MARGARET MEDLEY

a handbook of

CHINESE ART

Bronzes / Buddhism / Ceramics / Decoration / Jade /Hardstones/ Paintings/ with 24 pages of illustrations

A Handbook of Chinese Art is a basic guide.profusely illustrated with hundreds of draw-ings of art objects and details, for collectors,dealers and students of Chinese art and an-tiquities. In this book. Margaret Medley,Curator of the Percival David Foundation ofChinese Art. fills the widely felt need for ahandy guide to Chinese arts and crafts.

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! co

Each section consists of a general intro-duction to its special area, followed by defini-tions, listed alphabetically, of the key termsof Chinese art. The sections of the book coverbronzes, the figures and concepts of Buddhismmost important to our understanding of Chi-nese art. ceramics, types of decoration, jadesand hardstones, painting. There are also tablesof the Chinese dynasties and reign periodmarks, notes on pronunciation, and a selectedbibliography for each area of interest.

A Handbook of Chinese Art is already be-ing welcomed as a standard reference work-to the vast field of Chinese art:

"A handbook supplying a wealth of infor-mation within a single cover is most welcome,the more so for the pages of outline drawingsindicating shapes and forms. . . 7The Arts

"This is a handy book, clearly laid out andeasy to use. It will be a good reliable quickreference for collectors and those coping withthe numerous descriptive terms, both Chinese

WITH 24 PAGES OF ILLUSTRATIONS

bdek fir

$5.00

UU5 NOT CIRCULATE

CENTRAL REFERENCE

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A HANDBOOK OF CHINESE ART

A HANDBOOK OFCHINESE ART

for collectors and students

.

MARGARET MEDLEY

HORIZON PRESS PUBLISHERSNH'.V YOR--C

r_".; : American edition 1965 published by

HORIZON" PRISS PUBLISHERSi;': Fifth Avenue

New York. X.Y. 10010

COPYRIGHT 1964 BYG. BELL AND SON'S, LTD

York House. Portugal Street,London WC2

Library* of Congress Catalog Card Number: - 0366

: :::;:; i ::: Great Britain

PREFACE

The terminology of the arts and crafts of Europe is generally wellknown, a number of excellent handbooks, primers and guides,easily available to amateurs and students, having been publishedover the last few years. In the field of Chinese art we are less wellprovided for despite the publication of Professor S. HowardHansford's Glossary of Chinese Art and Archaeology, which isprimarily intended for the student with some knowledge of theChinese language and characters. The present handbook assumesno such familiarity, representing as it does an attempt to fill this

gap for the general reader. The terms included are, in the main,limited to those which one might encounter in any book onChinese art written in English. Terms are briefly, and I hopeclearly, explained, and wherever possible illustrated in the linedrawings associated with the seven sections into which the bookis divided.

The study of Chinese art and culture is an expanding one, andto attempt a comprehensive dictionary of art terms and icon-ography would be beyond the power of any one person. In thepresent instance it will be found that the sections on Buddhismand painting are subject to severe limitations, such as are perhapsless obvious, but which nevertheless exist, in the other sections.One omission will inevitably be noticed by those concerned withceramics. This is the absence of all but reign marks from theillustrations, the only other marks included in either illustration ortext are those which may be used as both marks and decorativemotives. It seemed to me that ceramic marks form a subject forstudy on their own, and that they should be dealt with in aseparate publication.

In order to compensate for these limitations an introductorynote is included with each subject, and at the end of each sectiona short list of useful books has been added, which will, I hope,prove helpful to those wishing to delve more deeply into thesubjects in which they are interested. Only books in English are

PREFACE

included, but many of these will be found to quote from sourcesin other languages, especially in French and German. Anadmirable example of such a book is Martin Feddersen's ChineseDecorative Art.

In compiling the text I have drawn on many sources, but themost useful single works for their own sections were Soothilland Hodous' Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms, BenjaminMarch's Some Technical Terms of Chinese Painting, and the Chieh-tzu yuan hua chuan, 'The Mustard Seed Garden manual ofpainting'. From this last work, of the late 17th century, I havebeen able to take all the illustrations for the section on painting.The illustrations are also from many sources, some are redrawn,others original. Of those that are redrawn I must thank ProfessorHansford for permission to use a number from his Glossary, andat the same time acknowledge a debt to Miss Helen Fernald'sChinese Court Costume, for some decorative motives. In the

preparation of the Bronze section I have been grateful for thehelp of Mr. A. H. Christie, who has kindly supplied the intro-ductory note for that section. I have received much help,patiently given, and advice from friends and colleagues, and hopethat the book will prove useful to some, at least, of those who haveso generously given me their time.

Margaret Medley

CONTENTS

Preface ....

Chinese Dynasties and Reigns

Note on Pronunciation

Bronzes

Buddhism

Ceramics

Decoration

Jade and Hardstones

Painting

Miscellaneous

Recommended Books; Periodicals; Societies andCollections

page

5

ii

12

13

46

58

91

106

112

125

131

ILLUSTRATIONS

Map of China

Plates 1-9 Bronzes

Plates 10-11 Ceramics

Plates 12-14 Decoration

Plate 15 Jades .

Plates 16-20 Painting

Reign Period Marks

8,9

15, 17, 21, 27, 31, 35, 37, 39, 43

61, 75

93, 97, 103

109

113, 115, 117, 119, 121

128, 129

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TAIWAN

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See overleaffor Key to the map

KEY TO THE MAP

Archaeological sites

Anyang (Honan), Bronze AgeCh'ang-sha (Hunan), Bronze AgeCheng-chou (Honan), Bronze AgeHsun-hsien (Honan), Bronze AgeLung-shan (Shantung), NeolithicShou-hsien (Anhui), Bronze AgeYang-shao (Shensi), Neolithic

Buddhist sites

Hsiang-t'ang Shan (Honan)Lung-men (Honan)Lung-shan (Shantung)P'ing-ling Ssii (Kansu)T'ien-lung Shan (Shansi)T'ien-shui (Kansu)Tun-huang (Kansu)Yii-t'ang Shan (Shantung)Yunkang (Shansi)Yiin-men Shan (Shantung)

Ceramic centres

Chi-an (Kiangsi)Chien-an (Fukien)

Chien-yang (Fukien)Ching-te Chen (Kiangsi)Chti-lu Hsien (Chihli)Chun-chou (Honan)Hsiang-hu (Kiangsi)Ju-chou (Honan)Li-shui (Chekiang)Lin-ch'iian (Kiangsi)Lung-ch'uan (Chekiang)Nan-ch'ang (Kiangsi)Te-hua (Fukien)Ting-chou (Chihli)Tz u-chou (Chihli)Yi-hsing (Kiangsu)Yii-yao (Chekiang)Yueh-chou (Chekiang)

Historic ports

Amoy (Fukien)Canton (Kuang Tung)Ch'ang-chou (Fukien)Ch'iian-chou (Fukien)Shanghai (Kiangsu)Swatow (Kuang Tung)Wen-chou (Chekiang)

10

CHINESE DYNASTIES AND REIGNS

Shang (Yin)

Chou

c. 1500 - c. 1028 b.c.

c. 1027-249 b.c.

Warring States 481-221 B.C.

Chin . . . 221-206 B.C.

Han . . 206 b.c.-a.d. 220

Six Dynasties . a.d. 221-589

Sui 581-618

Tang 618-906

Five Dynasties . 907-960

Sung . 960-1279

Yuan (Mongols) . 1280-1368

Ming 1368-1644Hung-wu 1368-1398 Hung-chih 1488-1505Chien-wen 1399-1402 Cheng-te 1506-1521Yung-lo 1403-1424 Chia-ching 1522-1566Hung-hsi 1425 Lung-ch'ing 1567-1572Hsuan-te 1426-1435 Wan-li 1573-1619Cheng-t'ung 1436-1449 T*ai-ch

4

ang 1620Ching-t'ai 1450-1457 T'ien-ch'i 1621-1627Tien-shun 1457-1464 Ch'ung-cheng 1628-1643Ch'eng-hua 1465-1487

Ch'ing 1644-1912Shun-chih 1644-1661 Tao-kuang 1821-1850K'ang-hsi 1662-1722 Hsien-feng 1851-1861Yung-cheng 1723-1735 1862-1873Ch'ien-lung 1736-1795 Kuang-hsii 1874-1908Chia-ch'ing 1796-1820 Hs iian-t'ung 1909-1912

II

NOTE ON PRONUNCIATION

The pronunciation of Chinese words is fairly straightforwardif the following selection of approximate equivalents is followed.

Initial consonants

ch, k, p, t, ts, and tz are hard, as j, g, b, t, ts, dz in English.

ch', k', p', t', ts', tz', are all soft as in ch-, k-, p-, t-, ts-, dz-, in English.

hs, is a soft S produced by placing the tip of the tongue againstthe front lower teeth,

j, resembles the French je, but is very slightly rolled like an R.

ssu is like a long hissed S before 'sir'. For practical purposes tzuis somewhat similar.

Vowels

a, is always long.

ai, is like 'aye' in English.

ao, is ow' as in 'cow'.

e, en, and eng, with the e usually resembling the French eu as in'fleur'.

e, or eh, as in French e.

i, as 'ee' in 'see',

ih, has no good English equivalent, with the first syllable of'cheroot' being perhaps the nearest,

o, almost equivalent to English 'or',

ou, as in 'although'.

u, like oo.

xi is narrow like the French u in 'tu'.

12

BRONZES *Although, as Dr. Joseph Needham has shown, cast iron played amajor role in China many centuries before its use in the Westbecame general, it was copper in various alloys which providedthe main material for the makers of metal vessels, mirrors and thelike, coins, as well as weapons down to Han times at least. Thealloys were cast, in fired clay moulds, in cast iron moulds, and alsoby the cire-perdue method, and were finishedwhen cold by variousstandard metalworking techniques.Copper (melting-point 1,083 degrees Centigrade) occurs

widely in China. The metal in its pure form is rather soft, butalloyed with tin to make bronze its hardness is substantiallyincreased, while the melting-point is lowered, a fact whichfacilitates its working. Conventional Eurasiatic bronzes show afairly constant proportion of 10 per cent of tin. In China, how-ever, the tin content varied considerably and the practice ofadding lead to the alloy was common. This further reduced themelting-point and produced an admirable casting metal which wasrather softer than the 10 per cent tin alloy. The lead which,unlike the added tin, does not dissolve in copper, remains sus-pended in globular form in the melt and, by improving the flow,greatly reduces the risk of surface bubble flaws in the casting.A lead-tin alloy has the additional advantage of being easier towork with gravers and chisels when cold. Chinese casters alsomade use of copper-lead alloys, particularly in coinage, whereits use may be ascribed to economic rather than technical con-siderations.

In typical simple alloys the tin content of early Chinese bronzes

13

Animal Combat MotiveAxes-fr BRONZES

runs from 12 to 20 per cent. Lead may be included in these up to20 per cent, while in the case ofcopper-lead alloys, the proportionof the latter may be as high as 30 per cent.

Animal Combat Motive is as-sociated with the art of the pas-toral nomads of the EurasianSteppe, including the Chineseregion of the Ordos Desert. Themotive consists of two fairlyevenly matched opponents suchas two stallions, or a tiger and aneagle, in violent combat. Theinterpretation of the motive isvigorous and strongly linear.[la]. See Ordos.

Animal Style. See Ordos.

Animal Triple Band is a variantof the k'uei dragon (q.v.) in whichthe creature is distributed into

three bands, the top one contain-ing the crest, or horn; the secondband, the eye, ear and part of thebody, and the third one contain-ing the nostril, lower jaw, foot orclaw, and the lower part of thebody. As a decorative elementit is confined to Shang and EarlyChou. [16].

Animal Tsun, a wine vessel inthe form of an animal. [It],Many are known, and perhaps thecommonest is the elephant tsun.

The opening of this type of vesselis always in the centre of the back.Confined mainly to Shang andEarly Chou, it re-appears in theHuai style (q.v.) in a modifiedform.

Animals of the Four Quartersare commonly found on bronzesand lacquers of the Han period.They are; the Sombre, or Dark,Warrior [lc] (a tortoise with asnake coiled round the body),representing the North and Win-ter; its colour is black; the GreenDragon [1/], representing the Eastand Spring; the Scarlet Bird [le],representing the South and Sum-mer, and the White Tiger [Id],representing the West andAutumn.

Axes, called ytieh, ch'i or fu 9 areeither tanged or socketed [lh]; thesocketed type is more varied in

that the socket varies in length

from a tube to a ring. Bothtypes generally have decoratedtangs protruding from the backof the shaft, and, in the Shangperiod examples, these may beornamented with turquoise inlay.

PLATE 1. BRONZES, a] Animal Combat Motive, b] Animal TripleBand, c-f] Animals of the Four Quarters, g] Belt Hooks, h] Axes.i] Animal Tsun. j] Bird Tsun.

14

II

PLATE 1

Belt HookBroad Figure Band

The blades vary from a simplespatulate form, that may beribbed, ro a form similar to theEuropean battle-axe, with a widearc-shaped blade, which is some-times decorated, and is also oc-casionally perforated. The tangedtype are mainly datable to Shangand Early Chou; the socketedtype is current throughout thewhole Bronze Age.

Belt Hook, a hook with astraight or slightly curving shaft,with a stud at one end tor fasten-ing into the belt, the hook at theother end to catch a link, [lg].The shaft may be ornamentedalong its whole length, or only atthe stud end, farthest from thehook. In profile they often showa gentle, beautifully proportionedS-curve. The}' vary consider-ably as a type from the long andslender to the short and stubby,often with a large butt end, thatmay carry very complex decora-tion, winch ma}- be gilt, inlaidwith gold, or silver, or turquoise,or with several ot these together.The hook itself may be in theform of a bird's head, the goosebeing particularly common.They do not appear to have beenmade before the 6th century B.C.(in Huai style), and cease some-time towards the end, or soon

alter the end oi the Han period.The Chinese name is rai-kou.

Bent Ear Handles spring fromthe body of the vessel below therim, round which they are bentupwards. They make theirappearance m late Shang timesand become a common feature inMiddle Chou.

Bird Tsun, a wine vessel in thform ot a bird, the head ofwhichin Shang and Earlv Chou ex-amples iorms the cover [1/]: theowl seems to have been thecommonest bird in these twoperiods. In Huai style examples,when the type is revived, usingas a rule the goose or pheasant, the

opening is in the centre ot theback.

Bottle Horns occur both ont'ao-t'ieh masks (q.v.) and onk'uci dragons (q.v.). The hornresembles a chianti bottle with aslightly flared mouth; found onlyin Shane and Earlv Chou.

Broad Figure Band, an elementof Middle Chou decoration,which occurs in many variations,all of winch seem to derive ulti-mately from animal torms. [2a],

PLATE 2. BRONZES, a] Broad Figure Band. />] C and T Decorationc] Chia. J] Chiao. c] Chiieh. /"] Chien. $] Chien sword. /;] Cheng

Cicad. Chune. k] Chih.

16

Bhca PLATE 2

Bronze DiseaseChiao-fr BRONZES

Bronze Disease, indicated bypale green powdery spots or lines,is the destruction of the alloy bythe contaminating presence ofchlorides, which form an un-stable cuprous chloride. Thiscontinues to react even under idealmuseum conditions, and to haltthe destructive action of thechlorides, it is necessary to elimin-ate them. Cuprous chloride isnot only insoluble in water, butmay also be inaccessible in itsgreatest concentration in the deeplayers of the incrustation. Chem-ical treatments are known andused in museum laboratoriesspecialising in conservation, buttreatment of a bronze is noguarantee that a further outbreakmay not occur.

Cabriole Leg, swelling androunded at the top with a slender,slightly curving nnd-section.Typical of the Middle Chouperiod, when it makes its appear-ance, and of the Huai and Hanbronze vessels.

C and T Decoration, a termintroduced by Karlgren to dis-tinguish one clement, winch,found together with several others,is covered by the general name'thunder pattern' (q.v.). It occursonly in the Shang and Early Chouperiods. [2b].

Cheng, a clapperless bellelliptical section, the

18

oflong

diameter of which exceeds theheight of the barrel. There areno bosses, and the decorationusually consists of t'ao-t'ieh masks(q.v.) on each side. The straighthandle is short and hollow, per-haps for mounting on a pole.Confined to Shang and EarlyChou. Some modern Chineseauthorities attach the name nao to

this type. [2h].

Ch'i. See Axes.

Chia, a wine vessel somewhatresembling the chueh (q.v.) butgenerally larger and without spoutor backward extending Up. Ithas instead a wide circular orrectangular mouth with twocapped columns diametricallyopposed and at right angles to thehandle lip axis. In some cases thelegs may be hollow at least part ofthe way down. One small groupis rectangular with four legs, andcapped columns on the centre ofthe short sides; there may in thistype be a cover with a bird-formhandle in the centre. The vesselis confined to the Shang and EarlyChou periods. [2c].

Chiao, a wine vessel very like thechueh (q.v.) but without cappedcolumns; the spout is replaced bya second extended lip. If a coversurvives it is usually found to bein the form of a bird in flight, orof an animal. The chiao onlyoccurs in the Shang and EarlyChou periods. [2d].

BRONZES ft ChienChiieh

Chien, a deep, wide, circularbasin, with two or more handles,which may be ornamented withanimal heads and fitted with rings.The vessel was either filled withwater, for use as a mirror, or was

filled with ice in which perishablefoods were stored. The latterview is supported by modernChinese opinion, following anearly text. It is also suggested

that it was used for washing in, aswas the p'an (q.v.). Survivingexamples are of the Huai periodonly. [2/].

Chien, a bronze sword about 2feet, or 2 feet 6 inches in length

with a narrow smoothly taperingblade having a pronounced centralrib. The largest on record is 3feet in length and the shortest 7inches, both exceptional. Therewas no crosspiece and the hilt wassmall and slender, with twothickened bands of metal, equallyspaced along it. The pommel ofthe sword was often so fashionedas to accept an ornamental disc ofjade. In some cases the point ofjunction between the blade andthe hilt was decorated with a jadefitting. This type of sword wascommon in the Late Chou periodand during the Han Dynasty.

Chih, a drinking vessel with aslightly flared mouth and fairlywide belly, usually circular insection, but occasionally oval.

The hollow foot is generallysplayed. Decoration tends to berather restrained on this type ofvessel, which is confined to theShang and Early Chou periods.The name chih for this vessel wasfirst applied in the Sung Dynasty,and it is not certain that it iscorrect. [2k].

Ching. See Mirrors.

Chio. See Chiao.

Chiu. See Kuei.

Chronology. See Phase.

Chtieh, a wine vessel with a bodyof narrow elliptical or circularsection. It has a large open spoutfor pouring, and opposite this aflattened and extended lip; thereis a loop handle on the side of thebody. The vessel stands on threelegs of triangular section, thatspread a little. At the root ofthe spout are two short cappedcolumns, one on each side. Ifthe vessel bears an inscription, thisgenerally appears on the bodyunder the loop of the handle.The flattened elliptical type is themore primitive form, and for themost part pre-dates the finds atAnyang, and is perhaps datableto a period before 1350 B.C. Thetype as a whole was no longermade after the end of the EarlyChou, and it is possible that mostof the surviving examples are of

19

Ch'unCoiled Beast Motive & BRONZES

Shang date. The decoration maybe sparing or extremely lavish,and flanges (q.v.) sometimes ex-tend up the spout and on theextended rear lip. [2e] .

Ch'un. See Tin.

Chung, a bell. It occurs in threeforms, all elliptical in section, andnarrowing a little towards a flattop. [2/]. In the first form thereis a shaft rising from the centre ofthe flat top, and near the base ofthe shaft is a loop for suspension.The second type has a narrowrather tall loop in the centre of theflat surface; and the third type hasa complex loop consisting of twoconfronted animals, sometimeswith their heads turned back overthe shoulder. A graduated seriesof these chung could be hung upas a chime in a stout woodenframe, and sets of up to 16 areknown. Very large examples,measuring about 3 feet in height,were usually hung up alone, andwere named t'e-chung, 'specialbell'. The surface of the bell isdivided into three main panels oneach side, with a decorative zoneat the bottom. The central panel,narrowing towards to the top,was usually left plain, or carried

an inscription; the two widerpanels on either side of this were

ornamented with three rows ofthree bosses each, which in lateexamples might appear as coiledserpents, making a grand total of36 bosses. The bells were struckwith small bronze or woodendrumsticks. This type of bell isbelieved by some Chinese writersto have been made in the Shangperiod, but the earliest survivingexamples date from Middle Chou.Examples with complex animalloops only occur in the Huaistyle.

Cicada, a decorative motive ofthe Shang and Early Chou styles.It varies from the most realisticrepresentation to the most stylised;in its realistic form it may be usedas a banding element, and in itsstylised form usually occurs inHanging or Rising Blade decora-tion (q.v.). [2/].

Coiled Beast Motive consists ofa feline curled up with its head toits own tail, sometimes with thefeet, ears and tip of the tailsimilarly ornamented, with arepetition of this motive on aminute scale. [3a]. The objectson which the motive appears areusually small and suitable forpersonal adornment or as harnessornaments, studs and buttonsbeing the most common. The

PLATE 3. BRONZES, a] Coiled Beast Motive, b] Gourd Hu. c] Cos-mic Mirror, d] Fu. e] Flat Hu. f] Ho. g-h] Hanging Blade Decoration,i] Ho, Huai type, j] Fang-i. k] Hill Jar.

20

PLATE 3

Compound Lozenge with SpikesFang-i & BRONZES

motive is associated with the artof the Ordos (q.v.).

Compound Lozenge withSpikes. A rectangular decorativeelement, having from two to fourlines on each side, with a circularboss or spike in the centre. It

occurs in the main field of decora-tion in the Shang and Early Chouperiods only. The term was intro-duced by Karlgren in 1949.

Cosmic Mirrors are those onwhich the most prominent ele-ments of decoration on the backresemble the letters T, L, and V,with the Animals of the FourQuarters interspersed betweenthem and probably with theTwelve Branches (q.v.) arrangedround the central boss; with theAnimals of the Four Quartersother smaller birds and animals,and perhaps hsien (q.v.) may beincluded. The symbolism ofthese mirrors is complex, and isfully discussed by Yetts in TheCull Chinese Bronzes, (London,1939). This type of mirror datesfrom the Han period. [3c]

.

Dragons. See K'uei Dragons.

Drums are of two main types.The first is a barrel set horizontallyon a stand, the ends closed withhide; one celebrated example ofShang date is made entirely ofbronze, the closed ends beingcast with a pattern that simulates

22

crocodile skin. The second type,made entirely of bronze, with awide horizontal striking surface,has a slightly waisted cylindricalbody; the drum head is, in somecases, ornamented with fourcrouching frogs. The type isassociated with the bronze cul-tures of Yunnan and NorthVietnam and date from about the3rd century B.C. onward. TheChinese associate this drum withthe name of the Three Kingdomshero, Chu-ko Liang.

Early Chou, the name given byKarlgren to the style current inthe bronze art of the period be-tween c. 1028 and c. 900 B.C.This style is a continuation of thatof Shang (q.v.) with certainmodifications such as 'bent ears'(q.v.), hook projections (i.e. flanges(q.v.) that become elaboratelybroken up), birds with plume-liketails, and finally the introductionof the pan (q.v.). This style is somuch dependent upon that ofShang, that the distinction be-tween them is often difficult tomake, but generally speaking theEarly Chou style is more elaborateand flamboyant, and the forms areoften heavier, lacking somethingof the simple monumentality ofthe earlier period.

Fang-i, a rectangular casket-shaped vessel with a cover re-sembling a hipped roof, which issurmounted by a knob of similar

bronzes ^V FlangesGourd Hu

shape. A peculiarity of the foot Four-petal Flower Pattern. Seeis hie presence of a semicircular Square with Crescents.notch in the middle of the loweredge of each side. The vessel Flat Hu a vessel> rectangular indoes not appear to have been sectionj the body being moon_named in the inscriptions and the shaped, with ring handlesname it now bears was given in mounted on the narrow shoulders.the Ch'rng period. It is usually The mouth is circmar> but the footregarded as a vessel for the storage

rectangular. This unusual varia-of grain, but one modern Chinese tion of the standard hu (q.v.)authority holds that it should be appears about the 5th or 4thincluded among the wine vessels. century B .c . anJ continues intoIt is confined to Shang and Early the Han periocl> [3^Chou, and the decoration isusually lavish, consisting of t'ao- Fu &f AxE$ _t teh (q.v.) and k uei dragons(q.v.). A few specimens carry

.

only one or two narrow bands of *?"' a octangular food vessel with

S-spiral pattern (q.v.). [3/1.fo

,

ur angular ct at.

t

J

he coe[s -

The cover is almost identical, the

Flanges are vertical rib-like pro- only difference being, in some

jections often occurring on vessels ?***> the ^ of two loopof the Shang and Early Chou handles on the^ sldes ' kkf soperiods; they may be segmented, a manY cver*> xt cf be^^ ^nphenomenon more common in removal and used as another dish

Early Chou than in Shang ex- This cla^ ofvessel was introduced

amples. Contrary to the beUef m Mlddle Chou - >dlheld by some people that theseflanges are an aid to good casting, Glutton Mask. See T'ao-t'ieh.they are in fact a disadvantage,since they make the moulds more Gourd Hu, a variation of the hucomplicated, but there is no doubt (q.v.), shaped like an elongatedthat they serve to make the gourd, circular in section. In-junctions of the moulds less stead of ring handles, it has aobvious, as any roughness in the chain fixed low down on the body,finished product can be rubbed the other end meeting the bodydown easily, without in any way just below the Up; the cover,harming the decoration. In the where this survives, is sometimesMiddle Chou style they occur in the form of a squatting bird,only on Li (q.v.) and are then The type only occurs in the Huaireduced to little more than fins. style (q.v.). [36].

23

Green DragonHook and Volute & bronzes

Green Dragon. See Animalsof the Four Quarters.

Hai-ma P'u-t'ao, literally, sea-horses and grapes, a name givento a type of bronze mirror pro-duced in the T'ang Dynasty;perhaps better known as Lion andGrape mirrors.

Hanging Blade Decoration, along narrow leaf-shaped motive,the tip ofwhich is directed down-wards; it is usually filled withcicada [3^] (q.v.), or with a variantof the t'ao-t'ieh [3h] (q.v.), with orwithout a spiral background.Rising blade decoration is thesame, but with the tip directedupwards. The motive belongsmainly to the Shang and Chouperiods, but recurs on 18th and19th century bronzes and cloisonneimitating objects of antiquity.The terms were introduced byKarlgren.

Hill Jar, or hill-censer, called inChinese po-shan-lu. In bronzethese are surmounted by a roughlyconical cover with holes, so castand decorated as to resemble hillspiling up to a central peak. Theholes occur behind each risinghill, and through these the incensecould emerge. [3k], The hemis-pherical bowl, in which the incensewas placed, was supported invarious ways from the wide flat-bottomed bowl; the supportmight be a simple column, a bird

24

with outspread wings, or even aboy balancing the incense bowl onhis hand stretched up above hishead. The 'hill' was often decor-ated with animals and huntingscenes, and a few examples areinlaid with gold. The type is con-fined to the Han Dynasty and itsorigin is obscure; two possibleexplanations have been put for-ward; first, that the mountainform represents the Five SacredMountains of China, and secondthat it represents Mount Sumeru,the sacred mountain of the Budd-hists. See also Ceramics, Hill Jar.

Ho, a wine kettle on three or fourlegs, which in some cases arehollow; the handle at the back isinvariably surmounted by ananimal head; the straight spout isof medium length. The cover isgenerally linked to the body by ashort chain. When the vesselbears an inscription, this appears

both on the body and on the in-side of the cover. [3/]. Thisclass of vessel occurs in all stylisticperiods, but Huai style examplesdiffer from the earlier ones in threerespects; first, the legs are of thecabriole type (q.v.); second, the

handle is arched over the cover,and third, the spout is S-curved,and terminates in an animal'sgaping jaw or bird's beak. [3/].

Hook and Volute, a motive usedas a background filler, and occa-sionally as a border motive on

BRONZES ft HsiHuai Style

inlaid bronzes, in the Huai style.It is a triangular hook with a tightcurl at one end.

Hsi, a general name for a largebowl or basin, with everted rim,probably intended for ablutions.Below the rim outside there maybe two mask-mounted handles, orlugs with ring handles. This typeof vessel may also be called p'en.

Hsien in bronze decoration aresemi-human figures, often termedimmortals, with plumes flying outbehind them from the upper armand shoulder, and from the thigh.They occur in this form mostcommonly in the Han period.

Hsien (vessel). See Yen.

Hsu, a rectangular vessel for food,with rounded corners. The bodycurves inwards a little towards themouth and the foot, and the covercarries on the curving line initiatedin the contour of the body; on thecover are four cumbersome-look-ing spurs, which, when the coveris removed and reversed, formfeet. On the short sides of thebody are two handles, often sur-mounted by animal heads; thesplayed foot is sometimes re-placed by four animals. Thevessel occurs only in Middle Chouand a modern Chinese authoritysuggests that it was graduallyabsorbed into the kuei class (q.v.).

[44

Hu, a wine storage vessel currentthroughout the Bronze Age andcontinuing into the Han period.In Shang and Early Chou twotypes were, common. One wastall and slender, often with a coverthat could be reversed and used asa bowl; this type was circular insection and often rather sparinglydecorated. [4b]. The other typewas elliptical in section, rather

more heavily made and usuallyrichly decorated with t'ao-t'ieh(q.v.). [4a\. Both types havecylindrical fittings on the neck fora carrying cord. In Middle Chouthe vessels are often circular in

section, with a larger belly thanthe earlier ones, and there werering handles suspended from ani-mal lugs on the neck. [4c]. Inthe Huai style, the ring handlesare sometimes replaced by vigor-ous animal handles set vertically.Both Middle Chou and Huai styleexamples were richly decorated.In the Han period, the decorationceases to be an integral part of thecasting, and ring handles return,suspended now from mask fittings.See Square Hu, Flat Hu andGourd Hu.

Huai Style is the name given byKarlgren to the style of bronzedecoration current from about 600B.C. until the beginning of theHan Dynasty in 206 B.C., the pointin time conventionally regardedas marking the end of the BronzeAge, although iron had been in

25

Huai Style-Jingles

-fr BRONZES

increasing use, for agricultural andmilitary purposes, through thegreater part of this period. Thename Huai derives from theregion of the Huai River, to thenorth of the Yangtze River,where finds of objects in this newstyle were first made; the termmust not be taken to mean apurely local style, but one thatwas common to a large part ofNorth and East China. Thedecoration of this final period ofthe Bronze Age is complex.Especially characteristic of it arethe intricate interlocking and over-lapping patterns, sometimes basedon geometrical motives, some-times on animal forms. Thet'ao-t'ieh (q.v.), with its prominenteye-balls and gaping jaw, re-appears, but instead ofbeing in theform of two confronted beastsseen in profile, as so often in theShang and Early Chou, it is nowseen only as a full face view ofan animal mask. There is greatenrichment in detail and surface,and the dragon forms assume aserpentine quality not seen inearlier styles. Some of the pat-terns have names such as ropepattern, plait pattern, cowrie-shell, hook and volute, scalepattern, dot filling, and triplelozenge, most of which are self-explanatory. (See Triple Loz-enge and Hook and Volute.)

The standard of craftsmanship isgenerally ofa high order.

I, a water ewer, bearing a strongresemblance to the old-fashionedsauce boat. [4e]. It appears firstin the Middle Chou period andstands on four ornamented legs;examples made in the transitionperiod between the Middle Chouand the fully developed Huaistyle, may have slender S-curvinglegs, and in the mature Huai stylethere is either a foot-ring, or no

foot at all. The handle is gener-ally ornamented with an animalhead, the mouth biting the rim ofthe vessel; late examples may onlyhave a simple ring handle. Thespout of the Huai style type issometimes in the form of a felinehead with gaping jaws.

Interlocked T's, an element ofShang and Early Chou decorationin which the stem ofeach T formsone halfofthe crossbar ofanother.

mJingles are of two kinds. Thesimplest kind is an openworksphere, containing a small bronzeball, surmounting a socketed shaftto fit on harness, or on a chariot.

The more complex form has twoof these openwork spheres withballs, each on an arched shaft

PLATE 4. BRONZES, a-c] Hu. d] Hsii.g] Ladle. //] K'uei Dragons, j] Jingle, j] Ko.

26

e] I. /] Interlockedk] Ku. /] Kuang.

r s .

PLATE 4

KoKuang ft BRONZES

rising from each end of a bow-shaped bronze mount. The pre-cise purpose of this more complextype is not known, but it seemslikely that they were fixed to thefront of the chariot as guides forthe reins, and not, as the Chinesehave recently suggested, for usewith the reflex bow of the Shangand Early Chou periods fromwhich they date. [4/].

Ko, a bronze dagger-axe, eithersocketed or tanged, hafted at rightangles to the shaft. In either case

the weapon has a characteristicprojection to the rear of the shaft;this projection (nei in Chinese) iseither straight and roughly rec-tangular, or droops in a slightcurve. The nei is often decorated,and Shang examples are some-times found with turquoise inlay.In Middle Chou and Huai theweapon undergoes a radicalchange in form, the lower edgebeing extended backwards anddownwards in a curve, to con-tinue as a prolongation of theblade parallel with the shaft; in theHan period there may be asimilar extension upwards. InHuai examples both blade and neimay be inlaid with gold. In theHan period the weapon is ratherslender and the main blade, in-stead of being at a strict rightangle to the shaft, may be castwith a slight inclination upwards.

Ku, a tall, slender vessel withtrumpet mouth, narrow body andhigh splayed foot. A peculiarityof this vessel is the pair of cruci-form perforations that occur in anarrow undecorated band be-tween the splayed foot and thecentral zone of decoration; thesignificance of these is not known,but it has recently been suggestedthat there may be technical reasonsfor their presence. Ku is thoughtto be a vessel for drinking, but thename may be wrongly associatedwith this shaped object. Thetype dates from Shang and EarlyChou only. [4k],

Ku. See Drums.

Kuang, a jug-shaped vessel, ellip-tical or rectangular in section, on

a slightly splayed foot. Thespout is wide and the cover oftenoverhangs the edge; the handlemay be large and elaborate. Thecover is usually in the form of ananimal's head and back, with thejaws over the spout; in elaborateexamples another head may occurat the back, and sometimes, whenthis happens, the lower part of thejug represents the lower part ofthe animal, with the limbs andclaws forming part of the decora-tion. Some examples have aladle, which fits through a slot inthe handle end of the cover. Thedecoration is often lavish; the typeoccurs only in Shang and EarlyChou. [4/].

28

BRONZES & KueiLi

Kuei, a deep circular food vessel,with spreading lip and foot-ring.It generally has two handles,sometimes four, and very rarelynone [5a, b]; the handles are usuallysurmounted by animal heads.One small group stand fixed to amassive cube-shaped plinth. Thedecoration varies from the sim-plest to the most ornate. Thevessel occurs in all periods of theBronze Age, but is less commonin that of Huai. The MiddleChou vessels, which are some-times termed chiu, usually standon three small feet [5c]; some

specimens of this period havecovers.

K'uei Dragons. Small dragon-like animals, with open jaws, seenin profile, as a secondary elementin bronze decoration. They arereferred to by Karlgren simply as'dragons', and he enumerates ninemain types in connection with theShang and Early Chou styles.[4h]. They occur in a modifiedform in the Middle Chou style,and become somewhat serpentinein the Huai style, by which timetheir original identity has beenlost, although the term may beretained for the sake of con-

In later times these bronze ladleswere probably superseded bylighter ones made of pottery orlacquer. [4g\.

Lei, a wine, and perhaps water,vessel, either circular or rectangu-

lar in horizontal section. It haswide sloping shoulders, with ringhandles suspended from mask-surmounted lugs; the lower bodytapers elegantly to a hollow foot.In the case of the round bodiedtype, the cover is domed and has asmall knob; the cover of therectangular type closely resemblesthat of the fang-i (q.v.). On thelower part of the body are animalheads in relief, from which theresometimes hang rings. Shangand Early Chou, but some Chin-ese writers suggest that the roundtype also occurs in Middle Chou.[5h].

Lei-wen,Pattern.

See Thunder

vemence.

Ladles, associated mainly withthe Shang and Early Chou periods,are like cylindrical dippers on theend of long, well-ornamentedhandles having a slight S-curve.

Li, a vessel, with three hollowlegs, in which food was heated.[5d, e]. The form of this vessel,which is peculiar to China, derivesfrom a pottery prototype of theNeolithic period, and perhaps inits ceramic form common to theEurasiatic land mass. It is basic-ally three conical vessels mergedtogether into one about half-wayup the total height. This designmeant that the greatest possiblearea was exposed to the heat of the

29

LienMing ^r BRONZES

fire. It may have ]peen used inconjunction with a 'steamer' (seeYen). It was common to Shang,Early Chou and Middle Chou,and perhaps Huai. In Shang andEarly Chou the handles rosedirectly from the rim, but inMiddle Chou they often sprangfrom below the rim and were bentround and upward.

Lien, a cylindrical vessel on threesmall feet in the form of squattingbears; there is usually a cover witha ring handle in the centre. Alarge number of lien are un-derrated, others are gilt, andsome are inlaid with gold andperhaps other metals. The vesselis said to have been used forcosmetics, and appears first in theHuai style. [5i],

Ling, a small bell of ellipticalsection, not unlike the Swiss cow-bell, with a loop for suspension orholding in the hand. This typeis said to have been used for bothceremonial and military purposesin Shang and Early Chou. [5/].

Lion and Grape Mirrors. SeeHai-ma P'u-t'ao.

Mao. See Spearheads.

Middle Chou, the name given by

Karlgren to the style current inbronze art between c. 900 B.C. andc. 600 B.C. Many of the formsand decorative motives differfundamentally from those of theearlier periods. Certain new ves-sels such as the Fu (q.v.), I, (q.v.)and Hsii (q.v.) are introduced; theKuei (q.v.) undergoes radicalmodification by being raised onthree or four feet; the Li (q.v.)becomes arched under the belly,and the Ting (q.v.) becomesshallower and in many caseswidens towards the rim. TheChung bell (q.v.) is introduced.Other changes include the re-placement of cylindrical legs byS-curved legs, resembling thecabriole leg, exhibiting quite

different proportions. Flanges(q.v.) become little more than finsand occur only on the Li (q.v.)spiral horns, scale bands, vertical

scales, wavy line, broad figurebands are the main decorativemotives (for examples see appro-priate entries). A number ofvessels disappear altogether; these

are the Square Ting, Li-ting, Kuand Tsun, Fang-i, Chueh, Chia andChiao, and the Kuang.

Ming, an almost spherical vesselwith short cylindrical mouth andfoot, and mask-mounted ringhandles on the shoulder. Onlyone of these vessels has been

PLATE 5. BRONZES, a-c] Kuei. d-e] Li. /] Ling, g] Shan Mirror.h] Lei. i] Lien, j] Scale Bands, k] P'ou. l-m] P'an.

30

;E>));~)Jfc^?([(S(

PLATE 5

MirrorsP'an-fr BRONZES

certainly identified by its inscrip-tion; tins was the one found in thetomb of the Marquis Ts'ai inAn-hui, dating from the Huaiperiod. It was undecorated.

Mirrors ofhigh-tin bronze appearfirst in the 6th or 5th century B.C.Prior to this date bronze bowls ofclear water known as chien (q.v.)are said to have been used. Thetrue mirror, a metallic reflectingsurface with decorated back, wasat first small, thin, and very light,with a small fluted loop on theback for the passage of a silk cord.Most mirrors are circular but afew are square. As time went bythe mirrors became larger, thickerand heavier, and the loop wasgradually transformed into around boss. The rim of the Hanperiod mirror was often wide andthick; this characteristic continueduntil the T'ang Dynasty, when thewhole artistic atmospherechanged. The large central bossremains, but the rim may be lobedor foliated. No mirrors wereinscribed before the Han period,when the practice suddenly be-came very popular, especially onCosmic Mirrors (q.v.); in T'angtimes inscribed mirrors are com-paratively rare. After T'ang thereare few bronze mirrors, but thosethat survive rely partly on T'angtradition in design, and partly onfree pictorial design; some are still

circular; a straight handle runningout from the rim is also found.

32

Nao. See Cheng.

Nei. See Ko.

Ordos. The semi-desert regionwithin the great bend of theYellow River. The relics of theart of this region are associatedwith the Bronze Age animal stylecommon to Southern Siberia, thewhole Central Asian steppe andSouth Russia to the shores of theBlack Sea. Most examples of thebronze art of the Ordos are small,intended for personal adornmentor as harness ornaments; knivesand short swords also displayanimal style elements on the hilt,especially in the ibex head ter-minals; the human form rarelyappears. The style, the preciseplace of the origin of which isuncertain, is common to thenomadic races of the wholeEurasian plateau and goes backinto remote antiquity. Examplesof the style are extremely difficultto date with any precision owingto the long persistence ofmotives.In China they range from aboutthe 5th century B.C. to about the5th century a.d. or later. Thetwo best known and most per-sistent motives in this animal artare known as the Animal CombatMotive (q.v.) and the CoiledBeast Motive (q.v.).

P'an, a wide circular, shallowbowl raised on a spreading footand used for washing the hands

BRONZES-fr PatinaPreying Animal Motive

[5/]; there are sometimes handlesof the bent ear type (q.v.). [5m].Karlgren is of the opinion that thetype does not occur before Early

Chou, but recent finds suggestthat some could be earlier. Afew early examples are decoratedinside as well as outside.

Patina. Bronze patina, familiarto, and much admired by col-lectors, is the result of exposure tooxidizing conditions, either ofburial, or of atmosphere. Thefirst oxide layer, which is pur-plish or red in colour, is calledcuprite. This may later becomeencrusted with carbonates that areblue or green in colour, andcorrespond to azurite or mala-chite. Owing to inadequate pol-ing, or imperfect mixing of thealloy, there are often considerablevariations in the colour andtexture of the patina on any onepiece. There are a number ofproblems in this connection thathave to be solved by futureresearch. See Water Patinaand Bronze Disease.

P'en. See Hsi.

Phase. In 1936 W. P. Yettsproposed a division of earlyChinese bronzes into three phases.His system has been widelyadopted in Great Britain, but lesscommonly in the rest of Europe.In Sweden and America Karl-gren' s classification and chron-

ology have been generallyemployed. In the present book aclassification based on that ofKarlgren has been used, but theterm Shang (q.v.) has been pre-ferred to Karlgren' s Yin. Theappropriate equivalents are:First Phase: Shang (Yin) and EarlyChou.Second Phase: Middle Chou.Third Phase: Huai Style.Descriptions ofthe main character-istics of each of the four styles inthe second column may be foundunder the appropriate entry.

Pien Hu. See Flat Hu.

Plait Decoration, an element inHuai style decor.

Po-shan-lu. .See Hill Jar.

P'ou, a large round vessel, con-tracted at the mouth and finishedwith a plain rim; the foot is veryslightly splayed. Confined toShang and Early Chou, but a fewmay be later. [5k].

Preying Animal Motive, likethe Coiled Beast Motive (q.v.), isassociated with the races of no-madic origin to be found in thewhole area from the shores of theBlack Sea to the great bend in theYellow River. The motive con-sists of a predatory bird or animalattacking another animal, usuallythough not invariably of a herbi-vorous species; thus an eagle or

Chca 33

Rising Blade DecorationSpearheads-fr BRONZES

tiger attacking a stag or buffalo.[6a], The motive is interpretedwith extraordinary sympathy andpathos. See Ordos.

Rising Blade Decoration. SeeHanging Blade Decoration.

Rope Pattern, an element ofHuai style decoration.

Scale Band, an element inMiddle Chou decoration, thescales being arranged horizontallyin bands. [5/].

Scarlet Bird. See Animals ofthe Four Quarters.

Shan Mirrors are a type in whichthe main element of decorationresembles the Chinese charactershan, 'mountain'. The elementis repeated four or five timesround the central loop, with thelong horizontal bottom stroke to-wards the centre. This type isdatable to the 4th and 3rd cen-tury B.C.; they are never inscribed.

[5?]-

Shang, the name, based on thatof the first historical dynasty,given to the style of the bronze artof the period c. 1500-1028 B.C.;called Yin by Karlgren (the twonames are inter-changeable) in his

papers Yin and Chou in ChineseBronzes (1935) and New Studies inChinese Bronzes (1937), in whichhe set out his criteria for theclassification of bronze styles andtheir chronology. The chief ves-sels current in this period are theTing, including the Square Ting,Li-ting, Yu, Ku and Tsun, Fang-i,Chiieh and its related forms Chia,Chiao, and the Kuang; these con-tinue into the next period, EarlyChou, after which all except theTing disappear (see the appropriateentries). Karlgren names 33decorative motives, of which themost important are the t'ao-t'ieh,cicada, bird, whorl circle, hangingblades and rising blades, 9 types ofdragon, circle bands, square withcrescents, interlocked T's andvarious spiral motives, mostly ofthe thunder pattern type. Fordetails see the appropriate entries.

Sino-SiberianOrdos.

Style. See

Sombre Warrior. SeeAnimals of the Four Quarters.

Spearheads ofthe Shang Dynastywere generally wide-bladed andofthe socketed type. [6c]. Afterthe Shang period the head takeson narrow leaf shape, whichgenerally becomes more slenderin the last few centuries B.C.,

PLATE 6. BRONZES, a] Preying Animal Motive, b] Spoon, c] Spear-heads, d] Square with Crescents, e-f] S-Spiral Patterns, g-h] T'ao-t'ieh.

34

30000 00000000000

Spiral HornsT'ao-t'ieh & BRONZES

acquiring an elegance, which con-ceals the strength imparted by thepowerful central rib and the steepbevel of the edges. The socketsof those made just before andduring Han times might bedecorated and carry a small loop,from which would flutter a plumeor tassel.

Spiral Horns, an element ofMiddle Chou decoration occur-ring on free standing animal heads.

Spoons are well known amongthe bronzes of the Shang, EarlyChou and Middle Chou periods.They are rather flat with a fairlyshort, wide handle, usually richlyornamented; they may be basedon originals made of shell. [6b].

Spring and Autumn Annals,Period of. This term in con-nection with bronze design anddecoration is no longer current,since the period covered by theAnnals does not coincide with asingle style, but includes somepieces of Middle Chou style andsome of the Huai style. Theterm is, however, still found insome Chinese publications and inolder books in European lan-guages.

Square Hu, a rectangular type ofhu (q.v.) with mask-mountedring handles. Decoration is

sometimes wholly dispensed within this type; at other times thecasting provides for inlay of gold,silver, copper, turquoise or mala-chite, or combinations of two ormore of these materials. Therectangular lid, where this sur-vives, has either a central ringhandle, or four lugs at the corners.These vessels were not producedbefore the Huai period. [8/].

Square with Crescents is essen-tially a square with large arcs cutout of the four corners [6d]; thereis usually a small circular boss inthe centre. The Chinese namefor this motive is ssu-pan hua-wen,'four-petal flower pattern', butits origin is probably not floral.

S-spiral Pattern usually occurs asa band of S-forms placed veryclosely together; this is the best

known form; or it may occur as avariant in the background fillingknown as Thunder Pattern (q.v.).[6e, f]-

Ssu-pan Hua-wen. See Squarewith Crescents.

Tai-Kou. See Belt Hooks.

T'ao-t'ieh is the name of ananimal mask motive. It is one ofthe most important decorativemotives, associated mainly withShang and Early Chou, and occurs

PLATE 7. BRONZES, a-d] T ; ao-t'ieh.

36

PLATE 7

T'ao-t'iehTiger Tally

PLATE 8

TinsTou-> BRONZES

spine, which forms the line ofjunction between the two parts,is an inscription; this can only beread when the correct halves arefitted together. Most of thesetallies date from the Han periodand many of them are gilt. Theyvary in length from 2 or 3 inchesto as much as 9 inches. [8/].

Ting, a round vessel on three legs,or a rectangular vessel with fourlegs; intended to contain food.The type was produced through-out the Bronze Age, thoughmodified in form and decorationfrom one stylistic period to an-other. The rectangular type isfound only in the Shang and EarlyChou periods [8c]; during thesetwo periods there are some roundexamples with legs in the form ofbirds or animals standing on theirtails, and supporting the vessel onthe beak or snout [86]; in all othercases the legs are cylindrical.

[8tf]. In the Middle Chou periodthe form of the leg changes to aslight S-curving type, resemblingthe cabriole leg, and the bowl ofthe vessel becomes shallower.[8/]. The handles do not alwaysrise directly from the rim, butmay spring from the body belowand bend round and upward. Inthe Huai style period the vesselacquires a domed cover, some-times ornamented with crouchinganimals; the legs retain their S-curve. [&d]. The vessel con-tinued to be made after the end of

40

the Bronze Age, and under theinfluence of Buddhism its func-tion changed to that of an incenseburner for use in Buddhisttemples.

TLV Mirrors are those mirrorsin which the dominant decorativemotives are elements resemblingthe letters T, L and V; suchmirrors may be of the Cosmictype (q.v.), in which case theyhave the special elements thatdistinguish the type added. Notall TLV mirrors are inscribed, andonly a few were made prior to theHan period. [8/].

To, a hand-bell with a clapper.The handle is either socketed formounting on a shaft, or is longenough to be held in the hand; thelatter type may be perforated forthe passage of a cord, or it mayhave a small loop at the end forthe same purpose. Introduced inthe Middle Chou period and con-tinuing through Huai. [Se].

Tou, a wide bowl on a high,spreading foot in its earliest form.Later the bowl gained a high andmore slender stem with a splayedfoot. It is common to all threestylistic periods, but only in theHuai does it appear to acquire acover, which may be so made asto become an additional bowlwhen it is removed and reversed.

BRONZES & Triple LozengeWarring States

Triple Lozenge, a group ofthreediamond forms consisting of onelarge one in the centre, with asmaller one overlapping it on each

side. It may be a primary orsecondary element in Huai styleand in the Han period, and itoccurs in many other mediumsbeside bronze. The term wasintroduced by Karlgren, whooriginally called it 'zig-zag

lozenge'. [9/J.

Tsun, a massive wine vessel,generally with a broad body,well-shaped sloping shoulders,and a wide flaring mouth [8fe]; thefoot is of medium height andspreading. The decoration tendsto be lavish with t'ao-t'ieh (q.v.)and k'uei dragons playing animportant part, though bird-forms are also used. The shoul-ders are sometimes decorated withfree-standing animal heads. Insome cases the vessel has flanges

(q.v.) that may come right up tothe edge of the mouth, or evenbeyond. It does not appear inthis form after the end of EarlyChou, and most are of the Shangperiod. See also Animal Tsun,Bird Tsun and ceramics, Tsun.

Tui, a clapperless bell for sus-pension, oval or circular in section,and wide at the top, on which isan everted rim; the lower bodytapers slightly. The top is sur-mounted on one side by a freelymodelled animal, usually a tiger;

it is not as a rule decorated in anyother way. The type is said tohave been used for militarypurposes. Those that survivedate from the Huai and Hanperiods. [Sh].

Tui. A roughly spherical vesselmade in two identical halves.Both base and top have three lugsor rings to stand on. Those thatsurvive often appear to have beencast to accept inlays. Introducedduring Middle Chou.

Twelve Branches, or Duoden-ary Cycle of symbols, used todivide up the 24 hours of the dayinto two-hour periods. Thesymbols are also equated with theChinese signs of the Zodiac andthe 12 points of the Chinese com-pass; they also combine with theTen Stems (q.v.) to make up the60-day and 60-year cycles. Theyoccur as part of the decoration onCosmic Mirrors (q.v.) of the Hanperiod.

Vertical Scales, a Middle Choudecorative motive consisting ofoverlapping elements resemblingfish scales. [9c, d].

Warring States, Period of the.This term in connection withbronze design and decoration isno longer current, though it maystill be found in older publications.The historical period of the War-ring States coincides only with the

4i

:r PatinaYu BRONZES

latter part of the J-Iuai stylistic addition of a small circle, eitherperiod. intaglio, or in low relief. [9e, f].

Water Patina is the name com-monly given to the thin, smooth

msb or greyish patina of hardI etimes found on Chinese

res. This type of patinaappears to develop on pieces fromdry z ,:.ia stable climate, inwhich wide fluctuations of temp-eratute and humidity do notusually occur. Although the be-lief is widespread that it is lessvulnerable to disease than anencrusted patina, this may not infact be true once the piece is re-moved to an unstable clir.situation, particularly if the 'skin'

is in any way damaged.Patina.

Wavy Line, an element oiMiddle Chou decoration; an un-dulating pattern often inter-spersed with debased k'uei dragons(q.v.). [9a, b].

White Tiger. See Animals oftke Four Quarters.

Whorl Circle is an element inShang and Early Chou bronzedecoration consisting ofa low bosswith spirals curling in towards thecentre, usually four or five, thecentre of the boss sometimes beinggiven added emphasis by the

Ya-hsing, literally Ya-shaped.The term is given to a curiousdevice inscribed on bronzes of theShang period. This same 'shape'occurs as the outline of the centralcoffin area in some of the royaltombs oi the Shang Dynasty atAnyang. [9 a].

Yen, also called hsien, a steamerfor vegetables. The base re-sembles the li (q.v.) or the tino(q.v.), according to whether ornot the legs are hollow. The

: I is usually made in two parts,the upper part having a gratingat the base; the rim carries earhandles. If the vessel is cast in

one piece, the grating betweenthe upper and lower parts isusually hinged, It appears in allstylistic periods, some of those ofthe Middle Chou being rec-tangular, and those of the Huaistyle having ring handles mountedon the sides of the upper bowl, inplace of the earlier ear handles.

mYu, a wine vessel, varying a greatdeal in shape from tall and slenderto short and stout; almost uni-versal characteristics are, greater

width at the belly than at the neck,a swing handle and a cover. The

PLATE 9. BRONZES, a-h] Wavy Line, c-d] Vertical Scales.e-f] Whorl Circle. g\ Ya-hsing. h] Yen. i] Triple Lozenge, j] Yu.

42

*mmm

e f

PLATE 9

YiiZig-zag Lozenges

toot, when not broken up intobirds' feet, is up to 2 inches highand slightly spreading. Theswing handles are frequently sur-mounted by animal heads at thepoint at which they connect withthe lugs on the body. Producedin Shang and Early Chou; thoseot the latter period have atendency towards extremes inornate treatment of form anddecoration. [9/].

Yii, a wide-mouthed wine orwater vessel with a cylindricalbody flaring a little at the rim, and

TT BRONZES

with a splayed foot. It has twobent ear handles (q.v.). Thevessel is not common, apparentlyoccurring only in Early Chou.The body may be decorated withHanging Blades (q.v.) of a landmore commonly found on ku(q.v.) or tsun (q.v.) and never, sofar as is known on kuei (q.v.),with which this vessel is some-times confused.

Yiieh. See Axes.

Zig-zag Lozenges. SeeTriple Lozenge.

44

BRONZES

RECOMMENDED BOOKSFoster, K. E. A Handbook ofAncient Chinese Bronzes. Claremont, California, 1949.Hansford, S. H. The Seligman Collection of Oriental Art, Vol. 1. Chinese, Central Asian

and Luristan Bronzes, etc. London, 1957.Karlgren, B. Catalogue of Chinese Bronzes in the Alfred P. Pillsbury Collection.

Minneapolis, 1952.

Karlgren, B. Yin andChou Researches. Stockholm, 1935.Kelly, C. F. & Ch'en Meng-chia. Chinese Bronzes in the Buckingham Collection.

Chicago, 1946.

Kidder, J. E. Early Chinese Bronzes in the City Art Museum of St. Louis. St. Louis,1956.

Lodge, J. E. & others. A Descriptive Catalogue of Chinese Bronzes in the Freer GalleryofArt. Washington, 1946.

Watson, W. Ancient Chinese Bronzes. London, 1962.White, C. W. Bronze Culture ofAncient China. Toronto, 1956.Yetts, W. P. The Cull Collection of Chinese Bronzes. London, 1939.Yetts, W. P. The George Eumorfopoulos Collection of Chinese and Corean Bronzes, etc.

London, 1929-32. 3 vols.

45

BUDDHISM i5rBuddhism, which developed in India during the 4th and 3rdcenturies B.C., began to reach China in the Han Dynasty, probablyduring the 1st century B.C. The Chinese received the teachingof both main schools, the Mahayana and the Hinayana to whichreference is made below; the Mahayana school became the mostpopular and the one under the influence of which, the religiousart flourished most vigorously. The cave temple sites of Tun-huang, Yiin-kang, Lung-men and T'ien-lung Shan are probablythe best-known monuments of sculpture from the 4th to the 9thcenturies, with Tun-huang probably more famous for its paint-ings, than for its stucco sculpture. The great persecution ofBuddhism in a.d. 844-5 dealt a blow at stone sculpture fromwhich that art never fully recovered, although small gilt, orlacquered bronze figures, as well as wooden ones continued tobe popular. In painting, and in the decoration of minor objectsof the industrial arts, Buddhist themes remained popular. In thelater periods, particularly in the Ming and Ch'ing dynasties, theiconography became extremely complicated and often confused,so that the identification of particular figures is frequently un-

certain.

The terms and names included in the following pages are nomore than a minimum basic list for those anxious to identifyfigures and themes. For a more detailed approach referenceshould be made to the books listed at the end of this section.

46

BUDDHISM ft

Abhaya Mudra. See Mudra.

Amitabha, in Chinese A-mi-t'o-p'o, or simply Mi-t'o. TheBuddha of Boundless Splendour,who presides over the WesternParadise. Particularly popular inChinese Buddhism.

A-mi-t'o-p'o. See Amitabha.

Ananda. One of the chief dis-ciples of the historical Buddha, hewas the master of hearing andremembering; he is said to havecompiled the Sutras. He isreckoned the second patriarch.Dressed as a monk, he oftenappears together with Kasyapa(q.v.) in support of the Buddha.

Anjali Mudra. See Mudra.

Apsaras. A heavenly being, agoddess, a term often used inEuropean texts to refer to celestialmusicians and dancers in attend-ance on Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.

Arhat. A worthy; an enlight-ened, saintly man. The highesttype of saint of Hinayana Budd-hism (q.v.) in contrast to theBodhisattvas (q.v.) of MahayanaBuddhism (q.v.) . They are calledLohan by the Chinese, who havearranged them in groups of 16,18 or 500.

Asanas. A seat or throne; alsomystic attitudes of the legs.

Abhaya MudraBodhidharma

Assault of Mara. See Life ofBuddha.

Asura. Evil beings at war withthe gods; demons. One class ofsupernatural being mentioned inthe Lotus Sutra (q.v.), and repre-sented as small, ugly creatures.

Avalokitesvara. In ChineseKuan-yin, Lord of Compassion.A Bodhisattva (q.v.) depicted firstas a man, but by the SungDynasty (a.d. 960-1279) is usuallyshown as a woman, and is knownas Goddess of Mercy, usuallyidentifiable by the ambrosia bottle(kalasa) or the lotus flower heldin the hand, and the small figureof the Buddha in the diadem. Inlate times she may be representedwith a fish basket, or holding ababy.

Bath. See Life of Buddha.

Bhadrasana. Seated with bothlegs pendent.

Bhumisparsa Mudra. SeeMudra.

Bodhidharma. In Chinese P'u-t'i-ta-mo, or Ta-mo, the 28thIndian and 1st Chinese patriarch.Shown in two forms (a) a well-built, curly-haired man with arosary in his hand, crossing thesea on a sword or a millet stalk;(b) an emaciated man crossing thesea on a millet stalk and holding

47

BodhisattvaDvarapala iT BUDDHISM

a shoe in his right hand. He wasthe reputed founder of Ch'an(Zen) Buddhism in China and issaid to have arrived there in a.d.520, but his existence has beenquestioned.

Bodhisattva. In Chinese us-ually referred to by the abbreviatedname of P'u-sa. A potentialBuddha, or in Mahayana Buddh-ism (q.v.) which was muchfavoured in China, one who hasachieved perfect enlightenmentand is entitled to enter directlyinto Nirvana (q.v.), but who re-nounces this in order first to bringsalvation to all suffering mankind.Such figures appear alone, or inpairs in support of a Buddha.Unlike the Buddha, who is al-ways a simple figure withoutadornment, the Bodhisattvas arecrowned and loaded with jewels.The best-known figures areAvalokitesvara (q.v.), Manjusri(q.v.), Samantabhadra (q.v.),Ksitigarbha (q.v.) and Mahast-amaprapta (q.v.). Before his en-lightenment the historical Buddhais often referred to as 'the Bod-hisattva'.

Buddha. The one who is per-fectly enlightened and has enteredNirvana (q.v.). In MahayanaBuddhism (q.v.), there are manyBuddhas in existence at the sametime; Hinayana (q.v.) admits ofonly one in existence at a time.Sakyamuni Buddha, the historical

48

Buddha, is just one of a longline of Buddhas, with Maitreya(q.v.) still to come.

Cakra. The wheel or disc, asymbol of sovereignty, the Wheelof the Law. The Buddha by hisenlightenment overcame illusion,kharma (the sum of past lives) andsuffering. When he expoundedhis doctrine he demonstrated hisvictory by 'setting in motion theWheel of the Law', the chariotwheel of truth and salvation.The wheel thus becomes a symbolof enlightenment, and suggeststhe domination of all by theBuddha's law.

Chandaka. The personal ser-vant of Sakyamuni Buddha (q.v.)up to the time of the Great Re-nunciation. See Life of Buddha.

Cintamani. The magic jewel;precious pearl, philosopher's stone.

Dharmacakra Mudra. SeeMUDRA.

Dhyana Mudra. See Mudra.

pose ofle;s crossed.

Parvankasana and

Dhyanasana. Themeditation withAlso calledVajrasana (the Diamond Pose).

Dvarapala. A guardian figure.Two such figures often stand atthe gate of a temple or a tomb.With bulging eyeballs and horri-fic grins, armed with sword and

BUDDHISM-fr Eleven-headed Kuan-yin

Ju-i

spear, they ward off evil spiritsfrom the sacred precincts of theBuddha Hall. They are some-times shown stamping on thedemons of ignorance and illusion.

Eleven-headed Kuan-yin. Amanifestation of Avalokitesvaraespecially connected with TantricBuddhism.

historical Buddha's family, whichwith the passage of time has cometo mean the Buddha himself inmost instances. He is frequentlyreferred to as 'the Bodhisattva'before the enlightenment. SeeLife of Buddha.

Great Renunciation.of Buddha.

See Life

Enlightenment. See Life ofBuddha.

Farewell to Kanthaka. SeeLife of Buddha.

First Seven Steps.Buddha.

Four Encounters.Buddha.

See Life of

See Life of

Four Guardian Kings. SeeLOKAPALA.

Gandharva. Gods of fragranceand music. One class of super-natural being mentioned in theLotus Sutra (q.v.). Indra's mus-

icians. They are usually shownas small celestial figures similar toapsaras (q.v.) with censers ormusical instruments.

Garuda. The king of birds, amythical being. Associated withfire and is sometimes used as asymbol of it.

Gautama. The name of the

Dhca

Hinayana. The 'Small Vehicle'doctrine of Buddhism; muchnearer to the original teaching ofthe Buddha than Mahayana (q.v.).Hinayana survives in Ceylon,Burma, and Siam and is moreorthodox and in the direct linethan Mahayana, which gives moreattention to metaphysical specu-lation. The term Hinayana is aderogatory one coined by theMahayanists, who held that theHinayanist sought personal arhat-ship, and the destruction of bodyand mind and extinction in Nir-vana, thus lacking the broaduniversalism of their own doc-trine. The emphasis ofHinayanais on the doctrine rather than onthe worship ofthe Buddha.

Jatakas. Stories of the previouslives of the Buddha in eitherhuman or animal form.

Ju-i. An elongated S-curvedobject; a symbol of discussionoften held by Manjusri (q.v.),when debating with Vimalakirti(q.v.).

49

KalasaLife of Buddha-fr BUDDHISM

Kalasa. The rain yase, or am-brosia bottle commonly held byAvalokitesvara (q.v.).

Kasyapa. In Chinese Buddhistart he is usually accepted as thechief disciple of the Buddha, whobecame the elder, and first patri-arch after the master's death. In

Buddhist art he is shown as anelderly monk with a heavily linedface and often appears withAnanda (q.v.) in support of theBuddha, sometimes with twobodhisattvas (q.v.) as well.

Kinnara. Celestial musiciansand dancers. One class of super-natural being mentioned in theLotus Sutra (q.v.) and representedas small figures dancing withtrailing scarves, or as human-headed birds with musical instru-ments.

Ksitigarbha. In Chinese 77-tsang. The Guardian ofthe Earth,the Bodhisattva, who deliversfrom Hell. Usually showndressed as a monk holding a pil-grim's staff (khakkara) with arattle at the top. He may alsocarry on one open upturned palmthe cintamani (q.v.) or jewel.

Kuan-yin. SeeAvalokitesvara.

Kuvera. See Vaisravana.

Lalitasana. To be seated withone leg pendent.

50

Life of Buddha. The majorevents in the life of the historicalBuddha are frequently depictedand are set out in chronologicalorder below. It is helpful toremember that the historicalBuddha was a son of the Gautamafamily in the Sakya clan; hisfather was King Suddhodhana ofKapilavastu, his mother's namewas Maya, and in his youth hehimself was known as PrinceSiddartha. For these reasons he isoften known as Gautama, Sakya-muni(the Holy One of the Sakyas)and as Prince Siddartha. Themain events of the Life tend to bearranged in groups of four oreight, probably corresponding insome way with the doctrine of theFour Noble Truths and the Eight-fold Path. The events makingup a group vary, but the Nirvanais never omitted.

Mayas Dream, or the conception;shown as a woman asleep on acouch, with a small elephant,sometimes ridden by a childcoming down towards her fromabove, signifying the descent ofthe Bodhisattva from the TusitaHeaven, where he has been await-ing the time of his re-birth.

Nativity. The birth of Gaut-ama, who is said to have sprungfrom his mother's side while sherested in the Lumbini Grove, isgenerally shown as a womanstanding with one hand against atree-trunk, while an attendant

BUDDHISM ^r Life of Buddha

receives the child from her side.The Bath, usually presided overbv the Nagas (q.v.), who makea screen at the child's back. In

painted examples there may beeither a bath-tub, or a small

fountain, or a waterfall in addition

to the Nagas.

First Seven Steps, taken by theinfant Gautama in the directionof each of the cardinal points towhich he announced the end ofbirth, old age, sickness and death.Illustrated as a child pacing for-ward, each pace being marked bya lotus flower.

Four Encounters. The youthfulPrince Siddartha secretly leavesthe palace on four occasions tomeet for the first time old age (aman leaning on a staff), sickness (aman propped up in bed), death(a man under a shroud), andpoverty (a man shorn and shavedcarrying an alms bowl).

Great Renunciation. The princeis usually shown mounted on hishorse Kanthaka riding away fromthe city gate, the hooves of hishorse being supported by apsaras(q.v.). He may be accompaniedby his servant Chandaka. Thefact that the departure from thepalace took place at night issometimes indicated by additionalfigures lying asleep in a pavilion.

Farewell to Kanthaka. After leav-ing his home at Kapilavastu,Gautama sends his horse (some-

times the servant Chandaka aswell) back to the city. The horseKanthaka is shown 'kneeling' be-fore the Bodhisattva. The inter-pretation in visual terms of thisevent seems to be peculiar to China.

Assault ofMara. The Bodhisattvais seated under the Bodhi-treewith the forces of the Evil One oneither side; these are usually

represented as demons in a stateof fury together with the beauti-ful and seductive daughters ofMara. The Bodhisattva remainsunmoved in meditation, or hemay be shown with his right handin the Bhumisparsa mudra (q.v.).

Enlightenment. Buddha-hoodachieved, Gautama is shown inmeditation under the Bodhi-tree.

Preaching the Law, or the Sermonin the Deer Park at Benares.The Buddha expounds the doc-trine of salvation for the first time.This is usually shown with theBuddha seated with his hands inthe dharmacakra mudra (q.v.).He may be seated on a lotusthrone, or be supported by lions;there may also be a pair of deer,one at each side, symbolic of theDeer Park.

Parinirvana, 'brought to an end',the death of the Buddha. He isshown either alone, and apparent-ly asleep, or with mourningfigures around him, and withbirds and animals coming to-wards him bearing flowers.

51

LohanMaya's Dream-fr BUDDHISM

Lohan. See Arhat.

Lokapala. The Guardian Kingsof the Four Quarters, Guardiansof the World and the Buddhistfaith. They are usually of fear-some aspect and armed; they standat the entrance to a Buddha Hall.The best known is Vaisravana(q.v.).

Lotus Sutra. In Sanskrit Sadd-harma Pundarika Sutra; the funda-mental text of Mahayana (q.v.)and the key to much of ChineseBuddhist art. The earliest sur-viving translation into Chinesedates from a.d. 406. An Englishtranslation from the Sanskrit isthat made by Hendrik Kern in1884, and a partial translationfrom the Chinese text has beenmade by W. E. Soothill in 1930under the title The Lotus of theWonderful Law.

Mahastamaprapta. The Bod-hisattva (q.v.) representing the

Buddha-wisdom of Amitabha(q.v.). He appears on the rightof Amitabha, while Avalokite-svara (q.v.) appears on the left.

This particular triad is called theThree Holy Ones of the WesternRegion, Amitabha presiding overthe Western Paradise.

Mahayana. 'The Great Vehicle'doctrine of Buddhism, which hada strong hold in China. It is a

52

theistic Buddhism in that Mahay-ana asserts the existence of a seriesof Buddhas and Bodhisattvas andthat salvation may be gained byinvocations to them, so that entryinto Paradise may be regarded asan immediate possibility. Itasserts the unreality of the ego andof all other things, and aims atsalvation for all. Mahayanistsalso held that merit could begained by the dedication ofimageseither in painting or sculpture, themerit gained offsetting the evil ofone's previous lives, thus bringingrelease from re-birth nearer, andmaking entry into a transcendent,paradisic Nirvana a foregone con-clusion.

Maitreya. In Chinese Mi-lo, theBuddha of the future.

Mandala. A magic circledivided into circles, or squares, inwhich are painted Buddhist divin-ities and symbols. The purposeis to gather spiritual powers to-gether to promote the operationof the dharma, or law. A magicdiagram of either a Buddhisthierarchy, or the imagined shapeof the cosmos.

Manjusri. In Chinese Wen-shu,the Bodhisattva of Wisdom,often shown riding a Hon.

Maya's Dream. See Life ofBuddha.

BUDDHISM

ParinirvanaSastra -& buddhism

pagoda, however, is nearly al-ways an architectural monument,either single or multi-storeyed.

Parinirvana. See LifeBuddha and Nirvana.

of

Paryankasana.ANA.

See Dhyanas-

Prabhutaratna. The ancientBuddha, long in Nirvana (q.v.),who made his appearance in hisstupa (q.v.) to hear Sakyamuni,the historical Buddha, expoundthe Lotus Sutra (q.v.). The twoBuddhas may occur in art seatedside by side in a setting resemblinga pagoda, or Prabhutaratna mayappear in a pagoda immediatelyabove the Buddha.

Preaching the Law.of Buddha.

See Life

Prince Siddartha. The per-sonal name of the historicalBuddha. His other names wereSakyamuni (q.v.) and Gautama(q.v.). Before his enlightenmenthe is often referred to as 'theBodhisattva'.

P'u-hsien. See Samantabhadra.

P'u-sa. See Bodhisattva.

P'u-t'i-ta-mo. See Bodhi-DHARMA.

Rajalilasana. The pose knownas the 'royal ease', describing

Buddha and Bodhisattva figuresseated with one leg pendent, andthe other raised and bent at theknee, across which lies one out-stretched arm.

Saddharma Pundarika Sutra.See Lotus Sutra.

Sakti. Literally 'energy'; in bothBuddhism and Hinduism, sakti isthe wife or female energy of adeity.

Sakyamuni. The Holy One ofthe Sakyas. A title of thehistorical Buddha. Sakya wasthe clan name, and muni means asaint, a sage, holy man or monk.The two names have been runtogether and make up what isprobably the best-known namefor the Buddha.

Samadhi. Tranquillity, equi-librium; a degree of dhyana (q.v.)or meditation. The deepest formof Yoga meditation.

Samantabhadra. In ChineseP'u-hsien. The Bodhisattva ofUniversal Benevolence; he isusually shown riding an elephant.

Sariputra. The chief of thedisciples before whom the LotusSutra (q.v.) was expounded.

Sastra. Text or manual of rulesof a craft such as architecture,painting or sculpture.

54

BUDDHISM

Vitarka MudraYaksa ft buddhism

by a great disputation between (a) Demons in the earth or air, orthe two men. The scene is in the lower heavens, evil andpopular in both sculpture and violent. (b) Attendants onpainting. Vaisravana (q.v.) God of Wealth,

and then symbolic of abundance.Vitarka Mudra. See Mudra. One of the classes of supernatural

beings referred to in the LotusYaksa. There are two forms. Sutra (q.v.).

56

BUDDHISM

RECOMMENDED BOOKSConze, E. Buddhism. Oxford, Cassirer, 1953.Davidson, J. Le Roy. The Lotus Sutra in Chinese art. Oxford, 1954.Getty, A. The Gods ofNorthern Buddhism. Oxford, 1928.

Johnston, Sir Reginald. Buddhist China. London, 191 3.Siren, O. Chinese Sculpture from the 4th to the 14th Century. London, 1925. 4 vols.

(1 text, 3 plates).

Soothill, W. E., & Hodous, L. A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms. London,1937.

Waley, A. Catalogue of Paintings Recovered from Tun-huang by Sir Aurel Stein yK.C.I.E. London, 193 1.

57

CERAMICS *Chinese ceramics are usually divided into three main groupson the basis of their body material.

1. Pottery varies in degree of hardness and colour; it is generallyporous and always non-translucent. It is made impermeable bythe application ofglaze. It is fired at comparatively low tempera-tures, mostly between about 800 degrees Centigrade and 1,000degrees Centigrade. One clay alone may be used, or two ormore blended together, though we believe that the Chineseusually used only one clay for any one type.

2. Porcellanous stoneware is hard and varies in colour from blackto light grey or dirty white; it is impermeable and non-translucent.It is usually glazed, the glaze used being of a different nature fromthat used on pottery, and the ware is fired at temperaturesbetween about 1,150 degrees Centigrade and 1,300 degreesCentigrade. The body is artificially constituted in the sense thatboth ball clay and China stone are combined in their properproportions.

3. Porcelain is hard, compact in texture, fine in grain, white,

impermeable and translucent. It is almost invariably glazed, andis fired at temperatures from 1,150 degrees Centigrade upwards,though the Chinese are not believed to have fired at temperaturesabove 1,350 degrees Centigrade. The body material is com-posed of the white firing clay called Kao-lin, which is speciallyprepared, and the white China stone, known as Petuntse, andmay contain other ingredients as well.The Chinese call pottery wa, and the other two wares tzu, a

word which in English we usually translate as 'porcelain', thus

58

CERAMICS-fc Ai-yehBirthday Plates

making no distinction between the two wares that are highfired and resonant, and which unlike pottery are covered with afeldspathic glaze; to the Chinese the colour of the body is of littleimportance.

Ai-yeh. See Artemisia Leaf.

An-hua, 'secret' or 'hiddendecoration', a type of decorationthat first appeared in the Yung-loperiod (1403-24) on the rare'bodiless ware' (q.v.), and isfound on many wares from the15th century onward. It takestwo forms; it is either very fineengraving on the body, or it isvery fine slip applied beforeglazing. The second type is us-ually called 'an-hua slip'. So fineand delicate is it that it is onlypossible to see the decoration bytransmitted light; it then appearslike a watermark in paper.

Apple Green. A translucentemerald green enamel appliedover the glaze as a 'self-colour'; in

some cases it is applied over acrackled grey glaze.

Arrow Vase. A globular vasewith a long cylindrical neck, atthe top of which are two cylin-drical lugs. The vase was usedfor the 'arrow game' in whicharrows were thrown by com-petitors, who attempted to getthem into the vase or through thelugs. [104

Artemisia Leaf, one of the EightPreciousObj ects [seeDecoration)

,

but often found as a mark onporcelains of the K'ang-hsi period(1662-1722), when it was invari-ably carried out in underglazeblue. It is often referred to incatalogues by its Chinese name,ai-yeh. [lOfc].

Baluster Vase, a vase with acylindrical neck and trumpetmouth sometimes described as ayen-yen vase. Ch'ing Dynastyand later. [10c].

Batavian Ware is a trade nameapplied to wares of the K'ang-hsiperiod (1662-1722) with a glazevarying from coffee-coloured toold gold, combined with whitemedallions or ornamental panels,which are decorated either inunderglaze blue, or in overglazeenamels. The name owes itsorigin to the fact that the Dutchcarried great quantities of thesewares, trans-shipping them attheir trading station at Batavia.

Birthday Plates, the name givento a seres of plates decorated infamille verte enamels (q.v.), withthe reign mark of K'ang-hsi onthe back, and four characters,

59

BiscuitBrush Pot-fr CERAMICS

wan-shou wu-chiang, 'a myriadlongevities without ending', eachcharacter in a separate panel onthe flattened rim. The series isreputed to have been made for thesixtieth birthday of the EmperorK'ang-hsi in 1713.

Biscuit. A term applied to cera-mic wares that have been fired,but not yet glazed. The temp-erature of this first firing variesbetween about 800 Centigradeand 1 ,300 Centigrade according tothe constituents of the body andthe type of glaze to be applied.

Black Ting. A rare variant ofTing (q.v.) with a similar whitebody but a very glossy dense blackglaze, becoming very thin andpale at the rim. Known ex-amples are mostly conical bowlsabout 7 inches in diameter, witha small neatly cut, unglazed foot-ring and base showing the hard,fine paste of the body.

Blanc de Chine. See Te-hua.

Bodiless Ware. A very finequality thin white porcelain, firstmade in the Yung-lo period(1403-24); decoration, when itoccurs is usually of the an-huatype (q.v.). See also Egg-shell.

Bottle Vase. A pear-shapedvase with contracted neck andflaring lip. As a ceramic form itprobably appears first in the latterpart of the T'ang Dynasty. TheChinese call this form yii-hu-ctiun ping, and this name may befound in some modern writings.[10/,].

Bridal Bowl, a bowl decoratedwith two fish, either incised or inrelief. Twin fish are symbolic ofwedded bliss.

Brinjal Bowls, about 8 inches orless in diameter, with flared oreverted rim, roughly incised withflower and leaf sprays, withyellow, green and aubergine leadsilicate enamels, in various com-binations, applied directly to thebiscuit (q.v.).

Brown Mouth, describes thecharacteristic rim of the best Kuanware (q.v.) in which the darkbody shows through where theglaze has run thin in the firing.

Not to be confused with thebrown glazed rims on waresproduced from about the middleof the 16th century onward.

Brush Pot, a flat-based cylin-drical jar.

PLATE 10. CERAMICS, a] Arrow Vase, b] Bottle Vase, c] BalusterVase, d] Chih-ch ui P'ing (Mallet Vase), e-f] Bulb Bowls, g] BrushRest, h] Lien Hua. i] Bubble Cup. j] Garlic Vase, k] Artemisia Leaf.

/] Kuan Jar. ///] Hill Jar. //] Leys Jar.

6o

Brush RestChatter Marks *& CERAMICS

Brush Rest, an ornamental stand,often made in the form of fivemountains, perhaps representingthe Five Sacred Mountains ofChina, arranged in a straight lineon a rectangular base, with thehighest peak in the centre and theothers diminishing in size on eachside. [%].

Brush Washer. This is usuallya small shallow bowl with straightsides, often with a flat base with-out a foot-ring.

Bubble Cup. A name some-times given to small cups or bowlsofabout 3 or 4 inches in diameter,with high well-rounded sidesturning in a little towards the top;the foot is rather small. Theform is found mainly in Chun(q.v.) and Lung-ch'uan celadon(q.v.) and their later imitations.They are also named by somepeople 'palace bowls'. [10/].

derived from iron. It becameespecially popular in the 18thcentury.

Canton Enamels. See Miscel-laneous section, p. 125.

Cavetto. The well of a largedish.

Celadon. A term applied broad-ly to wares having a greyish orbrownish body covered by atransparent, or opaque, olive orgreyish-toned glaze. The nameis derived from the name Celadon,the shepherd, in the stage versionof Honore D'Urfe's pastoral ro-mance VAstree, who wore rib-bons of a soft grey-green tone.Among the most important waresto which the term is applied areYueh, Northern Celadon and thewares of Lung-ch'tian, each des-cribed under the appropriateheading.

Buckwheat Celadon.Seiji.

SeeToBi Ch'a-yeh Mo. See Tea Dust.

Bulb Bowl. A wide shallowbowl on three or four feet. Theywere made from the Sung Dyn-asty onwards and are commonestin Chun (q.v.), Kuang-tung (q.v.)and glazed Yi-hsing wares (q.v.),but are also known in a numberof others. [10e,/].

Cafe-au-lait. A lustrous brownglaze, with a wide range of tones,

62

Ch'ai, a lost imperial ware ofthe Five Dynasties. It was re-puted to be light blue and verythin, with fine crackle lines. Onesource states that it was made inCheng-chou in Honan province.Many attempts have been madeto identify this ware, but all haveso far proved unsuccessful.

Chatter Marks are radiatingridges, varying in prominence, on

CERAMICS ft Chi-an WareChien Ware

the base of a circular vessel. It isa fault in manufacture, whichoccurs in cutting the foot-ring,

and is due to holding the footturning tool insufficiently firmly

or at the wrong angle.

Chi-an Ware was made in looseimitation of the contemporaryChien ware (q.v.) of the SungDynasty. It was produced atYung-ho in the Chi-chou districtof Chi-an Fu in the province ofKiangsi, and perhaps also at otherkilns. The bowls are of a coarsebuff stoneware, crudely made andoften conical in form, with aspeckled brown glaze, with black-ish brown decorations, usually ofbird or floral motives; thesedecorations tend to run a little infiring. Also produced in thisdistrict, and often given the samename, are some mottled tortoise-shell coloured bowls of similarshape. These display a doubleglaze technique, the brown glazebeing applied first and the yellowbeing splashed on afterwards.

Chiang-t'ai, paste bodied' waresmade from a fine-grained whitefiring clay, often miscalled 'softpaste' (q.v.). These wares occurmainly from the 18th centuryonward.

Chiao-t'an, 'Altar of Heaven',which in the Southern Sungperiod was at Tortoise Hill, nearHang-chou; it was in the vicinity

of this altar that the commercialkiln producing Kuan wares (q.v.)was established and operated fromabout a.d. 1140 onward. Thesite of the kiln was discoveredduring road-making operations in1934 and the kiln has always beenknown by the name Chiao-t'an.In older publications the name isoften translated 'Suburban Altar*kiln.

Chicken cups, the name givento wine cups of a type first madein the Ch'eng-hua period (1465-87), the mark of which they bear,that were decorated with a cock,hen and chicks beside a peony infull bloom, together with othersmaller plants, the decorationbeing carried out in the combina-tion of underglaze blue and over-glaze enamel called tou-tsai (q.v.).The type was imitated in the 18thcentury, many of the imitationsalso bearing the mark of theCh'e