the division labor Nevertheless remarks the author of a ldquodomestic economy and household sciencerdquo manual ldquoin most households it is found necessary to divide the work which has to be done amongst various people

20

and to have some of these especially trained for certain parts of it such as cooking the food cleaning the house and waiting upon the inmates The arranging of all this work has to be thought of and planned by the master and mistress who are the responsible controllers and heads of the house Thus the duties of servants their relations to their employers and their good management or handling are also matters with which domestic economy has to dealrdquo (Mann 1878 5)

Much of the books on school management devote a chapter or a whole part to ldquoorganizationrdquo which usally contains instructions regarding the number and size of the classes the distribution of the staff the syllabus of work for each class the classification of the scholars and the time table It may picture plans of the school or at least of the ideal classroom and some even specify the way children should be gathered and circulate wtihin their class (Cf right time table and plan of a school reproduced from Collar and Crook 1901 41) For an influential writer on school management ldquothe particulars embraced under organization comprise the arrangements of the rooms classification of the children duties of the master subordinates distribution of work and time tablesrdquo (Gill 1857 57) Under the head of organization the rector of a Glasgow school thus describe for instance ldquothe arrangement of desks most suitable to the efficient management of a schoolrdquo (Morrison 1859 44) Another author talks about ldquothe distribution of the teaching powerrdquo (Landon 1883 110)

According to the authors of farm management books good husbandry is not a matter of duplicating age-old recipes but a matter of choices and of planning choice of a location of a farm og a kind of farming (intensive or extensive) of crops of livestock of horses of equipment of implements of calendar etc All these parameters interacts As such states Young husbandry can never arrive at perfection ldquoif the exact degree of every vegetable cultivated be not known in relation to soil and management and in a word if all the the various branches of this complex art be not so thoroughly sifted and examined as to be familiar in every combinationrdquo (Young 1770b 150-151) A century later Robert Scott Burn advises his readers to select their animals with regards to ldquothe soil its cropping size locality and climaterdquo (Burn 1877 29) Richard Reynolds states for himself that ldquoalmost every treatise upon the management of farm-horses contain formulae of food allowances applicable for use at certain seasons and during the performance of certain agricultural operationsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 52) Similarly the proper selection of a new house of servants of food of menus of activities for the children and even ldquothe choice of friendsrdquo and new acquaintances (Parkes 1825 Part I Conversations II and III) are important dimensions of household management For a household editor for the Ladies Home Journal if a housekeeper ldquodoes not know that round steak at 20 cents a pound possesses as much nutriment as the

21

porterhouse at 26 cents she will not expend wisely or economically She should know something of the idea of a lsquobalanced mealrsquo and what foods will give it the place of milk fruit and eggs in the diet what are healthful meat substitutes and the nourishment of various kinds of breads vegetables and cerealsrdquo (Frederick 1913 105)

Most of the book on children management describe curricula proper to their development For instance in his Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children written in 1792 Smith formulates ldquorulesrdquo describes ldquobest methodsrdquo and offers detailed prescriptions for the management of children ldquolet their breakfast at six or seven in the morning be half a pint of new milk with about two ounces of bread in it mdash the second meal should be half a pint of good broth with the same quantity of bread let this be given about ten or eleven in the morning mdash the third meal about two or three in the afternoon should be broth in like manner mdash and their supper about six in the evening new milk and bread the same as for breakfastrdquo (Smith 1792 140) Most of books on children management give advices regarding their different stages of life and notably the periods of weaning and of dentition Samuel Smiles the famous surgeon presents ldquoin a tabular form what [he] conceive[s] ought to be the proper disposition of time in childhood boyhood adolescenceand adult age in order to the attainment of a full development of the mental faculties with a corresponding healthy completion of the physical structurerdquo (Smiles 1838 188) As such for each period of age he precises ldquothe hours that should be devoted to exercise exercise with instruction tuition relaxation and sleeprdquo (Cf table below from Ibid 188) Similarly many household management books propose plans for the distribution of tasks settled down to the day and even down to the quarter of an hour (Butterworth 1902 27-28) According to the Housekeeperrsquos magazine ldquoearly rising and a good disposition of time is essential to Economyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) As early as 1825 Frances Parkes proposes a ldquosystem of Domestic Dutyrdquo (Parkes 1825 22) which regulates the ldquodisposal of timerdquo (Ibid 16) ldquoAs much time is saved or rather gained by a regular disposal of each division of the day I recommend to you to plan the whole out every morning and as far as you can command circumstances to pursue that plan steadilyrdquo (Ibid 317) Almanachs are important tools of farm and household regulation of time and farming operations also obeys to calendars and a precise chronological pattern The combination of these different parameters require an ordered mind as it is repeatedly remarked in farm management books ldquoA time-table is to a school what grammar is to a languagerdquo says an Irish head-master who participated in the task of ldquointroducing among the national schools [of Ireland] an improved and uniform organization and of diffusing among the national teachers a more extensive practical knowledge of school keepingrdquo (Joyce 1863 37 and vii) As such he codifies a regular day at school hour by hour beginning in such a manner ldquoldquo955 to 10 Inspection as to cleanliness mdash At five minutes to ten the children should be arranged according to their divisions and drafts either in the playground or in the school- room and the teacher after a hasty glance to see that their hands faces and hair are clean and neat marches all to their several places This preliminary business should not encroach on the school time the first lessons should be actually commencing at 10 oclockrdquo (Ibid 59) For another writer on school management it is obvious that ldquothere must be a well devised program distributing the time properly among the various classes and that it must be inflexibly followedrdquo (Kellogg 1880 92) Such time-tables are a common feature of school management books

The question of ldquoarrangementrdquo that is of planning space is a common feature of farm and household management books ldquoA place for everything and everything in its

22

placerdquo is a recurring moto of 18th and 19th centuries management books Books on farm management thus frequently offer developments the arrangement of the fields and even latter on the planning of farm buildings fields or poultry houses (Dickson 1853) As early as 1768 Arthur Young underline the ldquogeneral benefit which arises from a judicious arrangement of a farmrdquo by a farmer and especially ldquothe arranging his lands properly for his cropsrdquo (Young 1768 156-157 and 158) Another author underlines that ldquobesides a most rigid and accurate set of account booksrdquo ldquoan accurate plan of each field should also be had showing the position of drains with their outfalls position of fences and gates and another detailing the mode of cropping and the part of the rotation under which at the stated intervals it comes to be placedrdquo (Burn 1877 29) Warren in his classic book on farm management proposes schemes of farm layout location size and shape of fields (Warren 1913 365-368) Regarding household management such author may propose ldquoplans of houses suited to townsrdquo (Walsh 1853 96) this one a plan of the pantries (Parloa 1898 15) while another calls for ldquoscientific house-planningrdquo (Bruere 1912 174) Ellen Richards prescriptions for the arrangement of a house include such elements as windows walls sink bathtub florrs woodwork stair rails and supports plumbing vaccum cleaner gas burners screens etc (Richards 1911) Beecher and Stowe add to their sketch of ldquomodel cottage-ground plan and roomsrdquo ldquoIn the description and arrangement the leading aim is to show how time labor and expense are saved not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangementrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 24) For the real purpose of planning is often both order and efficiency For instance

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

17

education which made its way through Europe and the United States from the 18th century The doctor Anthony Thompson characteristically states that ldquothe most judicious plan of medical management may be devised and the plainest directions for its fulfilment may be delivered to the attendants of the sick-room but without more information on the subject than is at present possessed by the females of a household and especially by those whose duty it is to superintend the execution of the orders of the Physician little benefit can be anticipated to the invalidrdquo (Thompson 1841 vii)

Order Arrangement System Regulation Order arrangement system and regulation are watchwords of the 18th and 19th

century literature on management and especially of the literature on farm and household management The expressions ldquosystem of managingrdquo ldquoplan of managementrdquo ldquomethod of managementrdquo are found in almost every book here considered The very idea of management seem to imply the notion of a regular and ordered system The Housekeeperrsquos magazine even talks about the ldquobest-regulated familyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg3 52) and Catharine Beecher of ldquoa systematic and well-regulated familyrdquo (Beecher 1841 126) For a widely read authoress of books on household administration for instance ldquomethod and order are two most important factors in the management of the householdrdquo (Parloa 1898 61) Regarding accounts writes the author of a ldquosystem of practical domestic economyrdquo ldquoregularity is the very life and soul of economyrdquo (Anonymous 1827 380) The setting of a routine and the search for regularity are especially praised in the rearing of children and of animals Thus according to a horse expert ldquoone of the first things desirable in stable management is rule by rule I mean a regular way of doing thingsrdquo (Hieover 1848 90) Similarly school management thinkers praise order and system and order ldquoSystem in school management is a necessityrdquo states one of them (Raub 1882 196) ldquoOrderliness in general matters of school management writes another is a right upon which it is unnecessary to insist The child has the right to expect regular periods for school work orderly entrance and dismissal etc care of clothing uniformity in certain aspects of discipline and the likerdquo (Arnold 1908 174) As states an English inspector of board schools ldquoThe first requisite of good management in all schools is orderrdquo (Major 1883 209) For a fourth author on this subject an ldquoimportant device in school management is the adoption of a self-regulating system [] A school is a sort of mechanism and all its movements must be regular to avoid confusion and waste of timerdquo (White 1893 94-95) As recognizes Dr Arnold Tompkins of Illinois University for whom ldquono means ever devised is more potent than an efficient system of school managementrdquo ldquowe are quite strictly materialists in school management setting objective and fixed forms and rules hard and fast over against a growing and pulsating liferdquo (Tompkins 1895 208 and 14)

Arthur Young who was to become Secretary to the English Board of Agriculture could be called the Frederick Taylor of farm management not in the sense that he animated and inspired a school but in the sense that he attempted to ldquoreduce multifarious fugitive subjects to some degree of order and even principlesrdquo articulated into a rational ldquosystem of general managementrdquo (Young 1770b 2-3) His purpose being to see husbandry ldquobuilt upon as just and philosophic principles as the art of medicinerdquo (Ibid 175) Young thus applied an experimental and scientific outlook to husbandry Talking about accounts he states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) He thus draws ldquoschemes of conducting farmsrdquo

18

with an eye to constant improvements (Young 1770b 34) To him the superiority of the gentleman over the common farmer lay in his capacity to acquire new knowledge not in his application of old ones To him it is thus important to devise a ldquoplan of agricultural operationrdquo (Young 1770a vol 2 471) What he calls the ldquosystem of managementrdquo or ldquotrain of managementrdquo of a farm is nothing but the division arrangement and proportionning of its land cattle and labour Young thus elaborate methods and calculus for a efficient division of work which he calls ldquodisposition of the teamsrdquo (Young 1770b 25) and which takes the form of distribution of ploughs horses ox and laborers He proposes for instance a table with the distribution of 16 servants 11 laborers and 16 boys for the ploughs harrowing team carried over brought over rolling horse hoeing road team ox team ditto carting extra team shepherd exen steers swine cows Young also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men As it sums it up himslef a certain portion of time a certain portion of space and ldquoa certain portion of hands are assigned to each businessrdquo (Ibid 60)

According to a prolific author of conduct books ldquothat house only is well conducted where there is a strict attention paid to order and regularity To do every thing in its proper time to keep every thing in its right place and to use every thing for its proper use is the very essence of good managementrdquo (Taylor 1815 27) Similarly according to the author of a Modern System of Domestic Cookery a ldquosystem of domestic management is the foundation of all the comfort and welfare of private familiesrdquo (Radcliffe 1823 1) But Catharine Beecher is the first one to devise in 1841 such a ldquosystematic plan of domestic economyrdquo (Beecher 1841 157) in a book notes a literature teacher specialist of Catharine Beecher which ldquowent through fifteen editions between 1841 and 1856 and established Beecher as the nations foremost authority on household practicerdquo (Tonkovich in Beecher and Stowe 1869 xiii) According to her philosophy ldquoit is wise therefore for all persons to devise a general plan which they will at least keep in view and aim to accomplish and by which a proper proportion of time shall be secured for all the duties of liferdquo (Ibid 158) She thus advocates a ldquosystematic employment of timerdquo (Ibid 160 Beecher and Stowe 1870 196) Beecher and her sister Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote in a later book ldquoEvery young lady can systematize her pursuits to a certain extent She can have a particular day for mending her wardrobe and for arranging her trunks closets and drawers She can keep her work-basket her desk at school and all her other conveniences in their proper places and in regular order She can have regular periods for reading walking visiting study and domestic pursuits And by following this method in youth she will form a taste for regularity and a habit of system which will prove a blessing to her through liferdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 202) The housekeeper should not limit her division and arrangement of work to the servants but strive for ldquothe apportioning of regular employment to the various members of a family If a housekeeper can secure the cooperation of all her family she will find that lsquomany hands make light workrsquordquo (Beecher 1841 163) Adding that ldquoa woman is under obligations so to arrange the hours and pursuits of her family as to promote systematic and habitual industryrdquo (Ibid 185) For that purpose she draws plans of houses and domestic conveniences (Ibid ch XXIV)

Both Young and Beecher show the conspicuous features that exhibit the literature on farm and household management a quest for regularity and order systematicity planning selection as well as the arrangement of work and division of labor But elaboration of methods and plans are also common in medical management literature The doctor Cadogan proposes as early as 1748 a ldquoPlan of Nursingrdquo (Cadogan 1748 21)

19

This systematic frame of mind is first expressed by medical farm and household management writers not so much in a desire to standardize but in a constant effort to codify That is routines are not systematically reduced to a measurable standard but they are carefully specified often regarding a specific time and place The very idea of writting a book imply this logic of formalizing and codifying a set of practices The most methodic books circumscribe the mother farmer and housekeeperrsquos tasks and codify it in every detail Most of the books on infant management codify the childrenrsquos dress from the shoes to the cap their cleanliness bathing foods drinks exercise amusements sleep education and employments Isabella Beetonrsquos 1861 book codified every aspect of household management and even every aspect of a diner given at home or in paying visits of condoleance This very idea of codification is best exemplified by the recurring planning tools proposed by most of these books such as detailed plans of houses diagrams of kitchen schedules work orders tables of duties calendars reminder cards and files bulletin boards ledgers accounting books individual calendars or written menus to be posted in pantry and kitchen (Cf for instance figure below from US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932 202) An author even recommends the use of ldquoprinted rules

in bath room [] giving a few very simple admonitions upon what is lsquogood formrsquo in a lavatory of any sortrdquo (Carter 1904 93) For the ldquohousehold engineerrdquo Christine Frederick ldquostandard practice means then written directions as to method and tools and timerdquo (Frederick 1919 152)

Even if most of English and American homes employed less than ten servants and therefore knew in a limited degree the division labor Nevertheless remarks the author of a ldquodomestic economy and household sciencerdquo manual ldquoin most households it is found necessary to divide the work which has to be done amongst various people

20

and to have some of these especially trained for certain parts of it such as cooking the food cleaning the house and waiting upon the inmates The arranging of all this work has to be thought of and planned by the master and mistress who are the responsible controllers and heads of the house Thus the duties of servants their relations to their employers and their good management or handling are also matters with which domestic economy has to dealrdquo (Mann 1878 5)

Much of the books on school management devote a chapter or a whole part to ldquoorganizationrdquo which usally contains instructions regarding the number and size of the classes the distribution of the staff the syllabus of work for each class the classification of the scholars and the time table It may picture plans of the school or at least of the ideal classroom and some even specify the way children should be gathered and circulate wtihin their class (Cf right time table and plan of a school reproduced from Collar and Crook 1901 41) For an influential writer on school management ldquothe particulars embraced under organization comprise the arrangements of the rooms classification of the children duties of the master subordinates distribution of work and time tablesrdquo (Gill 1857 57) Under the head of organization the rector of a Glasgow school thus describe for instance ldquothe arrangement of desks most suitable to the efficient management of a schoolrdquo (Morrison 1859 44) Another author talks about ldquothe distribution of the teaching powerrdquo (Landon 1883 110)

According to the authors of farm management books good husbandry is not a matter of duplicating age-old recipes but a matter of choices and of planning choice of a location of a farm og a kind of farming (intensive or extensive) of crops of livestock of horses of equipment of implements of calendar etc All these parameters interacts As such states Young husbandry can never arrive at perfection ldquoif the exact degree of every vegetable cultivated be not known in relation to soil and management and in a word if all the the various branches of this complex art be not so thoroughly sifted and examined as to be familiar in every combinationrdquo (Young 1770b 150-151) A century later Robert Scott Burn advises his readers to select their animals with regards to ldquothe soil its cropping size locality and climaterdquo (Burn 1877 29) Richard Reynolds states for himself that ldquoalmost every treatise upon the management of farm-horses contain formulae of food allowances applicable for use at certain seasons and during the performance of certain agricultural operationsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 52) Similarly the proper selection of a new house of servants of food of menus of activities for the children and even ldquothe choice of friendsrdquo and new acquaintances (Parkes 1825 Part I Conversations II and III) are important dimensions of household management For a household editor for the Ladies Home Journal if a housekeeper ldquodoes not know that round steak at 20 cents a pound possesses as much nutriment as the

21

porterhouse at 26 cents she will not expend wisely or economically She should know something of the idea of a lsquobalanced mealrsquo and what foods will give it the place of milk fruit and eggs in the diet what are healthful meat substitutes and the nourishment of various kinds of breads vegetables and cerealsrdquo (Frederick 1913 105)

Most of the book on children management describe curricula proper to their development For instance in his Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children written in 1792 Smith formulates ldquorulesrdquo describes ldquobest methodsrdquo and offers detailed prescriptions for the management of children ldquolet their breakfast at six or seven in the morning be half a pint of new milk with about two ounces of bread in it mdash the second meal should be half a pint of good broth with the same quantity of bread let this be given about ten or eleven in the morning mdash the third meal about two or three in the afternoon should be broth in like manner mdash and their supper about six in the evening new milk and bread the same as for breakfastrdquo (Smith 1792 140) Most of books on children management give advices regarding their different stages of life and notably the periods of weaning and of dentition Samuel Smiles the famous surgeon presents ldquoin a tabular form what [he] conceive[s] ought to be the proper disposition of time in childhood boyhood adolescenceand adult age in order to the attainment of a full development of the mental faculties with a corresponding healthy completion of the physical structurerdquo (Smiles 1838 188) As such for each period of age he precises ldquothe hours that should be devoted to exercise exercise with instruction tuition relaxation and sleeprdquo (Cf table below from Ibid 188) Similarly many household management books propose plans for the distribution of tasks settled down to the day and even down to the quarter of an hour (Butterworth 1902 27-28) According to the Housekeeperrsquos magazine ldquoearly rising and a good disposition of time is essential to Economyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) As early as 1825 Frances Parkes proposes a ldquosystem of Domestic Dutyrdquo (Parkes 1825 22) which regulates the ldquodisposal of timerdquo (Ibid 16) ldquoAs much time is saved or rather gained by a regular disposal of each division of the day I recommend to you to plan the whole out every morning and as far as you can command circumstances to pursue that plan steadilyrdquo (Ibid 317) Almanachs are important tools of farm and household regulation of time and farming operations also obeys to calendars and a precise chronological pattern The combination of these different parameters require an ordered mind as it is repeatedly remarked in farm management books ldquoA time-table is to a school what grammar is to a languagerdquo says an Irish head-master who participated in the task of ldquointroducing among the national schools [of Ireland] an improved and uniform organization and of diffusing among the national teachers a more extensive practical knowledge of school keepingrdquo (Joyce 1863 37 and vii) As such he codifies a regular day at school hour by hour beginning in such a manner ldquoldquo955 to 10 Inspection as to cleanliness mdash At five minutes to ten the children should be arranged according to their divisions and drafts either in the playground or in the school- room and the teacher after a hasty glance to see that their hands faces and hair are clean and neat marches all to their several places This preliminary business should not encroach on the school time the first lessons should be actually commencing at 10 oclockrdquo (Ibid 59) For another writer on school management it is obvious that ldquothere must be a well devised program distributing the time properly among the various classes and that it must be inflexibly followedrdquo (Kellogg 1880 92) Such time-tables are a common feature of school management books

The question of ldquoarrangementrdquo that is of planning space is a common feature of farm and household management books ldquoA place for everything and everything in its

22

placerdquo is a recurring moto of 18th and 19th centuries management books Books on farm management thus frequently offer developments the arrangement of the fields and even latter on the planning of farm buildings fields or poultry houses (Dickson 1853) As early as 1768 Arthur Young underline the ldquogeneral benefit which arises from a judicious arrangement of a farmrdquo by a farmer and especially ldquothe arranging his lands properly for his cropsrdquo (Young 1768 156-157 and 158) Another author underlines that ldquobesides a most rigid and accurate set of account booksrdquo ldquoan accurate plan of each field should also be had showing the position of drains with their outfalls position of fences and gates and another detailing the mode of cropping and the part of the rotation under which at the stated intervals it comes to be placedrdquo (Burn 1877 29) Warren in his classic book on farm management proposes schemes of farm layout location size and shape of fields (Warren 1913 365-368) Regarding household management such author may propose ldquoplans of houses suited to townsrdquo (Walsh 1853 96) this one a plan of the pantries (Parloa 1898 15) while another calls for ldquoscientific house-planningrdquo (Bruere 1912 174) Ellen Richards prescriptions for the arrangement of a house include such elements as windows walls sink bathtub florrs woodwork stair rails and supports plumbing vaccum cleaner gas burners screens etc (Richards 1911) Beecher and Stowe add to their sketch of ldquomodel cottage-ground plan and roomsrdquo ldquoIn the description and arrangement the leading aim is to show how time labor and expense are saved not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangementrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 24) For the real purpose of planning is often both order and efficiency For instance

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

18

with an eye to constant improvements (Young 1770b 34) To him the superiority of the gentleman over the common farmer lay in his capacity to acquire new knowledge not in his application of old ones To him it is thus important to devise a ldquoplan of agricultural operationrdquo (Young 1770a vol 2 471) What he calls the ldquosystem of managementrdquo or ldquotrain of managementrdquo of a farm is nothing but the division arrangement and proportionning of its land cattle and labour Young thus elaborate methods and calculus for a efficient division of work which he calls ldquodisposition of the teamsrdquo (Young 1770b 25) and which takes the form of distribution of ploughs horses ox and laborers He proposes for instance a table with the distribution of 16 servants 11 laborers and 16 boys for the ploughs harrowing team carried over brought over rolling horse hoeing road team ox team ditto carting extra team shepherd exen steers swine cows Young also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men As it sums it up himslef a certain portion of time a certain portion of space and ldquoa certain portion of hands are assigned to each businessrdquo (Ibid 60)

According to a prolific author of conduct books ldquothat house only is well conducted where there is a strict attention paid to order and regularity To do every thing in its proper time to keep every thing in its right place and to use every thing for its proper use is the very essence of good managementrdquo (Taylor 1815 27) Similarly according to the author of a Modern System of Domestic Cookery a ldquosystem of domestic management is the foundation of all the comfort and welfare of private familiesrdquo (Radcliffe 1823 1) But Catharine Beecher is the first one to devise in 1841 such a ldquosystematic plan of domestic economyrdquo (Beecher 1841 157) in a book notes a literature teacher specialist of Catharine Beecher which ldquowent through fifteen editions between 1841 and 1856 and established Beecher as the nations foremost authority on household practicerdquo (Tonkovich in Beecher and Stowe 1869 xiii) According to her philosophy ldquoit is wise therefore for all persons to devise a general plan which they will at least keep in view and aim to accomplish and by which a proper proportion of time shall be secured for all the duties of liferdquo (Ibid 158) She thus advocates a ldquosystematic employment of timerdquo (Ibid 160 Beecher and Stowe 1870 196) Beecher and her sister Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote in a later book ldquoEvery young lady can systematize her pursuits to a certain extent She can have a particular day for mending her wardrobe and for arranging her trunks closets and drawers She can keep her work-basket her desk at school and all her other conveniences in their proper places and in regular order She can have regular periods for reading walking visiting study and domestic pursuits And by following this method in youth she will form a taste for regularity and a habit of system which will prove a blessing to her through liferdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 202) The housekeeper should not limit her division and arrangement of work to the servants but strive for ldquothe apportioning of regular employment to the various members of a family If a housekeeper can secure the cooperation of all her family she will find that lsquomany hands make light workrsquordquo (Beecher 1841 163) Adding that ldquoa woman is under obligations so to arrange the hours and pursuits of her family as to promote systematic and habitual industryrdquo (Ibid 185) For that purpose she draws plans of houses and domestic conveniences (Ibid ch XXIV)

Both Young and Beecher show the conspicuous features that exhibit the literature on farm and household management a quest for regularity and order systematicity planning selection as well as the arrangement of work and division of labor But elaboration of methods and plans are also common in medical management literature The doctor Cadogan proposes as early as 1748 a ldquoPlan of Nursingrdquo (Cadogan 1748 21)

19

This systematic frame of mind is first expressed by medical farm and household management writers not so much in a desire to standardize but in a constant effort to codify That is routines are not systematically reduced to a measurable standard but they are carefully specified often regarding a specific time and place The very idea of writting a book imply this logic of formalizing and codifying a set of practices The most methodic books circumscribe the mother farmer and housekeeperrsquos tasks and codify it in every detail Most of the books on infant management codify the childrenrsquos dress from the shoes to the cap their cleanliness bathing foods drinks exercise amusements sleep education and employments Isabella Beetonrsquos 1861 book codified every aspect of household management and even every aspect of a diner given at home or in paying visits of condoleance This very idea of codification is best exemplified by the recurring planning tools proposed by most of these books such as detailed plans of houses diagrams of kitchen schedules work orders tables of duties calendars reminder cards and files bulletin boards ledgers accounting books individual calendars or written menus to be posted in pantry and kitchen (Cf for instance figure below from US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932 202) An author even recommends the use of ldquoprinted rules

in bath room [] giving a few very simple admonitions upon what is lsquogood formrsquo in a lavatory of any sortrdquo (Carter 1904 93) For the ldquohousehold engineerrdquo Christine Frederick ldquostandard practice means then written directions as to method and tools and timerdquo (Frederick 1919 152)

Even if most of English and American homes employed less than ten servants and therefore knew in a limited degree the division labor Nevertheless remarks the author of a ldquodomestic economy and household sciencerdquo manual ldquoin most households it is found necessary to divide the work which has to be done amongst various people

20

and to have some of these especially trained for certain parts of it such as cooking the food cleaning the house and waiting upon the inmates The arranging of all this work has to be thought of and planned by the master and mistress who are the responsible controllers and heads of the house Thus the duties of servants their relations to their employers and their good management or handling are also matters with which domestic economy has to dealrdquo (Mann 1878 5)

Much of the books on school management devote a chapter or a whole part to ldquoorganizationrdquo which usally contains instructions regarding the number and size of the classes the distribution of the staff the syllabus of work for each class the classification of the scholars and the time table It may picture plans of the school or at least of the ideal classroom and some even specify the way children should be gathered and circulate wtihin their class (Cf right time table and plan of a school reproduced from Collar and Crook 1901 41) For an influential writer on school management ldquothe particulars embraced under organization comprise the arrangements of the rooms classification of the children duties of the master subordinates distribution of work and time tablesrdquo (Gill 1857 57) Under the head of organization the rector of a Glasgow school thus describe for instance ldquothe arrangement of desks most suitable to the efficient management of a schoolrdquo (Morrison 1859 44) Another author talks about ldquothe distribution of the teaching powerrdquo (Landon 1883 110)

According to the authors of farm management books good husbandry is not a matter of duplicating age-old recipes but a matter of choices and of planning choice of a location of a farm og a kind of farming (intensive or extensive) of crops of livestock of horses of equipment of implements of calendar etc All these parameters interacts As such states Young husbandry can never arrive at perfection ldquoif the exact degree of every vegetable cultivated be not known in relation to soil and management and in a word if all the the various branches of this complex art be not so thoroughly sifted and examined as to be familiar in every combinationrdquo (Young 1770b 150-151) A century later Robert Scott Burn advises his readers to select their animals with regards to ldquothe soil its cropping size locality and climaterdquo (Burn 1877 29) Richard Reynolds states for himself that ldquoalmost every treatise upon the management of farm-horses contain formulae of food allowances applicable for use at certain seasons and during the performance of certain agricultural operationsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 52) Similarly the proper selection of a new house of servants of food of menus of activities for the children and even ldquothe choice of friendsrdquo and new acquaintances (Parkes 1825 Part I Conversations II and III) are important dimensions of household management For a household editor for the Ladies Home Journal if a housekeeper ldquodoes not know that round steak at 20 cents a pound possesses as much nutriment as the

21

porterhouse at 26 cents she will not expend wisely or economically She should know something of the idea of a lsquobalanced mealrsquo and what foods will give it the place of milk fruit and eggs in the diet what are healthful meat substitutes and the nourishment of various kinds of breads vegetables and cerealsrdquo (Frederick 1913 105)

Most of the book on children management describe curricula proper to their development For instance in his Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children written in 1792 Smith formulates ldquorulesrdquo describes ldquobest methodsrdquo and offers detailed prescriptions for the management of children ldquolet their breakfast at six or seven in the morning be half a pint of new milk with about two ounces of bread in it mdash the second meal should be half a pint of good broth with the same quantity of bread let this be given about ten or eleven in the morning mdash the third meal about two or three in the afternoon should be broth in like manner mdash and their supper about six in the evening new milk and bread the same as for breakfastrdquo (Smith 1792 140) Most of books on children management give advices regarding their different stages of life and notably the periods of weaning and of dentition Samuel Smiles the famous surgeon presents ldquoin a tabular form what [he] conceive[s] ought to be the proper disposition of time in childhood boyhood adolescenceand adult age in order to the attainment of a full development of the mental faculties with a corresponding healthy completion of the physical structurerdquo (Smiles 1838 188) As such for each period of age he precises ldquothe hours that should be devoted to exercise exercise with instruction tuition relaxation and sleeprdquo (Cf table below from Ibid 188) Similarly many household management books propose plans for the distribution of tasks settled down to the day and even down to the quarter of an hour (Butterworth 1902 27-28) According to the Housekeeperrsquos magazine ldquoearly rising and a good disposition of time is essential to Economyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) As early as 1825 Frances Parkes proposes a ldquosystem of Domestic Dutyrdquo (Parkes 1825 22) which regulates the ldquodisposal of timerdquo (Ibid 16) ldquoAs much time is saved or rather gained by a regular disposal of each division of the day I recommend to you to plan the whole out every morning and as far as you can command circumstances to pursue that plan steadilyrdquo (Ibid 317) Almanachs are important tools of farm and household regulation of time and farming operations also obeys to calendars and a precise chronological pattern The combination of these different parameters require an ordered mind as it is repeatedly remarked in farm management books ldquoA time-table is to a school what grammar is to a languagerdquo says an Irish head-master who participated in the task of ldquointroducing among the national schools [of Ireland] an improved and uniform organization and of diffusing among the national teachers a more extensive practical knowledge of school keepingrdquo (Joyce 1863 37 and vii) As such he codifies a regular day at school hour by hour beginning in such a manner ldquoldquo955 to 10 Inspection as to cleanliness mdash At five minutes to ten the children should be arranged according to their divisions and drafts either in the playground or in the school- room and the teacher after a hasty glance to see that their hands faces and hair are clean and neat marches all to their several places This preliminary business should not encroach on the school time the first lessons should be actually commencing at 10 oclockrdquo (Ibid 59) For another writer on school management it is obvious that ldquothere must be a well devised program distributing the time properly among the various classes and that it must be inflexibly followedrdquo (Kellogg 1880 92) Such time-tables are a common feature of school management books

The question of ldquoarrangementrdquo that is of planning space is a common feature of farm and household management books ldquoA place for everything and everything in its

22

placerdquo is a recurring moto of 18th and 19th centuries management books Books on farm management thus frequently offer developments the arrangement of the fields and even latter on the planning of farm buildings fields or poultry houses (Dickson 1853) As early as 1768 Arthur Young underline the ldquogeneral benefit which arises from a judicious arrangement of a farmrdquo by a farmer and especially ldquothe arranging his lands properly for his cropsrdquo (Young 1768 156-157 and 158) Another author underlines that ldquobesides a most rigid and accurate set of account booksrdquo ldquoan accurate plan of each field should also be had showing the position of drains with their outfalls position of fences and gates and another detailing the mode of cropping and the part of the rotation under which at the stated intervals it comes to be placedrdquo (Burn 1877 29) Warren in his classic book on farm management proposes schemes of farm layout location size and shape of fields (Warren 1913 365-368) Regarding household management such author may propose ldquoplans of houses suited to townsrdquo (Walsh 1853 96) this one a plan of the pantries (Parloa 1898 15) while another calls for ldquoscientific house-planningrdquo (Bruere 1912 174) Ellen Richards prescriptions for the arrangement of a house include such elements as windows walls sink bathtub florrs woodwork stair rails and supports plumbing vaccum cleaner gas burners screens etc (Richards 1911) Beecher and Stowe add to their sketch of ldquomodel cottage-ground plan and roomsrdquo ldquoIn the description and arrangement the leading aim is to show how time labor and expense are saved not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangementrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 24) For the real purpose of planning is often both order and efficiency For instance

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

19

This systematic frame of mind is first expressed by medical farm and household management writers not so much in a desire to standardize but in a constant effort to codify That is routines are not systematically reduced to a measurable standard but they are carefully specified often regarding a specific time and place The very idea of writting a book imply this logic of formalizing and codifying a set of practices The most methodic books circumscribe the mother farmer and housekeeperrsquos tasks and codify it in every detail Most of the books on infant management codify the childrenrsquos dress from the shoes to the cap their cleanliness bathing foods drinks exercise amusements sleep education and employments Isabella Beetonrsquos 1861 book codified every aspect of household management and even every aspect of a diner given at home or in paying visits of condoleance This very idea of codification is best exemplified by the recurring planning tools proposed by most of these books such as detailed plans of houses diagrams of kitchen schedules work orders tables of duties calendars reminder cards and files bulletin boards ledgers accounting books individual calendars or written menus to be posted in pantry and kitchen (Cf for instance figure below from US Presidents Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership 1932 202) An author even recommends the use of ldquoprinted rules

in bath room [] giving a few very simple admonitions upon what is lsquogood formrsquo in a lavatory of any sortrdquo (Carter 1904 93) For the ldquohousehold engineerrdquo Christine Frederick ldquostandard practice means then written directions as to method and tools and timerdquo (Frederick 1919 152)

Even if most of English and American homes employed less than ten servants and therefore knew in a limited degree the division labor Nevertheless remarks the author of a ldquodomestic economy and household sciencerdquo manual ldquoin most households it is found necessary to divide the work which has to be done amongst various people

20

and to have some of these especially trained for certain parts of it such as cooking the food cleaning the house and waiting upon the inmates The arranging of all this work has to be thought of and planned by the master and mistress who are the responsible controllers and heads of the house Thus the duties of servants their relations to their employers and their good management or handling are also matters with which domestic economy has to dealrdquo (Mann 1878 5)

Much of the books on school management devote a chapter or a whole part to ldquoorganizationrdquo which usally contains instructions regarding the number and size of the classes the distribution of the staff the syllabus of work for each class the classification of the scholars and the time table It may picture plans of the school or at least of the ideal classroom and some even specify the way children should be gathered and circulate wtihin their class (Cf right time table and plan of a school reproduced from Collar and Crook 1901 41) For an influential writer on school management ldquothe particulars embraced under organization comprise the arrangements of the rooms classification of the children duties of the master subordinates distribution of work and time tablesrdquo (Gill 1857 57) Under the head of organization the rector of a Glasgow school thus describe for instance ldquothe arrangement of desks most suitable to the efficient management of a schoolrdquo (Morrison 1859 44) Another author talks about ldquothe distribution of the teaching powerrdquo (Landon 1883 110)

According to the authors of farm management books good husbandry is not a matter of duplicating age-old recipes but a matter of choices and of planning choice of a location of a farm og a kind of farming (intensive or extensive) of crops of livestock of horses of equipment of implements of calendar etc All these parameters interacts As such states Young husbandry can never arrive at perfection ldquoif the exact degree of every vegetable cultivated be not known in relation to soil and management and in a word if all the the various branches of this complex art be not so thoroughly sifted and examined as to be familiar in every combinationrdquo (Young 1770b 150-151) A century later Robert Scott Burn advises his readers to select their animals with regards to ldquothe soil its cropping size locality and climaterdquo (Burn 1877 29) Richard Reynolds states for himself that ldquoalmost every treatise upon the management of farm-horses contain formulae of food allowances applicable for use at certain seasons and during the performance of certain agricultural operationsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 52) Similarly the proper selection of a new house of servants of food of menus of activities for the children and even ldquothe choice of friendsrdquo and new acquaintances (Parkes 1825 Part I Conversations II and III) are important dimensions of household management For a household editor for the Ladies Home Journal if a housekeeper ldquodoes not know that round steak at 20 cents a pound possesses as much nutriment as the

21

porterhouse at 26 cents she will not expend wisely or economically She should know something of the idea of a lsquobalanced mealrsquo and what foods will give it the place of milk fruit and eggs in the diet what are healthful meat substitutes and the nourishment of various kinds of breads vegetables and cerealsrdquo (Frederick 1913 105)

Most of the book on children management describe curricula proper to their development For instance in his Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children written in 1792 Smith formulates ldquorulesrdquo describes ldquobest methodsrdquo and offers detailed prescriptions for the management of children ldquolet their breakfast at six or seven in the morning be half a pint of new milk with about two ounces of bread in it mdash the second meal should be half a pint of good broth with the same quantity of bread let this be given about ten or eleven in the morning mdash the third meal about two or three in the afternoon should be broth in like manner mdash and their supper about six in the evening new milk and bread the same as for breakfastrdquo (Smith 1792 140) Most of books on children management give advices regarding their different stages of life and notably the periods of weaning and of dentition Samuel Smiles the famous surgeon presents ldquoin a tabular form what [he] conceive[s] ought to be the proper disposition of time in childhood boyhood adolescenceand adult age in order to the attainment of a full development of the mental faculties with a corresponding healthy completion of the physical structurerdquo (Smiles 1838 188) As such for each period of age he precises ldquothe hours that should be devoted to exercise exercise with instruction tuition relaxation and sleeprdquo (Cf table below from Ibid 188) Similarly many household management books propose plans for the distribution of tasks settled down to the day and even down to the quarter of an hour (Butterworth 1902 27-28) According to the Housekeeperrsquos magazine ldquoearly rising and a good disposition of time is essential to Economyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) As early as 1825 Frances Parkes proposes a ldquosystem of Domestic Dutyrdquo (Parkes 1825 22) which regulates the ldquodisposal of timerdquo (Ibid 16) ldquoAs much time is saved or rather gained by a regular disposal of each division of the day I recommend to you to plan the whole out every morning and as far as you can command circumstances to pursue that plan steadilyrdquo (Ibid 317) Almanachs are important tools of farm and household regulation of time and farming operations also obeys to calendars and a precise chronological pattern The combination of these different parameters require an ordered mind as it is repeatedly remarked in farm management books ldquoA time-table is to a school what grammar is to a languagerdquo says an Irish head-master who participated in the task of ldquointroducing among the national schools [of Ireland] an improved and uniform organization and of diffusing among the national teachers a more extensive practical knowledge of school keepingrdquo (Joyce 1863 37 and vii) As such he codifies a regular day at school hour by hour beginning in such a manner ldquoldquo955 to 10 Inspection as to cleanliness mdash At five minutes to ten the children should be arranged according to their divisions and drafts either in the playground or in the school- room and the teacher after a hasty glance to see that their hands faces and hair are clean and neat marches all to their several places This preliminary business should not encroach on the school time the first lessons should be actually commencing at 10 oclockrdquo (Ibid 59) For another writer on school management it is obvious that ldquothere must be a well devised program distributing the time properly among the various classes and that it must be inflexibly followedrdquo (Kellogg 1880 92) Such time-tables are a common feature of school management books

The question of ldquoarrangementrdquo that is of planning space is a common feature of farm and household management books ldquoA place for everything and everything in its

22

placerdquo is a recurring moto of 18th and 19th centuries management books Books on farm management thus frequently offer developments the arrangement of the fields and even latter on the planning of farm buildings fields or poultry houses (Dickson 1853) As early as 1768 Arthur Young underline the ldquogeneral benefit which arises from a judicious arrangement of a farmrdquo by a farmer and especially ldquothe arranging his lands properly for his cropsrdquo (Young 1768 156-157 and 158) Another author underlines that ldquobesides a most rigid and accurate set of account booksrdquo ldquoan accurate plan of each field should also be had showing the position of drains with their outfalls position of fences and gates and another detailing the mode of cropping and the part of the rotation under which at the stated intervals it comes to be placedrdquo (Burn 1877 29) Warren in his classic book on farm management proposes schemes of farm layout location size and shape of fields (Warren 1913 365-368) Regarding household management such author may propose ldquoplans of houses suited to townsrdquo (Walsh 1853 96) this one a plan of the pantries (Parloa 1898 15) while another calls for ldquoscientific house-planningrdquo (Bruere 1912 174) Ellen Richards prescriptions for the arrangement of a house include such elements as windows walls sink bathtub florrs woodwork stair rails and supports plumbing vaccum cleaner gas burners screens etc (Richards 1911) Beecher and Stowe add to their sketch of ldquomodel cottage-ground plan and roomsrdquo ldquoIn the description and arrangement the leading aim is to show how time labor and expense are saved not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangementrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 24) For the real purpose of planning is often both order and efficiency For instance

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

20

and to have some of these especially trained for certain parts of it such as cooking the food cleaning the house and waiting upon the inmates The arranging of all this work has to be thought of and planned by the master and mistress who are the responsible controllers and heads of the house Thus the duties of servants their relations to their employers and their good management or handling are also matters with which domestic economy has to dealrdquo (Mann 1878 5)

Much of the books on school management devote a chapter or a whole part to ldquoorganizationrdquo which usally contains instructions regarding the number and size of the classes the distribution of the staff the syllabus of work for each class the classification of the scholars and the time table It may picture plans of the school or at least of the ideal classroom and some even specify the way children should be gathered and circulate wtihin their class (Cf right time table and plan of a school reproduced from Collar and Crook 1901 41) For an influential writer on school management ldquothe particulars embraced under organization comprise the arrangements of the rooms classification of the children duties of the master subordinates distribution of work and time tablesrdquo (Gill 1857 57) Under the head of organization the rector of a Glasgow school thus describe for instance ldquothe arrangement of desks most suitable to the efficient management of a schoolrdquo (Morrison 1859 44) Another author talks about ldquothe distribution of the teaching powerrdquo (Landon 1883 110)

According to the authors of farm management books good husbandry is not a matter of duplicating age-old recipes but a matter of choices and of planning choice of a location of a farm og a kind of farming (intensive or extensive) of crops of livestock of horses of equipment of implements of calendar etc All these parameters interacts As such states Young husbandry can never arrive at perfection ldquoif the exact degree of every vegetable cultivated be not known in relation to soil and management and in a word if all the the various branches of this complex art be not so thoroughly sifted and examined as to be familiar in every combinationrdquo (Young 1770b 150-151) A century later Robert Scott Burn advises his readers to select their animals with regards to ldquothe soil its cropping size locality and climaterdquo (Burn 1877 29) Richard Reynolds states for himself that ldquoalmost every treatise upon the management of farm-horses contain formulae of food allowances applicable for use at certain seasons and during the performance of certain agricultural operationsrdquo (Reynolds 1882 52) Similarly the proper selection of a new house of servants of food of menus of activities for the children and even ldquothe choice of friendsrdquo and new acquaintances (Parkes 1825 Part I Conversations II and III) are important dimensions of household management For a household editor for the Ladies Home Journal if a housekeeper ldquodoes not know that round steak at 20 cents a pound possesses as much nutriment as the

21

porterhouse at 26 cents she will not expend wisely or economically She should know something of the idea of a lsquobalanced mealrsquo and what foods will give it the place of milk fruit and eggs in the diet what are healthful meat substitutes and the nourishment of various kinds of breads vegetables and cerealsrdquo (Frederick 1913 105)

Most of the book on children management describe curricula proper to their development For instance in his Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children written in 1792 Smith formulates ldquorulesrdquo describes ldquobest methodsrdquo and offers detailed prescriptions for the management of children ldquolet their breakfast at six or seven in the morning be half a pint of new milk with about two ounces of bread in it mdash the second meal should be half a pint of good broth with the same quantity of bread let this be given about ten or eleven in the morning mdash the third meal about two or three in the afternoon should be broth in like manner mdash and their supper about six in the evening new milk and bread the same as for breakfastrdquo (Smith 1792 140) Most of books on children management give advices regarding their different stages of life and notably the periods of weaning and of dentition Samuel Smiles the famous surgeon presents ldquoin a tabular form what [he] conceive[s] ought to be the proper disposition of time in childhood boyhood adolescenceand adult age in order to the attainment of a full development of the mental faculties with a corresponding healthy completion of the physical structurerdquo (Smiles 1838 188) As such for each period of age he precises ldquothe hours that should be devoted to exercise exercise with instruction tuition relaxation and sleeprdquo (Cf table below from Ibid 188) Similarly many household management books propose plans for the distribution of tasks settled down to the day and even down to the quarter of an hour (Butterworth 1902 27-28) According to the Housekeeperrsquos magazine ldquoearly rising and a good disposition of time is essential to Economyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) As early as 1825 Frances Parkes proposes a ldquosystem of Domestic Dutyrdquo (Parkes 1825 22) which regulates the ldquodisposal of timerdquo (Ibid 16) ldquoAs much time is saved or rather gained by a regular disposal of each division of the day I recommend to you to plan the whole out every morning and as far as you can command circumstances to pursue that plan steadilyrdquo (Ibid 317) Almanachs are important tools of farm and household regulation of time and farming operations also obeys to calendars and a precise chronological pattern The combination of these different parameters require an ordered mind as it is repeatedly remarked in farm management books ldquoA time-table is to a school what grammar is to a languagerdquo says an Irish head-master who participated in the task of ldquointroducing among the national schools [of Ireland] an improved and uniform organization and of diffusing among the national teachers a more extensive practical knowledge of school keepingrdquo (Joyce 1863 37 and vii) As such he codifies a regular day at school hour by hour beginning in such a manner ldquoldquo955 to 10 Inspection as to cleanliness mdash At five minutes to ten the children should be arranged according to their divisions and drafts either in the playground or in the school- room and the teacher after a hasty glance to see that their hands faces and hair are clean and neat marches all to their several places This preliminary business should not encroach on the school time the first lessons should be actually commencing at 10 oclockrdquo (Ibid 59) For another writer on school management it is obvious that ldquothere must be a well devised program distributing the time properly among the various classes and that it must be inflexibly followedrdquo (Kellogg 1880 92) Such time-tables are a common feature of school management books

The question of ldquoarrangementrdquo that is of planning space is a common feature of farm and household management books ldquoA place for everything and everything in its

22

placerdquo is a recurring moto of 18th and 19th centuries management books Books on farm management thus frequently offer developments the arrangement of the fields and even latter on the planning of farm buildings fields or poultry houses (Dickson 1853) As early as 1768 Arthur Young underline the ldquogeneral benefit which arises from a judicious arrangement of a farmrdquo by a farmer and especially ldquothe arranging his lands properly for his cropsrdquo (Young 1768 156-157 and 158) Another author underlines that ldquobesides a most rigid and accurate set of account booksrdquo ldquoan accurate plan of each field should also be had showing the position of drains with their outfalls position of fences and gates and another detailing the mode of cropping and the part of the rotation under which at the stated intervals it comes to be placedrdquo (Burn 1877 29) Warren in his classic book on farm management proposes schemes of farm layout location size and shape of fields (Warren 1913 365-368) Regarding household management such author may propose ldquoplans of houses suited to townsrdquo (Walsh 1853 96) this one a plan of the pantries (Parloa 1898 15) while another calls for ldquoscientific house-planningrdquo (Bruere 1912 174) Ellen Richards prescriptions for the arrangement of a house include such elements as windows walls sink bathtub florrs woodwork stair rails and supports plumbing vaccum cleaner gas burners screens etc (Richards 1911) Beecher and Stowe add to their sketch of ldquomodel cottage-ground plan and roomsrdquo ldquoIn the description and arrangement the leading aim is to show how time labor and expense are saved not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangementrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 24) For the real purpose of planning is often both order and efficiency For instance

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

21

porterhouse at 26 cents she will not expend wisely or economically She should know something of the idea of a lsquobalanced mealrsquo and what foods will give it the place of milk fruit and eggs in the diet what are healthful meat substitutes and the nourishment of various kinds of breads vegetables and cerealsrdquo (Frederick 1913 105)

Most of the book on children management describe curricula proper to their development For instance in his Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children written in 1792 Smith formulates ldquorulesrdquo describes ldquobest methodsrdquo and offers detailed prescriptions for the management of children ldquolet their breakfast at six or seven in the morning be half a pint of new milk with about two ounces of bread in it mdash the second meal should be half a pint of good broth with the same quantity of bread let this be given about ten or eleven in the morning mdash the third meal about two or three in the afternoon should be broth in like manner mdash and their supper about six in the evening new milk and bread the same as for breakfastrdquo (Smith 1792 140) Most of books on children management give advices regarding their different stages of life and notably the periods of weaning and of dentition Samuel Smiles the famous surgeon presents ldquoin a tabular form what [he] conceive[s] ought to be the proper disposition of time in childhood boyhood adolescenceand adult age in order to the attainment of a full development of the mental faculties with a corresponding healthy completion of the physical structurerdquo (Smiles 1838 188) As such for each period of age he precises ldquothe hours that should be devoted to exercise exercise with instruction tuition relaxation and sleeprdquo (Cf table below from Ibid 188) Similarly many household management books propose plans for the distribution of tasks settled down to the day and even down to the quarter of an hour (Butterworth 1902 27-28) According to the Housekeeperrsquos magazine ldquoearly rising and a good disposition of time is essential to Economyrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 27) As early as 1825 Frances Parkes proposes a ldquosystem of Domestic Dutyrdquo (Parkes 1825 22) which regulates the ldquodisposal of timerdquo (Ibid 16) ldquoAs much time is saved or rather gained by a regular disposal of each division of the day I recommend to you to plan the whole out every morning and as far as you can command circumstances to pursue that plan steadilyrdquo (Ibid 317) Almanachs are important tools of farm and household regulation of time and farming operations also obeys to calendars and a precise chronological pattern The combination of these different parameters require an ordered mind as it is repeatedly remarked in farm management books ldquoA time-table is to a school what grammar is to a languagerdquo says an Irish head-master who participated in the task of ldquointroducing among the national schools [of Ireland] an improved and uniform organization and of diffusing among the national teachers a more extensive practical knowledge of school keepingrdquo (Joyce 1863 37 and vii) As such he codifies a regular day at school hour by hour beginning in such a manner ldquoldquo955 to 10 Inspection as to cleanliness mdash At five minutes to ten the children should be arranged according to their divisions and drafts either in the playground or in the school- room and the teacher after a hasty glance to see that their hands faces and hair are clean and neat marches all to their several places This preliminary business should not encroach on the school time the first lessons should be actually commencing at 10 oclockrdquo (Ibid 59) For another writer on school management it is obvious that ldquothere must be a well devised program distributing the time properly among the various classes and that it must be inflexibly followedrdquo (Kellogg 1880 92) Such time-tables are a common feature of school management books

The question of ldquoarrangementrdquo that is of planning space is a common feature of farm and household management books ldquoA place for everything and everything in its

22

placerdquo is a recurring moto of 18th and 19th centuries management books Books on farm management thus frequently offer developments the arrangement of the fields and even latter on the planning of farm buildings fields or poultry houses (Dickson 1853) As early as 1768 Arthur Young underline the ldquogeneral benefit which arises from a judicious arrangement of a farmrdquo by a farmer and especially ldquothe arranging his lands properly for his cropsrdquo (Young 1768 156-157 and 158) Another author underlines that ldquobesides a most rigid and accurate set of account booksrdquo ldquoan accurate plan of each field should also be had showing the position of drains with their outfalls position of fences and gates and another detailing the mode of cropping and the part of the rotation under which at the stated intervals it comes to be placedrdquo (Burn 1877 29) Warren in his classic book on farm management proposes schemes of farm layout location size and shape of fields (Warren 1913 365-368) Regarding household management such author may propose ldquoplans of houses suited to townsrdquo (Walsh 1853 96) this one a plan of the pantries (Parloa 1898 15) while another calls for ldquoscientific house-planningrdquo (Bruere 1912 174) Ellen Richards prescriptions for the arrangement of a house include such elements as windows walls sink bathtub florrs woodwork stair rails and supports plumbing vaccum cleaner gas burners screens etc (Richards 1911) Beecher and Stowe add to their sketch of ldquomodel cottage-ground plan and roomsrdquo ldquoIn the description and arrangement the leading aim is to show how time labor and expense are saved not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangementrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 24) For the real purpose of planning is often both order and efficiency For instance

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

22

placerdquo is a recurring moto of 18th and 19th centuries management books Books on farm management thus frequently offer developments the arrangement of the fields and even latter on the planning of farm buildings fields or poultry houses (Dickson 1853) As early as 1768 Arthur Young underline the ldquogeneral benefit which arises from a judicious arrangement of a farmrdquo by a farmer and especially ldquothe arranging his lands properly for his cropsrdquo (Young 1768 156-157 and 158) Another author underlines that ldquobesides a most rigid and accurate set of account booksrdquo ldquoan accurate plan of each field should also be had showing the position of drains with their outfalls position of fences and gates and another detailing the mode of cropping and the part of the rotation under which at the stated intervals it comes to be placedrdquo (Burn 1877 29) Warren in his classic book on farm management proposes schemes of farm layout location size and shape of fields (Warren 1913 365-368) Regarding household management such author may propose ldquoplans of houses suited to townsrdquo (Walsh 1853 96) this one a plan of the pantries (Parloa 1898 15) while another calls for ldquoscientific house-planningrdquo (Bruere 1912 174) Ellen Richards prescriptions for the arrangement of a house include such elements as windows walls sink bathtub florrs woodwork stair rails and supports plumbing vaccum cleaner gas burners screens etc (Richards 1911) Beecher and Stowe add to their sketch of ldquomodel cottage-ground plan and roomsrdquo ldquoIn the description and arrangement the leading aim is to show how time labor and expense are saved not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangementrdquo (Beecher and Stowe 1870 24) For the real purpose of planning is often both order and efficiency For instance

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

23

the great advocate of scientific management in the home do not only plan of arranging kitchen tools and furniture and specify the ideal size shape and location of the equipment the stove the sink the tables and the closet (Frederick 1913 ch III) She also plans the most efficient path within this rationaly arranged environment (Cf scheme below Ibid 52)

Besides regulating the household space and time books on household

management recommend to regulate its temperature luminosity ventilation water supply and fire place Dr Howard Barrett states for instance the importance for the health of children of ldquosanitary management in the matters of Atmosphere Ventilation Drainage Light Exercise Clothing and Ablutionrdquo (Barrett 1875 9) Books on medical management also pay a careful attention to the temperature of the rooms and their ventilation as well as texts on hospital management and school management

Measuring Recording Calculating Accouting The Housekeeperrsquos magazine number 2 published in 1825 gives such an advice

ldquoThe first and greatest point [of economy] is to lay out your general plan of living in a just proportion to your fortune and rank [] In order to settle your plan it will be necessary to make a pretty exact calculation and if from this time you accustom yourself to calculations in all the little expenses entrusted to you you will grow expert and ready at them and be able to guess very nearly where certainty cannot be obtained Many articles of expense are regular and fixed these may be valued exactly and by consulting with experienced persons you may calculate nearly the amount of others any material article of consumption in a family of any given number and circumstances may be estimated pretty nearly and your own expenses of clothes and pocket-money should be settled and circumscribed that you may be sure not to exceed the just proportion Regularity of payments and accounts is essential to economy your house-keeping should be settled at least once a week and all the bills paid all other tradesmen should be paid at farthest once a year [] You must endeavour to acquire skill in purchasing in order to this you should begin now to

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

24

attend to the prices of things and take every proper opportunity of learning the real value of every thing as well as the marks whereby you are to distinguish the good from the badrdquo (Housekeeperrsquos magazine 1826 ndeg2 26) This text contains the different elements of the last dimension of management in the 18th and 19th centuries that is measuring calculating and accounting

More than accounting the practices of measuring and calculating are frequently praised by household management books From the measuring of the temperature of the water for bathing and the temperature of their room to the measuring of their height and weight the person managing infants and children must constantly portion and scope In household and farm management measuring is indispensable for planning and arranging As sums up a pioneer in the home economics movement ldquothe household manager should learn to think in percentagesrdquo (Terrill 1905 162) It is also a major dimension of school and class management and such measurements do not only apply to pupils but to teachers as well and authors elaborates for instance schemes for ldquothe measurement of teaching efficiencyrdquo (Arnold 1916)

Young calculates the average output of team according to its equipment the nature of their work and its duration ldquoI allowed one team for carting the year round and extras of other cattle to the amount of another a team and two small three-wheeled carts will carry at an average thirty loads a day or rather half loads as those carts do not hold above half a load this is when the drive is not long in other cases larger carts are to be used and the teams thrown together In the whole it is sixty small loads a day or thirty common ones that is 9000 per annum reckoning them to work 300 days in the year which total leaves them time after carrying away all the farm-yard dung to carry gop loads more of marie chalk clay ditch earth ampc annuallyrdquo (Young 1770b 51-52) While the productive activities of the farmer are the occasion for him to measure and compare such practices are forced upon the housekeeper in her consuming activities

More than the housekeeper as a producer it is the housekeeper as a consumer who has the obligation to aquire skills in measuring calculating and accouting The first numero of the Housekeeperrsquos magazine also teaches us that ldquoit is moreover necessary for a woman to acquaint herself with the value and quality of all articles in common use and of the best times and places for purchasing them A pair of scales and weights should also be kept for the purposes of domestic economyrdquo (1826 ndeg1 3) From its very beginning early in the 19th century the literature on household management shows a vivid interest for ldquomarketingrdquo understood as the art to purchase on a market The knowledge of the wholesale price of the commodity the selection of the appropriate market the quantity purchased and time of purchasing as well as the choice of articles fall under this head and all require measuring and calculating skills In a book devoted to ldquothe woman who spendsrdquo June Richardson Lucas explains ldquoComparisons of the ways and means of womens spending a schedule of time money and effort to establish a firm relation between these three to gain the best results for all are most needed in the womans spending worldrdquo (Lucas 1904 17) According to Marion Talbot Dean of Women at the University of Chicago and to the politically and academically active teacher Sophonisba Breckinridge the very adoption of a standard of living rests ldquoon the basis of careful thought as to the pecuniary resources available for the group the probable changes in the earning capacity of the man the social claims upon the group and the domestic and social capacities of the womanrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 12)

Young undelines the importance of records and advices the use of a catalogue of farm implements of a black book reporting their deficiencies as well as the illhealth of animals of a cash book of a ledger ldquoso as no money can be paid or received no

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

25

exchange of commodity made on the farm without an account there being open for itrdquo and of a minute book understood as ldquoa regular journal of all the transactions of the farmrdquo (Young 1770b 210 and 208) Physician also recommends to note the symptoms with care and to record them (Cf for example Keating 1881 Part II Ch 2) The art of recording is elevated to the rank of a science by educational writters At the end of the 19th century school and classroom management is framed by numerous devices of classification planning marking and graduation and notably by upstream advance plans and by downstream records of accomplishment As early as 1864 the principal of the Pennsylvania normal school asserts that ldquoschool-records will always prove a valuable auxiliary in the management of a schoolrdquo which exhibit for instance ldquothe scholarship and deportment of each pupilrdquo (Wickersham 1864 59 and 186) A generation later two leading figures of the Cambridge University Day Training College make the following list of records a school should keep the school folio the log book the stock book the admission register the summary the fee book the school attendance register the register of infectious cases the record of work done and to be done the record of progress of scholars the mark book the punishment book the transfer book the list of applicants for admission and the visitors book (Collar and Crook 1901 45) Besides the basic information recorded about the pupil notes an education author ldquovarious other data are usually required Of considerable importance as far as school management is concerned are the attendance of children their physical condition such as weight height vision defects etc the class assigned promotions and general progress in school workrdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 2 6) According to a leading school management reformer records ldquoare essential to the intelligent management of any school or system of schools They give a school permanent form and render it possible to build each year upon the results of the preceding yearrdquo (Baldwin 1881 497)

As early as 1770 Young differentiate between transaction accounting and cost accounting Besides keeping a regular journal of all the transactions of the farm a cash book and a ledger he tries to ldquocalculate the expence of a dairyrdquo including the wages and board of the maid and the boy the firing for fifteen cows wear and tear of the dairy ustensils salt labour and carting the butter and chesse fencing the carrying out and spreading the manure and even calculate the product per cow (Young 1770b 99-102 cf Juchau 2002)

Nevertheless in many books on farm and household management accounting is a secondary consideration often appearing at the very end in the miscellaneous We may infer that it is a survival of the era when the average housekeeper was more a producer than a consumer and barely handled money For instance in their reference book Catharine Beecher and her little sister talk about devote chapters to early rising and care of domestic animals but none to accounting John Henry Walshrsquos Manual of Domestic Economy devotes eleven pages to fermented liquors but less than one to housekeeping accounts and total ordinary expenditures (Walsh 1853 618-619) I have not find book dedicated to the topic of household accounting However most of book contain at least a few advices on the ldquomanagement of incomerdquo such as the importance of not living on credit of keeping accounts with exactness and of keeping bills and receipts The typical advice falls like this ldquoThose who are not in the habit of squaring their outlay to their income by keeping regular accounts and by laying down a rigid estimate of what they can afford to spend for obtaining necessaries and comforts within their reach are not aware how much they must infallibly lose in the enjoyment of life and in ease of mindrdquo (The Economist 1825 ndeg1 359)

When considered accounting is praised for its manifold usefulness Firstly a proper method of accouting is a major tool of keeping order within the house and in

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

26

the farm For instance an early authoress on household management notes that ldquoit is a good plan and serves as a check both on tradespeople and servants to have books kept in the kitchen in which every article is entered that is brought into the houserdquo (Parkes 1825 202) Such books adds the writer should be examined and settled weekly Young devises a system of praise and condemnation based on the recording of each servantrsquos behavior care and productivity Respecting their work and an annual review of the animals and equipment ldquoevery thing good and bad should be minuted and carried to each mans accountrdquo (Young 1770b 230)

Measuring calculating and accounting are early considered are ways of gaining knowledge in order to make decisions Talking about accounts Young states the importance of having a ldquoregular method of arranging his ideas of reducing every thing to calculation and certaintyrdquo (Young 1770a vol 1 96) In another book he adds ldquoIf a farmer knows not the degree and amount of his profit or loss on every article and by every field it is impossible he should possess a due experience of the past or ever be able to make it a guide to the futurerdquo (Young 1770b 202) Similarly Catharine Beecher praises accounting for ldquoby comparing what is spent for superfluities with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the futurerdquo (Beecher 1841 174) Accounting is thus especially necessary to draw comparisons between different elements as Warren admits in his much-read book on farm management ldquoJust as we must reduce the animals to some comparable unit and the feed to a comparable unit so we must reduce the labor to a comparable unit when we desire to compare the efficiency with which different farms are organizedrdquo (Warren 1913 350-351) Cost accounting and records inventory records cash book bank account time cards production records farm records dairy records milk records swine records poultry records crop records family consumption records according to a professor of agriculture ldquothese separate farm records showing the cost and return from different crops and lines of the business are even more important than business accounts If you feel that you cannot keep both begin here and let the other go These records will show what things are paying and what ones are being run at a lossrdquo (Card 1907 197) University teacher in home economics Bertha Terrill also stresses the importance of ldquoa knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner Unless one understands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it and no morerdquo (Terrill 1905 72) Advertising is similarly praised by Christine Frederick as a mean to gain knowledge of the different products available to buy As such ldquorsquoread the labelrsquo should be the housewifes sloganrdquo (Frederick 1913 109)

Finally accouting is also recommended as a method for training children According to the authoress of a Mothers Book ldquoHabits of order should be carried into expenses From the time children are twelve years old they should keep a regular account of what they receive and what they expend This will produce habits of care and make them think whether they employ their money usefullyrdquo (Child 1831 132) Probably inspired by this book Catharine Beecher also thinks that girls should be taught to keep their accounts as early as 12 years old (Beecher 1841 188) Accordingly an American writer of childrens books advises parents to open and keep an account for each child of the family in a small book One of the main purpose of such a ldquoplan of appropriating systematically and regularly a certain sum to be at the disposal of the childrdquo is to ldquoafford an opportunity of giving the children a great deal of useful knowledge in respect to account-keepingmdash or rather by habituating them from an early age to the management of their affairs in this systematic manner will

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

27

train them from the beginning to habits of system and exactnessrdquo (Abbott 1861 272 and 273)

Lessons from the Development of an Early Management Thought

Here is our main hypothesis a systematic way of managing could be developed in a feminine non-mechanized and non-standardized environment with non salaried workers and managers with a limited use of money-payment no competition little or no credit and no profit-motive in the pecuniary sense Such a thesis contradict almost every theory so far formulated regarding the factors responsible for the birth growth and success of business management Even if some author might recall for instance that for the success of scientific management methods ldquothe crucial factor was neither technology nor plant size but as Taylor insisted the managers commitment to changerdquo (Nelson 1980 149)

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the birth of different systems of management which shared a set of principles These systems were endogenous conceptions of management without any reference to business corporations until the beginning of the 20th century when some housekeepers may state that ldquothe modern household is an intricate business concernrdquo (Terrill 1905 43) and define it as a ldquodomestic factoryrdquo (Bruere 1912 15) An English writer even asserts that ldquoevery family might be its own Economical Housekeeping Company (Limited) comprising in itself its shareholders and board of directors realizing cent per cent for its money because pound200 a year would go as far as pound400rdquo (Caddy 1877 x) But it was only a metaphor and a limited one as recognizes for instance a professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity for whom ldquoit is interesting to study the organization of a great commercial or industrial business and see what suggestion we may get to help us in the schoolrdquo but who meanwhile admits that ldquothe school is not a factoryrdquo (Dutton 1903 9 and 10) The factory did not offer symbolic representations useful for management thinking before the 20th century Nor did the machine

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Technical or Scientific Innovation

In the spirit of management thinkers and historians the formation of a managerial logic is often tied to technical innovation According to Yehouda Shenhav for instance ldquothe organizing concepts around which managerial rationality was engineered were systematization and standardization The underlying assumption was that the machine-like manufacturing firm would generate predictability stability consistency and certaintyrdquo (Shenhav 1999 102) According to the capitalist historian Werner Sombart ldquothe farm is incompatible with what we have called the administrative system for neither the tasks it requires nor its organization are prone to standardizationrdquo (Sombart 1928 530-531)

On the contrary our analysis clearly shows that a form of managerial rationality could develop in a barely developed technical environment Schemes of farm management developed before the application of industrial processes to agriculture and the introduction of complex farming tools from the middle of the 19th century

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

28

and authors developed household management principles and systems long before the domestic use of running water and electricity At the very beginning of the 20th century some of them adapted the Taylor system to the home activities while manual work was still the norm in spite of a larger and larger introduction of mechanical appliances As an observer reminds us ldquoonly 8 percent of the nations residences were wired for electricity in 1907rdquo (Cowan 1983 92) Scientific management was similarly applied to the non-mechanized and non-standardized field of education (Rice 1913) Moreover references to mecanics appeared at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries to apprehend the farm the household and the school as ldquomachineriesrdquo but remained vague and sporadic

Behind the idea of training and planning the modern idea of rationalizing of gaining power through knowledge The drawing of plans and the search for rules is incidental to the rationalizing purpose of management Our hypothesis is then that the management thinking movement including systematic and scientific management thoughts was part of a larger movement of rationalization which hit the medical profession the farm the school and the home independantly from the factory Management thinking as well as industrial innovation is probably an expression of this rationalizing spirit which Weber made the true moving force of modern history

The application of scientific spirit to the the care and preservation of children is shown from the middle of the 18th century Nursing writes a respected English physician ldquohas been too long fatally left to the management of women who cannot be supposed to have proper knowledge to fit them for such a taskrdquo (Cadogan 1748 3) A century later another writer on medical management confirms that ldquoinfant existence is cut short much more by a want of the comforts of life and of rational management than by necessary or unavoidable causesrdquo (Combe 1840 5 my emphasis) The possession and application of proper knowledge which this literature aims at propagating is the very basis of sound management According to a well-known Philadelphia physician ldquohealth is not a mere matter of chance but the reward of an intelligent and persevering prudence and with a system of management founded on a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the infant alone can success be expectedrdquo (Getchell 1868 10) According to an anonymous mother ldquothat it is possible without any knowledge or instruction of any kind to be able to undertake the management and bringing up of infants and children by hand is one of those popular delusions which each year claims a large sacrifice of young liferdquo (Anonymous 1884 iv) As early as 1841 Catharine Beecher in her most influential text-book which went through fifteen editions contributes to rationalize domestic practices She thus states that domestic economy ldquocan be properly and systematically taught (not practically but as a science) as much so as political economy or moral sciencerdquo (Beecher 1841 6) At the end of the 19th century many household management authors strive to make it more and more scientific Domestic science thus includes more and more a scientific knowledge of chemistry sanitation diet the composition of food products digestion food preservation and cleaning (Frich 1912) As Mary Pattison puts it ldquoall the scientific information possible included under the general head of physics of the science of energy together with chemistry sanitation hygiene culinics dietetics etcrdquo should enrich household management practicesrdquo (Pattison 1915 194) Some authors advocate the ldquohome planned and executed on scientific principles of hygiene and sanitationrdquo (Richards 1910 98) and ldquothe scientifically built lined aud furnished houserdquo (Campbell 1896 192) According to this last author even ldquoto make sponge cake is a scientific processrdquo (Ibid 17) For Christine Frederick likewise even ldquobuying is a sciencerdquo (Frederick 1913 104)

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

29

At the end of the 19th century comes to prevail the idea formulated by Immanuel Kant that education is a science and teaching a profession For some teaching itself was a science As such sums up a leading educational writer and normal schools reformer ldquothe efficient teacher must have (1) a knowledge of the branches to be taught (2) a knowledge of the mind (3) a knowledge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop all the powers of the soul and (4) a knowledge of the art of school managementrdquo (Baldwin 1881 384) Similarly for American academic and school superintendent William Estabrook Chancellor ldquothe teacher shall know his pupils his subjects and the technique of teachingrdquo (Chancellor 1910 181) The acquisition of a comprehensive knowledge through training at least as much as native ability has become a requisite to teach and ldquothe need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schoolsrdquo (Prince 1906 v) is widely acknowledge by the beginning of the 20th century in the United States and Great Britain As early as 1864 the principal of an American normal school could even assert that ldquothere is a theory of school-management and school-government which can be learnedrdquo and must be learned by every teacher (Wickersham 1864 325) Conversely notes a pedagogical professor ldquoin every phase of school management the pupil is led to adopt reason and law as the guide to conductrdquo (Tompkins 1895 217)

The corrolary idea of this faith in science is the condemnation of intuition and tradition in management A good manafer should replace customs and bad habits by scientifically elaborated schemes As Samuel Smiles asserts it ldquothe present system of management of the young though considerably improved with the growing intelligence of late years is still radically bad It is conducted on no rational principle but after mere custom and fashionrdquo (Smiles 1838 8) Catharine Beecher states for herself that ldquothe art of system and economy can no more come by intuition than the art of watchmaking or bookkeepingrdquo (Beecher 1841 188) As Lillian Gilbreth abruptly puts it ldquothe way we have always done things is probably wrongrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 58) This is a revolution in practice where religious beliefs mothersrsquo advices and grand mothers recipes usually possessed the highest authority Even if household management remained within the boudaries of the family it was thought under the categories usually applied to professions

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Size Another common idea in management histories is that management is a matter of

size and size a matter of management (Pollard 1965 Chandler 1962 and 1977) Whether salaried managers are considered as the fathers or the sons of the increasing size of the corporations from the middle of the 19th century there exist a causal relation between their existence and the size of the going concern they manage

Our examples show that a formalized discourse on management could apply to small-scale going concern deprived of an intermediate stratum of managers even deprived of salaried employees Size is rarely a relevant factor in management For the author of famous prescriptions for ldquothe American Frugal Housewiferdquo ldquoneatness tastefulness and good sense may be shown in the management of a small household and the arrangement of a little furniture as well as upon a larger scalerdquo (Child 1829 5) Doctrines of school management were elaborated before the appearance of a class of school directors administrators and supervisors differentiated from the teachers In 1904 in the United States writes William Estabrook Chancellor about these new characters in a much read book ldquoso recent has been their appearance in the world of education that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

30

understand the nature and value of their workrdquo (Chancellor 1904 v) As such most of school management books edited at the end of the 19th century are written for the attention of teachers not for the specialized class of principals and superintendents

Managerial methods can also be developed without any elaborated scheme of division of labor Division and arrangement of procedures more than division of labor are important issues of the early management literature Drawing on a survey of house servants the scholar Lucy Salmon concludes that the average family consisting of about five persons exclusive of servants ldquoemploy at the present time two servants and a halfrdquo (Salmon 1897 107-108) It is striking that more rationalized method of management are imported into the American house precisely at a time when the housemaid became less of a manager and more of a worker ldquoas domestic servants unmarried daughters maiden aunts and grandparents left the household and as chores which had once been performed by commercial agencies (laundries delivery services milkmen) were delegated to the housewiferdquo as states scholar Ruth Cowan (1976 23) According to Warren ldquothe typical American farm is a family-farm one of such a size that the family does most of the farm work with some hired help In 1909 only 46 per cent of the farms had any hired labor In 1899 there were a little over 15 male workers engaged in agriculture for each farm This includes the operator members of the family and hired-men [] A very small percentage hire more than two or three men by the year Even with three men the farm still has the characteristic of the family-farm The farmer and his sons work with the menrdquo (Warren 1913 239-240)

The Develpoment of Management Thought Was Not a Matter of Profit In the early books on management the term ldquoprofitablerdquo means producing the

greatest results with the lowest expenses rather than making profit by exchanging on a market When writers of manuals of farm management talk about profit we clearly understand that it is an argument to attract young gentlemen to this profession

The farm manager seems less close from the householder than from the entrepreneur who wisely invest his capital and take care of his assets Manuals and treatises of farm management often pertain to the symbolic universe of capitalism making a large use of capitalist terms such as capital profit property ownership rent credit investment return on investment costs benefits market buying selling income receipts earnings and expenses Neverthess whether farming is conducted for profit or for pleasure it does not change much the logic of farm management Young for instance advocates ldquoexperimental farmsrdquo which he also calls ldquofarms of pleasurerdquo run not for profit but for the good of mankind (Young 1770a vol 1 112) but states that is system is also valuable for farms run for profit At the beginning of the 20th century the principles of care efficiency progress order and accounting are applied to transportation marketing and advertising buying and selling (Card 1907 Warren 1913) And a couple of efficiency advocates confirms that even when the scheme of factory production is applied to the family and when we ldquotake business methods over into agriculture and home managementrdquo (Bruere 1912 62) the profit-motive remain outside the picture

In medical management and household management the profit end is even more remote The end sought by these systems is the physical vigor and health of individuals and the welfare of the family The household is a non-for-pecuniary-profit institution It produces use-values not exchange-values It is not run for profit but to provide the necessaries and comforts of life for the family members The sound

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

31

development of children home cleanliness beauty and hospitality and the general happiness of the family are the true objectives of household management In the address of the first number of The Economist we can read ldquoEconomy in our interpretation of the word means the art of being comfortable and happyrdquo (The Economist 1825 2) As sums up college lecturer Mabel Atkinson the most efficient housekeeperrsquos ldquoreward for her good management does not consist in a raised salary or increased profits It is in fact not pecuniary at all but is the increased well-being of those whom she servesrdquo (Atkinson 1911 177) According to Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Breckinridge ldquothe returns from scientific household management must also be in terms of comfort satisfaction enjoyment growth education and individual and group efficiencyrdquo (Talbot and Breckinridge 1912 47) As sums up an historian of household management ldquohome economics was a quintessential Progressive programrdquo (Matthews 1987 157) School management similarly aims at bettering society and share a close link with the progressive movement that shook the United States and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th

That is in the 19th century a large part of managerial thinking blossomed far from capitalist institutions such as banks parnerships fairs stock exchanges and markets Also far away from engineering and accounting While farming has largely been submitted to the capitalist frame of mind the family still constitutes an alternative mode of production and more generally of sociality as compared to the business corporation We can nevertheless infer that profit is not a nodal principle to understand the logic of modern management In the late 19th and 20th century literature on workshop and business management profit is considered as a tool or as a jauge not as an end or as a guiding principle As such it appears in the systematic and scientific management literature under the for of profit-sharing that is as a tool to enhance workersrsquo productivity As admit a pioneer of scientific management ldquowe operate our businesses to make money largely because the making of money has been considered one of the best gauges by which the output and the efficiency of the management could be measured Production is really what we are trying to get and the earning - certainly the declaring of dividends ndash may from any economic standpoint mean absolutely nothing as to the efficiency of the managementrdquo (Cooke 1913 485) Echoing this statement Peter Drucker writes fourty years later that ldquoprofitability is not the purpose of business enterprise and business activity but a limiting factor on it Profit is not the explanation cause or rationale of business behavior and business decisions but the test of their validityrdquo (Drucker 1954 35) That is profit is the cardinal point of the entrepreneur but the managerrsquos one is efficiency

Another lesson from the early literature on management is that there can be a systematic plan of management in absent of productive activities Curing activities as well as consumming activities can be managed as much as productive ones

Management of Things and Personal Supervision (Not Personel Management)

Let us note here that indeed in the 18th and 19th centuries literature on husbandry using the term management we manage farms stables kennels dairies hot-houses gardens orchards forests soils woods trees timber and plantations we manage meats fruits roots and herbs we manage horses dogs mules cattle sheep swine poultry and bees individually or collectively but we hardly manage human beings

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

32

Slaves at best can occasionally be considered ldquomanageablerdquo (Majoribanks 1792 Collins 1852) Similarly the literature on household management we manage the soil the air we breathe income fire heat light carriages buildings sick-rooms and in many other book published from the middle of the 19th century we manage institutions such as homes farms railroads banks schools hospitals and asylums But we hardly manage human beings

In the medical and para-medical books the term management is applied to diseases wounds burns symptoms treatments the mind limbs and peculiar organs The human beings who can be managed are the pregnant mother the infant the invalid the old and the sick that is helpless and dependant persons in need of a careful government The management of children often serves as a model for the management of persons For instance Hugh Smith notes about sickness that ldquoa man under these circumstances with some regard to his accustomed manner of living and the particular disease is to be considered as a child and consequently ought to be submitted to female managementrdquo (Smith 1792 222) Similarly ldquothe directions for the management of children from the time of weaning them until they may be entrusted to the care of themselves comprehend every necessary instruction for the regimen of old ages and those persons act wisely who consider it as a second childhoodrdquo (Ibid 236) For the household management writer Frances Parkes ldquoservants when ill require the same kind of management as childrenrdquo (Parkes 1825 243) Througout this early literature on management the terms ldquosupervisionrdquo ldquooverlookingrdquo ldquolooking afterrdquo or ldquoattendancerdquo are used when considering autonomous grown-ups

Young is one of the rare authors to use the term management to refer to the governing of his employees He thus examines ldquodifferent methods of a gentlemans managing his farming servantsrdquo so as to introduce ldquoorder and regularity into employments of all sortsrdquo by fear by piece work or by strict discipline (Young 1770b 218 and 226) Under the head of management he also specifies ways of dividing labor between servants both boys and men determine rates of output by team and addresses hiring and paying issues which kind of men to hire (servants or labourers) how much to pay them and how to discipline them Beecher also uses the term ldquomanagement of domesticsrdquo (Beecher 1841 211) but for her part do not say a word about division of labor or control procedures

In a nutshell the term management refers most generally to the management of elements things pieces tools phenomena institutions or living being necessitating a careful guidance or in ldquothe plastic period of immaturityrdquo (Bagley 1907 7) To apply to working people was a revolution in itself but it might also inform us about the perspective manager had over the managed ndash without venturing to infer that in the eyes of the first the second stood as something between an inanimate tool and a child

Whether in household management in medical management or in farm management the handling of people is considered as something highly personal and subjective As states feminist-abolitionist Lydia Maria Child ldquothere is such an immense variety in human character that it is impossible to give rules adapted to all casesrdquo (Child 1831 35) At home the relationships between the mistress and maids the mistress and guests and the mother and other members of the family are personal relationships Even if the employees are not admitted to the family circle they are members of the household often belonging to the same church Thus the handling of servants or of family members is less a matter of technics than of tact and patience People are not tools they are characters

As notes the doctor Anthony Thompson ldquonothing is of more importance in the domestic management of diseases than a knowledge of the natural disposition and

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

33

temper of the invalid An irritable or passionate man requires very different management from that which is proper for a man of naturally mild and easy dispositionrdquo (Thompson 1841 137) Even the good management of animals require a full knowledge of their general characteritics and of their individual peculiarities

Preceding the famous Hawthorne Experiments Lillian Gilbreth made psychology to serve the ends of efficiency ldquoThe efficient manager in industry she writes in 1927 and the housekeeper in her more restricted job of planning operating and maintaining an adequate mechanism must be to some extent a psychologist and an engineer As a psychologist she will study the people with whom she will work in the home As an engineer she will determine how to use both these people and the material resources at her command in the most efficient manner She must at least be enough of these two to know the methods of each to make the results of each serviceable to enjoy as does each the activities that fall in his field and finally to harmonize the work of the two to her own needs and her own satisfactionrdquo (Gilbreth 1927 21)

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th saw the confrontation of two theories of school management the one favoring the old-time school fashion of rigid discipline and machinelike organization and the other stressing the importance of childrenrsquos individuality and teachingrsquos flexibility The second was to gain widespread acceptance throughout the 20th century According to educational writer John Gillrsquos ldquolaw of individualityrdquo ldquoevery mind is marked by some distinguishing peculiarity termed the predisposition bent or bias of the individual A considerable part of a teachers duty is to discover this featurerdquo (Gill 1857 4) A reputed professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity thus asks ldquoIf we employ a rigid marking system to determine the standing of our pupils are we not likely to ignore those manifold fruits of the spirit and of the imagination which are the most precious flowers of education and culturerdquo (Dutton 1903 11) Many authors on school management warn their reader against standardization mechanization and ldquomilitary managementrdquo beware that ldquothe best policies of school management soon become formalized and spiritless unless some warm-blooded enthusiasm keeps everlastingly vitalizing the forms Ideals of management should have as a central aim the keeping of teachers methods plastic and their ideas from petrifyingrdquo (Bennett 1917 4) For another writer the ldquomilitary management of a school has a dehumanising effect on both teachers and children Teachers accus- tomed to orders gradually lose self-initiative and fall into routine and mechanical methods of procedure Children are massed and handled hke battalions they are formed into so-called classes according to the bases of size of the classroom and numbers and the weary and overdriven fall by the waysiderdquo (Arnold 1908 vol 1 26) ldquoBusiness methods belong to the material side of the school but should be kept out of the more humane and social relations which exist between the teachers and the principal Teachers need guidance but simply ordering this or dictatorially requiring that is not guidance nor cooperationrdquo (Ibid 27)

Taylorrsquos condemnation of the ldquomilitary planrdquo (F Taylor 1903 92 and sq) of management do not lead him to recognize workersrsquo individuality and management necessary flexibility but on the contrary of limiting the extent of each onersquos tasks and of submitting his work to a multifaceted supervision

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

34

Control Apart from school and classroom management texts control is a dimension almost

absent from the early literature on management Many authors include for instance in ldquothe business of the housekeeperrdquo the task of superintending the servants but few devise methods of control General supervision rather than minute control is the common practice Mothers and nurses of course control children through habits rewards and punishment moral and religious principles but in the end autonomy and self-control are sought and highly valued According to the American educational reformer William Alcott whose 1836 book on the management of children had gone through seventeenth editions by 1849 ldquothe future health and even the moral wellbeing of the child depend much more on the proper management of the mother herself than is usually supposedrdquo (Alcott 1836 p121) Self-management is also saught in farming ldquoEach worker writes Warren must be a foreman of his own work and usually the owner must work because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idlerdquo (Warren 1913 12) Control is often an important element of school and classroom management According to Prof Albert Salisbury for instance ldquomanagement is the act or art of control towards a desired result School management then is the direction and control of school activities towards the true ends of educationrdquo (Salisbury 1911 12) Nevertheless self-government is praised througout this literature as school management is recognized to aim at developing pupils into autonomous youth As a respected education writer states ldquoa good teacher educates his pupils into self-governmentrdquo (Kellogg 1880 104) ldquoSelf-government is the central idea in school managementrdquo confirms ldquoeducational artistrdquo Joseph Baldwin (Baldwin 1881 15) Government from within rather than extraneous control is the ideal of these early writtings on management and is expected from everyone at school As states professor of school administration at Columbia Universtity Samuel Dutton ldquohe who manages the school must first manage himselfrdquo (Dutton 1903 11)

Impersonal and centralized control is a genuine feature of the 20th century literature on management As stated the taylorite Henry P Kendall ldquothe central planning and control of work which is such a vital part in Scientific Management is not developed to the same degree in the systematizedrdquo (Kendall 1914 126) What the Taylor System attacked was precisely workersrsquo autonomy and self-government

Conclusions The Family Institution

In the 18th and 19th century writers on medical farm household and school management shaped the meaning of the word ldquomanagementrdquo before the corporate managers grab it as a battle flag and adapt it to their peculiar practices while keeping much of its core By doing so they unconcsiously inherited an intellectual framework and mental stereotypes As much as engineering practives and accounting methods preceded their existence a shared mental representation of management as a rational way of improving and ordering efficiently things living beings and organizations precedented their own conceptions and definitions of management

Why did the managerial rationality shaped from Taylorrsquos time superseded the early ways of thinking management I would venture an institutional explanation The family this institution around which revolved medical management household management and farm management has taken a secondary role while the business corporation gained independance from it and came to the fore While the managers

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

35

were gaining power within the corporation against the entrepreneur-owner who was often running its company according to family principles they annexed the word ldquomanagementrdquo from engineering literature and redefined it while they applied it to the shop the company and workers By doing so they paradoxically fought the logic of the family by brandishing a concept inherited from the domestic world With one notable different the cast aside the principle of care from the managerial rationality and replaced by the principle of control

Nevertheless the influence of the domestic and familial frame of mind over the first large scale businesses deserves a close look rather than being dismissed as a remain of outdates practices which disappeared without leaving a trace when the dilution of ownership and the rise of a managerial class contributed to push the family owners aside from the direction of large corporations As much as the influence of the church over the state did not disappear in Europe when these institutions were legaly separated the familial ldquogovernmentalityrdquo survived to the growth of the large corporation

Bibliography

Medical Management ABBOTT Jacob (1871) Gentle Measures in the Management and Training of the

Young New York Harper amp brothers ALCOTT William A Young Mother or Management of Children in Regard to

Health Second edition Boston Light amp Stearns 1836 ANGELL Henry C (1878) How to Take Care of Our Eyes With Advice to Parents

and Teachers in Regard to the Management of the Eyes of Children Boston Robert Bros

ANONYMOUS [An American Matron] (1811) The Maternal Physician A Treatise on the Nurture and Management of Infants From the Birth Until Two Years Old Being the Result of Sixteen Yearsrsquo Experience in the Nursery New-York Isaac Riley

ANONYMOUS (1884) A Few Suggestions to Mothers on the Management of Their Children London Churchill

APPLETON Elizabeth (1820) Early Education Or The Management of Children Considered with a View to Their Future Character Printed for G and W B Whittaker

BAIRD James (1867) The Management of Health a Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene Being Practical Hints on Air Light and Ventilation Exercise Diet and Clothing Best Sleep and Mental Discipline Bathing and Therapeutics London Virtue and Co

BARD Samuel (1819 [1807]) Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Midwifery Containing Practical Instructions for the Management of Women During Pregnancy in Labour and in Child-Bed Illustrated by many Cases and Particularly Adapted to the Use of Students fifth edition enlarged New York Collins and Co

BARKER Samuel (1865) The Domestic Management of Infants and Children in Health and Sickness London Hardwicke

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

36

BARRETT Howard (1875) The Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and Disease London G Routlege amp sons

BELL Benjamin (1779) A Treatise on the Theory and Management of Ulcers With a Dissertation on White Swellings of the Joints printed by Macfarquhar and Elliot for Thomas Cadell London and Charles Elliot Edinburgh

BRAIDWOOD Peter Murray (1874) The Domestic Management of Children London Smith Elder and Co

BRUEN Edward Tunis (1887) Outlines for the Management of Diet or The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health and the Treatment of Disease Philadelphia J B Lippincott company

BULKLEY Lucius Duncan The Management of Eczema New York GP Putnams Sons 1875

BULL Thomas (1840) The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease Longman

CADOGAN William (1748) Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age in a Letter to a Governor In a Letter to one of the Governors of the Foundling Hospital Published by Order of the General Committee for Transacting the Affairs of the Said Hospital London Printed for J Roberts

CHARLES Julius Roberts (1838) Hints on the Domestic Management of Children Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

CHAVASSE Pye Henry (1839) Advice to Mothers on the Management of Their Offspring London Longman Orme Brown Green and Longmans

________ (1843) Advice to Wives on the Management of Themselves During the Periods of Pregnancy Labour and Suckling second edition London Longman Brown Green and Longmans

CLARK J Paterson (1835) A Practical Treatise On Teething and the Management of the Teeth from Infancy to the Completion of the Second Dentition London Longman Rees Orme Brown Green and Longman

CLARKE John (1793) Practical Essays on the Management of Pregnancy and Labour and on the Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases of Lying-in Women London printed for J Johnson

COMBE Andrew (1840) A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy Being a Practical Exposition of the Principles of Infant Training For the Use of Parents Edinburgh Maclachlan amp Stewart

CORY Edward Augustus (1844) The Physical and Medical Management of Children 5th ed London J Draper

DIX Tandy L (1880) The Healthy Infant A Treatise on the Healthy Procreation of the Human Race Embracing the Obligations to Offspring the Management of the Pregnant Female the Management of the Newly Born the Management of the Infant and the Infant in Sickness Cincinnati PG Thomson

DREWRY George Overend (1875) Common-Sense Management Of The Stomach London Henry S King and Co

DUNCAN Thomas C (1880) The Feeding and Management of Infants and Children And the Home Treatment of Their Diseases London Duncan brothers

EVANSON Richard T and MAUNSELL Henry (1842 [1836]) A Practical Treatise on the Management and Diseases of Children fourth edition Dublin Fannin

FLINT Joseph Henshaw (1826) A Dissertation on the Prophylactic Management of Infancy and Early Childhood Northampton Printed by T W Shepard

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

37

FOX Douglas (1834) The Signs Disorders and Management of Pregnancy The Treatment to Be Adopted During and After Confinement and the Management and Disorders Of Children Written Expressely for the Use of Females Derby published by Henry Mozley and Sons

GETCHELL Frank Horace (1868) The Maternal Management of Infancy For the Use of Parents Philadelphia J B Lippincott amp Co

GODFREY Benjamin (1872) Diseases of Hair A Popular Treatise Upon the Affections of the Hair System With Advice Upon the Preservation and Management of Hair Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston London J amp A Churchill

GRIFFITH J P Crozer (1898) The Care of the Baby A Manual for Mothers and Nurses Containing Practical Directions for the Management of Infancy and Childhood in Health and in Disease 2d ed Philadelphia W B Saunders

HAMILTON Alexander (1781) Treatise on the Management of Female Complaints and of Children in Early Infancy Edinburgh printed for J Dickson W Creech and C Elliot

HANCORN James Richard (1844) Medical Guide for Mothers in Pregnancy Accouchement Suckling Weaning etc and in Most of the Important Diseases of Children New York Saxton and Miles Philadelphia G B Zeiber and co

HASLAM John (1817) Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons London R Hunter

HERDMAN John (1804) Discourses on the Management of Infants and the Treatment of Their Diseases Written in a Plain Familiar Stile to Render it Intelligible and Useful to all Mothers and Those Who Have the Management of Infants Edinburgh Archibald Constable

HOGG Charles (1849) On the Management of Infancy With Remarks on the Influence of Diet and Regimen London Churchill

HUME Gustavus (1802) Observations on the Origin and Treatment of Internal and External Diseases and Management of Children Dublin Fitzpatrick

JAMES Benjamin (1814) A Treatise On the Management of the Teeth Boston Published by Charles Callender Printed by Joseph T Buckingham

KNAPP F H (1840) A Few Brief Remarks Concerning the Proper Management of the Teeth Baltimore J Murphy

LYMAN Henry M (1884) The Practical Home Physician and Encyclopedia of Medicine A Guide for the Household Management of Disease Giving the History Cause Means of Prevention and Symptoms of all Diseases of Men Women and Children and Most Approved Methods of Treatment With Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick Full and Accurate Directions for Treating Wounds Injuries Poisons ampc Free From Technical Terms and Phrases Guelph Ontario World Pub Co

MILLINGEN John Gideon (1841) Aphorisms on the Treatment and Management of the Insane Philadelphia E Barrington amp G D Haswell

MOSS William (1781) An Essay on the Management and Nursing of Children in the Earlier Periods of Infancy And on the Treatment and Rule of Conduct Requisite for the Mother during Pregnancy and in Lying-in London printed for J Johnson

NELSON James (1753) An Essay on the Government of Children under Three General Heads viz Health Manners and Education London printed for R and J Dodsley

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

38

PALMER Thomas (1853) The Dental Adviser a Treatise On the Nature Diseases and Management of the Teeth Mouth Gums ampc Fitchburg The author

PARMLY Levi Speer (1819) A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth Philadelphia Published by Collins amp Croft

POWERS Susan Rugeley (1866) The Mothers Book of Health and How to Manage a Baby London Ladies Sanitary Association

SEAMAN Valentine (1800) The Midwives Monitor and Mothers Mirror Being Three Concluding Lectures of a Course of Instruction on Midwifery Containing Directions for Pregnant Women Rules for the Management of Natural Births and for Early Discovering When the Aid of a Physician is Necessary and Caution for Nurses Respecting Both the Mother and Child to Which is Prefixed a Syllabus of Lectures on That Subject New-York Printed by Isaac Collins

SHEARER William J (1904) The Management and Training of Children New York Richardson Smith amp Co

SMILES Samuel (1838) Physical Education or The Nurture and Management of Children Founded on the Study of their Nature and Constitution Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd

SMITH Hugh (1792) Letters to Married Women on Nursing and the Management of Children Sixth edition revised and considerably enlarged

SPOONER Shearjashub (1836) Guide to Sound Teeth or A Popular Treatise on the Teeth Illustrating the Whole Judicious Management of these Organs from Infancy to Old Age New York Wiley amp Long

STARR Louis (1889) Hygiene of the Nursery Including the General Regimen and Feeding of Infants and Children and the Domestic Management of the Ordinary Emergencies of Early Life 2d ed Philadelphia P Blakiston Son amp Co

THEOBALD John (1764) Young Wifes Guide in the Management of Her Children Containing Every Thing Necessary to Be Known Relative to the Nursing of Children from the Time of Their Birth to the Age of Seven Years together with a Plain and Full Account of Every Disorder to which Infants are Subject and a Collection of Efficacious Remedies Suited to Every Disease London printed and sold by W Griffin R Withy G Kearsly and E Etherington

THOMPSON Anthony T (1841) The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room Necessary in Aid of Medical Treatment for the Cure of Diseases London Longman Orme Brown Green amp Longmans

UNDERWOOD Michael (1835 [1789]) A Treatise on the Diseases of Children With Directions for the Management of Infants ninth editionwith notes by Marshall Hall London John Churchill

VINES Charles (1868) Mother and Child Practical Hints on Nursing the Management of Children and the Treatment of the Breast London Frederick Warne New York Scribner Welford and Co

WALSH John Henry (1858) A Manual of Domestic Medicine and Surgery With a Glossary of the Terms Used Therein by JH Walsh Illustrated by Numerous Engravings London Routledge

WHITE Charles (1773) Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women and the Means of Curing but More Especially of Preventing the Principal Disorders to Which They are Liable Together With Some New Directions Concerning the Delivery of the Child and Placenta in Natural Births Illustrated with Cases Worcester Massachusetts Isaiah Thomas

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

39

WILSON Erasmus (1847) On the Management of the Skin as a Means of Promoting and Preserving Health 2d ed London J Churchill

Farm Management Including Horse Management ADAMS R L (1921) Farm Management A Text-Book for Student Investigator

and Investor New York and London McGraw-Hill ADYE Frederic (1903) Horse-Breeding and Management London RA Everett amp

Co Ltd ANDREWS George H (1853) Modern Husbandry a Practical and Scientific

Treatise on Agriculture Illustrating the Most Approved Practices in Draining Cultivating and Manuring the Land Breeding Rearing and Fattening Stock and the General Management and Economy of the Farm London N Cook

ANONYMOUS (1777) The Complete Farmer or a General Dictionary of Husbandry in all its Branches Containing the Various Methods of Cultivating and Improving Every Species of Land According to the Precepts of Both the old and new Husbandry to Which is Added the Gardeners Kalendar Calculated for the Use of Farmers and Country Gentlemen by a society of gentlemen members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce London JF and C Rivington

ARISTOTLE (1853 [3--BC]) Economics in The Politics and Economics of Aristotle translated by E Walford London H G Bohn pp287-325

ARMATAGE George (1873) The Sheep Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1893) Cattle Their Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

__________ (1894) The Horse Its Varieties and Management in Health and Disease London Frederick Warne and Co

AXE J Wortley (1905) The Horse its Treatment in Health and Disease with a Complete Guide to Breeding Training and Management 9 vol London Gresham

BELL J P F (1904) The Training and Management of Horses Galashiels Graighead Bros Ladhop Vale

BURN Robert Scott (1877) Outlines of Landed Estates Management London Crosby Lockwood and Co

BUTLER Frederick (1819) The Farmers Manual Being a Plain Practical Treatise on the Art of Husbandry Designed to Promote an Acquaintance with the Modern Improvements in Agriculture Together with Remarks on Gardening and a Treatise on the Management of Bees Hartford S G Goodrich

CAPT M (1842) The Handbook of Horsemanship Containing Plain Practical Rules for Riding Driving and the Management of Horses with illustrations by Frank Howard London Printed for Thomas Tegg

CARD Fred W (1907) Farm Management Including Business Accounts Suggestions for Watching Markets Time to Market Various Products Adaptation to Local Conditions etc New York Doubleday Page amp company

COBBETT William (1854 [1821]) Cottage Economy Containing Information Relative to the Brewing of Beer Making of Bread Keeping of Cows Pigs

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

40

Bees Ewes Goats Poultry and Rabbits and Relative to Other Matters Deemed Useful in the Conducting of the Affairs of a Labourerrsquos Family to Which are Added Instructions Relative to the Selecting the Cutting and the Bleaching of the Plants of English Grass and Grain for the Purpose of Making Hats and Bonnets and Also Instructions for Erecting and Using Ice-Houses after the Virginian Manner to Which is Added the Poor Mans Friend Hartford Silas Andrus and son

COLLINS Robert (1852) Essay on the Treatment and Management of Slaves Macon Ga Printed by B F Griffin

COOK John (1826) Observations on Fox-Hunting and the Management of Hounds in the Kennel and the Field Addressed to Young Sportsman About to Undertake a Hunting Establishment London The author

COOK William (1891) The Horse its Keep and Management St Mary Cray Kent Published by the author

CURTIS Charles E (1879) Estate Management A Practical Handbook for Landlords Stewards and Pupils with a Legal Supplement by a Barrister London ldquoThe Fieldrdquo Office

DAUBENTON Louis-Jean-Marie (1810 [1782]) Advice to Shepherds and Owners of Flocks on the Care and Management of Sheep Boston Printed by J Belcher

DICKSON Walter B (1853) Poultry Their Breeding Rearing Diseases and General Management London HG Bohn

ELLIS William (1744) The Modern Husbandman or The Practice of Farming 4 vol London Printed for T Osborne and M Cooper

__________ (1749) Compleat System of Experienced Improvements Made on Sheep Grass-Lambs and House-Lambs or The country Gentlemans the Grasiers the Sheep-Dealers and the Shepherds Sure Guide in the Profitable Management of Those most Serviceable Creatures London Printed for T Astley

__________ (1750) Country Housewifes Family Companion or Profitable Directions for whatever relates to the Management and good Economy of the Domestick Concerns of a Country Life According to the Present Practice of the Country Gentlemens the Yeomans the Farmers ampc Wives in the Counties of Hereford Bucks and other parts of England London Printed for James Hodges and B Collins Bookseller at Salisbury

FLINT William (1815) A Treatise on the Breeding Training and Management of Horses Hull Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown

FOX Charles (1854) The American Text Book of Practical and Scientific Agriculture Intended for the Use of Colleges Schools and Private Students as well as for the Practical Farmer Including Analyses by the Most Eminent Chemists Detroit Elwood and company

GALVAYNE Sydney (1888) The Horse its Taming Training and General Management with Anecdotes ampc Relating to Horses and Horsemen Glasgow T Murray

GOUGH E W (1878) Centaur or The Turn Out a Practical Treatise on the (Humane) Management of Horses Either in Harness Saddle or Stable With Hints Respecting the Harness-Room Coach-House ampc London Hardwicke and Bogue

GRAVES E R and PRUDDEN Henry (1868) The Horse A Treatise on the Education and Management of Horses to Which is Added their Diseases and Remedies also a Treatise on the Management of Cattle and Dogs ampc Toronto T Hill and son Caxton Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

41

HEARD J M (1893) Breeding Training Management and Diseases of the Horse and Other Domestic Animals New York JM Heard

HIEOVER Harry (1848) The Pocket and the Stud or Practical Hints on the Management of the Stable London Longman Brown Green Longmans amp Roberts

HILL John (1754) On the Management and Education of Children a Series of Letters Written to a Neice By the Honourable Juliana-Susannah Seymour London printed for R Baldwin

HILL John Woodroffe (1881) The Management and Diseases of the Dog New York W R Jenkins

HORLOCK Knightley William (1852) Letters on the Management of Hounds London Published at the office of ldquoBells life in Londonrdquo

HORLCK Knightley William and WEIR Harrison (1855) Horses and Hounds A Practical Treatise on Their Management London New York George Routledge

JACQUES Daniel Harrison (1866) The Barn-Yard a Manual of Cattle Horse and Sheep Husbandry or How to Breed and Rear the Various Species of Domestic Animals Embracing Directions for the Breeding Rearing and General Management of Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Swine and Poultry the General Laws Parentage and Hereditary Descent Applied to Animals and How Breeds May be Improved How to Insure the Health of Animals and How to Treat Them for Diseases Without the Use of Drugs with a Chapter on Bee-Keeping New York G E amp F W Woodward

LAWRENCE John (1830) The Horse in all his Varieties and Uses his Breeding Rearing and Management Whether in Labor or Rest with Rules Occasionally Interspersed for his Preservation from Disease Philadelphia EL Carey and A Hart

LOUDON Jane (1851) Domestic Pets Their Habits and Management With Illustrative Anecdotes London Grant and Griffith

MACDONALD Duncan George Forbes (1865) Hints on Farming and Estate Management fifth edition London Longmans Green and Co

MAGNER Denis (1886) The Art of Taming and Educating the Horse A System that Makes Easy and Practical the Subjection of Wild and Vicious Horses The Simplest Most Humane and Effective in the World With Details of Management in the Subjection of Over Forty Representative Vicious Horses and the Story of the Authors Personal Experience together with Chapters on Feeding Stabling Shoeing Battle Creek Mich Review amp Herald publishing house

MAHON Maurice Hartland The Handy Horse-Book or Practical Instructions in Driving Riding and General Care and Management of Horses Edinburgh William Blackwood and Sons 1865

MAJORIBANKS John (1792) Slavery An Essay in Verse Humbly Inscribed to Planters Merchants and Others Concerned in the Management or Sale of Negro Slaves Edinburgh Printed by J Robertson

MAYHEM Edward (1864) The Illustrated Horse Management Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy Medicine Shoeing Teeth Food Vices Stables Likewise a Plain Account of the Situation naure and Value of the Various Points Together with Comments on Grooms Dealers Breeders Breakers and Trainers and Trainers also on Carriages and Harness Embellished With More Than 400 Engravings from OriginalDesigns Made Expressely for This Work Philadelphia Lippincott

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

42

MCCLURE Robert (1870) The Gentlemans Stable Guide Containing a Ffamiliar Description of the American Stable the Most Approved Method of Feeding Grooming and General Management of Horses Together with Directions for the Care of Carriages Harness etc Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

MCLEAN Tom (2009) ldquoThe Measurement and Management of Human Performance in Seventeenth Century English Farming The Case of Henry Bestrdquo Accounting Forum Volume 33 Issue 1 pp62-73

MOUBRAY Bonington (1816) A Practical Treatise on Breeding Rearing and Fattening All Kinds of Domestic Poultry Pheasants Pigeons and Rabbits with an Account of the Egyptian Method of Hatching Eggs by Artificial Heat Second Edition With Additions On the Breeding Feeding and Management of Swine From Memorandums made during Forty Years Practice London printed for Sherwood Nelly and Jones

NIMROD (Charles James Apperley) (1831) Remarks on the Condition of Hunters the Choice of Horses and their Management in a Series of Familiar Letters Originally Published in the Sporting Magazine Between 1822 and 1828 London MA Pittman

OCONNOR Feargus (1843) Practical Work on the Management of Small Farms London Published by John Cleave

PERIAM Jonathan [188-] The Farmersrsquo Stock Book A Manual on the Breeding Feeding Management and Care of Live Stock and Common Sense Treatment and Prevention of Diseases of Farm Animals Chicago H R Page amp co

REYNOLDS Richard S (1882) An Essay on the Breeding and Management of Draught Horses London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox

SAMPLE Hamilton (1882) The Horse and Dog Not as They Are but as They Should Be Old and Erroneous Theories Relative to the Management of the Horse Brought Face to Face With the Facts of the Nineteenth Century Together With an Elaborate and Scientific Essay on Horse-Shoeing also the Ordinary Diseases of Horses and Dogs and Their Treatment with Many Valuable Recipes San Francisco N p

SHERER John (1868) Rural Life Described and Illustrated in the Management of Horses Dogs Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry etc etc Their Treatment in Health and Disease With Authentic Information on all that Relates to Modern Farming Gardening Shooting Angling etc etc London New York London Printing and Pub Co

SMITH Henry Herbert (1898) The Principles of Landed Estate Management London E Arnold

TAFT Levi R (1898) Greenhouse Management New York Orange Judd company TEGETMEIER William Bernhard (1854) Profitable Poultry Their Management in

Health and Disease Darton and co THOMAS J J (1844) Farm Management in WELLS (1858) The Farm A Pocket

Manual of Practical Agriculture or How to Cultivate All the Field Crops Embracing a Thorough Exposition of the Nature and Action of Soils and Manures the Principles of Rotation in Cropping Directions for Irrigating Draining Subsoiling Fencing and Planting Hedges Descriptions of Agricultural Implements Instructions in the Cultivation of the Various Field Crops Orchards etc etc New York Fowler and Wells pp82-99

VANIMAN A W (1885) A Treatise on Swine Their Care and Management Diseases and Remedies St Louis Mo Commercial publishing co

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

43

WALSH John Henry (1859) The Dog in Health and Disease Comprising the Various Modes of Breaking and Using Him for Hunting Coursing Shooting etc and Including the Points or Characteristics of Toy Dogs London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

________ (1869) The Horse in the Stable and the Field his Management in Health and Disease Philadelphia Porter amp Coates

WARD and LOCK (1881) Book of Farm Management and Country Life A Complete Cyclopedia of Rural Occupations and Amusements Ward and Lock

WARREN George F (1913) Farm Management New York The Macmillan company

WILLIAMS Thomas B (1849) Farmers Guide in the Management of Domestic Animals and the Treatment of Their Diseases A Treatise on Horses Mules Neat Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Bees etc New York Ensign Bridgman amp Fanning

XENOPHON (1876 [362 BC]) The Economist translated by A D O Wedderburn and W G Collingwood London Ellis and White [etc etc]

YOUATT William (1834) A History of the Horse in All Its Varieties and Uses Together with Complete Directions for the Breeding Rearing and Management and for the Cure of All Diseases to Which he is Liable Washington D Green

__________ (1837) Sheep Their Breeds Management and Diseases to which is Added the Mountain Shepherds Manual London Baldwin and Cradock

__________ (1836) Cattle Their Breeds Management and Diseases Philadelphia Grigg amp Elliot

__________ (1854) The Dog London Longman Brown Green and Longmans __________ (1855) The Hog A Treatise on the Breeds Management Feeding

and Medical Treatment of Swine With Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams New York C M Saxton

YOUNG Arthur (1768) The Farmers Letters to the People of England Containing the Sentiments of a Practical Husbandman on Various Subjects of Great Importance Particularly the Exportation of Corn The Balance of Agriculture and Manufactures The Present State of Husbandry The Means of Promoting the Agriculture and Population of Great-Britain To which are Added Sylvae or Occasional Tracts on Husbandry and Rural Economics Second edition corrected and enlarged London Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770a) The Farmers Guide in Hiring and Stocking Farms Containing an Examination of many Subjects of Great Importance both to the Common Husbandman in Hiring a Farm and to a Gentleman on Taking the Whole or part of his Estate into his own Hands Also Plans of farm-yards and Sections of the Necessary Buildings 2 vol Printed for W Strahan

__________ (1770b) Rural Œconomy or Essays on the Practical parts of Husbandry Designed to Explain Several of the Most Important Methods of Conducting Farms of Various Kinds Including Many Useful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers Relative to the Œconomical Management of their Business To which is Added The Rural Socrates Being Memoirs of a Country Philosopher London Printed for T Becket

__________ (1773) Observations on the Present State of the Waste Lands of Great Britain Published on the Occasion of the Establishment of a New Colony on the Ohio London Printed for W Nicoll

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

44

Household Management ANONYMOUS (1827) A New System of Practical Domestic Economy Founded on

Modern Discoveries and the Private Communications of Persons of Experience A New Edition Revised and Enlarged with Estimates of Household Expenses Adapted to Families of Every Description London Henry Colburn

ATKINSON Mabel (1911) ldquoThe Economic Relations Of The Householdrdquo in RAVENHILL Alice SCHIFF Catherine J (Eds) (1911) Household Administration Its Place in the Higher Education of Women New York H Holt and Company pp121-206

BEECHER Catharine E (1849 [1841]) A Treatise on Domestic Economy for the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School Revised edition New York Harper amp Brothers

BEECHER Catharine Esther and STOWE Harriet Beecher (1869) The American Womans Home or Principles of Domestic Science Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenance of Economical Healthful Beautiful and Christian Homes New York JB Ford and Company Boston HA Brown amp Co

BEETON Isabella (1861) The Book of Household Management London S O Beeton

BEVIER Isabel (1911) ldquoMrs Richards Relation to the Home Economics Movementrdquo Journal of Home Economics Volume 3 Number 3 pp214-216

BRUERE Martha Bensley and Robert W (1912) Increasing Home Efficiency New York Macmillan

BUTTERWORTH Annie (1913 [1902]) Manual of Household Work and Management third edition revised and enlarged London New York etc Longmans Green and Co

CADDY Florence (1877) Household Organization London Chapman and Hall CAMPBELL Helen (1897 [1896]) Household Economics A Course of Lectures in the

School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin New York and London G P Putnams sons

CARTER Mary Elizabeth (1904) House and Home A Practical Book on Home Management New York A S Barnes

Cassells Household Guide Being a Complete Encyclopaedia of Domestic and Social Economy and Forming a Guide to Every Department of Practical Life (1869) 3 vol London Cassell Petter and Galpin

CHILD Lydia Maria Francis (1829) The Frugal Housewife Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy Boston Carter and Hendee

________ (1831) The Mothers Book Boston Published by Carter Hendee and Babcock

COBBETT Anne [183-] The English Housekeeper or Manual of Domestic Management Containing Advice on the Conduct of Household Affairs and Practical Instructions Concerning the Store-Room the Pantry the Larder the Kitchen the Cellar the Dairy Together with Remarks on the Best Means of Rendering Assistance to Poor Neighbours and Hints for Laying

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

45

Out Small Ornamental Gardens Directions for Cultivating Herbs the Whole Being Intended for the Use of Young Ladies Who Undertake the Superintendence of Their Own Housekeeping 2nd ed London A Cobbett Dublin T OrsquoGorman Manchester W Willis

COPLEY Esther (182-) The Cookrsquos Complete Guide on the Principles of Frugality Comfort and Elegance Including the Art of Carving and the Most Approved Method of Setting-Out a Table Explained by Numerous Copper-Plate Engravings Instructions for Preserving Health and Attaining Old Age With Directions for Breeding and Fattening All Sorts of Poultry and for the Management of Bees Rabbits Pigs ampc ampc Rules for Cultivating a Garden and Numerous Useful Miscellaneous Receipts by a Lady Authoress of Cottage Comforts London George Virtue

CORSON Juliet (1885) Miss Corsons Practical American Cookery and Household Management An Every-Day Book for American Housekeepers Giving the most Acceptable Etiquette of American Hospitality and Comprehensive and Minute Directions for Marketing Carving and General Table-Service Together with Suggestions for the Diet of Children and the Sick New York Dodd Mead amp Co

ELLIS Sara Stickney (1839) The Women of England Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits New York D Appleton

FREDERICK Christine (1914 [1913]) The New Housekeeping Efficiency Studies in Home Management Garden City New York Doubleday Page

FREDERICK Christine (1919) Household Engineering Scientific Management in the Home A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping Chicago American School of Home Economics

FRICH Lilla P (1912) Basic Principles of Domestic Science Muncie Ind Muncie Normal Institute

GILBRETH Lillian (1928 [1927]) The Home-Maker and her Job New York London D Appleton and Co

HUMBLE Nicola (2000) ldquoIntroductionrdquo in BEETON Isabella Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management edited by Nicola Humble Oxford Oxford University Press ppvii-vxxxvii

HUNT Caroline (1908) Home Problems From a New Standpoint Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

LUCAS June Richardson (1910 [1904]) The Woman who Spends A Study of her Economic Function Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

MANN Robert James (1878) Domestic Economy and Household Science London E Stanford

PARKES Frances (1829 [1825]) Domestic Duties or Instructions to Young Married Ladies on the Management of their Households and the Regulation of their Conduct in the Various Relations and Duties of Married Life J amp J Harper

PARLOA Maria (1879) First Principles of Household Management and Cookery Cambridge Riverside Press

PARLOA Maria (1898) Home Economics A Guide to Household Management Including the Proper Treatment of the Materials Entering into the Construction and Furnishing of the House New York The Century Co

PATTISON Mary (1918 [1915]) The Business of Home Management The Principles of Domestic Engineering New York RM McBride amp Co

RADCLIFFE M (1823) A Modern System of Domestic Cookery or The Housekeeperrsquos Guide Arranged on the Most Economical Plan for Private

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

46

Families Containing a Complete Family Physician and Instructions to Female Servants in Every Situation Showing the Best Methods of Performing their Various Duties the Whole Being the Result of Actual Experiments to Which Are Added as an Appendix Some Valuable Instructions of the Management of the Kitchen and Fruit Gardens Manchester J Gleave and sons

RICHARDS Ellen H (1899) The Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science New York J Wiley amp sons

________ (1910) Euthenics The Science Of Controllable Environment A Plea For Better Living Conditions As A First Step Toward Higher Human Efficiency Report on National Vitality Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows

________ (1911) ldquoThe Ideal Housekeeping in the Twentieth Century Fundamental Principles for Health and Economyrdquo Volume 3 Number 2 pp174-75

SALMON Lucy M (1897) Domestic Service New York Macmillan SMUTS Robert W (1971 [1959]) Women and Work in America New York Shocken

Books SYLVAIN Adrien (1881) Household Science or Practical Lessons in Home Life New

York [etc] D amp J Sadlier amp Co TALBOT Marion and BRECKINRIDGE Sophonisba P (1912) The Modern

Household Boston Whitcomb amp Barrows TAYLOR Ann Martin (1816 [1815]) Practical Hints to Young Females on the Duties

of a Wife a Mother and a Mistress of a Family sixth edition London Printed for Taylor amp Hessey and Josiah Conder

TERRILL Bertha M (1905) Household Management Chicago American School of Household Economics

The Housekeeperrsquos Magazine and Family Economist Containing Important Papers on the Following Subjects The Markets Marketing Drunkenness Gardening Cookery Travelling Housekeeping Management of Income Distilling Baking Brewing Agriculture Public Abuses Shops and Shopping House Taking Benefit Societies Annals of Gulling Amusements Useful Receipts Domestic Medicine ampc ampc ampc (1826) vol 1 Sept 1825-Jan 1826 London Printed for Knight and Lacey [etc etc]

US PRESIDENTS CONFERENCE ON HOME BUILDING AND HOME OWNERSHIP (1932) Household Management and Kitchens Reports of the Conference vol 9 Washington DC

WALSH John Henry (1874 [1853]) A Manual of Domestic Economy Suited to Families Spending pound100 to pound1000 a Year Including Directions for the Management of the Nursery and Sick Room Preparation and Administration of Domestic Remedies New York and London George Routledge and Sons

School and Classroom management ARNOLD Felix Text-Book of School and Class Management 2 vol New York

Macmillan 1908 ________ (1916) The Measurement of Teaching Efficiency New York Lloyd

Adams Noble BAGLEY William C (1907) Classroom management Its Principles and Technique

New York The Macmillan company

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

47

BALDWIN Joseph (1881) The Art of School Management A Textbook for Normal Schools and Normal Institutes and a Reference Book for the Teachers School Officers and Parents New York D Appleton and co

BENNETT Henry Eastman (1917) School Efficiency A Manual of Modern School Management Boston New York [etc] Ginn and Co

CATLOW Samuel (1813) Letters on the Management and Economy of a School Including a System of Studies and a Classification of Books Requisite for the Liberal and Extended Education of Professional and Commercial Pupils Addressed to a Young Clergyman on Commencing a Seminary in the Country Printed by G Sidney sold by T Underwood

CHANCELLOR William Estabrook (1904) Our Schools Their Administration and Supervision Boston DC Heath amp co

________ (1910) Class Teaching and Management New York and London Harper amp brothers

COLLAR George and CROOK Charles W (1901) School Management and Methods of Instruction With Special Reference to Elementary Schools London New York Macmillan

DUTTON Samuel Train (1903) School Management Practical Suggestions Concerning the Conduct and Life of the School New York C Scribners sons

GILL John (1863 [1857]) Introductory Text-Book to School Management nineth edition London Longman Green Longman Roberts amp Green

HARDING F E (1872) Practical Handbook of School-Management and Teaching for Teachers Pupil-Teachers and Students London and Edinburgh T Laurie

HOLBROOK Alfred (1873) School Management Cincinnati Geo E Stevens and Co Publishers

JOYCE Patrick Weston (1863) Hand-Book of School Management and Methods of Teaching Dublin McGlashan amp Gill London Simpkin Marshall and Co

KELLOGG Amos Markham (1880) The New Education School Management a Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School Room New York E L Kellogg amp Co

LANDON Joseph (1883) School Management Including a General View of the Work of Education with Some Account of the Intellectual Faculties from the Teachers Point of View Organization Discipline and Moral Training London K Paul Trench amp co

MAJOR Henry (1883) How to Earn the Merit Grant an Elementary Manual of School Management For Pupil Teachers Assistant and Head Teachers Compiled from Notes of Lectures Delivered to a Class of Ex-Pupil Teachers London George Bell and sons

MORRISON Thomas (1863 [1859]) Manual of School Management For the Use od Teachers Students and Pupil-Teachers Glasgow William Hamilton

PERRY Arthur Cecil (1908) The Management of a City School New York The Macmillan co

PRINCE John T (1906) School Administration Including the Organization and Supervision of Schools Syracuse N Y CW Bardeen

RAUB Albert N (1882) School Management Including a Full Discussion of School Economy School Ethics School Government and the Professional Relations of the Teacher Designed For Use Both as a Textbook and as a Book of Reference for Teachers Parents and School Officers Philadelphia Raub and Co

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

48

RICE Joseph Mayer (1913) Scientific Management in Education New York Publishers printing company

SALISBURY Albert (1911) School Management A Text-Book for County Training Schools and Normal Schools Chicago Row Peterson amp co

SEELEY Levi (1903) A New School Management New York Hinds amp Noble TAYLOR Joseph Schimmel (1903) Art of Class Management and Discipline New

York AS Barnes amp co TOMPKINS Arnold (1895) The Philosophy of School Management Boston and

London Ginn amp Co WHITE Emerson E (1893) School Management A Practical Treatise for Teachers

and All Other Persons Interested in the Right Training of the Young New York Cincinnati Chicago American Book Co

WICKERSHAM James Pyle (1864) School Economy A Treatise on the Preparation Organization Employments Government and Authorities of Schools Philadelphia JB Lippincott amp Co

Engineering Management BIGGS Charles Henry Walker (Ed) (189-) Practical Electrical Engineering A

Complete Treatise on the Construction and Management of Electrical Apparatus as Used in Electric Lighting and the Electric Transmission of Power London Biggs amp Debenham

BOURNE John (1861) A Catechism of the Steam Engine in its Various Applications to Mines Mills Steam Navigation Railways and Agriculture With Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of Engines of Every Class London Longman Green Longman and Roberts

COLBURN Zerah (1851) The Locomotive Engine Including a Description of its Structure Rules for Estimating its Capabilities and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management Boston Redding and Co

COOKE Morris L (1913) ldquoThe Spirit and Social Significance of Scientific Managementrdquo The Journal of Political Economy Vol 21 No 6 pp 481-493

EDWARDS Emory (1882) The Practical Steam Engineerrsquos Guide in the Design Construction and Management of American Stationary Portable and Steam Fire-Engines Steam Pumps Boilers Injectors Governors Indicators Pistons and Rings Safety Valves and Steam Gauges Philadelphia H C Baird amp co [etc etc]

HOMANS James E (1902) Self-Propelled Vehicles A Practical Treatise on the Theory Construction Operation Care and Management of all Forms of Automobiles New York T Audel amp company

HOUGHTALING William (1899) The Steam engine Indicator and its Appliances Being a Comprehensive Treatise for the Use of Constructing Erecting and Operating Engineers Superintendents Master Mechanics and Students with Many Illustrations Rules Tables and Examples for Obtaining the Best Results in the Economical Operation of All Classes of Steam Gas and Ammonia Engines Its Correct Use Management and Care Derived from the Authorrsquos Practical and Professional Experience Bridgeport Conn American Industrial Pub Co

LE VAN William Barnet (1876) A Treatise on Steam Boiler Engineering Being Notes on the Strength Construction Erection Fittings and Economical

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

49

Management of Steam Boilers Containing Rules and Useful Information for the Safe Use of Steam Philadelphia Inquirer book and job print

LIECKFELD Georg (1896) A Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of Gas Engines New York [etc] Spon amp Chamberlain

MOULSON V G Et alii (1898) Management and Care of the Steam Boiler Pittsburg Pa Klotzbaugh amp company

ROPER Stephen (1875) Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines Including the Modelling Construction Running and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers Philadelphia Claxton Remsen amp Haffelfinger

________ (1889) Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines Including the Running Care and Management of Steam Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps 2d ed rev and corr by H L Stellwagen Philadelphia Pa E Meeks

SHOCK William H (1880) Steam Boilers Their Design Construction and Management (1880) New York D Van Nostrand

SINCLAIR Angus (1885) Locomotive Engine Running and Management A Treatise on Locomotive Engines New York J Wiley and Sons

SMITH D O (1882) The Sewing Machine Its Management and Adjustment The Difficulties that Arise and How to Overcome Them Mobile Shields amp co book amp job printers

TOMPKINS Charles R (1889) A History of the Planing-Mill with Practical Suggestions for the Construction Care and Management of Wood-Working Machinery New York J Wiley amp sons

TULLEY Henry Charles (1907) Handbook on Engineering The Practical Care and Management of Dynamos Motors Boilers Engines Pumps Inspirators and Injectors Refrigerating Machinery Hydraulic Elevators Electric Elevators Air Compressors Rope Transmission and all Branches of Steam Engineering St Louis Mo HC Tulley amp co

WARD James Harmon (1847) Steam for the Million An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Management of Steam and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine Philadelphia Carey and Hart

WATSON Egbert P (1867) The Modern Practice of American Machinists amp Engineers Including the Construction Application and Use of Drills Lathe Tools Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow Work Generally Together with Workshop Management Economy of Manufacture the Steam-Engine etc etc Philadelphia H C Baird

History of Management and History of Management Thought BENDIX Reinhard (1956) Work and Authority in Industry Managerial Ideologies

in the Course of Industrialization New York John Wiley and Sons BIERNACKI Richard (1995) The Fabrication of Labor Germany and Britain

1640-1914 Berkeley University of California Press BRAVERMAN Harry (1974) Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of

Work in the Twentieth Century New York and London Monthly review press

BURNHAM James (1941) The Managerial Revolution or What is Happening in the World Now New York John Day Co

CALLAHAN Raymond E (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools Chicago University of Chicago Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

50

CHANDLER Alfred D Jr (1962) Strategy and Structure Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise Cambridge MIT Press

________ (1977) The Visible Hand The Managerial Revolution in American Business Cambridge Cambridge University Press

CLAUDE S George Jr (1968) The History of Management Thought Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

CLAWSON Dan (1980) Bureaucracy and the Labor Process New York Monthly Review Press

COWAN Ruth Schwartz (1976) ldquoThe lsquoIndustrial Revolutionrsquo in the Home Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Centuryrdquo Technology and Culture Vol 17 No 1 January 1976 pp1-23

________ (1983) More Work for Mother The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave New York Basic Books Inc

CRAINER Stuart (1997) The Ultimate Business Library 50 Books That Shaped Management Thinking foreword and commentary by G Hamel New York Amacom

DRUCKER Peter F (1954) The Practice of Management New York Harpers and Brothers

EDWARDS Richard GORDON David M and REICH Michael (1982) Segmented Work Divided Workers Cambridge University Press

GORZ Andreacute (1976 [1973]) The Division of Labour The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism Brighton Harvester Press

FREEAR John (1970) ldquoRobert Loder Jacobean Management Accountantrdquo Abacus Vol 6 No 1 September 1970 pp25-38

HARBISON Frederick H and MYERS Charles A (1959) Management in the Industrial World An International Analysis New York McGraw-Hill

JUCHAU Roger (2002) ldquoEarly Cost Accounting Ideas in Agriculture The Contributions of Arthur Youngrdquo Accounting Business amp Financial History Volume 12 Issue 3 pp369-386

KENDALL Henry P (1914) ldquoUnsystematized Systematized and Scientific Managementrdquo Address before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance in THOMPSON C Bertrand (Ed) Scientific Management A Collection of the More Significant Articles Describing the Taylor System of Management Cambridge Harvard University Press London Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press 1922 [1914] pp103-131

MARGLIN Stephen (1974) ldquoWhat Do Bosses Do The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Productionrdquo Review of Radical Political Economics 62 pp60-112

MERKLE Judith A (1980) Management and Ideology The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement Berkeley Calif [etc] University of California Press

MILLS C Wright (1951) White Collar The American Middle Classes New York Oxford University Press

MONTGOMERY David (1979) Workers Control in America Studies in the History of Work Technology and Labor Struggles Cambridge London New York [etc] Cambridge University Press

NELSON Daniel (1975) Managers and Workers Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920 Madison University of Wisconsin Press

NOBLE David F (1984) Forces of Production A Social History of Industrial Automation New York Knopf

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press

51

NOKE Christopher (1981) ldquoAccounting for Bailiffship in Thirteenth Century Englandrdquo Accounting and Business Research Spring pp137-151

PEARSON Gordon J (2009) The Rise and Fall of Management A Brief History of Practice Theory and Context Farnham Burlington Gower

POLLARD Sidney (1965) The Genesis of Modern Management A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain London E Arnold

SCORGIE Michael E (1997) ldquoProgenitors of Modern Management Accounting Concepts and Mensurations in Pre-Industrial Englandrdquo Accounting Business and Financial History Vol 7 No 1 pp31-59

SHENHAV Yehouda (1999) Manufacturing Rationality The Engineering Foundations of the Managerial Revolution Oxford Oxford University Press

SOMBART Werner (1932 [1928]) LApogeacutee du capitalisme vol 2 trad franccedilaise de S Jankeacuteleacutevitch Paris Payot

TAYLOR Frederick Winslow (1912 [1903]) Shop management with an introd by H R Towne New York Harper

TONKOVICH Nicole ldquoIntroductionrdquo (2002) in BEECHER Catharine Esther STOWE Harriet Beecher (2004 [1869]) The American Womans Home edited and with an introduction by Nicole Tonkovich New Brunswick NJ and London Rutgers University Press ppix-xxxi

VEBLEN Thorstein (1921) The Engineers and the Price System New York NY B W Huebsch

WHYTE William H (2002 [1956]) The Organization Man foreword by J Nocera Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

WILLIAMSON Oliver E (Ed) (1995 [1990]) Organization Theory From Chester Barnard to the Present and Beyond Oxford Oxford University Press

WREN Daniel A (2005 [1972]) The History of Management Thought 5th ed Hoboken Wiley

WREN Daniel A (Ed) (1997) Early Management Thought Brookfield VT Dartmouth

WREN Daniel A and GREENWOOD Ronald G (1998) Management Innovators The People and Ideas that Have Shaped Modern Business New York Oxford University Press

Other FOUCAULT Michel (2007 [1978 first edited in french in 2004]) Security Territory

Population Lectures at the Collegravege de France 1977-1978 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

MARX Karl (1973 [1857]) Grundrisse Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft) translated with a foreword by M Nicolaus Harmondsworth Eng Baltimore Penguin Books

MUGGLESTONE Lynda (2006) ldquoEnglish in the Nineteenth Centuryrdquo in MUGGLESTONE Lynda (Ed) The Oxford History of English New York Oxford University Press 2006 pp274-304

MURRAY James A H (1908) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Volume 6 part 2 Letter M Oxford Clarendon Press