A GUIDE TO RHETORICAL

TERMS:

What is the Argument Pattern? Argument is writing that uses factual

evidence and supporting ideas to convince readers to share the author’s opinion on an issue, or to take some action the writer considers appropriate or necessary.

Argument conveys information; however, it does so not to explain but to induce readers to favor one side in a conflict or choose an appropriate course of action.

How is an ARGUMENT supported?

Examples Facts and figures Authority Personal experience

CLASSIFICATION Pattern: A natural neurological tendency Can be helpful or harmful Can clarify or mislead Can manage large amounts of information Can overlap

Developing Categories: Use transitions words to signal a new

category:

type, sort , class, part, category, kind, aspect, subcategory, trait, species, element, subset, segment, characteristic, component, group

How else to develop categories: Name your categories Provide detailed examples Explain your categories

Cliches: tired, overused expressions:

Innocent as a lamb Thin as a rail Fat as a pig Dumb as an ox Sly as a fox

How to Close my essay? Use signal words (finally, at last, thus, in conclusion…) Change the tempo with varied sentence length Restate the central idea Use climax, saving the most important point for last Make suggestions Show the topic’s significance Echo the intro Use a rhetorical device—quote, metaphor, allusion, ironic

comment, anecdote, brief dialogue

Coherence: When each word, sentence, paragraph,

and major division grows out of those preceding them…

Coherence is aided by carefully chosen words (diction) and transitional devices

Colloquial expressions: Characteristic of conversation and informal

writing, but should never be used in essays, writing done for college, business, or professional purposes considered formal

Contractions are considered colloquial Slang is a lower form of colloquialism

COMPARISON Pattern: Another neurological tendency Used to highlight similarities and

differences May be used to show the superiority of one

thing over another May be used to evaluate May be used to explain the unfamiliar

CONCRETE and ABSTRACT: Concrete diction names something that

exists as an entity in itself, something possible to perceive with the senses. (We can see, touch, hear and smell a horse, hence horse is a concrete word.

Abstract diction does not have an independent existence—something else must be strong or there is no strength. Hence, strength is an abstract word.

CONNOTATION & DENOTATION:

Denotation is the literal dictionary meaning of a word

Connotation is the response a word arouses in the reader or listener

Nazi! Fascist! Socialist! Racist!

DESCRIPTION Pattern: Uses sensory details to recreate people,

places, qualities, emotions or moods Can distract you from your expository

purpose Can be subjective or objective (like a

scientific paper, business report or academic essay)

Diction: choice of words: Good diction can be analyzed for its:

Accuracy: exact right word for the purpose Economy: simplest, fewest words Emphasis: fresh, vivid words, not vague! Appropriateness: words that suit the subject

matter, audience-reader, and purpose

EMPHASIS can be achieved by: Positioning most important material at beginning

or end of sentence. Proportion: important material receives more

attention Repetition: use sparingly, for greater effect. Flat statement: just tell the reader what matters

most! Mechanical devices: italics, caps, exclamation

points. (Again, use sparingly…) By distinctiveness of style (Behavioral Sink???)

What is an Essay? A brief prose composition on a single topic,

communicating the author’s personal ideas and impressions.

Can be formal or informal Formal is more serious in tone and diction (like a

rhetorical analysis or argument) Informal is more chatty, less elaborately

organized, more personal (like a memory piece, rant or humorous explanation of something)

What are Figures of Speech? Short vivid comparisons, stated or implied: Metaphor suggests comparison of two unlike

things Simile compares unlike things directly Personification treats inanimate things as if they

had human powers Allusion is a figurative reference to a famous or

literary person, event or quote. Irony says one thing but means another Paradox seems contradictory but actually

contains some truth

INTRODUCTIONS: Identify and limit the subject Interest the readers Set the tone May indicate the plan of organization

Specific types of Introductions: Stating the central theme Showing the significance of the subject Giving the background of the subject Focusing down to one aspect of subject Using a rhetorical device (anecdote, analogy, allusion, quote,

paradox…) Using a short, vivid comparison Posing a challenging question Referring to the writer’s experience with the subject Presenting a startling statistic or fact Making an unusual statement Making a commonplace remark (adage, truism, etc….)

What is IRONY? It is saying one thing on the surface but

meaning exactly or nearly the opposite: “Isn’t our neighborhood a dump?”

What is a LOOSE SENTENCE? It is where the main point is stated early in

the sentence, and is followed by dependent subordinate clauses:

“The cavalry arrived after a long night of suspense and horror.”

What is a PERIODIC SENTENCE?

A sentence in which the main point is held until the very end:

“After a long night of suspense and horror, the cavalry arrived.”

What is the NARRATIVE pattern? It is a story that explains a subject, presents conclusions, or supports an interpretation or a thesis.

The NARRATIVE pattern can be used for the entire essay or as support within the essay.

What goes into a Narrative? Who, what, when, where, how, why Recreation of events Helping readers to understand the

significance of events

OBJECTIVE V. SUBJECTIVE: These are distinguishable by the extent to which they

reflect the author’s personal attitudes or emotions. The difference is usually one of degree (most writers

don’t try to be completely one or the other.) Mostly objective writing can be found in scientific

reports, is impersonal, and is concerned almost exclusively with straight narration, logical analysis or description of external appearances.

Subjective writing expresses beliefs, ideals or impressions of the author, emphasizing how the author sees/interprets something.

What is Paradox (and how does it differ from Antithesis and Oxymoron?) A paradox is a statement or remark that, although seeming to

be contradictory or absurd, actually contains some truth. Antithesis is using opposite phrases in close conjunction.

Examples might be, "I burn and I freeze," or "Her character is white as sunlight, black as midnight." The best antitheses express their contrary ideas in a balanced sentence. It can be a contrast of opposites: "Evil men fear authority; good men cherish it." Alternatively, it can be a contrast of degree: "One small step for a man, one giant leap for all mankind.”

Oxymoron: Using contradiction in a manner that oddly makes sense on a deeper level. Simple examples include jumbo shrimp, sophisticated rednecks, and military intelligence. The richest literary oxymora seem to reveal a deeper truth through their contradictions. See paradox.

PARELLEL STRUCTURE: A pair or series of verbs, prepositional

phrases, or gerunds. Parallelism helps writers stress variety of

profusion in a group of nouns/modifiers. Parallelism also emphasizes parallel ideas

in two or more sentences or paragraphs. Parallelism can lend a poetic quality to

prose.

What is a PERSONA? A character created as the speaker in an

essay or narrator of a story. The attitudes and character of a persona

often differ from those of the author. The persona may be created as a way of

submitting certain values or perspectives to examination and criticism.

POINT OF VIEW in NON-FICTION: In argument, POV is the author’s opinion on

an issue or the thesis being advanced. In exposition, POV is the position of the

author in relation to the subject material. Example: a ranch in a mountain valley is

seen differently by the ranch hand in the corral, as by the gardener, or by the artist or by the geographer or engineer.

PROCESS ANALYSIS Pattern: Focuses on how something happens In expos, it most often appears as

instructions or explanations.

AUTHOR’S PURPOSE: Why did the author write this book or

essay? Was he/she trying to show us that cities are

bad? That one president is better than another? That Americans trust one another? That bragging is good and bad?

What is QUALIFICATION? It is the tempering of broad statements to

make them more valid and acceptable. In analyzing an argument, it can be your

way to say you agree with parts of the argument but disagree with other parts.

What is REFUTATION? Summarizes the opposing POV along with

a discussion of its inadequacies. 3 Strategies for REFUTATION are: Point out weaknesses in evidence Point out errors in logic Question the relevance of an argument Refutations should be moderate in tone!

RHETORICAL QUESTIONS:

Are posed with no expectation of receiving an answer.

Are used for launching a discussion. Are used for furthering a discussion. Are used to achieve emphasis.

What is SATIRE? It is ridicule for the purpose of correction. There are two main types of satire. Horatian satire is gentle and smiling and

aims to correct by invoking laughter and sympathy.

Juvenalian satire is sharper and points with anger, contempt and/or moral indignation, to corruption and evil.

SENTIMENTALITY: BAD An exaggerated show of emotion, whether

intentional or caused by lack of restraint. Using sentimentality may cause readers to

resent or be amused at a perceived attempt to play upon their emotions.

SPECIFIC AND GENERAL: Relative terms. Which is most specific: apple, fruit, or

Winesap? Usually, the more specific the better… But you may not want to make this

statement more specific: “There was no vehicle in sight.”

STYLE AND TONE: “Your eyes, dearest, reflect a thousand sparkling

candles of heaven.” “Them eyes of yours—in this light—they sure do

turn me on.” Same tones, different styles… Tone is attitude of the writer towards the subject. Style expresses the author’s individuality through

diction, syntax, selection and arrangement of details.

SYMBOLS: Refers to anything that although real itself

also suggests something broader or more significant—not just in greater numbers, however.

Symbols can be natural, personal or conventional.

Symbols, continued… Natural symbols: the symbolic meaning is

inherent in the thing itself. (sunrises symbolize beginnings, cannons suggest war, islands suggest isolation…)

Personal Symbols: Personal symbols are meaningless to

others unless told about it. Citizen Kane’s sled symbolized his lost

childhood, but only to him. The odor of marigolds to me suggests the

time I pruned a bees nest…ouch!

Conventional Symbols: Conventional symbols started as personal,

but continued usage helped them evolve so we all recognize them now:

SYNTAX: arrangement of words in a sentence: Good syntax implies the use not only of correct

grammar, but also of effective patterns. These patterns depend on sentences with good

unity, coherence, and emphasis. Also on the use of parallelism and

subordination. Also on economy and variety Also on a variety of sentence patterns

THE THESIS: In an argument essay, the central theme is

often refereed to as the thesis, and is often summed up in a thesis statement.

The thesis matters because it is the center of the argument and the whole essay is designed to make the reader agree with it and hence, with the author’s view.

TRANSITIONS: The relating of one topic to the next A smooth transition adds to coherence of a

sentence, paragraph or entire piece of writing.

Transitions are identifying landmarks that keep your readers on the path you are leading them down.

TRANSITION TYPES: Providing an echo from the preceding

paragraph Devising a whole sentence or paragraph to

bridge other important paragraphs/divisions Using parallel structure Using standard transitional expressions (to

establish time, place, result, comparison, addition, example)

UNITY: the one-ness Unity is the one-ness in which all parts

contribute to an overall effect. Your intro and conclusion contribute to

unity Also your consistent POV, tone and style Also recurring analogy or symbolism Also natural time boundaries Most importantly, your central theme