a general summary of organizational behavior

Y e d i t e p e Ü n i v e r s i t e s i

KeremKoseogluBudökümanda,OByeterliliksınavınayönelikçıkartılmışnotlarbulunmaktadır.

Fall08

OrganizationalBehavior

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TABLEOFCONTENTS

ScienceInGeneral................................................................................................................................................... 6

OBInGeneral .......................................................................................................................................................... 6

OBBasics ............................................................................................................................................................. 6

BasicBusinessFunctionsandPrinciples ............................................................................................................. 6

ApproachesofOB ............................................................................................................................................... 6

HistoricalDevelopmentOfOB ............................................................................................................................ 6

ClassicalTheories(traditional) ........................................................................................................................ 7

NeoClassicalTheory ....................................................................................................................................... 7

ModernTheories............................................................................................................................................. 7

Values,Attitudes..................................................................................................................................................... 8

Values.................................................................................................................................................................. 8

Attitudes ............................................................................................................................................................. 8

JobSatisfaction ............................................................................................................................................... 9

JobInvolvement.............................................................................................................................................. 9

OrganizationalCommitment........................................................................................................................... 9

OrganizationalCitizenship............................................................................................................................... 9

Personality&Emotions........................................................................................................................................... 9

Personality .......................................................................................................................................................... 9

PersonalityTraits .......................................................................................................................................... 10

SelfEsteem.................................................................................................................................................... 10

Person–JobFit ............................................................................................................................................. 11

PsychologicalCapital ..................................................................................................................................... 11

Emotions ........................................................................................................................................................... 12

Perception&DecisionMaking.............................................................................................................................. 12

Perception......................................................................................................................................................... 12

DecisionMaking................................................................................................................................................ 13

Motivation ............................................................................................................................................................ 14

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MotivationTheories.......................................................................................................................................... 14

ContentTheories........................................................................................................................................... 14

ProcessTheories ........................................................................................................................................... 15

Applicationsofmotivationtheories.................................................................................................................. 15

BehaviorModification....................................................................................................................................... 16

Groups................................................................................................................................................................... 16

Roles.................................................................................................................................................................. 17

GroupDynamics................................................................................................................................................ 18

Teams................................................................................................................................................................ 18

Communication..................................................................................................................................................... 19

TheProcessofHumanCommunication ............................................................................................................ 19

TheMessage ..................................................................................................................................................... 20

Listening ............................................................................................................................................................ 21

Leadership............................................................................................................................................................. 21

LeadershipTheories .......................................................................................................................................... 22

TraitvsBehavioralTheories .......................................................................................................................... 22

ContingencyTheories.................................................................................................................................... 22

ContemporaryTheories ................................................................................................................................ 24

LMXTheory ................................................................................................................................................... 24

X–YTheory .................................................................................................................................................. 25

ManagementPhilosophy .................................................................................................................................. 25

AncientWorld ............................................................................................................................................... 25

Calvinism,ProtestantEthic,MaxWeber....................................................................................................... 25

Capitalism,Marxism...................................................................................................................................... 25

Christianity .................................................................................................................................................... 25

Culture .......................................................................................................................................................... 26

Ethics ............................................................................................................................................................. 26

ContemporaryIssuesofleadership .................................................................................................................. 26

Trust .............................................................................................................................................................. 26

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Power&Politics .................................................................................................................................................... 27

Power ................................................................................................................................................................ 27

Politics ............................................................................................................................................................... 28

Conflict&Negotiation .......................................................................................................................................... 28

Conflict .............................................................................................................................................................. 28

Negotiation ....................................................................................................................................................... 30

OrganizationStructure.......................................................................................................................................... 30

CorporateGovernance...................................................................................................................................... 30

OrganizationalCulture .......................................................................................................................................... 30

CultureinGeneral ............................................................................................................................................. 30

CulturevsClimate ............................................................................................................................................. 31

CultureTheories................................................................................................................................................ 31

Hofstede........................................................................................................................................................ 32

Schein............................................................................................................................................................ 32

Denison ......................................................................................................................................................... 32

Queen............................................................................................................................................................ 32

GLOBEProject ............................................................................................................................................... 33

HRPoliciesandPractices ...................................................................................................................................... 34

Recruitment ...................................................................................................................................................... 34

JobAnalysis&Evaluation.................................................................................................................................. 35

CompansationSystems ..................................................................................................................................... 36

Training&Development ................................................................................................................................... 36

PerformanceAppraisal...................................................................................................................................... 37

OrganizationalChange&StressManagement ..................................................................................................... 38

OrganizationalChange&Development............................................................................................................ 38

OrganizationalChange .................................................................................................................................. 38

ChangeModels ............................................................................................................................................. 38

OrganizationalDevelopment ........................................................................................................................ 39

StressManagement .......................................................................................................................................... 39

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LearningOrganizations ......................................................................................................................................... 40

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BASICSSCIENCEINGENERAL

Bilimselbirçalışmada4özellikaranır:

• Measurement• Repeatability• Observability• Testability

OBINGENERAL

OBBASICS

OB,örgütiçindeinsandavranışınıinceler.Input(emek+toprak+yatırım+girişim)üretimoutputvardır.OB,emekileilgilenir.

BASICBUSINESSFUNCTIONSANDPRINCIPLES

Basicbusinessfunctions:

• Accusation(satınalma):Input’larıtoplar• Production• Marketing• Finance&Accounting• Management

o Planningo Organizingo Directingo Controlling

Businessprinciples:

• Economy(Eliminationofwaste)• Productivity(output/input)• Efficienct(ourprod./idealprod.)• Profitability(profit/capital)• Effectiveness(extentofreachingbusinessgoals)• Rationality

APPROACHESOFOB

Systemsapproach(opensystem),Contingencyapproach

HISTORICALDEVELOPMENTOFOB

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CLASSICALTHEORIES(TRADITIONAL)

FriedrickTaylor

Inventedproductivity:Maxoutput,minimumcost

Founderofscientificmanagement.Beforehim,methodsweretransferredfromfathertoson.Hebroughtscientificapproachtomanagement.Forexample,“Howheavyshouldashovelbe?”.

Spanofcontrol.Birorganizasyonağacında,herbirpozisyonunaltındaenfazla6pozisyonolmalı,yoksakontrolazalırveconflictartar.

Specialization.Herkesbellibirişteuzmanlaşıpheponuyapmalı.Bufikirdepartmanlarıvejobdescription’ları

doğurduveortayatrainingkavramıçıktı.

Motivation.Jobsatisfaction=Highperformancesoworkersshouldbemotivatedwithmoney.

Training’Iilkkezgündemegetirdi.Conflict’Ikaldırdedi.

Today,Taylorisbeingcritisizedbecauseheevaluateshumanbeingslikemachines.Becauseofhim,syndicates

existtoday.

Fayol

Functionsofmanagers:Planning,organizing,yürütme,koordinasyon,kontrol.

Weber

Bürokrasigereklidir.Boreacracy=standardization&rules,noexceptions.Redtapedeğil.3kindsofpower–

lgeitimacyrelations:Traditional(kralgüneşinoğlu),Charismatic(üstünözellikler),Legal(bürokrasi).

İdealbürokrasi:Specialization,hierarhicalauthority,impersonalrelationships,strictproceduralrules,

recruitmentonthebasisofability,differentaiationofprivateandofficialincome,writtencommunication&documentation

NEOCLASSICALTHEORY

HawtornStudies

Birelektrikfirmasındayapılan“İşşartlarınıiyileştirirsekperformansartarmı?”araştırmasısonucundaortayaçıkmıştır.İkigrupçalışanınbiriaydınlık,birkaranlıkodalardaçalıştırılmıştır;aydınlıkgrubundahaiyiçalışması

bekleniyordu.Nevarki,sonuçlaröyleolmadı:Karanlıkgrupdahaiyiçalışıyordu.Sonradan;bununsebebinin,karanlıkodadakiaraştırmagörevlilerininçalışanlaradahaiyidavranmasıolduğuortayaçıktı.

BununsonucundayeniLeadershipfikirleriortayaçıktı;farklıbirlidermodeli:Humanisticmanagement

approach.Conclusions:

• Workisasocialactivityaswellasphysical• Informalsocialorganizationcreatesitsownnorms,helpsdefinethestatusofmembersanddetermine

behavior,helpsfulfilltheneedsofmembersforrecognition&selfesteem&belonging.

HawtornEffect:Biriseniizliyorsabaştaişinidahaiyiyaparsın,sonradanalışıptekraryaymayabaşlarsın.

MODERNTHEORIES

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(Post)ModernAge

Eskiçağlardaconflict’inengellenemeyeceğigörüşühakimdi.Groupdynamics:İnsanlargruplarınparçasıdır

dendivegrupçalışmalarıaraştırılmayabaşlandı.Şimdiise,yeniyeniyöntemlerveyaklaşımlarvar.“Conflictisgood,aslongasyouknowhowtomanageit”.

• TotalQualityManagement• Downsizing• Delayering• NetworkOrganizations• LearningOrganizations• Outsourcing

THEINDIVIDUALVALUES,ATTITUDES

VALUES

ValuesAttitudeBehavior

Sağlık“Sağlıkönemlidir”Sporyapmak(Positivebehavior)

Namus“Namusönemlidir”Namuscinayeti(Negativebehavior)

Özgürlük“İsteyensigaraiçebilir”Sigaraiçenlerekarışmamak

Aile“Ailemsağlıklıolmalıdır”Sigaraiçenoğlunakarışmak

Bugibidurumlarda,CognitiveDissonanceadıverilençatışmalarortayaçıkar.İnsanbünyesi,bugibiçatışmaları

çözümlendiripkendiiçindeçelişmemeyönündeeğilimgösterir.Çözüm:Changeattitude,orchangebehavior.

Çalışanlararasındakideğerfarklılıklarıorganizasyonunhedeflerinezararveriyorsa,değiştirilmelidir.Aksitakdirdebırakkalsınlar.

Convivence:Livingtogether.Managementshouldknowhowtolivewithdifferencesandget+’soutofthem.

WorkforceDiversity:Şirketlerinfarklıırk,din,dildeninsanlarıbirarayatoplaması.

Selffulfillingprophecy.Birinsanaakıllıymışgibidavranırsanbirsüresonrahakikatenakıllıcadavranmayabaşlar.Aptalmışgibidavranırsan,birsüresonraaptallaşır.

• Zencilerdençoksuçluçıkması• Köpeğeısıracakmışgibidavranırsanısırır• Elemanatembelmişgibidavranırsantembellikyapar(X)• Elemanagüvenipsorumlulukverirsensorumluolur(Y)

ATTITUDES

Evaluativestatementsorjudgementsconcerningobjects,peopleorevents

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Degreeof(un)pleasurablefeelingstowardjob.

Socio‐TechnicalSystems:İnsanınadapteolabileceğiyapılarkurup,jobdesigniçindeparticipative

management’ıyapabiliyorolmalı.Örnek:Volvo,takımkararlarınaödülveriyor.

JOBSATISFACTION

Satisfactionperformancegoesinbothways.Amabazıçalışmalardabuikisiarasındahiçbirbağlantıbulunamadığıdaolmuş.Çünkü;

Performance= motivation x

Capacity x (ability,training,technology,etc)

Opportunity x (loc.educ.Backg,connect.,etc)

Environment (Supervision,culture,etc)

Affects:Productivity(viceversadaolabilir),absenteeism,Turnover

JOBINVOLVEMENT

Thedegreetowhichapersonidentifieswithhisorherjob,activelyparticipatesinit,andconsidershisorher

performanceimportanttoself‐worth.

ORGANIZATIONALCOMMITMENT

Beliefinthegoalandvaluesoftheorganization.Resultsinextraeffortanddesiretostayinorganization.3

typesofcommitments(accordingtoMeyer):

• Affective.Şirketiailegibigörmek.Sevgi.• Normative.“Şirketimbanaçokşeyverdibendekalıpkarşılığınıvermeliyim”.Minnet.• Continuance.Dışarıdaişyokveyaistifatazminatıvardiyekalmak.Korku.

ORGANIZATIONALCITIZENSHIPİşsorumluluklarıdışındadaşirketidesteklemek.Dimensions:

• Helpingbehavior:Başkalarınayardımetmek• Sportsmanship:Kendiistediğiolmayıncahuysuzlanmamak• Organizationalloyalty:Spreadinggoodwill,defendingorganizationalobjectives• Organizationalcompliance:Kimsebakmıyorkendekurallarauymak• Individualinitiative:Volunteeringonextraresponsibilitiesandencouragingotherstodothesame• Civicvirtue:Participatingactivelyinfovernance,monitorenvironment,lookbestinterest• Selfdevelopment:Kendiniisteyerekgeliştirmek

PERSONALITY&EMOTIONS

PERSONALITY

Personality:Thesumtotalofwaysinwhichanindividualreactsandinteractswithothers.

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WhyisOBinterestedinpersonality?BecausePerson–Jobmatchisneeded.Youhavetobecarefulaboutthis

whenrecruitingandpromotingsomeone.Personalityisarelativelysetofcharacteristicsthatdefineourbehaviour.Determinedby2factorsets:

• Nature.Hereditspecsofuswhichcomebybirth.• Nurture.Specswhichweregainedfromtheenvironment.

PERSONALITYTRAITS

Endutingcharacteristicsthatdescribeanindividual’sbehavior

Machiavelists:TheNobleadlıromandanalmıştıradını.MachType’lar,etraflarındakiinsanlarıamaçları

doğrultusunda“Herşeymübahtır”diyerekkullanırlar.İknakabiliyetleriyüksektirveiyipazarlıkederler,politikoyunlardabaşarılıdırlar.

Self‐Monitoring:Nabzagöreşerbetverirler,çevreleriileuyumludurlar.

BigFive:Bumodelegöre,5kişiliközelliğivardır.

• Extraversion• Agreeableness• Conscientiousness• Emotionalstability• Opennesstoexperience

TypeAvsTypeB

• TypeAisaggressive,struggletoachievemoreinlesstime• TypeBneversufferfromsenseofurgency,canrelaxwithoutguilt

LocusOfControl:İkitürinsanvardır.Internalizer,olaylarıkendisininidareedebileceğinidüşünür.Externalizer,

olaylarındışfaktörlertarafındankontroledildiğinivekendisininpeketkiedemediğinidüşünür.Internalizer:

• Tasksrequiringcomplexanalysis• Highmotivation• Piece‐rateworkers• Morefreedomfromsupervision

Mobbing:Organizasyoniçiduygusalterör.Inamobbingsituation,theringleaderincitessupporters,cohorts,copycatsandunenlightened,inexperienced,immatureoremotionallyneedyindividualswithpoorvaluesto

engageinadversarialinteractionwiththeselectedtarget.

Bullying:Organizasyoniçifizikselterör.Bullyingispersistentunwelcomebehaviour,mostlyusingunwarrantedorinvalidcriticism,nit‐picking,fault‐finding,alsoexclusion,isolation,beingsingledoutandtreateddifferently,

beingshoutedat,humiliated,excessivemonitoring,havingverbalandwrittenwarningsimposed,andmuchmore.

Roleconflict:Rolçatışması.Sınıföğretmenininöğrencisiolanoğlunusınıftabırakamaması.

Rolbulaşması:Biröğretmenin,tanımadığıbirçocuğasokakta“İnbakayımoduvardan”demesi.

SELFESTEEM

SelfConceptkavramınındaraltılmışhalidir.Selfconcept,insanınkendisinibirnesneolaraknekadardeğerlibulduğudur.Selfesteemise,kendininekadarsevdiğivekendindennekadarmemnunolduğuylailgilidir.

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LowSelfEsteem’esahipbirineyöneticilerçokdikkatliyaklaşmalıdır.Böylebirinedoğrudaneleştiriyaparsan

herşeyikendineyıkıpkendinikötühissedebilir.NegativeFeedbackverirkendikkatli,PositiveFeedbackverirkencömertdavranmakgerekir.HighSelfEsteem’esahipbirinehatasınısöyleyincekabuledervebunukendini

geliştirmekiçinbirfırsatolarakkabuleder.

SelfEsteem’i;Heredity’denziyadeçevreşekillendirir.

İnsanlardaSelfEsteem’inLowhalegelmesiniönlemekiçinsavunmamekanizmalarıçalışmaktadır.

• Rationalization:Birolayıaklauydurmak,genelleştirmek.Buşekildesuçukendiüzerinealmamak,veyagenelleştirmek.

• Negativism.Patronakırıp,gizlicebirofiseşyasınıkırmak.Birneviintikam.

• Replacement.Patronsanakızıyor,sendeeşinekızıyorsun,odaçocuğakızıyor,vs.

• Withdrawal:Olaydanuzaklaşma.İstifa,kendiiçineçekilmegibiyansımalarıvardır.

• Compensation.Terkedilenbirininbesteyaparakduygularınıifadeetmesiverahatlaması.

• Projection.Kendizayıfyönünüherkestegörmek.

PERSON–JOBFIT

Holland’stypologyofpersonality:

• Realistic:Prefersactivitiesthatrequirephysicalskills.Mechanic,farmer,etc.• Investigative:Prefersactivitiesthatinvolvesthinkingandunderstanding.Mathematician,reporter,

etc.• Social:Prefersactivitiesthatinvolvehelpingothers.Socialworker,teacher,etc.

• Conventional:Prefersrule‐regulatedactivities.Accountant,corporatemanager,etc.• Enterprising:Prefersverbalactivitiesandopportunitiesforpower.Lawyer,publicrelationsspecialist,

etc.• Artistic:Prefersambiguousactivitiesthatallowcreativeexpression.Painter,musicial,writer,etc.

PSYCHOLOGICALCAPITAL

Psychologicalcapital1hasitsrootsinpositivepsychology(Larson&Luthans,2006).Itisdefinedasthepositiveanddevelopmentalstateofanindividualascharacterizedbyfourconstructs:(Wikipedia,2008)

• Hope isdefinedasapositivemotivational statewhere twobasicelements interact.Theseelements

aresuccessfulfeelingofagency(orgoalorienteddetermination)andpathways(orplanningtoachievethosegoals).

• Self efficacy is defined as people's confidence in their ability to achieve a specific goal in a specificsituation.

• Optimismwas defined by Attribution Theory (Manusov& Spitzberg, 2008). AnOptimistic person isdefinedasonethatmakesinternalattributions(WestVirginiaUniversity,1996)forpositiveeventsand

external attributions (West Virginia University, 1996) to negative events. Optimism in Psycap isthoughtasa realisticconstruct that regardswhatanemployeecanorcannotdo,assuch,optimism

reinforcesselfefficacyandhope.

1AlsomentionedasPsycap

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• Resiliencyisapositivewayofcopingwithdangerordistress.Inorganizationalaspect,itisdefinedas

anabilitytorecuperatefromstress,conflict,failure,changeorincreaseinresponsibility.

Toimprovepsychapinanorganization,HRMshouldworkonselection,trainingandperformanceevaluation.

EMOTIONS

Emotions:Intensefeelingsthataredirectedatsomeoneorsomething.Moodsareefelingsthatarelessintense

thanemotionsandthatlackacontextualstimulus.

Feltvsdisplayedemotions.Çatışırsa:Emotionaldissonance

Emotionaldimensions:Variety,intensity,frequency&duration

Externalconstraingsonemotions:Organizational,cultural

AffectiveEventsTheory:Theorythatemployeesreactemotionallytothingsthathappentothematwork.This

influencestheirjobperformanceandsatisfaction.

EI(EmotionalIntelligence):Theabilitytodetectandmanageemotionalcuesandinformation.

• Selfawareness:Beingawareofwhatyouarefeeling.• Selfmanagement:Theabilitytomanageownemotionsandimpulses.

• Selfmotivation:Theabilitytopersistinthefaceoffailures.• Empathy:Theabilitytosensehowothersarefeeling.

• Socialskills:Theabilitytohandleemotionsofothers.

OBApplications:Decisionmaking,motivation,leadership,conflict,customerservice,deviantworkspace

behavior

PERCEPTION&DECISIONMAKING

PERCEPTION

Perception:Aprocessbywhichindividualsorganizeandinterprettheirsensoryimpressionstogivemeaningtotheirenvironment.

PerceptionProcess

• SelectivePerception• Organization

• Interpretation

AttributionTheory

When individualsobservebehavior, theyattempt todeterminewhether it is internallyor externally caused.Thedeterminationofwhetherthecauseisinternalorexternaldependsonthreefactors:

• Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual displays different behaviors in different situations(Robbins,2005).Ifthepersonbeingobservedexhibitsthesamebehaviorinavarietyofcontexts,then

distinctivenessislow;iftheyhavedifferentbehaviordependingonthecontext,thendistinctivenessishigh(Simmering,2006).

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• Ifeveryonewhoisfacedwithasimilarsituationrespondsinthesameway,wecansaythebehavior

show consensus (Robbins, 2005). If the observer sees others acting the sameway that the personbeing perceived acts, then consensus is high. However, if others behave differently in the type of

situation,thenconsensusislow(Simmering,2006).• Consistencydescribeswhetherthepersonbeingobservedbehavesthesamewaywhenfacedwiththe

same set of circumstances. If the person being observed acts the same way in the same type ofsituation, consistency is high; if they act differently each time, then consistency is low (Simmering,

2006).

Usually; external attribution is caused by high distinctiveness, high consensus and low consistency. On theotherhand,internalattributioniscausedbylowdistinctiveness,lowconsensusandhighconsistency.

Fundamental attribution error: The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and

overestimatetheinfluenceofinternalfactorswhenmakingjudgements.

SelfServingBias:Thetendencyforindividualstoattributetheirownsuccessestointernalfactorswhileputting

blameforfailuresonexternalfactors.

CommonPerceptionErrors

• Stereotyping• HaloEffect

• PrimacyEffect• SelectivePerception

• ContrastEffect• Projection:Itisthetendencyofattributingone’sowncharacteristicstootherpeople

• Selffulfillingprophecy

ApplicationsinOB:interview,performanceexpectations(selffulfillingprophecy),ethnicprofiling,performance

evaluation,employeeeffort.

DECISIONMAKING

Howindividualsmakedecisionsandqualityofchoicesareinfluencedbyperceptions.

Stepstorationaldecisionmaking:Definetheproblem,Identifythedecisioncriteria,Allocateweightstothecriteria,Developthealternatives,Evaluatethealternatives,Selectthebestalternative

Intuitivedecisionmaking:Anunconsciousprocesscreatedoutofdistilledexperience.

Decisionproblemsasperson:

• Overconfidencebias:İnsanlar%50haklıolmasınarağmen%70karardaConfidentolur.• Anchoringbias:Tendencytofizateoninitialinformationasstartingpoint.

• Conformationbias:Weseekoutinformationthatreaffirmsourpastchoicesanddisciontinfothatcontradicts.

• Availabilitybias:Tendencytobasejudgementsoninfothatisalreadyavailable• Representativebias:Assessingthelikelihoodofanoccurrencebytryingtomatchitwithapreexisting

category• Escalationofcommitmenterror:Anincreasedcommitmenttoapreviousdecisioninspiteofnegative

information

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• Randomnesserror:Decisionmakingbecomesimpairedwhenwetrytocreatemeaningoutofrandom

events• Hindsightbias:Thetendencytobelievefalselythatwe’daccuratelypredictedtheoutcomeofan

event,afterthatoutcomeisknown

Decisionproblemsingroups:

• GroupPolarizationPhenomenon:groupsaremoreextremeindecisions.Çünkügrupiçindekilerbirbirinidestekleyipgazagelebilir.

Meselagençgruplarıbiraradasaçmakararlarverebilir.• Groupthink:Grupolarakkararveriyorolmakbazençokkötükararlarayolaçar.Şudurumdaortayaçıkar:

Grupkendiiçindebütün,karşıtgörüşhiçyok.• PersuasiveArgumentsTheory:Beforemeetinginagroup,membersofthegroupwilldevelop

argumentstosupporttheirpositions.Toswayothers,theargumentswilltendtobemoreextreme.Intheend,oneargumentwillwinandthegroupwillfinditselfsupportinganextremedecision.

• RiskyShiftPhenomenon:groupstakeeithermoreorlessextremerisks.Grupiçindealınanrisküyelerarasındabölünüyorgibigözüktüğüiçin,tekbaşınaalacağındandahaçokriskalırsın

OBImplications2:Performanceevaluation,rewardsystems,formalregulations,system‐imposedtimeconstraints,historicalprecendents

MOTIVATION

NeedDriveBehaviorIncentiveSatisfactionNeed…

Motivasyon=willingnessxability.

MOTIVATIONTHEORIES

Motivation:Theprocessesthataccountforanindividual’sintensity,direction,andpersistenceofefforttowardattainingagoal.

İkitürteorivar:Content(needs)veProcess.ButeorilerdeRewardönemlibiryertutar.IntrinsicReward:İçsel

ödül.Uzunvadelidir.MotivatorsofHereberg/higherlevelsofMaslow.ExtrinsicReward:Dışsalödül.Kısavadelidir.Routine/PiecerateTask’lerdeişeyarar.

CONTENTTHEORIES

Maslow:İhtiyaçpiramidi.FizyolojikSecuritySocialEsteemSelfactualization.ÜstseviyedekibirNeed’debaşarısızolursanbiraltseviyeyedüşebilirsin.Eleştiri:Çin’desosyalihtiyaçlarfizyolojikihtiyaçlarınbile

önünde.Busayılarhepaynıdeğildirveyerbiledeğiştirebilir.

APA:(McClelland)3türihtiyaçvardır:Power,Affiliation,Achievement.

ERG:Aldorferortayaattı.3türihtiyaçvardır:Existence,Relatedness,Growth.BuMaslow’unkinitemelalmıştır;amafarklıihtiyaçlarparalelbirşekildedoyurulmayaçalışılabilirdemektedir.

XY:(McGregor)XYtipiliderlik.

2BunlarDecisionMaking’Ietkileyenşeyler

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TwoFactorsTheory:Herzbergortayaattı.DissatisfactionveSatisfaction’ubirbirindenayırdı.JobContent:No

SatisfactionSatisfactionyaratabilir(Motivators).JobContext:DissatisfactionNoSatisfactionyaratabilir(HygeneFactors).Eleştiri:Herkültürdefarklıolabilir;birkültürdeMotivatorolanbirdiğerkültürdeHygene

olabilir.

CognitiveEvaluationTheory:Allocatingextrinsicrewardsforbehaviorthathadbeenpreviouslyintrinsicallyrewardingtendstodecreasetheoveralllevelofmotivation.

PROCESSTHEORIES

İnsanlarındüşünebildiğinivebellibirşekildemotiveolupolmamayakendilerininkararverdiğinisavunur.

ExpectancyTheory:Beklentiteorisi.Motivation=Valancexexpectancy.Expectancy:“IfIshoweffect,willIbeabletoperform?”Valence:“Rewardbananeifadeediyor?”ValenceNeeds

GoalSettingTheory:Elemanlarıserbestbırakıp“Çalışabildiğinkadarçalış”demekyerinebellihedeflerkoymakdahaiyisonuçverir.Ancak;

Hedeflerulaşılabilirolmakzorunda.Goalçokyüksekolursa,onaulaşmakiçinkaliteyidüşürebilireleman.FazlayüksekGoal,isteğiortadankaldırır.

ÇalışanlarasonuçlarlailgiliFeedbackvereceksin Hedeflerikoyarkençalışanlarlabirliktekararvereceksin.“Sözverdim,yapmalıyım”diyedüşünürozaman.

EquityTheory:İnsan,InputveOutput’larınıbaşkalarıylakarşılaştırırsürekli.Eğerdengeyoksa,kişidengeyisağlamayaçalışır.

EğerkendiOutput’unuyüksekbulursa(Overcompansated),Input’larınıarttırmayaçalışır.“Benimmaaşımfazlayüksek”diyenbirinindahaçokçalışmasıgibi.

EğerkendiOutput’unudüşükbulursa(Undercompansated),Input’larınıazaltmayaçalışır.“Benimmaaşımçokdüşük,bukadarmaaşabukadariş”diyenbirininişiazaltmasıgibi.

ConsistencyTheory:Self‐fulfillingprophecy.

JobDesignTheory:JobCharacteristicsModel

• Skillvariety:işitamamlamakiçinnekadarçeşitliaktivitegerekiyor

• TaskIdentity:Tamvetanımlanabilirbirişitekbaşınamıyapıyor• Tasksignificance:Diğerinsanlarınhayatınanekadardeğerkatıyor

• Autonomy:Zamanlama&planyapmakkonusundanekadarözgür?• Feedback:Performansıhakkındanekadarcevapalıyor?

APPLICATIONSOFMOTIVATIONTHEORIES

ManagementByObjectives:GoalSettingTheory’ninorganizasyoniçindekiuygulamasıdır.IndividualGoalDepartmentGoalDivisionGoalOrganizationalGoalşeklindefarklıhedeflervardırvebuhedeflerinhepsi

birdengözönündebulundurulmalıdır.Amapratiktehepböyleolmaz(Örnek:Satış–üretimçatışması).Goalsshouldbespecific.“Masraflarıkısacağız”değil,“Herkesmasrafını%7kıssın”gibi.

EmployeeRecognitionPrograms:ReinforcementTheory’ninuygulamasıdır.Employeeofthemonthgibi.

EmployeeInvolvementPrograms:İnsanlarısürecedahiledipkararveönerilerdeonlardandafaydalanmak.

İnsanlarıçokmotiveederçünkükendinifirmayaaithisseder.ÖzellikleStockOption;FlexibleBenefits.

JobRedesignandSchedulingPrograms

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• JobRotation:Birininbaşkadepartman/görevlerekaydırılması.

• JobEnlargement:Birsorumluluğuvarken,(muhtemelenaynıseviyede)3‐4işidahaoluyor.Baştamotiveeder,ortavadedeetkisizayıf.

• JobEnrichment:Birişinfarklıboyutlarınıdakapsamayabaşlıyorkişi.Meselaverdiğindersinplanlamasınındasanaverilmesi.BirneviEmpowerment.

• Flextime• JobSharing

Empowerment:İşiyleilgilisorumlulukveriyorsun.MeselaMigros’takimanav,sebzereyonununindirimlerini

kendiayarlayabiliyor.Eleştiri:Esasamacıgerçekgüçvermekyerinedahaçokçalıştırmak.AmaaraştırmalardaEmployeeEngagementveWellBeing’Isağladığıortayaçıkmış.

BEHAVIORMODIFICATION

ReinforcementTheory:Pekiştirmeteorisi.Davranışınsonucunagöretekrarlatıl(ma)masınadayanır.

ClassicalConditioning:Pavlov.Otomatiköğrenmevar.

OperantConditioning:Sonucugözlemleyipkendinkararverme.Bilinçliöğrenmevar.StimulusOrganizmOutcome.

SocialConditioning:Başkasınınsonucunabakaraköğrenme.

Davranışmodifikasyonunda3temelyöntemvardır:

Positivereinforcement.İstenendavranışödüllendirilir. Negativereinforcement.İstenmeyendavranış,cezailekorkutulur. Punishment.Cezaverilir.Yanetkisiçoktur,mümkünseuygulama.

Schedulesofreinforcement:

Continuous.Davranışhertekrarlandığındaödülverilir.Davranışyeniöğreniliyorkenişeyarar.Kısavadelidir.

Intermittent.Arasıraödülverilir.Öğrenilmişdavranışınsürekliliğinisağlamakiçinişeyarar.Uzunvadelidir. RatioBased.Davranışıtekrarlamasayısınagöreişler.

FixRatio.Bellisayıdadavranışödüllendirilir.Piece‐rategibi. VariableRatio.Belirsizsayıdadavranışödüllendirilir.Slotmakinasiveyabalıkçıgibi.

IntervalBased.Süreyegöreişler. FixInterval.Bellisüredeödülverilir.Aylıkmaaşgibi. VariableInterval.Belirsizsüredeödülverilir.Pop‐Quizgibi.

THEGROUPGROUPS

GROUP:Acollectionofindividualswhohaveinteractionwithoneanothertowardsomecommongoalorpurpose.Theyhavesomecommonbandsthattendtodevelopfromcommonlike,dislike,interestandgoal.

FormalWorkGroups.Üst‐astilişkisiningeçerliolduğugruplar.Standartişyerigrupları;departmanlargibi.

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Ad‐HocWorkGroups.Peoplethroughouttheorganizationwhohaveaninterestoratopicorproblemformstaskforcesorcomitiestomakerecommendationsortakeactionasadhocworkgroup.

InformalWorkGroups.Basedonfriendshipandcommoninterestorlocation.Friendshipcliques.

Cohesiveness Grupabağlılık.

GroupNorms+ Cohesivenessiyidir GroupNorms‐ Cohesivenesskötüdür GroupThink3 Cohesivenesskötüdür

StagesOfGroups

Forming.Kişilerinmeseleyeısınması,“Grubagirsemmigirmesemmi?”gibisorularısorması.Statü&güçdeğerlendirmeleriyapılır,kiminnasılbiriolduğuaraştırılır.

Storming.Kimlider?Kimneyapacak?Roller&işlernasıldağıtılacak?

Norming.Statülervenormlaroturur.

Performing.İşaktifvedüzenlibirbiçimdeyapılmayabaşlanır.Enverimliaşamadır.

Adjourning.Groupyapısıdağılır/değişir.

ROLES

Aroleisasetofexpectationsbelievedbytheindividualorthegrouptobeassociatedwithapersonwho

occupiesagivenpositioninthegroupororganization.

TaskRoles Initiator(Contributor).Sorunuortayaatan,veyailkadımıatan. InformationSeeker.Araştırmacı.Seekingfacts,searchingfordata,researchingsources,askingexpertsforclarification.

InformationGiver.Offeringauthoritativefactsorrelevantexperienceprovidingexamples,andhelpthegrouptounderstandissuesbyinterpretingideas,definingtermsandclairifyingtheissues.

Evaluator.Devilsadvocate.Questioningthepracticarity,logicorprocedures. Summarizer.Puttingtogethereverything,checkinggroupbyproposingalternatives.

MaintenanceRoles Harmonizer.Üyelerarasındafarklılıklarıvegerilimiazaltır. Encourager.Praisingandprovidingencouragementtoothergroupmembers. GateKeeper.Sessizoturanlara“Seninfikrinne?”diyesorar.

BlockingRoles Dominator.Otoriteveyabüyükgözükmeyoluylagrubukontroletmeyeçalışır. Blocker.İnatlavemantıksızbirşekildegruplatersdüşer,geneldekişiselsebeplerivardır. Aggressor.Taktiklerlebaşkalarınınönerilerinikabuletmediğiniortayakoyar. Disruptor.Grubunhedeflerinesahipdeğildirvegeneldeilgisiz&alaycıbirtavırortayakoyar.

3BirgrubunExtremekararlarverip“Eveteniyisibudur”diyebirlikiçindeolması.Buesnada,“Amaşuaçıdandadüşünmeklazım”deyipbukararıbastırmakisteyebilecekküçükSubgroup’larbastırılır.

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GROUPDYNAMICS

ThePressureToConform

• SocialNorms:groupshaverulesthatmustbefollowed.

• EpistemologicalWeightingHypothesis:Grupisteklerine/kendiisteklerinenekadarönemverdiğin,grupnormlarınanekadaruyduğunubelirler

• GroupLocomotionHypothesis:Kendiisteklerinyerinegrupisteklerinikoyarsın.• NormativeSocialInfluence:basicgroupneedforcesustoconform.Collectivistlerdedahayaygın.

Örnek:moda• PolitenessTheory:Positiveface:whenothersapproveofus(Boss’akarşı),negativeface:whenwefeel

otherscantconstrainus(şirketteyenibaşlayanbirinekarşı).• Roles:Topluluktakiherkesinrolüvardır.İnsanlaroynadıklarırolüfazlasıylasahiplenebilirvekendi

değerleriniunutabilir.Örnek:sahteelektroşok,guard&prisoner.• SocialImpactTheory:conformanceincreaseswithimportance,immediacy(yakınlıktime&space)and

numberofothers.• PluralisticIgnorance:sometimesmostpeopledisagreewithagroupnorm,butnobodyspeaksout.

In‐GroupvsOut‐Group

• In‐GroupBias:wegivegroupmemberspreferentialtreatment.• HostileMediaPhenomenon:opposedgroupsseeneutralpeopleasbiased.(hakemlerioyüzdenkimse

sevmez)• LinguisticInter‐groupBias:Varyingabstractionincommunication.Grupiçiiyi&grupdışıkötü

davranışlar,grupiçikötü&grupdışıiyidavranışlardandahaçokkonuşulur.• MinorityInfluence:groupstolerateminorities,whoshouldsticktogether.

• Out‐GroupHomogeneity:seeingnon‐grouppeopleas'allthesame'.

DecisionMaking(bkz:DecisionMaking)

OtherGroupBehavior

• Deindividuation:losingoursenseofselfinthecrowd.(örnek:riots,yağma)

• GroupAttributionError:Grubunverdiğikarar,gruptakiherkesinbireyselkararıolmayabilir.Bu,gruptakiinsanlarıaslındaolmadıklarıkadarbenzersanmamızayolaçabilir.

• MinimumGroupTheory:wheninanygroup,peopleusegroupbehavior.Önemsizgruplaraüyehissedersedeönemligruplardakigibigrubauyar.

• Leader‐MemberExchangeTheory:leadersandmemberscreatesözsüzagreements.(birazdangeliyor)

• SocialLoafing

TEAMS

Team:Agroupwhoseindividualeffortresultsinaperformancethatisgreaterthanthesumofindividual

inputs.

TypesofTeams:Problemsolving,self‐managedworkteams,cross‐functionalteams,virtualteams

Tobuildgoodteams:

• Contextualfactors(resources,performanceeval,vs)

• Composition(abilities,personality,diversity,size,etc)• Workdesign(autonomy,skillvariety,taskidentity,tasksignificance,etc)

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• Process(commonpurpose,specificgoals,teamefficacy,etc)

COMMUNICATION

THEPROCESSOFHUMANCOMMUNICATION

ModelofHumanCommunication

Communication:“Processofcreatingmeaning”

SENDERMESSAGECHANNELNOISERECEIVER

Messagetypes:

• Verbal

o Intentionalo Unintentional

• Non‐Verbal

o Intentionalo Unintentional

Noisetypes:

• Semantic(whenthereceiverdoesnotattributethesamemeaningtothesignalthatthesenderdoes)o Physical

o Psychologicalo Cultural

CommunicationContexts:Interpersonal,Intercultural,Interviewing,Small‐Group,Public,Organizational,Mass

Goalsofcommunication

• Understanding:“Accuratereceptionofthecontentoftheintendedstimulus”• Pleasure

• AttitudeInfluence(CokeZero)• ImprovedRelationships

• Action

ChannelsOfCommunication

Formal Downward.Üsttenasta.Jobinstructions,procedures,rules,feedback,vision,etc. Upward.Asttanüste. Horizontal.Aynıseviyedeiletişim. Diagonal.Hierarşikyapınındeğişikbölgeleriarasındailetişim.

Informal MBWA.ManagementByWanderingAround.Çoksıkyapmamaklazım.Site’daazolmalı,yemekhanedefilanyapılabilir.

OpenDoorPolicy.Çalışanlaristediğizamanistediğimüdüregelipkonuşabilir.Kendimüdürünüatlayıpdirektgenelmüdüregidenbirişçinincezalandırılmayacağıgarantiedilmelidir.

Grapevine.Rumor.Çokhızlıdır,%70‐90’ıişleilgilidir,vedolaşanlafların%70‐90’ıdoğrudur.Akıllıbiryöneticibuyöntemikullanaraknabızyoklayabilir.

Non‐VerbalCommunication.Sözsüziletişimdir–bedendili.İletişimin%90’ınıbuoluşturur.MeselabirşeyibeğenirsenPupilsbüyür.Streslivücutküçülür,rahatvücutgenişler,vs.

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VerbalCommunication

• Symbols&referants• Denotaion/connotation

• Euphimism(memorygarden)

THEMESSAGE

VerbalMessage

WordsandMeaning

• Symbols,Referants(Word,Object)• Denotation,Connotation(Mainmeaning,alternativemeaning)

• PrivateMeaning(personal),SharedMeaning(shared),Overlappingcodes/Codeswitching(memberofminoritystartstotalkdifferentinbetweenmembers)

LanguageandThought

• Sapir‐WhorfHypothesis:“Theworldisperceiveddifferentlybymembersofdifferentcommunitiesandthisperceptionistransmittedandsustainedbylanguage”.

• LanguageProblemso Abstractlanguage(don’tstayoutlate)

o Inferences(conclusionderivedfromevidenceorassumptions–whenisit,chairwillcarryme/sheisthinkingaboutherupcomingdatethisweekend)

o Dichtomies:“brilliany”,“stupid”,“winner”,“loser”.Usingextremewordstolabel.o Euphemisms:“Passedaway”,“Memorygarden”

o Equivocallanguage:Onewordmeansmanythings(peace,truth,drink,freedom)

TheNonverbalMessage

Interactionwithverbalmessages:Replacement,Reinforcement,Contradiction

SpatialandTemporalCues

Space

• Personal• Interpersonal

o IntimateDistanceo PersonalDistanceo SocialDistance

o PublicDistance

High‐LowContact

Orientation

Time:MonochronemicvsPolichronemic

VisualClues:FacialExpression,Oculesics(eyecontact&behavior),BodyMovements,HandGestures,PhysicalAppearance&UseOfObjects

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VocalClues:Volume,Rate&Fluency,Pitch,Quality

LISTENING

Whatismeantbylistening?

• Hearing• Attention(likepayingattention)

• Understanding• Remembering

TypesofListening

• PleasurableListening

• DiscriminativeListening(matematikdersinidinlergibi)• CriticalListening(whenweneedtomakeachoice)

o Analogyo Example

o Statisticso Testimony/Quatations

• EmpathicListening

LEADERSHIP

Leadership:theabilitytoinfluenceagrouptowardtheachievementofavisionorsetofgoals.

Management:Implementingthevisionandthestrategyprovidedbyleaders,coordinatingandstaffingthe

organization,andhandlingtheday‐to‐dayproblems.

Managementskills:technical,human,conceptual(analiz)

ETHICALLEADERSHIP

Diverseperspectivesonethicalleadership:

• Burns:Increasingawarenessaboutethicalissuesisaprimaryroleofleadership.

• Heifetz:Authorityisnotneededforethicalleadership.Non‐authoritypeoplecanemergeforethicalleadership.

• Greenleaf:“Servantleadership”.Servicetofollowersistheessenceofethicalleadership.Servantleadershouldstandforwhatisgoodandright,evenifit’sfinanciallynotgood.

Criteriaforevaluatingethicalleadership

Criteria Ethical UnethicalUseofpower Toservefollowers TosatisfypersonalneedsHandlingdiverseinterestsofmultiplestakeholders

Balanceandintegratethem Favorspartnerswhoofferthemostpersonalgain

Developmentofavision Visionthatbuildsonfollowerinputabouttheirneeds,valuesandideas

Attemptstosellapersonalvisionastheonlywaytosucceed

Integrityofleaderbehavior Actsconsistentwithespousedvalues

Doeswhatisexpedientforattainingpersonalobjectives

Risktaking Willingtotakepersonalriskstoaccomplishmission

Avoidsdecisionsinvolvingpersonalrisk

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Communication Makesdisclosureofrelevantinfoaboutevents,problemsandactions

Usesdeceptiontobiasfollowerperception

Responsetocriticsm Encouragescriticalevaluation DiscouragescriticismDevelopmentoffollowerskills Coaching,mentoring,trainingto

developfollowersKeepsfollowersweakanddependenttotheleader

LEADERSHIPTHEORIES

TRAITVSBEHAVIORALTHEORIES

TraitTheories:Theoriesthatconsiderpersonalqualitiesandcharacteristicsthatdifferentiateleadersfrom

nonleaders.Thatis,leadersarebornratherthanmade.Mosttraitscanbegroupedunderbigfive.Eleştiri:Kültürebağlıolarakdeğişebilir;teoriyeuymayanbaşarılıliderlervar,durumsallığıhesabakatmıyor.

BehavioralTheories:Iftherearespecificbehaviorsthatidentifiedleaders,thenleadershipcanbetaught.

Eleştiri:Durumsallıkyok.Whichbehaviors?

• IowaStudies:AuthoritarianvsDemocraticvsLaissezFair.Vastmajoritypreferreddemocratic.• OhioStudies:Twodimensions:Consideration4&InitiatingStructure5.Firststudytopointoutand

emphasizetask&humandimensions.But;validity&focushasbeencriticized.• MichiganStudies:Twodimensions:Employee‐orientedandProduction‐oriented.Result:Supervisors

ofhigh‐productivegroupsareemployee‐oriented;supervisorsoflow‐productivegroupsareproduction‐oriented.

• ManagerialGrid:Blake&Mouton.Liderleriş/insaneilişkisiGrid’indebiryerlerdedir.

CONTINGENCYTHEORIES

“Itdepends”

LPC–LeastPreferredCoworkerContingency(Fiedler):Şirketteenazsevdiğiçalışanıbelliolumlu(yardımsever,

arkadaşcanlısı,vs)veolumsuz(bencil,soğuk,vs)kriterlerbazındapuanlar.HighLPCbiryöneticigeneldeolumlu,LowLPCiseolumsuzpuanverecektir.HighLPC’lerpeople‐oriented,Low’larisetask‐orientedolacaktır.

Situation’lar,favorableveyaunfavorableolabilir.

Leader–MentorRelation Good,Poor TaskStructure Structured,Unstructured PositionPower Strong,Weak

4Theextenttowhichaleaderislikelytohavejobrelationshipscharacterizedbymutualtrust,respectforsubordinates’ideasandregardfortheirfeelings5Theextenttowhichaleaderislikelytodefineandstructurehis/herroleandthoseofsubordinatesinthesearchforgoalattainment

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FavorableveUnfavorableSituation’lardaTaskOrientedyöneticileriyiişyapar.ModerateSituation’lardaise

PeopleOrientedyöneticileriyiişyapar.Youshouldmatchthesituationtotheleaderormatchtheleadertothesituation.Eleştiri:İnsanlarıTask/PeopleOrienteddiyebukadarkesinayıramazsın.

Path‐GoalTheory:Leadersclarifythepath,removeroadblocks,andincreaserewards.Styles:

• Supportive:Consideringtheneedsofthefollower,showingconcernfortheirwelfare.Bestwhenthe

workisstressful,boringorhazardous.• Directive:Tellingfollowerswhatneedstobedoneandgivingappropriateguidancealongtheway.This

maybeusedwhenthetaskisunstructuredandcomplexandthefollowerisinexperienced.• Participative:Consultingwithfollowersandtakingtheirideasintoaccountwhenmakingdecisions.

Bestwhenthefollowersareexpert.• Achievement‐Oriented:Settingchallenginggoals,bothinworkandinself‐improvement.This

approachisbestwhenthetaskiscomplex.

LeadershipSubstitutesTheory:Herzamanliderlazımdiyebirşeyyok.Şudurumdalideregerekolmayabilir:

• Followercharacteristics:Expertise,Self‐driven

• Taskcharacteristics:Predictable,Feedbackfromtask,Satisfyingtask• Organizationalcharacteristics:Cohesive6team,Formalorganization,Distributedteam

Hersey&Blanchart:MaturityLevel–astlarınoyönetimbiçiminenekadarhazırolduğu.

• Unable+UnwillingTelling• Able+UnwillingParticipating

• Unable+WillingSelling(eğitimcigibi)• Able+WillingDelegating

6Birlikteiyiçalışabiliyorlarsa

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CONTEMPORARYTHEORIES

İyibirlider,ikisideolabilmelidir.

CharismaticLeadership:Vizyonuvar,veiyibirhatip.Followersmakeattributionsofheroicleadershipabilitieswhentheyobservecertainbehaviors.Keycharacteristics:

• Visionandarticulation

• Personalrisk• Environmentalsensitivity

• Sensitivitytofollowerneeds• Unconventionalbehavior

Mostexpertsbelievethatindividualscanbetrainedtoexhibitcharismaticbehaviors.Butthereisalsoadarksideofcharisma(Hitler).

Theoriesofcharismaticleadership:

• AttributionTheory:Charismaisattributional.Followerattributionofcharismaticqualitiestoaleaderis

jointlydeterminedbytheleader’sbehavior,skill,andaspectsofthesituation.• Self‐ConceptTheory:Charismaisobservableprocess,ratherthanfolkloreandmystique.

TransformationalLeadership:Değişim,gelişim,dönüştürücülider.Charisma,inspiration,intellectualsimulation,individualconsideration.Charismatic’Ikapsarbu,üzerineilaveeder.Idealizedinfluence,

individualizedconsideration,inspirationalmotivation,intellectualstimulation.Steps:

• Articulateaclearandappaealingvision• Explainhowthevisioncanbeattained

• Actconfidentlyandoptimistically• Expressconfidenceinfollowers

• Usedramatic,symbolicactionstoemphasizekeyvalues• Leadbyexample

• Empowerpeopletoachievethevision

TransactionalLeadership:İşbitiricilider.Reward,managementbyactiveexception7,managementbypassiveexception8,laissez‐faire9.

LMXTHEORY

Leadersingroupsmaintaintheirpositionsthroughaseriesoftacitexchangeagreements.Liderlerinyakınçevresindekiinsanlar(asistan,danışman,vs)ileözelbirilişkisivardır.Onlaradahafazlasorumluluk,

görev,kaynak,vsverirler.Bugrup,özelstatülerisebebiyledahaçokçalışarakbedelöder.Lideretamsadakatbeklenir.Dışçemberise,dahaazyetkiyevssahipolur,dahaönemsizdir.Liderde,

içgrubunfazlapalazlanıpyerinialmamasıiçindikkatliolur.

TheLMXProcess:

• Roletaking:Birigrubayenikatıldığında;lider,onlarınyeteneklerinideğerlendirir.Zamaniçerisinde,

yetenekleriniispatlayabilecekleriyenifırsatlarverebilir.İkitarafda,nasıldavranılmakistediğinibellieder

7İstisnaoluncamüdaheleediyor8İstisnaoluncamüdaheleetmiyor,standartlaryakalanamazsamüdaheleediyor9Çalışanlarahiçkarışmaz

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• Rolemaking:Buaşamada,liderileherbirarasındasözsüzanlaşmalaroturur.Dedication&loyalty

karşılığındabenefit&powerverilir.Lideringüveninikıranbiridışgrubaitilebilir.• Routinization:leader&membersarasındakisosyalalışverişinmotifleriotururvebelirginleşir.

Successfactors:

• Similiaritytoleader• Seeingviewpointofleader• Betterwhenjobchallengeextreme(loworhigh)

• Onwards&upwards10

X–YTHEORY

Xtipindekiliderler,Taylortipindedir.İnsanlarındefaultolaraktembelvesorumlulukalmayankişiliğesahipolduklarınıdüşünürler;insanlar,ancakexternalforceileçalıştırılabilir.

Ytipindekiliderler,insanlarınaslındatembeldeğil,sorumlulukalmakisteyenvarlıklarolduğunuveinsanları

tembelleştirenşeyinsistemolduğunusavunur.İnsandavranışınıhemdış,hemiçgüçleretkiler.

MANAGEMENTPHILOSOPHY

ANCIENTWORLD

• Egyptians(~2000B.C.)experimentedwithdecentralizedgovernmentandaformofparticipatory

management• Babylonians(~1800B.C.)Hammurabi’sCodemadesupervisorresponsibleforworker

• Chinese(~1100B.C.)‐ConfuciusandSunTzu(1stmilitarytext),systemofgradingworkersintoclasses• Greeks(~400B.C.)‐Participatorymanagement;inventedjobrotation,divisionoflabor,genericvs.

distinctmanagement,inventedthestaffprinciple• Romans(~200B.C.)‐Diocletiansystemofcentralcontrol,createdjobdescriptions

CALVINISM,PROTESTANTETHIC,MAXWEBER

• Calvinism:Godchoosessometobesavedandothershaveabsolutelynoopportunityforsalvation• MaxWeber:ReligionEconomy.Calvinisminfluencedlargenumbersofpeopletoengageinworkin

thesecularworld,developingtheirownenterprisesandengagingintrade.Protestantethic:

Unplannedforcebehindmovementthatleadtocapitalism.o Authority:Rational‐Legal,Traditional,Charismatic

o Bureaucracy(notredtape)

CAPITALISM,MARXISM

• CapitalismfoundbyKarlMarx.Landandcapitalprivatelyowned.Buyers&sellers.Consumersfreetospendincome.

• AdamSmith:“WealthofNations”.Freemarketlookschaotic,butisledbyaninvisiblehand.

CHRISTIANITY

10Liderde(mesela)şirketsahibinininnercircle’ındaise;bu,liderininnercircle’ındakiinsanlaradayansır.Enaltseviyedekibiri,böylebirzincirsayesindemuazzamgüçlüolabilir.

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• ChristianPhilosophy:Managementfunctions11,Managementskills12,Conceptualskills13,Ethics14• ChristianCommunity:RitualsinChurch

CULTURE

Managershavetolearnaboutculturaldifferences.Managerialpracticesshouldbedifferentiatedwithrespect

tothecultures.

ETHICS

Theories

• Cognitivism(objectivemoraltruths)vsNon‐cognitivism(subjectivemoraltruths)

• Teleological(gettogoodresultatanycost)o EthicalEgoism:Selfishacts

o Utilitarianism:Acttomaximizegoodofthemajorityo Machiavellianism:Doeverythingtogetthejobdone

• Deontological(gettogoodresult,butnotatanycost)o Kant:Goodwill

o Locke:InbornnaturalrightsGroundforanyethicaldecision• VirtueEthics:“Nasılbirinsanolmalıyız,neçeşitVirtue’larımızolmalı?”(courage,yardımsever,vs)

Impacts:HR’sequialityofopportunity,Marketing’sadvertising,Management’swhistleblowing,tradesecrets,

workplaceprivacy,socialresponsibility

CorporateSocialResponsibility(CorporateCitizenship)

CSRDrivers:Societal,Employee,Shareholder,Consumerexpectations

CSR:thatthecorporationhasnotonlyeconomicandlegalobligations,butalsocertainresponsibilitiesto

societythatextendbeyondtheseobligations.considerstheimpactofthecompany’sactionsonsociety.

Carroll’sFourPartDefinition:Eonomic(beprofitable),Legal(obeylaws),Ethical(dowhatisright),Discretionary(beagoodcorporatecitizen)

OrganizationalJustice

• DistributiveJustice:Kaynakdağıtımınınadaleti.Meselamaaş.• ProceduralJustice:Yönteminadilolupolmadığı.“3evsatana10.000YTL”diyorsunamabirbölgeçok

zorolabilir.• RelationalJustice:Supervisor’larnasıldavranıyor?Kayırmavarmı?

• InformationalJustice:Şirketteolupbitenlerdenherkesinadilbirşekildehaberivarmı?

CONTEMPORARYISSUESOFLEADERSHIP

TRUST

11Planning,Organizing(spanofcontrol),Leading,Controlling(benchmark–başkasıylakıyasla)12Technical(iyiolanyönetsin),Human(conflict),Conceptional13Analysis,lookforalternatives,14İşçi(showtheycanbetrusted),işveren(tamparaver),

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Trust:apositiveexpectationthatanotherwillnotactopportunistically.

Typesoftrust:

• Deterrencebased:Trustbasedonfearofreprisalifthetrustisviolated• Knowledgebasedtrust:Trustbasedonbehavioralpredictabilitythatcomesfromhistory

• Identificationbasedtrust:Trustbasedonamutualunderstandingofeachothersintentions

Careandconcern:Passiveconcern15vsactiveconcern16

Reliability:Dowhatyousay.Sözlerinitut.

Honesty:Tellthewholetruth.

Creatingtrustinorganizations:Valuesandculture,interdependence,role&processclarity,goalcongruity,

visibility,consequencesoftransgression

POWER&POLITICS

POWER

Power refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B, so that B acts in accordancewith A’swishes.

• SourcesofPower

• FormalPower:Itisbasedonanindividual’spositioninanorganization.o Coercive Power:Coercivepower is thepower that comes fromaperson’sauthority to

punish.o RewardPower:Thisistheoppositeofcoercivepower.Thistypeofpowerisbasedonthe

abilitytodistributerewardsthatothersviewasvaluable (Robbins,2005).Thispower isobviousbutalsoineffectiveifabused.

o Legitimate Power: This is the authority delegated to the holder of the position(Wikipedia,2008).

o InformationPower: Informationpowercomesasaresultofpossessingknowledgethatothersneedorwant.Thispowertypealsoextendstotheabilitytoget informationnot

presentlyheldsuchasacasewithalibrarianordatabasemanager(Petress).• PersonalPower:Itisbasedonanindividual’suniquecharacteristicsratherthanaformalbase.

o Expert Power: It is an individual's power deriving from the skills or expertise of thepersonandtheorganization'sneedsforthoseskillsandexpertise(Wikipedia,2008).

o ReferentPower:Itisbasedonidentificationwithapersonwhohasdesirableresourcesorpersonal traits. Itdevelopsoutofadmirationofanotherandadesire tobe like that

person(Robbins,2005).o CharismaticPower:ThesociologistMaxWeberdefinedcharismaticauthorityas"resting

ondevotiontotheexceptionalsanctity,heroismorexemplarycharacterofanindividualperson,andofthenormativepatternsororderrevealedorordainedbyhim"(Wikipedia,

2008).Powerbaseduponcharismaisanextensionofreferentpowerstemmingfromanindividual’spersonalityandinterpersonalstyle(Robbins,2005).

• ScopeofPower:Üzerindeetkiliolabileceğininsanesayısı.

15doingnoharm16preventingharmingeneral(fromothersources)

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• FieldofPower:Hangialandaetkiliolabileceğin.MeselaOBhocası“sunumhazırla”derseyaparsın,

ama“geceuyuma”derseyapmazsın.

Sustainingpowerwillrequiretheaudiencetobedependentonthepowerholder:

• Importance:Aslongasthesourceofpowerisimportanttotheothers,thepowerwillbesustainable.

• Scarcity:Aslongasthesourceofpowerisscarce,thepowerwillbesustainable.• Nonsubstitutability:Thelesssubstitutedthesourceofpowerhas,themoresustainablethepowerwill

be.Lesssubstitutablesourcesofpowerwillrelatetoahigherlevelofpower.

POLITICS

Politics:Powerinaction

Politicalbehavior:Activitiesthatarenotrequiredaspartofone’sformalroleintheorganization,butthatinfluence,orattempttoinfluence,thedistributionofadvantagesanddisadvantageswithintheorganization.

LegitimatepoliticalbehaviorvsIllegitimatepoliticalbehavior

Perceptionoforganizationalpolitics:decreasedsatisfaction,increasedstress,increasedturnover,reducedperformance

Defenses:avoidingaction,avoidingblame,avoidingchange.

Impressionmanagement:Theprocessbywhichindividualsattempttocontroltheimpressionothersformof

them.Conformity(onauymak),excuses(bahaneuydurmak),apologies(özürdilemek),self‐promotion(kendiniövmek),flattery(karşındakiniövmek),favors(karşındakineiyilikyapmak),association(bizonunlaaynı

okuldanız)

CONFLICT&NEGOTIATION

CONFLICT

Disagreement.İkifarklıkişi/gruparasındakiamaç/fikirayrılığı.

Old:Conflictisbadandmustbeavoided

Modern:Conflictisinevitable

Postmodern :Conflictisgoodifyoucanmanagenatureandamountofconflict.

NaturesofConflict

Taskconflict.Generallygood. Relationshipconflict.Generallybad.

TaskRelationshipconflictarasındageneldepozitifkorelasyonvardır,oyüzdendikkatetmekgerekir.İkisininarasındaModeratingVariablesdavardır;Trust,Communication,ConflictStyle(win‐win)gibi.

AmountOfConflict

Conflictneçokaz,nedeçokfazlaolmalıdır.Azconflict,grubutekdüzeliğevedurağanlığaiter;GroupThink’e

bileyolaçabilir.ÇokConflictise,yönetilmesizorbirdurumagötürür.

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ConflictManagement

Relatedwithcommunicationclosely.

Levelsofconflict

Intrapersonel.Kişininkendiiçindeolurveçözülmesizordur.CognitiveDissonance. Approachconflict.İkipozitifseçenekarasındakararvermegüçlüğü. Avoidenceconflict.İkinegatifseçenekarasındakararvermegüçlüğü. Approach–avoidenceconflict.Hempozitif,hemnegatiföğelerbarındıranikiseçenekarasındakararvermegüçlüğü.(Rejimyapanbirinin“Şukekiyesemmi”demesi).

Interpersonel.İkikişiarasında. Intragroup.Grupiçinde. Intergroup.İkigruparasında.İnsanlarıngrubaolanbağlılığınıarttırır. Interorganizational.İkiorganizasyonarasında.Pepsi–CocaColaarasındakipromosyonsavaşıgibi.

Loweringconflictlevels

Avoiding.TurtleStyle.Herşeyiönlersin,Lose–Loseolur.Durumönemlideğilse,veyahedefeulaşılamıyorsakullanılır.Karşıtarafısakinleştirmekiçingeçicibirsüredeuygulanabilir.

Acommodation.TeddyBearStyle.“Senindediğinolsun”.Haklıolmadığınıanlarsanuygulanır;Harmony&Peaceisteyenbirideuygulayabilir.Birdahakiseferiçinsenigüçlükılacaktır.

Competing(Forcing).SharkStyle.“Benimdediğimolsun”.Iwin–youlose.Çabukkarargerekendurumlardauygulanabilir.Amygdala17insanıbunaiter.

Compromising.FoxStyle.Nolose,nowin.Ortanoktadabuluşulur.Fullutilizationolmaz,ikitarafdabirazkazanıpbirazkaybeder.

Collabration.OwlStyle.Win–win.Eniyialternatiftir,amauygulayabilmekiçintaraflarıntaleplerinindeğil,dahaderindekiNeed’lerininanlaşılmasıgerekir.

Competition

Aggressioninsangenlerindevardır,buyüzdenCompetitionolur.SocialprogrammingdeCompetition’ukörükler;yanidoğduğumuzdanberihepCompetition’aitiliyoruz.Competition,geneldeIWin–YouLoseşeklindeyapılır.Sonuçları;

Win–win.İkitarafdakazanır.Paylaşılanpastabüyür.Awareness,creativity,willingnessgerektirir.

17Hayvansal,saldırganbeyin.Bunuüstbeynin(Rational)idareetmesibeklenir.

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Lose–lose.İkitarafdakaybeder.Paylaşılmakistenenpastaküçülür. Win–Lose.Birikazanıpbirikaybeder,pastaboyutudeğişmez.

Corporation+Competition=Coopetition.

TransactionalAnalysis:Parent–Adult–Childilişkisikarşılıklıolarak.

NEGOTIATION

Negotiationolabilmesiiçin:

• Conflict

• Interdependency• Utility(anlaştıktansonrasonuçlar)

Negotiation’dagüçlüolmakiçinBATNA’nıbilmengerekir

THEORGANIZATIONSYSTEMORGANIZATIONSTRUCTURE

Organizationalstructure:Howjobtasksareformallydivided,groupedandcoordinated.

• Worksspecializaition:Towhatdegreeareactivitiessubdividedintoseparatejobs?• Departmentalization:Onwhatbasiswilljobsbegroupedtogether?

• Chainofcommand:Towhomdoindividualsandgroupsreport?• Spanofcontrol:Howmanyindividualscanamanagerefficientlydirect?

• (De)centralization:Wheredoesdecision‐makingauthoritylie?• Formalization:Towhatdegreewillthereberulesandregulationstodirectemployeesandmanagers

CORPORATEGOVERNANCE

Decidinghowcorporationsoughttobegovernedinvolvessomeanswertothequestion,“Inwhoseinterestsshouldcorporationsberun?”

• PropertyRightsTheory:viewsthecorporationasaprivateentity.shareholders,asownersofthecorporation,havearightthatitbeoperatedsolelyintheirinterests.Itisarguedthatshareholders

werenolongerownersinanymeaningfulsense.• SocialInstitutionTheory:regardsthecorporationasapublicentity,inwhichthestategrants

individualstherighttodobusinessinthecorporateforminordertoservesomesocialgood.• ContractualTheory:thefirmisaconnectionofcontractsamongallofitsconstituencies,inwhich

groupsdeploytheireconomicassetsforsomereturn.

ORGANIZATIONALCULTURE

CULTUREINGENERAL

Perspectives

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• Traditional:Cultureisasocialheritage

• Behavioral:Wayofliving• Structural:Forms,values,sharedbymembers

• Functional:Wayofsolvingproblemsanddealingwithadaptationissuesinregardofhumanactivieis• Mental:Cognitiveprocess.Höfstede:“Mentalprogramofhumanbeings”=Culture.

Dominantculture,subculture

Strongvsweakculture

Organizationalvsnationalculture

CULTUREVSCLIMATE

Culture:Asystemofsharednorms,rules,moresandethicsbythemembersofagivensociety.Learnedand

transmittedfromgenerationtogeneration.Notstatic;culturechangesveryslowlyovertime.

Climate:Climateportraysorganizationalenvironmentsasbeingrootedintheorganization’svaluesystem,buttendstopresentthesesocialenvironmentsinrelativelystaticterms,describingthemintermsofafixedsetof

dimensions.

Point Climate Culture

Reference Referstoasituation Referstoanevolvedcontext

Link Linkstothoughts,feelings,behaviors

Rootedinhistory

Source GrowingoutofLewinianfieldtheory

Growingoutofsocialconstructionframework

Generalization Possible Notpossible,eachcultureisunique

PointofView Etic–Describesconceptsaspartofobserver

Emic–Describesconceptsaspartofculture

Methodology Quantitative Qualitative

TemporalOrientation Historicalsnapshot Evolutionovertime

LevelofAnalysis Surface,observations Deep,individualmeanings

LEADERSHIP&CULTURE

Sourcesofculture:Beliefs&values&assumptionsoffounders,learningexperiencesofmembers,newbeliefs

&values&assumptionsbroughtinbynewmembersandleaders.

Cultureisrootedinthevision(means:culture)ofthefounder;andtheleaderswhosustainthevision.Ifleadersvisionwouldbewrong,thegroupwouldbedisbandedsoon.

Howleadersembed&transmitculture

• Specifyingwhattheypayattentionto;whattheymeasure;andwhattheycontrol• Reactionstocriticalincidentsandorganizationalcrises

• Observedcriteriaforresourceallocation• Rolemodeling,teaching,coaching

• ObservedcriteriaforAllocationofrewardsorstatus• ObservedcriteriaforRecruitment,selection,promotion,etc

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CULTURETHEORIES

HOFSTEDE

Artifacts:Symbols,heroes,rituals,values

Dimensions:Powerdistance,IndividualismvsCollectivism,MasculenityvsFemininity,Uncertaintyavoidance,LongTermvsShortTermorientation

SCHEIN

Artifacs:Heroes,Symbols,Rituals

DENISON

Dimensions:

• Involvement

o Empowermento Teamorientation

o Capabilitydevelopment• Consistency

o Corevalues:Setofvalues,creatingasenseofidentityo Agreement:employeescapacitytoreachanagreementoncriticalissues

o Coordination&integration:Separateunitsabletoworktogethertowardsgoal• Adaptability

o Creatingchange:Abilitytodevelopalternativewaysofmeetingexternal&internalchangingneeds

o Customerfocuso Organizationallearning:Lessonsoutofexperience

• Missiono Strategicdirection:Strategicintentionstowardsgoals

o Goals&objectives:Operasyonelhedeflero Vision:Commonvisionenableseomployeestousetheircreativity

QUEEN

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GLOBEPROJECT

examiningtheinter‐relationshipsbetweensocietalculture,organizationalculture,andorganizationalleadership.

CulturanDimensions:

• PerformanceOrientation:Itisthedegreetowhichasocietyencouragesandrewardsgroupembers

forperformanceimprovement.• Uncertainty Avoidance: Thisdimension is the society’s relianceon social normsandprocedures to

alleviatetheunpredictabilityoffutureevents.• HumaneOrientation:Thisisthedegreetowhichasocietyencouragesindividualstobefair,altruistic,

generous,caringandkindtoothers.• Individualism vs. Collectivism: It is the degree to which individuals are encouraged by social

institutionstobeintegratedintogroupswithinorganizationsandsociety.• InstitutionalCollectivism:Itisthedegreetowhichorganizationalandsocietalinstitutionalpractices

encourageandrewardcollectivedistributionofresourcesandcollectiveaction.• In‐Group Collectivism: It is theextent towhichmembersof a society takepride inmembership in

smallgroups;suchasfamilies,circleofclosefriendsandacompany.• Assertiveness: It is the extent to which a society encourages people to be tough, assertive and

competitive.• GenderEgalitarianism:Itistheextenttowhichasocietymaximizesgenderroledifferences.

• FutureOrientation:Itistheextenttowhichasocietyencouragesfuture‐orientedbehaviors,suchasplanningandinvestinginthefuture.

• Power Distance: This is the degree to whichmembers of a society expect power to be unequallyshared.

LeadershipAttributes:

• Universal Positives: There are 22 attributes universally regarded as contributing to good businessleadership,including“trustworthy,”“motivearouser,”and“excellenceoriented”.

• Universal Negatives: There are 8 attributes universally regarded as inhibiting outstanding businessleadership,including“irritable”and“dictatorial”.

• CulturallyContingent:Mostrevealingare35attributesviewed insomesocietiesaspromotinggoodleadership, and in other societies as impeding good leadership. This list includes surprises such as

“cunning,”“evasive,”“classconscious,”andeven“sensitive”.

Culturallyendorsedleadershiptheorydimensions:

• Charismatic/ValueBased:ThisCLTcapturesaleader’sabilitytoinspire,tomotivate,andtoexpecthighperformanceoutcomes.ThisCLTwasassociatedwith“self‐sacrifice,”“integrity,”“decisive,”and

“performance oriented”. A key finding is that all cultures saw this dimension as very substantiallycontributing to outstanding leadership (Grove, 2007). However, being charismatic was considered

morerelevantincultureswithahighperformanceorientation(Yukl,2002).• Team Oriented: It is described as emphasizing effective team‐building and implementation of a

commonpurposeorgoalamongteammembers.Allculturessaw“teamorientation”ascontributingsubstantiallytooutstandingleadership(Grove,2007).However,thisdimensionwasconsideredmore

relevant for leader effectiveness in cultures that are collectivistic rather than individualistic (Yukl,2002).

• Participative: This CLT reflects the degree to which managers involve others in making andimplementingdecisions.GermanicEuropemostpositivelyassociated“participative”withoutstanding

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leadership.TheleastpositiveassociationwasintheMiddleEast,whereitsassociationwasmodestly

abovethemid‐point(Grove,2007).Thismeans,beingparticipativewasconsideredmorerelevantforleadershipeffectivenessincultureswithlowpowerdistanceandlowavoidanceofuncertainty(Yukl,

2002).• Human Oriented: This CLT reflects supportive and considerate leadership, but also includes

compassion and generosity. Worldwide, this CLT was viewed as only moderately contributing tooutstandingleadership(Grove,2007).

• Self‐Protective:Thisdimensionfocusesonensuringthesafetyandsecurityoftheindividualorgroup.Worldwide,thisCLTwasviewedasnotcontributingtooutstandingleadership.Thehighestscore,by

SouthAsiancultures,wasjustbelowthemid‐point(Grove,2007).• Autonomous:ThisCLTreferstoindependentandindividualisticleadership(Grove,2007).

InthestudyofPaşa,KabasakalandBodurin2001,GLOBE’sfindingsweretestedempiricallyinaTurkishstudy.

Herearesomesignificantresults:(Paşa,Kabasakal,&Bodur,2001)

• Collectivismhasfoundtobethemostdominantorganizationalvalue.Collectivisticvaluesarefoundtoinfluenceleadershipbehaviorsof“Paternalistic‐considerate”and“Laissez‐Faire”.

• Beingtheseconddominantorganizationalvalues,performanceorientationanduncertaintyavoidancewerenotfoundtoinfluenceobservedleadershipbehaviors.

• Valuesofself‐sacrificial,integrity,powerdistanceandqualitywerefoundtoinfluencetheleadershipbehaviorsof“Hierarchical‐Autocratic”,“Transactional‐TeamOriented”and“Laissez‐Faire”.

• Themostfrequentlyobservedleadershiptypeswere:o Hierarchical‐autocratic

o Paternalistic‐considerateo Transactional‐teamoriented

o Laissez‐Faire

HRPOLICIESANDPRACTICES

RECRUITMENT

SELECTION

Selectiondevices:Interview,writtentests,performance‐simulationtests,worksampletests

Recruitment&jobhuntingmethods:Mediaads(Newspaperads,electronicmedia,situation‐wantedads),

pointofpurchasemethods,campusrecruitment,outsiderecruiters(employmentagencies,executivesearchfirms,publicemploymentagencies),employeereferrals,directmail,computerdatabases,jobfairs

INTERVIEW

RealisticJobPreviews:Involvesgivinganapplicantanhonestassesmentofajob.

Reasonsforlackofinterviewvalidity:Poorintuitiveability,lackofjobrelatedness,primacyeffect,cotrast

effect,negative‐informationbias,interview‐intervieweesimilarity,appearance,nonverbalcues

Toimproveinterviews:Training,structuredinterviews,situationalinterviews

REFERENCES

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Reasontousereferences:Confirmingresume,checkingfordisciplineproblems,discoveringnewinformation,predictingfutureperformance

Problemswhenusingreferences:Leniency,knowledgeofapplicant,reliability,extraneousfactors

TESTS

Whenchoosingtests:Reliability&validity,cost&easeofuse,potentialforlegalproblems,scoringmethods,speedvspower

Typesoftests:

• Psychologicaltests18:interestinventories19,abilitytests,job‐knowledgetests

• Physicalagilitytests

Assessmentcenters:In‐baskettechnique,simulations,worksamples,leaderlessgroupdiscussions,businessgames

JOBANALYSIS&EVALUATION

JOBANALYSIS

Neededfor:Jobdescriptions,employeeselection,training,personpowerplanning,performanceappraisal,jobclassification,jobevaluation,jobdesign

Jobdescriptionmustinclude:Jobtitle,DOTcode,Briefsummary,workactivities,toolsused,workcontext,

performancestandards,personalrequirements

Infoisgatheredthrough:Interviews,observation,taskanalysis,jobpraticipation

GatheringInformation:

• Tasks&Activities

o PositionAnalysisQuestionnaire(PAQ).Cons:Collegelevelo JobStructureProfile(JSP).RevisedversionofPAQ

o JobElementsInventory(JEI).Lesseducatedpeoplecanunderstand.o FunctionalJobAnalysis(FJA).Usedbyfederalgovernmenttoanalyseandcomparethousands

ofjobs.• Tools&Equipment:JobComponentsInventory(JCI)

• WorkEnvironment:ArbeitswissenscahftlichesErhebungsverfahrenzurTatigkeitsanalyse(AET).• KSAO’s

o CriticalIncident(CIT)o JobComponentsInventory(JCI)

o TresholdTraitsAnalysis(TTA).LikeJCI.o FleishmanJobAnalysisSurvey(F‐JAS).Ratelistofabilities,highlystructured.

o Job‐ElementApproach

JOBEVALUATION

18Örnek:BigFive19Katılımcılara“doyouliketorepairelectricalwiring?”gibilike/dislikesorularsoruyorsun

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Processofdeterminingajobsworth.Internalpayequityimportant:

• InternalEquity

o RankingMethod:İşleriöneminegörelistele,üsttekialttakindenfazlaalsıno PointMethod:Faktörleribelirle,faktöleripuanla,kişilerözelliklerinegörepuan(=para)alsın

• ExternalEquity:SalarySurveys

COMPANSATIONSYSTEMS

VariablePayPrograms

• Piece‐ratepayplans

• Profit‐sharingplans(organizationwide)• Gainsharing(groupproductivity)

SkillBasedPayPlans

FlexibleBenefits

TRAINING&DEVELOPMENT

TRAINING

Determiningneeds:

• Organizationalanalysis

• Taskanalysis• Personanalysis:Performaneappraisal,surveys,interviews,skill&knowledgetests,criticalincidents

Trainingtypes:

• Classroominstruction:Seminars,programmedinstruction20,casestudies,criticalincidents

• SampleJobPerformance:Simulation,RolePlaying,Modeling21,BehaviorModeling22,JobRotation• Informalon‐the‐jobtraining:Apprenticetraining,Coaching,PerformanceAppraisal

Encouragingtheuseroftrainingmaterial:goalsetting,feedback,incentivesforlearning

LEARNING

Howdowelearn?

• Classicalconditioning(Pavlovgibi).Satınalmadavranışı–Shavingcream&pleasure

• Operantconditioning:Eylemsel.Positive&negativereinforcement.• Sociallearning:Biriödülveyacezaalıyor,senonabakıpörnekalıyorsun.

Typesoftraining:basicliteracyskills,technicalskills,interpersonalskills,problem‐solvingskills

Trainingmethods:on‐the‐job,off‐the‐job

20Bookletver,kitapgibiokusunsonrasınavıçözsün21Bywatchingotheremployees22Roleplayinggibi,amaörnekaldığınkişigerçekçidenziyadeidealdavranışlarsergiliyor

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PERFORMANCEAPPRAISAL

Appraiseperformance,noteffectiveness.Whatpeopledo;observable,relevanttogoals,measurable.Evaluatecontextualperformanceaswell.

Requirements:Contentmustbeobjective,job‐related,behavior‐based,rateecontrol,relatetospecificfunctios.Proceduremustbestandardized,formallydeclared,providedeficincies,providesuggestions,review

allowed,inputallowed,multipletrainedraters,abusedetection.

Sourcesofinfo:

• Productiondata:Üretimdengelenveriler.Amaherzamantamdoğruyugöstermez,çevreselfaktörler

biriniiyikötüyaomışolabilir.• Personneldata:HRverileri.Kaçgünişegelmemişgibi.

• Judgementaldata.Değerlendirenkişininyargısı.

Techniques

• Top–DownEvaluationo GraphicalRatingScales

o EmployeeComparison.Leniency&centraltendencyönler,halo’yuönlemez. Rankorder.İyi–kötüarasındakifarkınmiktarıbelliolmaz.

Pairedcomparison.Zayıfyanı,kalabalıkşirketlerdeçokvakitalması. Forceddistribution.Normaldağılımvarmışgibivarsaypinsanlarıorayayerleştirmek.

Herkesiyiveyaherkeskötüysebugözardıedilecektir.o BehavioralChecklists.Davranışadayanır.

Criticalincidents.Yıliçindeperformansıarttıranveyaazaltandavranışlarnotedilir,vesonrakişileronagöredeğerlendirilir.Olumsuz:Makinayıçalışırhaldebıraktı.

Olumlu:Hepbaretgiydi BARS–Behaviorallyanchoredratingscale.Incident’ler5‐10dimension’datoplanır.

Dimension’lariyidenkötüyesıralanır.Üstsıradakileriyapanlariyi,altsıradakileriyapanlarkötüolarakbelirlenir.

BOS–Behavioralobservationscale.BARSgibi,farkı:odavranışıbellibirdönemdenekadartekrarladığınabağlı.

• SelfAssesment.Overevaluationveleniency23olabilir.• Peerassessment.Zortarafı,arkadaşlarbirbirinekötüdemekistemeyebilirveyabirbirinepuanvermek

istemeyebilir.o PeerNomination:Herbirüye,bellibirdimension’lagöreeniyi(mesela)3üyeyiseçer.

o PeerRating:Herbirüye,diğerlerinebellidimension’laragörepuanveriro PeerRanking:Herbirüye,diğerlerinibellibirdimension’agöreeniyidenenkötüyedoğru

dizer• 360DegreeFeedback.Manager’lariçinherkestenAppraiseetmesibeklenir.Increasesself‐awareness.

RaterSubjects

• Commonerrorso Haloerror

o Leniencyerroro Central‐tendencyerror

• RaterTraining23yumuşakça.Meselamanager’larkendilerinisupervisor’larındandahaazkırıcıdeğerlendiriyorlar

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o Preventerrors

o Prevention~accuracy?o Ratercalibration

• RaterMotivationo Noreward

o Helpfriendso Emp.Rating=Man.Rating

o Preventnegavitereactions

ORGANIZATIONALDYNAMICSORGANIZATIONALCHANGE&STRESSMANAGEMENT

ORGANIZATIONALCHANGE&DEVELOPMENT

ORGANIZATIONALCHANGE

Organizationalchangeisthemovementofanorganizationawayfromitspresentstateandtowardsomedesiredfuturestatetoincreaseitseffectiveness

• Reengineering• TQM

• Innovation• Restructuring

NeedforChange:Proactive,Reactive,Crisis

Dealingwithresistance:

• Negotiation:Güçlübirideğişimsonundabirşeykaybedecekse• Participation&Involvement:Bilgieksikliğivarsavegüçlüyse

• Communication&Education:Bilgieksikliğivarsavezayıfsa• Facilitation&Support:Altyapıeksikliğivarsa

• Coercion:Hızlıdeğişimgerekiyorsa

CHANGEMODELS

McKinsey/‐SModel

Therearesevenfactorsworkingcollectively,whicharepartofthismodel:(Cellars,2007)

1. SharedValues:Mission/visionofthecompany2. Strategy:Howthecompanyplanstoreacttowardsexternalchanges

3. Structure:Organizationalstructureofthecompany4. Systems:Proceduresabouthowtheworkshouldbedone

5. Style:Organizationalcultureandmanagementstyle6. Staff:Employeesandtheirresponsibilities

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7. Skill:Theabilitiesoftheemployeesandtheorganization

TherearemanybenefitsanddisadvantagesoftheMcKinseymodel(Cellars,2007).Advantagesare:

• Itisaneffectivewaytounderstandanorganization• Itisaguidefororganizationalchange

• Allpartsareinterrelated;therefore,allportionsmustbeaddressedandfocusedon

The disadvantages are; when one part is changed, all parts must be changed as well because ofinterdependency.Thereisevidencethatafterthefiveyears,manyofthecompaniesusingthismodelfellfrom

thetop.Therefore;exceptitsusefulnesstounderstandanorganization,it isnotwisetoacceptthismodelasthemostusefulone.

Lewin’sThreeStepModel

Unfreezing,Movement,Freezing.

Kotter’sEightStepPlan

LikeLewin’s,butmoredetailed.

1. Establishasenseofurgencybycreatingacompellingreasonforwhychangeisneeded.2. Formacoalitionwithenoughpowertoleadchange.

3. Createanewvisiontodirectthechangeandstrategiesforachievingthevision.4. Communicatethevisionthroughouttheorganization.

5. Empowerotherstoactonthevisionbyremovingbarrierstochangeandencouragingrisktakingandcreativeproblemsolving.

6. Planfor,create,andrewardshort‐term“wins”thatmovetheorganizationtowardthenewvision.7. Consolidateimprovements,reassesschanges,andmakenecessaryadjustmentsinthenewprograms.

8. Reinforcethechangesbydemonstratingtherelationshipbetweennewbehaviorsandorganizationalsuccess.

ORGANIZATIONALDEVELOPMENT

Organizationaldevelopment(OD)istheuseofsocialscienceknowledgetoimproveorganizationaleffectiveness.Organizationaldevelopmentisaspecialapproachtoorganizationalchangeinwhichthe

employeesthemselvesformulatethechangethat’srequiredandimplementit,oftenwiththeassistanceofatrainedconsultant.Fivesteps:

• Diagnosis:Collectdataaboutgroup,organization,vs• Feedback:Giveinformationtothem

• Planning:Planfuturesteps• Intervention

• Follow‐upEvaluation

STRESSMANAGEMENT

Stress:Adynamicconditioninwhichanindividualisconfrontedwithanopportunity,constraint,ordemandrelatedtowhatheorshedesiresandforwhichtheoutcomeisperceivedtobebothuncertainandimportant.

Sourcesofstress:

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• Environmentalfactors(economic/political/technologicaluncertainty)

• Organizatioalfactors(task/role/interpersonaldemsnds,org.structure&leadership)• Individualfactors(family/economicproblems,personality)

Consequences

• Physiologicalsymptoms(headache,highbloodpressure,heartdisease)• Psychologicalsymptoms(anxiety,depression,decreaseinjobsatisfaction)• Behavioralsymtoms(prductivity,absenteeism,turnover)

Managingstress:

• Individualapproaches.Timemanagementtraining,physicalexercise,relaxationtechniques,socialsupportnetworks.

• Organizationalapproaches.Betterselection&placementdecisions,bettergoalsetting,redesigningjobs,organizationalcommunication.

LEARNINGORGANIZATIONS

Organization,whichhasdevelopedthecontinouscapacitytoadoptandchange.

SingleLoopvsDoubleLoopLearning

Characteristics:

• Sharedvision• Discardoldways

• Opensystemsapproach• Opencommunication

• Sublimateselfinterest

Disciplines:

• Systemsthinking

o Balanceprocesswithdelay:showero SelfsustainingvsSelflimitinggrowth:borsainişçıkış,neresindesatıyorsun

o Shiftingtheburden:curedisease,notsymptoms.Sample:don’tcurestressbydrinkingo TragedyofCommons

o Personalmastery:deepenone’svisionandsustaininglifelonglearning.Hayalleryukarıçekerkengerçeklikaşağıçeker

• Mentalmodels:Kafamızdakimodellergerçekliktenuzakolabilir.Önlem:Makereasoningexplicit,defineassumptionsclearly,encourageotherstofindgaps,inquireintootherviews

• Buildingasharedvision:Polariod–InstantPhotographygibi.Vizyon,PersonalVision’laradauymalı• TeamLearning:JazzgruplarıveyaNBAtakımlarıgibi.How?Sustaindialogue&discussion

LearningDisabilities:

• Iammyposition:Limitsresponsibility,blindnessofinteraction

• Theenemyisoutthere:Blamingothers.MarketingProduction.Resultofsystemblindness• Illusionoftakingcharge:Proactivenessisreactivenessindisguise.Örnek:Projeucuzolsundiyeucuz

ABAPçıalıyorsunamaüretimyanlışhesaplandığıiçinuzunvadededahakötüoluyor.• Fixationonevents:Kısavadeyeodaklanmak.

• Parableofboiledfrog

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• Delusionoflearningfromexperience:R&Ddahahafifbirsaçkurutmamakinasıyapıyor,amamüşteri

dokunuşunu“Cheap”bulduğuiçinalmıyor.Musthavefeedback–hardinopensystems• Mythofmanagementteam:Usually,solvinganurgentproblemisthesubjectofamanagementteam

meeting,andagoodsolutionwillberewarded.Ontheotherhand,questioningthecompany’scurrentpolicieswillnot

Lawsoflearningorganizations:

• Today’sProblemsComeFromYesterday’sSolutions:Ayakkabıcıgünükurtarmakiçinindirimyapıyor,

amasonarucuzayakkabılarlaaynıseviyeyedüşüyorimajı• TheHarderYouPush,TheHarderTheSystemPushesBack.¨Example:USAaidprogram

• BehaviorWillGrowBetterBeforeItWillGrowWorse:Yazılımcıprojeyiyetiştiremedidiyelim.Testsürecinizayıftutup“gecikme”probleminiçözdüdiyelim.Oandaaferindendi.Amauzunvadede

yazılımpatlayıncaokötüyazılımcıolarakbilinecek.• TheEasyWayOutUsuallyLeadsBackIn:“BiggerHammer”.carpenterwhoistryingdifferenttypeof

hammerstogetanailoutofacabinet.Whathereallyneedsisapairofpincers.• TheCureCanBeWorseThanTheDisease.¨Example:Alcoholism

• FasterisSlower.Asamanagerialprinciple,itisabetterideatoremovethefactorslimitinggrowthinsteadofpushinggrowth.

• Cause&EffectAreNotCloselyRelated.Salesbad?Wrong:Firesalespeople.Right:Inspectreasons.• LeastObviousAreasofLeverage:whenschoolofficialsmakethedecisiontointroduceeducational

reforms,simplysittingdownwithteachersandeasingtheirconcernsabouttheimpactthesereformswillhaveontheirlivescangoalongwaytowardpavingthewayforasmoothtransition

• YouCanHaveYourCake,andEatItToo.ButNotAllAtOnce!Thisisanincorrectbelief.SomeitemsinIkea’scatalogueof2008arecheaperthanthecatalogueof2007.IKEAstatedthatthishappened

becausetheywereabletodecreasethepricebecauseofthehighvolumeofsalesandnewproductionmethods.

• DividingAnElephantInTwoDoesn’tProduce2Elephants.Opensystemshaveintegrity.

LeadershipinLO:LeaderasDesigner24,LeaderasTeacher25,LeaderasSteward,TransformationalLeadership

24Sistemleritasarlarkendebulunmalıyönetici.MeselaERPprojesivarsa,tasarımaşamasındaolmalı25Createaspaceforlearning&invitepeopleintoit

a general summary of organizational behavior

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