a history of fashion & costume - vol.4 - early america

A History ofFashion andCostumeEarlyAmerica

Paige Weber

Early America

Copyright © 2005 Bailey Publishing Associates Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-

Publication Data

Weber, Paige.A history of fashion and costume.

Early America/Paige Weber.p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 0-8160-5947-0

1. Clothing and dress—SouthAmerica—History. 2. Clothing anddress—North America—History.3. Indians of South America—Clothing. 4. Indians of NorthAmerica—Clothing.

GT675.W43 2005391/.0098—dc 22 2004060886

The publishers would like to thank the

following for permission to use their

pictures:

Ancient Art and Architecture: 9

(bottom)

Art Archive: 8, 9 (top), 13, 15

(bottom), 16, 18, 19, 20, 21 (both),

22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29 (top), 30, 33

(both), 34, , 36, 41 (left), 42, 48, 51

Bridgeman Art Library: 10, 11, 17, 29

(bottom), 31, 46, 53 (left)

Colonial Williamsburg Foundation: 53

(right), 56, 57, 58

Peter Newark: 41 (right), 52, 55, 59

South American Pictures: 25

Topham: 12, 37, 38, 39, 44, 45, 49 (both)

Werner Forman Archive: 6, 7, 15 (top)

Contents

Introduction 5

Chapter 1: The Incas 6

Chapter 2: The Maya 12

Chapter 3: The Aztecs 16

Chapter 4: The Spanish and the Portuguese 26

Chapter 5: The Native Americans 34

Chapter 6: The British and French Colonies 40

Chapter 7: American Colonial Style 52

Timeline 60

Glossary 61

Further Information 62

Index 64

IntroductionThroughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, explorersleft Europe to search for westward sea routes to Asia. Insteadthey discovered the Americas, vast continents filled withunknown civilizations and treasures. Some of these nativecivilizations had developed into powerful empires.

After Christopher Columbus discovered gold on Hispaniola in1492, Spanish and Portuguese explorers traveled to theAmericas to search for more gold.With their superior steelweapons, they conquered the native peoples and took theirprecious treasures back to Europe.

Three great civilizations existed in Central and South Americawhen the Europeans arrived: the Incas, the Maya, and theAztecs. None of them had written languages, but their artworkand hieroglyphics, plus the accounts of European explorers,give us clues today about their societies and styles of clothing.

European explorers quickly understood that clothing was animportant indicator of status among Native Americans.Aperson from any civilization could be judged instantly by therichness of his cloth, rareness of his jewelry, and magnitude ofhis headdress.The rulers were obvious.

English and French colonists settled in North America formany reasons. Some traded furs with the Native Americans,and others, such as the Pilgrims and Puritans, establishedcolonies for religious freedom.Their clothing often assertedtheir group identities.

Though the clothing worn by these civilizations—Europeanand Native American—differed greatly, they all shared acommon interest in costume.The desire to dress up, todecorate the body, and to convey wealth and identity throughclothing was common to every early American society.

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Throughout the Inca Empire,weavings were the most importanttrading commodity and the mosthighly prized possessions. Gifts ofspecially woven cloth strengthenedsocial and political ties betweenleaders.The Incas even worshiped adeity of textiles,Aksu Mama, towhom they made sacrifices each year.

Fibers, Dyes, andLoomsThe Incas drew upon thousands ofyears of weaving tradition andknowledge. Brown and white cottonwas cultivated in the Andes as early as3800 BCE. Portable backstrap loomswere used from 2500 BCE onwards.Camelid fibers were introduced intocloth in the ninth century BCE. InInca society, clothes made from alpacahair were the most common. Llamahair produced the roughest wool, and

Finely woven textiles have been central to the social,political, and economic lives of the people

inhabiting the Andes mountains of South America formore than five thousand years.The Inca Empire rose topower there around 1200 CE, and at its height in thefifteenth century it ruled over a region that stretchedfrom modern Columbia to Chile, and from the PacificOcean to the Amazonian rainforest. Cuzco, the centralcity of Inca civilization, was rich, with great buildingsdecorated with sheets of gold, and noblemen wearingheaddresses encrusted with jewels and topped withexotic feathers.

Cloth and Culture in the Andes

Chapter 1: The Incas

the silky hair of the wild vicuña washighly prized.

To color these yarns, the Incas usedleaves, fruits, berries, lichen, tree bark,and minerals to make vivid dyes thatdid not fade or bleed.The cochinealinsect was crushed to producebeautiful red, purple, and black dyes.

Weavers used backstrap looms tocreate delicate belts and headbands.Horizontal and vertical looms wereused to produce larger textiles andtapestries.

SymbolismThe Incas did not have a system ofwritten language. Instead they usedsymbols to convey complexinformation.They wove geometricpatterns into their clothing torepresent calendars, religious festivals,

Inca women wove clothon backstrap looms, asshown in this sixteenth-century Peruvianillustration.

magical beliefs, and regional loyalties.For example, a diamond patternrepresented Inti, the sun god.Adouble-headed snake patternhonored the god Amaru.The mostluxurious garments were decoratedwith tocapus, small figures repeatedwithin a larger geometric pattern.Even ordinary garments hadsymbolic value: farmers carried theirproduce in bags made of stripedcloth that indicated through itspatterns what was held inside.

Status and SocietyWeaving was central to the economyof the Inca Empire.All people wererequired to pay tax to the rulers inthe form of labor, called mit’a, oftenby weaving cloth. Specialist maleweavers called cumbicamayos lived onlyto embroider cumbi, fine cloths ofalpaca and vicuña fibers, which wereused as diplomatic gifts by thenobility.The finest fabrics includedbrocades and gauzes decorated withprecious metals or rare seashells.Women of all ranks spun yarns, wovecloth, and created accessories such asponchos, belts, coca bags, andshoulder cloths. Most cloth wasproduced for the Inca rulers, whostored it in government warehouses

Mummy BundlesImportant Incas were buried with fine, embroidered cloths. These sacred fabrics werecreated specifically for this purpose and were intended to accompany the wearer into thenext world. Some nobles were mummified and buried in mummy bundles: mummieswrapped in layers of textiles, and topped with false heads bearing masks or wigs. Thesebundles would contain one large black cloth and as many other fine, colored textiles aswealth would allow.

until it was used as payment forsoldiers or administrative officials,who turned it into clothing.

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The Incas

This Inca cloth, with its many colors andgeometric patterns, was worn as a symbol ofhigh social status.

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Inca ClothingThroughout the Inca Empire, peopleat all levels of society wore the samestyle of garments, but the cloth fromwhich these garments were maderevealed the wearers’ wealth andorigins. In the warm coastal lowlands,the Incas preferred cotton clothing,which kept their bodies cool.Inhabitants of the colder mountainregions wore clothes made of alpacaor llama wool. On their feet the Incaswore grass shoes or llama leathersandals bound with brightly coloredwool fastenings.

This Inca nobleman wearsan expensive embroideredtunic, a large headdress,and gold earrings.

The Inca government supplied someclothing to its subjects: couples weregiven new garments from the officialwarehouses when they married, andolder people without familiesreceived enough clothing to survive.

Tunics and TocapusInca men wore a loincloth, a longstrip of cloth that went through thelegs and wrapped around the waist tosecure like a belt. In hot weather theywore this alone. On top, men wore asleeveless, knee-length tunic madefrom one piece of cloth, with a slitcut through the middle to makespace for the head.The waistlines ofInca tunics were often decoratedwith tocapus, which revealedinformation about the wearer, such ashis wealth, birthplace, or status. Menalso wore embroidered sashes aroundthe waist. In cold weather and onformal occasions, men wore a loosecloak over a tunic, tying its twocorners in front, at the neck. Insteadof using pockets, men carried theirtools, amulets, and coca leaves insmall bags.

Warriors wore headdresses that wereappropriate for their rank. OrdinaryInca helmets were round, made fromwood or cane, and decorated withsmall braids and crests. Officers woreelaborate, feathered headdresses withornamental badges.

Sashes and ShawlsWomen wore a long, sleeveless dressthat reached from the neck to theankles and was open at the sides toease walking.The most valuable

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dresses had delicate, colorful tocapuswoven into the cloth around thewaist.Women could also wear a sashdecorated with tocapus around thewaist to embellish a dress.Around theshoulders, women wore a square,draped shawl, which they fastenedacross the breast with a shawl pincalled a tupu (see panel). Peasantwomen used these shawls to carryproduce or small children.

HeadbandsOrdinary Inca men wore their hairlong in the back and trimmed into aneat fringe at the front.Around the

head they wore a narrow, wovenheadband.The Incas had manydifferent types of headbands, woolencaps, and feathered headdresses,according to their regions and status.Women wore their hair long andparted down the middle, and oftentwisted it into fine plaits.They cut itonly at funerals.Women wore aheadband similar to the men’s, andnoblewomen also wore a large pieceof folded cloth over this.Archeologists have found bronzemirrors at Inca sites, and also bronzetweezers, which they believe wereused to remove unwanted facial hair.

Shawl PinsInca women used long, straight metal pins called tupus to fasten all oftheir outer garments. Tupus were made from bronze, copper, silver, orgold. One end of a tupu was sharp and the other was decorative. Thedecorative end could be shaped like an animal or a human figure. Mostoften, it took the shape of a half-moon, and was made of metal so thinand sharp that it could be used as a knife.

The Incas

The Incas prized clothdecorated with repeatedgeometric patterns calledtocapus.

Manco Capac, the firstInca ruler, at the sunfestival that he initiated.

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Inca AristocracyThe Inca rulers enjoyed the softestgarments covered in tocapus, the mostprecious jewelry, and the mostextravagantly plumed headdresses.Entitlement to wear embellishmentslike feathers, rare shells, turquoise,gold, and silver was reservedexclusively for royalty, the nobility,and the highest-ranking militaryofficers. People from all over the IncaEmpire sent tributes of rare clothingand jewelry to the emperor, andcertain fabrics, feathers, and colorswere claimed for his use alone. Royaland noble Inca people groomedthemselves well, often bathing inprivate bathtubs decorated withcolorful cut stones.

The Sapa IncaThe word Inca applies to the Incapeople, and also to their emperor.The Sapa Inca, as he was known,wore a new outfit every day. He veryrarely wore any garment more thanonce. Instead, after he wore agarment, it was stored for one yearand then burned in a specialceremony.The Sapa Inca wore notonly vicuña hair tunics decoratedwith rare shells, beads, feathers, andgold threads, but also clothes madefrom the rarest of fibers, such as bathairs. Many of his clothes werewoven in temples by the Virgins ofthe Sun, secluded women chosen forthis purpose at the age of eight.

The emperor wore a royal, ceremonialheaddress called a llautu. It was aturban of many colored folds thatwrapped around his head, with acrimson-tasselled, vicuña-wool fringe

Ear PlugsWearing enormous plugs in the lower part of the ear,close to the lobe, was a sign of great status amongInca noblemen. Young noble boys received their firstear piercings and ear plugs during the annual SplendidFestival, when they were first recognized as adults. Thematerials, colors, and size of a man’s ear plugsindicated his status. These ear plugs were thereforemade as large as possible, and were composed ofprecious metals and rare stones. Through wearingthem, noblemen developed stretched ears. TheSpanish conquistadors called the Inca nobilityorejones, or “big ears.” Within Inca society, however,these large ears were considered prestigious.

The first Inca ruler Manco Capac is portrayed wearing enormous, spiralling,gold earrings and a richly colored robe.

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held over his forehead by a textileband, topped with two feathers fromthe rare coraquenque bird. Other royalfamily members wore textile head-bands with royal fringes of gold andwoolen tassels, but the crimson colorwas reserved for the Sapa Inca only.

Rare PlumesThe Inca royalty and nobility werevery fond of plumed headdresses,which demonstrated to others theirprivileged status at a glance. Prizedfeathers included those of falcons,eagles, hummingbirds, herons, andegrets.The conquered tribes of theAmazon sent the Sapa Inca brilliantmacaw feathers as homage, which hewore in ceremonial headdresses andfans.The feathers of the coraquenquebird were used to make only theemperor’s regal headdress, and anyonecaught hurting or stealing acoraquenque was immediately put todeath.

Gold as the SunIn the Inca world, gold representedthe sun, and therefore the emperor.Silver symbolized the moon, and theemperor’s queen. Gold and silverwere used to create elaborate jewelryfor the nobility. Noblemen woreintricate bracelets, disks, necklaces,pendants, and nostril rings.Womenwore only necklaces and shawl pinsas jewelry.The most precious stone tothe Incas was blue-green turquoise,but blue lapis lazuli and black jetwere also highly prized. Manyprecious stones and metals came fromthe northern edge of the IncaEmpire, in modern-day Columbia.

The Incas

The Incas discovered the techniques neededto work gold into decorative forms such asthis necklace and brooch in the form of allama.

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The Mayan civilization started to develop between2000 and 1000 BCE in the Yucatán peninsula and

the land covered by present-day Guatemala, Honduras,and Belize.The Maya were skilled farmers, weavers,potters, and traders, and they developed sophisticatedastronomical charts, calendars, and hieroglyphic writing.

Their civilization grew in power between 250 and 600CE, and by the early seventh century they had builtdozens of city-states containing great pyramids andhighly decorated stone architecture. Sometime between650 and 900, however, the Mayan civilization went intodecline. By the tenth century the Maya had largelyabandoned their greatest city-states, such as ChichenItza.Their people and culture persisted, however, incities along the coastline.Through the sixteenth century,the Maya continued to exert a strong cultural influenceon other Mesoamerican peoples through trade.

Chapter 2: The Maya

The ancient zigzagsymbols in this modernMayan weaving representlightning bolts.

Mayan Civilization

This Mayan woman wearsa huipil, or draped blouse,over her long skirt.

The Maya

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a cape during festivals. Mayan womenwore a skirt with a long blouse calleda huipil that hung down past thewaist.The huipil was made from arectangular length of cloth sewn upthe sides with wide openings for thearms, and an opening in the centerfor the neck.Women also wore tzutesas protection from the sun, and asornamental capes for festivals andceremonial rituals.

Beauty Ideals The Maya were especially interestedin the human body, and they thoughtthat certain physical traits, such ashigh cheekbones, represented theideal in human beauty.The Maya alsofound slightly crossed eyes attractive.To give their children crossed eyes,they dangled small balls of resinbetween their eyes for long periodsof time.The Maya decorated theirteeth by filing them and theninlaying them with jade, obsidian, andother precious stones. For protectionagainst insects and the cold, theysmeared a dark clay liquid over theirlimbs.They also used black clay todye their hair, and wore tattoos.

Text in TextilesLike the Incas, the Maya farmed bothwhite and light brown cotton, whichthey dyed and wove into colorfultextiles using backstrap looms.Theyalso used istle, fibers from the agaveplant, to make rough cloth. Likeother Central and South Americanpeoples, they wove symbolism withcolorful threads into their textiles,which could be read like texts andwhich varied according to region,family group, and tradition. Popularsymbols in Mayan textiles included:two-headed animals, such as the two-headed eagle from mythology;zigzags, which represented the god oflightning; and the centralmythological symbol called Yaxché,the Tree of Life.

Draped ClothMayan men wore a loincloth, ormaxtatl, a long tunic called a xicolli,and a cape, or pati. On their headsthey wore a rectangular cloth foldedin half diagonally and tied at the napeof the neck, known as a tzute. Theycould also wear the tzute drapeddecoratively over the shoulders, or as

Corn-Shaped HeadsThe perfect Mayan head had an elongated profile that started withthe end of the nose and sloped at a sharp angle up the foreheadand toward the crown. Ideally, the head was shaped like an ear ofcorn, the Mayan staple crop. The corn god himself was representedwith an elongated head. To achieve this look, they would strap twoboards to the heads of newborn babies. To further enhance theirprofiles as adults, the Maya would use clay to shape their noses sothat they appeared sleek and straight.

This stucco head of aMayan warrior bears theideal Mayan nose andforehead.

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Mayan CostumesThe Maya lived according to acomplex religious calendar thatincluded many lavish seasonal rituals.During these ceremonies, the Mayanelite wore elaborate costumes thatdisplayed their wealth and reflectedtheir social status in the civilization’sstrict hierarchy.A fantastical headdresscould symbolically portray thewearer’s royal heritage, militaryachievements, or central role within areligious rite. Maya of all social classesdressed up to take part in theseseasonal ceremonies.They witnessedritual human sacrifices and watchedthe struggle between life and deathplayed out through symbolic ballgames.

Heads of SocietyThe Mayan aristocracy wore longrobes and cloaks decorated withrichly woven patterns and colorfulknots, fringe, and feathers from sacredquetzals and other rare birds. Royalmen wore clothing and sandals made

The Ball GameMany Mesoamerican societies played a ball game that held greatsignificance, not just as a sport but as a ritualistic way of settlingdisputes. The Maya inherited this game from their predecessors theOlmecs, and they considered it so important that they built ballcourts in all but the smallest towns. Players were divided into twoteams, and the game involved hitting a large, heavy rubber ball acrossthe court and into high hoops. To play, they wore a loincloth with athick padded belt to protect the waist and hips. They also worepadding on their forearms and knees, at the sides of the body, toprotect themselves from injury when diving to the ground. Playersalso wore large headdresses and decorative chest ornaments. To theMaya, the game represented the struggle between the forces of lifeand death, and the losers were often decapitated.

This painted vessel showsa ball player wearing thickpadding to protect hisbody during the game.

Mayan aristocrats wearinglarge jewelry and elaborateheaddresses. Their servantcarries a fan to keep themcool.

The Maya

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from jaguar pelts. Royal women worelong dresses with woven belts thatdisplayed noble insignia. Royal Mayaof both sexes wore featheredheaddresses in extravagant shapes,such as a pagoda, a shell, or a bunchof fruit.The larger the headdress, thegreater the status of the wearer. Richmen also wore lots of jewelry,including pectorals and leg and armbands of jade, gold, and rare seashells. Men pierced their ears, noses,and lips to hold large rings and studs.The richest aristocrats had servantswho carried large feathered fans tokeep them cool.

Mayan WarriorsWarriors belonged to the elite ofMayan society, and the highest-ranking warriors sometimes worejaguar pelts like royalty. Going intobattle, a Mayan warrior wore quiltedcotton body armor, a square chestornament, and a battle headdressintended to frighten his opponents.He carried a sharp stone spear, mace,ax, or arrows, and a wooden shielddecorated with tassels.The Mayaoften went to war with the objectiveof finding victims for sacrificialrituals. During these rituals, warriorchiefs wore tunics decorated withsymbols relating to the occasion, andelaborate pectoral jewelry depictinganimals and humans.

Half Humans, HalfAnimalsThe Maya held many ceremoniesthat involved human sacrifice, as apayment to the gods in return forfavors such as rain, a good harvest, or

victory over enemies in battle. Manyof the Mayan gods were depicted ashalf human and half animal.Whenthe Mayan royals dressed for thesesacred rituals, they often wore hybridcostumes and headdressesrepresenting bird-men, feline men,reptilian men, and other monstrouscreatures. Other Maya would bechosen to represent particular godsby dressing in costumes representingthem during the festivals.

The enormous headdressworn by the King of Copanin this statue indicates hisroyal status.

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Chapter 3: The Aztecs

This twentieth-centurymural painting by DiegoRivera shows ancientAztecs in typical clothes atthe great market ofTenochtitlán.

Rulers of Mexico

In the thirteenth century, groups of hunter-gatherers known as the Mexica took over

the cities of the great Toltec civilization in theValley of Mexico.There they settled, combiningtheir own cultural traditions with those of theToltecs, and creating the early Azteccivilization.They founded the city ofTenochtitlán, modern Mexico City, on a lakeisland in 1325.Tenochtitlán became the seat ofthe emperor and the heart of the Aztec Empire.

Montezuma’s WardrobeMontezuma came to power in 1503 and was the lastruler of the Aztec Empire before the Spanish came toMexico in 1519. Like previous emperors, he had agodlike status and was considered too important forhis feet to touch the earth. So the Aztecs spreadcloaks on the ground wherever he walked. Montezumaowned many fantastic and opulent cloaks, includingone made from white duck feathers with a wolf’s headpattern; and another one lavishly covered with rarequetzal feathers. Montezuma cleaned himselffrequently in steam baths,as it was important that heand his clothing remainedspotlessly clean. Turquoisewas considered a royalstone, and Montezuma’simperial diadem wasencrusted with turquoise.

As the emperor, he was theonly Aztec allowed to weara turquoise nose ornament.

The Aztecs

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Over the course of the next hundredyears, the Aztecs gained completepower over the region and ruled overlands as far as the border of present-day Guatemala.The Aztec Empirewas destroyed by the Spanishconquistadors in the early sixteenthcentury.

Aztec CivilizationAt the height of their civilization,the Aztecs developed advanced art,literature, pictorial writing, music,and scientific knowledge.They livedwithin a strictly hierarchical society,with an emperor at the top, thenroyalty, nobility, priests, and warriors.Below them were craftsmen,farmers, and laborers, with slaves atthe bottom.The right to wearcertain precious ornaments and fineclothing was reserved by law forroyalty and the nobility.The penaltyfor dressing better than your stationcould be death.

The Aztecs worshiped many gods.Some Aztec gods had been knownin Mexico for centuries, and otherswere adopted from the religions oftribes the Aztecs had conquered.Agriculture was very important tothem, and they kept carved stonecalendars to plan the seasonal ritualsthat they hoped would bring themgood harvests. Many of theirreligious rites involved humansacrifice, which they believed keptnature in balance.

Conquest and CultureAztec warriors aimed to captureoutlying towns and to force the

The coronation of theAztec emperorMontezuma II.

conquered people to pay tribute tothe empire.As the Aztecs conqueredneighboring tribes, they absorbedtheir cultures into their owncivilization.The conquered tribespaid the Aztec rulers with gold,precious stones, rare feathers, cotton,and elaborate costumes in return fortheir spared lives.Aztec merchantstraveled far to spy on foreign tribesand report back to Tenochtitlán withnews of their wealth, often perceivedthrough fine clothing and jewelry. If aforeign tribe refused to trade goodswith the Aztecs, war and oftenconquest followed.

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Aztec Dress

Living in the hot, dry central plainsof Mexico, the Aztecs wore loose,flowing clothing made of fabric thatbreathed and kept them cool. Richer

members of society wore cottonimported from the warm coastalregions, while the poor wore localmaguey cactus fiber cloth.The Aztecsloved finery, and they decoratedthemselves and their clothing withanimal and floral patterns, fur,feathers, fringe, precious stones, andseashells, especially during festivals.

Materials and DyesUnlike the Incas, the Aztecs did notfarm camelids for wool. In their hotclimate they preferred to farm softcotton along the Pacific coast, andthe common maguey cacti, whichproduced a rough clothlike linen.

Grass SandalsOrdinary Aztecs went barefoot over the hot, dry ground.Soldiers and wealthy people, however, wore sandalsmade from leather or vegetable fibers such as cornhusks, grass, or yucca. More expensive sandals weredecorated with black, brown, red, or yellow designs woventhrough with dyed fibers. Leather or fiber straps held thesandals in place between the big and first toes. Themost complicated sandals had long leather straps thatwrapped around the leg from the ankle to the knee.

This scene from DiegoRivera’s mural depictsordinary Aztecs working inTenochtitlán at the heightof the Aztec Empire.

The Aztecs

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Women spun the yarn, wove it intocloth on backstrap looms, andembroidered it with cactus needles.

The Aztecs loved colorful clothingand used many different dyes.Themora tree produced yellowish-greendye, and acacia leaves made blue dye.Molluscs from the Pacific coastyielded purple dye.The deep,crimson dye produced from thecrushed bodies of cochineal insectswas highly prized.The Aztecs farmedcochineal insects in their naturalhabitat, prickly pear cacti.Aztecwomen used colorful yarns to weavedesigns representing butterflies,snakes, flowers, conch shells, andgeometric shapes into the finest clothfor the nobility.

Men’s ClothingThe loincloth was the basic item ofclothing for all Aztec men. Aloincloth was a long strip of fabricthat passed between the legs,wrapped around the waist, and thenknotted so that the ends hung downa short length in front and behind.Poor men often wore loinclothsmade of white maguey fiber cloth.Noblemen wore soft cottonloincloths embroidered with patternsthat showed their status.

Over their loincloth, richer menwore a rectangular cloak tied into aknot on the right shoulder.Thenobility wore colorful cloaks wovenwith intricate patterns and trimmedwith fur, shells, feathers, or preciousstones.The richest men wore severalof these fine cloaks at the same time.

As Aztec clothing had no pockets,men wore small pouches over theirshoulders to carry tools and cocaleaves to chew.

Women’s ClothingThe basic garment for an Aztecwoman was an ankle-length skirtheld in place at the waist by anembroidered belt. Ordinary skirtswere made from plain, white cloth,but rich women wore skirtsembroidered with designs of fishes,birds, leaves, and flowers. Over herskirt, a noblewoman wore a loose,straight shirt sewn up at the sides anddecorated along the neck and thelower border.

To make themselves more attractive,Aztec women often colored theirfaces with ocher powder and dyedtheir hair with indigo to make itglossy and black.Young women woretheir hair straight and long, whilemarried women looped their hair upinto two tufts at the sides that lookedlike horns.

This codex drawing showsan Aztec man dressed ina rectangular cloak andan Aztec woman dressedin a long skirt with aloose shirt.

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Jewelry and Decoration

The Mixtecs, who lived at the southern edge of the Aztec Empire,were highly skilled in creating intricate gold artworks like this pendantshowing the god Xipe.

Aztec men and women loved toshow off by dressing up in jewelry,carrying fans, and wearingheaddresses.They prized jade andturquoise above all other stones, andused gold, silver, and rare shells tomake necklaces, pendants, bracelets,rings, brooches, and chest ornaments.Aztec men pierced their ears, noses,and lips to hold large stone and metaljewelry. Feathers gathered from thedistant tropical regions of the AztecEmpire decorated elaborate royalheaddresses, fans, and shields.Aztec

metal and feather craftsmen belongedto important guilds and lived inexclusive communities under theperceived protection of their owndeities.

Precious Stones andMetalsThe Aztecs valued turquoise and jadefrom western Mexico more highlythan any other material includinggold. Only the Aztec emperor wasallowed to wear a nose ornamentmade from turquoise. Jade andturquoise pieces were placed inmosaic patterns on gold crowns,helmets, ear pieces, and bracelets.Aztec jewelers also used amber,emeralds, obsidian, rock crystal,amethysts, and rare shells to createamulets worn for good luck.

Aztec smiths worked with gold fromthe Pacific coast, silver from Oaxaca,and copper, which they mixed withgold to create a cheaper alloy calledtumbaga. Goldsmiths devised a clevercasting technique in which wax heldthe gold’s shape during the castingprocess, then melted away to leavehollow gold pieces, which could beshaped like shells, bells, frogs, or otherrounded forms from nature.

Body PiercingAn Aztec nobleman experienced hisfirst body piercing during childhood,when his ears were fitted with tinystuds. Gradually these studs werereplaced with larger ear ornamentsuntil his ears had been stretched wideenough to hold thick rods thatdisplayed large, heavy disks. Men also

The Aztecs

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FeatherworkThe colourful, exotic birds that livedin the remote, tropical regions of theAztec Empire yielded feathers thatthe nobility wore in their clothingand accessories.The Aztecs prizedeagle, parrot, and hummingbirdfeathers, and considered the brightgreen feathers of the quetzal birdsacred. Quetzal feathers representedwisdom and fertility, and were addedto the emperor’s headdresses. Feathermerchants brought rare feathers toTenochtitlán, where the

pierced their noses at the nostrils tohold nose studs, and through thebridge to hold rods of gold orprecious stones.Through one or twopierced holes in their lower lips, menwore labrets—pieces of gold, stone,or shell shaped like eagles, serpents,and other animals.

Honored JadeJade was so highly prized by the Aztecs that the Aztecword for jade, chalchihuitl, referred to the stone andalso to anything precious. To the Aztecs, jaderepresented water, a symbol of life and purity, and theybelieved that it held medicinal powers. They carved jadeto create necklaces, bracelets, and ceremonial masks.When a rich person died, mourners placed jade beadsin his or her mouth to symbolize eternal life after death.When the Aztec emperor Montezuma met HernanCortes, he gave him three jade beads that were worthmore than 100 pounds of gold to the Aztecs.

Wealthy Aztec men worepectoral ornaments suchas this one, made fromgold and turquoise around800–1500 CE.

This shield, made of gold and feathers, wasowned by the Aztec emperor Montezuma II.The central figure might be a coyote or amythical creature.

featherworkers made fans, shields,armbands, sashes and tassels for theroyal family and aristocracy.Thefeatherworkers also created stylishfeathered tunics and cloaks, andknotted quills onto cloth backings tocreate spectacular headdresses for thenobility and priests.

Aztec Warriorshis officially acknowledged rank andmilitary achievements.A successfulwarrior earned the right to wearparticular styles of helmets, insignia,patterned cloth, lip and earornaments, and even hairstyles.Awarrior’s military rank and record forcapturing prisoners was thereforeimmediately recognizable on thebattlefield and at special ceremonies.If a warrior dressed in clothing of ahigher rank than he was entitled, hecould be put to death.Aztec warriorswere not paid in money, but thosewho distinguished themselves inbattle received gifts of clothing andjewelry from the aristocracy.

Knightly Orders When an Aztec warrior had capturedmore than four prisoners, he couldjoin one of the highest-rankingorders of knights.These were theEagles, the Jaguars, and the Arrows.Knights wore costumes that wereintended to give them theappearance, strength, and abilities ofwild animals.An Eagle Knight wore ahelmet shaped like an eagle’s headwith an open beak, through whichhis face appeared.A Jaguar Knightwore a suit of jaguar or ocelot skinsthat fitted tightly over his torso, legs,and arms.The fierce head of theanimal covered his own head, and hisface showed through the sharp teeth.

Lower RanksCaptains of the lower ranks sportedwood or leather helmets carved intomenacing shapes.They decoratedtheir helmets and clothing withheraldic badges. Each regiment had

Warrior HairstylesThe hair of an Aztec warrior conveyed his status andaccomplishments in battle at one glance. A newrecruit to the military, at the age of between ten andfifteen, shaved his head and wore a single pigtail atthe back. When he had taken his first prisoner inbattle, the soldier could remove this pigtail andreplace it with a new hairstyle of a single lock of hairhanging over his right ear. If the recruit failed tocapture a prisoner in four successive militarycampaigns, however, he was forced to wear a singlepigtail forever—a humiliating fate. Knights ranked justbelow the Eagle Knights were called the “shorn ones”for their distinctive shaved heads and single, uprightlocks of hair that waved intimidatingly in battle. Amessenger reporting war news back to Tenochtitlánbound his hair up if reporting a victory, but wore itloose over his face if the news was bad.

The last Aztec emperorCuauhtemoc wearing ahairstyle to reflect hisstatus.

Soldiers in the Aztec Empire did notwear standardized uniforms. Eachwarrior outfitted himself in items ofclothing and ornaments that not onlyprotected his body but also displayed

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The Aztecs

These Aztec soldiersbelong to the highest-ranking orders of knights:the Eagle Knight on the leftis dressed in feathers anda beaked headdress; andthe soldier on the right,wearing a suit of jaguarskins, is a Jaguar Knight.

its own emblems, and successfulwarriors sewed these onto their bodyarmor for identification.At militaryceremonies, the captains wore leathercollars decorated with rare shells, andlip ornaments in the shapes of theirinsignia. New soldiers wore plainerlip ornaments made from commonshells or metals shaped like disks.

Body ArmorAztec body armor needed to belight, flexible, and suitable forMexico’s hot climate. It also neededto protect the wearer against sharpobsidian arrows and javelins. Cotton,

a lightweight but strong fabric thatlets air flow through easily, wassupplied to Tenochtitlán from thecoastal regions to make wargarments.The most common battlegarment was a one-piece suit ofarmor that combined a sleeveless topwith knee-length trousers and fittedtightly around the body. Ordinarysoldiers wore armor made from plain,white cotton, but soldiers of higherranks decorated their outfits withcolorful embroidered emblems.Warriors from the nobility sometimesadded large, gold chest and backplates on top of their cotton armor.

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Ritual and SacrificeCostumes played a central role in theAztecs’ religious and civil ceremonies.The Aztecs believed in many gods,each of whom wore distinctiveornaments and articles of clothing.The earth goddess Coatlicue wore askirt of poisonous snakes.The raingod Tlaloc wore a mask that ringedhis eyes, a fringe over his mouth, andclothes that were the blue-greencolor of water.

The Aztecs believed that in order tohave rain, a good harvest, or success inbattle, they needed to offer sacrificesof blood and human victims to thegods. Many Aztec ceremonies involvedthis ritual.At the end of the Aztecyear, priests dressed in the costumes ofthe gods for a processional ceremony.The Aztec emperor dressed insumptuous, symbolic costumes thatreinforced people’s perception of himas semi-divine. Ordinary Aztecs worebody paints and their finest clothingand accessories.

Blood and BonesAztec priests used human blood as anoffering to the gods, and oftenpracticed ritual human sacrifice.Theylived and dressed in a terrifyingmanner. Priests fasted often and theywere very thin.They never washedand never cut or combed their hair.Using cactus spines, they took bloodfrom their own ears for religiousofferings, and so their ears and hairwere caked with blood.The priestscovered themselves in long, black ordark green robes embroidered withpatterns of human bones and skulls.During rituals, they painted theirentire bodies with black paint thatmight have contained a drug.

Warrior PriestsPriests could also serve a religiousfunction in the military, where theyformed a separate class of warriorpriests.These warrior priests could beidentified in battle by the red painton the sides of their heads. One of

Aztec priests dressed inspecial, symbolic costumesto enact their frequentrituals of human sacrifice.

The Aztecs

25

festival, four men dressed as birdsattached themselves to ropes andjumped from a high pole, then spunaround the pole to represent thecircuit of the sun. For the Feast ofTezcatlipoca, the priests chose oneyoung, unblemished man each year.This man dressed as the god for oneyear, wearing expensive clothingwith black face paint, gold bracelets,and bells on his legs.At the year’send, a priest sacrificed him to thegod, and the other Aztecs put onnew clothes to mark the start of anew year.

several uniforms that they could wearwas the Huaxtec uniform of a suitthat covered the body and a conicalhat in red, blue, yellow, green, white,or black, with white dots like stars.

Seasonal CeremoniesAt the spring festival for the godXipe Totec, priests sacrificed andskinned human victims, then dyedtheir skins yellow and wore them,calling them teocuitlaquemitl, or“golden clothes.”These skins wereto symbolize the new “skin” of freshgrass upon the earth. At the Volador

Bound TogetherOn her wedding day, an Aztec bride put on ocher paste makeup to give her skin a yellow tone,and covered her arms and legs with red feathers. She then led a procession to the groom’shouse, where the groom waited for her on a ceremonial mat. The couple then sat together andanointed each other with perfume. The bride’s mother gave the groom a new loincloth andcloak, and the groom’s mother gave the bride a new skirt and blouse. Then the weddingceremony official tied the man’s cloak to the bride’s blouse to symbolize their joined lives. Atthat moment they became man and wife.

This is how the Aztecsdepicted Tlaloc, their rain god.

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In 1492 the explorer Christopher Columbus sought anew, westward sea route from Europe to Asia. He

landed on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola.There heencountered a native tribe, the Taino, who wore goldnose ornaments. Columbus reported this sighting ofgold to his sponsors, the Spanish king and queen.Thedesire for more gold from this New World led tofurther Spanish exploration and colonization, andeventually to the conquest and destruction of the Aztecand Inca civilizations.

The Spanish Conquistadors

Chapter 4: The Spanish and the Portuguese

This portrait of HernanCortes shows him inparade armor, wearing acoat of arms and theregalia of a marquis.

In the sixteenth century manySpanish adventurers and soldiers, suchas Hernan Cortes and FranciscoPizarro, set out for the New World tofind the treasures held by unknowncivilizations and bring them back tothe Spanish court. Known as theconquistadors, or conquerors, theywore a combination of metal armor,mail, and ordinary Europeanclothing. Eventually theconquistadors adopted the moreflexible, quilted body armor worn bytheir Aztec and Inca opponents, andmixed this with their other clothing.

Seafaring ClothesDuring the long journey across theAtlantic Ocean, men sometimesapplied their sewing skills, used torepair sails, to embroider their ownclothing.They also made hats,sandals, and slippers from ropes, andpouches from leather scraps.Theywore coarse cotton trousers, linenshirts, loose-fitting jackets, and neck

The Spanish and the Portuguese

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scarves to keep comfortable andwarm on board ship.

Spanish colonists traveled to the newlands in South and Central Americawearing the type of clothing worn athome in Spain. Often, though, theyfound that their familiar clothes wereimpractical in their newenvironments, which might be hot,humid, cold, or inhabited bydangerous animals and insects.Asthere were few women living in theSpanish colonies, men had to learnhow to mend and sew their owngarments.

Córdoba and theMayaIn 1517 the Spanish captainFernandez de Córdoba and hisconquistadors became the firstEuropeans to meet the Maya, whosecivilization by then was in decline.They met at the northern tip of theYucatan peninsula, along thecoastline.A group of Mayanmerchants approached the Spanishship to trade beads, jewelry, andclothing.Through this encounter,Córdoba gained some gold pieces

Conquistador HelmetsThe conquistadors are best recognized today by their distinctive metalhelmets. They actually wore a variety of helmet styles made from solidiron or even mail, but the most famous style is the morion, which waspopular in the second half of the sixteenth century. Made from two ironplates riveted together, the morion helmet was shaped to deflectblows. Its broad, curved brim met in points at the center front andcenter back, and its comb was high. A leather chin strap held it in place.

that the Maya had traded withpeople living to the west, inMexico.

The Spanish had not heard ofthe Aztecs before, but thisinitial evidence of goldspurred them on totravel westward,seeking more gold inthe center of theAztec Empire.Thefierce Mayanwarriors werehostile to theSpanish, but theirstone-edged swordsand axes were nomatch for theSpanish steel swordsand harquebuses (earlyportable guns). By the1540s the Spanish hadgained control overthe Mayan regions,though the Mayanpeople and theirculture have survivedto this day.

The morion helmet was themost popular style ofSpanish helmet in the

late sixteenth century.

A Spanish soldierof the sixteenth

century wore steelarmor, chain

mail, andshort,puffedbreeches.

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Gold and SilverThe Spanish Empire grew very rich fromthe gold and silver taken from the Aztecsand Incas. They stripped all of theirtemples and palaces of precious metalobjects and set up foundries to melt thejewelry, statues, cups, and other treasures down into ingots. TheSpanish created the colony of Lima on the coast of modern Peru for this purpose. Between 1500 and 1650, the Spanish shipped 181 tons of gold and 16,000 tons of silver from theAmericas back to Europe. As a result, very few pieces of Aztec and Inca artistry survive today.

Clash of Culturesthe date of their landing matched anAztec legend, and Montezumaconcluded that the god Quetzalcoatlhad returned, in the form of Cortes,to rule his empire. Montezuma sentgifts of the god’s costumes to theSpanish, but the conquistadorscontinued to march onward.

When Cortes arrived in Tenochtitlán,Montezuma greeted him dressed inhis most regal costume, and gave himgifts of gold necklaces, jewels,feathered headdresses, and severalthousand finely woven garments. InAztec society, this was a symbol ofMontezuma’s power. For the Spanish,the sight of such riches merelywhetted their appetites for more.TheSpanish captured Montezuma.Theydefeated the Aztec Empire after along siege of Tenochtitlán, whichended on August 13, 1521.

Pizarro and the IncasThe conquistadors first encounteredthe Incas and their treasures in 1527.They brought Inca gold and silverjewelry, precious jewels, and

When the Spanish conquistadorHernan Cortes confronted the Aztecemperor Montezuma II in 1519, thetwo rulers had almost no knowledgeof each other’s civilizations.Theconquistador Francisco Pizarro metthe Sapa Inca Atahuallpa in 1532with little more information. In suchextraordinary situations, both sidesjudged the others quickly on thebasis of obvious information, such asphysical appearance and clothing.This information helped to identifypower and wealth, but it could alsobe misleading.The Aztecs believed atfirst that the white-skinned andbearded Spanish were gods, not men.Gold treasures given to the Spanishby the Aztecs and the Incas did notappease them, but only encouragedthem to demand more gold treasures.

Cortes andMontezumaMontezuma heard reports in 1519 ofbearded white men in black robeswho had landed in ships and whowere approaching the heart of theAztec Empire.This description and

Gold lip ornament.


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embroidered clothing back to theSpanish king, who subsequentlyfinanced a conquest. FranciscoPizarro marched high into the Andesmountains in 1532 with an army ofhundreds of Spanish soldiers andrebellious native warriors. Pizarro’smen, unused to the altitude and cold,were inappropriately dressed in lightcotton clothes.When the Spaniardsreached the capital, the Incas wereamazed by their appearance andweapons.With the use of firearms,Pizarro’s forces quickly captured theSapa Inca Atahuallpa and conqueredthe Inca Empire.

This portrait shows theconquistador FranciscoPizarro dressed in thick,steel Spanish armor.

Atahuallpa, the last Incaruler, was quickly capturedby Pizarro’s small army.

Armor in ActionThe Aztec and Inca weapons andarmor were primitive compared tothose of the Spanish.The NativeAmerican people had never seenhorses, cannons, or guns before.Thesmoke and fire that burst forth fromthe Spanish weapons terrified them.They were used to killing theirenemies at close range with stoneweapons.The Spanish, dressed in steelarmor and firing harquebuses, did nottake long to conquer the Aztec andInca Empires.

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Reports of the gold, silver, andprecious jewels found in Central andSouth America drew more than250,000 Spanish people to theAmerican colonies in the sixteenthcentury. St.Augustine, founded in1565, was the first permanentEuropean colony on North Americansoil, and the Spanish had established121 towns in the Americas by 1574.The Spanish divided the New Worldinto two viceroyalties: New Spaincovered Mexico, Central America,and the Caribbean islands; and Peruextended to all of South Americaexcept Brazil.

Most of the colonists were young,single men from the middle classes,though the colonial rulers werearistocrats. Spanish women beganarriving too, and by the 1570s theycomprised one third of the colonists.Most male colonists took partnersfrom the native population,producing children of mixed raceknown as mestizos. Spanish colonialsociety produced a class system basedon race, with pure Spanish at the top,followed by people of mixed race,

BuccaneersDuring the seventeenth century, English, French, and Dutch pirates, known as buccaneers,cruised the Caribbean, attacking Spanish ships loaded with treasure. These men were originallylone hunters living in the abandoned island settlement of Hispaniola. They dressed in uncuredanimal skins, with cloths wrapped around their heads like turbans. They joined forces when theSpanish tried to drive them away, and started to wear seafaring clothing (see page 26).According to legend they invented the cutlass, a short, broad sword. However, it is more likelythat Barbary pirates from the Mediterranean coast of North Africa introduced cutlasses toHispaniola. They probably developed the cutlass from a similar kind of North African Islamicweapon. The cutlass was particularly well-suited to fighting in cramped quarters aboard ships.

Colonial Spain

Pedro de Alvarado, a superior officer in Cortes’s army, dressed inan expensive Spanish doublet, ruff, and breeches for this portrait.

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and with natives and slaves at thebottom.

Doublets and DisplayAt first, the Spanish colonies weremilitary outposts, and civilians andsoldiers wore the same protectivestyle of clothing. Spanish colonialmen wore a mixture of military andcivilian clothing that was popular insixteenth-century Spain. Mostclothing was made from dark fabrics,which could be decorated with gold,pearls, and precious stones.

In battle and on formal occasions, aman wore a doublet, a close-fittingjacket with a short, upright collar thatfastened in front with hooks, straps,or buttons.The doublet could haveattached or detachable sleeves, andwas often longer in the front than inthe back. Men wore doublets overmail or under armor. If unarmed,men might wear a short, circularcloak instead. Padding at the front ofthe doublet to create a bulge over thestomach was fashionable.

Under the doublet, men wore alinen shirt with narrow frills orruffs. Short, puffed breeches werepopular at first, but sleeker styles oftight hose made from cloth laterbecame the prevailing style.

PriestsSpanish missionaries came to theAmerican colonies to convert thenative people to Christianity. Priestswore long robes that tied at the waistwith a simple belt.They regarded theNative Americans as heathens, and

destroyed their religious structuresand sacred items.The priests orderedthe Native American men to wearSpanish clothing, and the women tocover their bodies from head to foot.When Spanish priests encounteredthe conquered Aztec priests, theyforced them to wash and cut theirblood-caked hair.

Arms and ArmorA full suit of sixteenth-centurySpanish steel armor weighed seventy-six pounds (34.5 kg) and was veryuncomfortable to wear in theAmerican heat and humidity.Atypical suit included a helmet, gorgetfor the neck, breast plate, back plate,gauntlets for the hands and wrists,cuisses and greaves for the thighs andshins, poleyns for the knees, andsabatons to protect the feet. Insidethe suit, a soldier might also wear amail shirt or skirt. Soldiers going intobattle carried harquebuses,broadswords, hand axes, halberds, andleather-covered wooden shields.


Double wedding betweentwo Inca women and twoSpanish men. All wearEuropean costume.

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Portuguese colonists moved there inthe hopes of making their fortunes.

BrazilwoodThroughout the Middle Ages,Europeans called red dyes producedfrom Asiatic and African trees by thename brasil, from the Germanic wordbrasa, meaning “glowing coals.”Before the discovery of brazilwood inSouth America, these dyes wereimported in small quantities from theOrient and used to dye textiles.TheSouth American brazilwood treeyields both red and yellowpermanent dyes.The Portuguesecolonists exported brazilwood toEurope and made great fortunes.King Emanuel of Portugal named theSouth American country Brazil afterthis, its most valuable export.

The Land of BrazilThe first Europeans to encounterthe tropical forests of Brazil were ledby the Portuguese explorer PedroCabral in 1500. Cabral and his mendid not find any evidence of gold,silver, or jewels, but they did findbrazilwood, which could yield areddish dye much valued in Europe.Cabral claimed the land forPortugal.The French tried tocapture the brazilwood trade in the1520s, and in response, thePortuguese king founded a well-armed colony at São Vicente in1532.The Portuguese had heardstories about the gold and silverfound by the Spanish in SouthAmerica, and they hoped that Brazilwould yield similar treasures.Whengold was discovered in southernBrazil in the 1690s, around 300,000

El DoradoMany expeditions into the interior of Brazilwere driven by the legend of El Dorado, or“The Golden Lord.” When the Spaniardsexplored the interior of modern Venezuelaand Columbia in 1541, they encounterednatives who told them the legend of agreat prince who dressed in a fine powderof gold dust each day. The natives werevague about El Dorado’s location, however.The Portuguese settlers, who heard thelegend from the Spanish, launched manyexpeditions into the Brazilian interior insearch of El Dorado. The Golden Lordremained elusive, however, and it would betwo centuries before they found gold. Theterm El Dorado, which means “goldenthing” in Spanish, was later applied to anyplace where gold was found.

“El Dorado” isdressed by hisattendants in afine powder ofgold dust


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The AmazonianPeopleThe native people of the Amazon,the world’s largest tropical rainforest,lived in small villages of fewer than athousand people, or wandered ashunter-gatherers.The climate in theAmazon brought heavy rains and hot,steamy weather, and so theAmazonian people wore very littleclothing. Instead, they used tattoosand body paint all over their bodies.Basic garments consisted of a smallgrass or cotton loincloth for a man ora short skirt that wrapped around thewaist for a woman.They used thebrilliantly colored feathers of tropicalbirds to create large ceremonialheaddresses. Men and women worefeathers and leaves in their ears, andbead necklaces. Both sexes piercedtheir lower lips, and wore woodendisks or thin sticks through them asornaments.

BandeirantesMost Portuguese settlers avoided theinterior of Brazil, with its hostilenative tribes, dense forests, and deadlyanimals, insects, and snakes. However,some men—driven by the desire tofind gold, jewels, and native people totrade as slaves—organized expeditionsinto the Amazon forests that couldlast for months or even years.Thesewere the bandeirantes, so called for thebandeiras, or banners, that they woreor carried with them to identifythemselves.They traveled with otherbandeirantes and native Amazonianpeople, and wore almost no clothing,like the natives.

This native Amazonian’s full, feathered cloakis a sign of his high status.

These drawings, from a nineteenth-centuryatlas, show some of the pierced lipornaments worn by Amazonian natives.

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When the first European explorers arrived inNorth America in the sixteenth century, there

were an estimated 1.3 million people already living there,who spoke more than two hundred different languages.The Native Americans did not have systems of writingor hieroglyphics. Instead they relied upon a strong oraltradition of storytelling and ritual reenactments to passon their legends, history, spiritual beliefs, and culturaltraditions to their descendants.As a result, much of whatwe know today about how the Native Americans livedand dressed comes from accounts told by the Europeanswho first encountered them.

Because verbal language was socentral to the Native Americancultures, many native groups thatshared a common language alsohad similar types of housing,farming, foods, and clothing.TheAlgonquian tribes of North

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IshtaboliThe Choctaw men loved to play ishtaboli, a stick andball game that the French colonists renamed lacrosse.The game was so violent that the Choctaw called it “thelittle brother of war.” The Choctaw built huge playingfields that could hold up to seven hundred ishtaboliplayers at one time. To play, warriors and nobles wouldwear loinclothswith fringed beltsand elaboratestructures coveredin egret feathersthat stuck outbehind them liketails. They carriedlong sticks madefrom wood withwebbed endswoven from stripsof deer hide.

Chapter 5: The Native Americans

Choctaw ishtaboliplayers dressedin loincloths,fringed belts,feathered tails,and headdressesto play theviolent game.

Native Americans

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America are so called because theyall spoke a similar language, as didthe many tribes known as theIroquois.

The Native Americans developedmany different styles of clothing,depending on the climate, naturalresources, and geography of theregion where they lived.There weretoo many diverse native NorthAmerican cultures to be describedhere. Instead, this chapterconcentrates on a few importantgroups who met the first Europeansettlers: the Iroquois and theAlgonquian tribes of the north andnortheast, and the Choctaw andChicasaw tribes of the southeast.

Natives of theSoutheastThe southeast of North America isflat, warm, and humid, and itcontains many thick forests,subtropical lands, and swamps thatare home to a wide variety of plantsand animals. Before the arrival ofEuropean settlers, it was also hometo hundreds of different nativetribes who fished, hunted, andfarmed.

Although these tribes came fromdifferent cultural groups, the hotclimate caused them to developsimilarly light clothing styles anddecorative body paints.These tribesincluded: the Cherokee, an Iroquoistribe; the Powhatans, an Algonquiantribe; and the Choctaw and theChicasaw, who both spoke Muskoganlanguages.

Necklaces and BodyPaintMen wore breechcloths and leggingsmade from tanned deer hides,sometimes covered with grass orleaves.Women wore fringed skirts,and sometimes shirts, made fromtightly woven grass or deerskin.Occasionally, wealthier men andwomen wore sashes and deerskincloaks decorated with turkey feathers,porcupine quills, beads, tree bark, andfur from bears, bisons, and small gameanimals.

Both men and women worenecklaces, bracelets, armbands, andear and nose plugs made from carvedshells, wooden beads, pearls, feathers,and precious, imported copper.Thehigher their status, the more valuablethe ornaments they wore. Manypeople tattooed themselves withpatterns inspired by nature.They alsopainted their bodies with red bodypaint made from bloodroot and oilsto protect themselves from insects.

The Native Americans

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This Native Americanwoman wears deerskinrobes decorated withsymbols, and both she andher child wear beadednecklaces and hairbraids.

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The False Face SocietyThe False Face Society consisted of healers who claimed to use powerful spirits to purifyIroquois homes and heal the sick. They visited all of the households in an Iroquois villageeach spring and autumn, wearing masks that represented faces of the spirits. These facesmight have been seen in dreams, glimpsed in the woods, or imagined by the healers. Theexpressions on the masks varied from humorous smiles to painful grimaces. The Iroquoiscarved these masks from wood and painted them, using horsehair to represent hair andmetal disks and paint to represent eyes and other facial features.

The Iroquoisjackets with long sleeves and deerskinleggings.The seams on these andother garments were sewn outwardand decorated with fringe. Inextremely cold weather they worelong, fur-lined robes and capes.TheIroquois shaved all of their hairexcept for a strip from the foreheadto the back of the neck, which wasgreased to stick up. Iroquois sachems,or lords, wore deer-antlerheaddresses.

Iroquois Women In the summer, an Iroquois womanwore only a deerskin skirt that fell toher knees or ankles. She might alsowear leggings that tied just above theknee. In colder weather, womenwore shirts and long fur robes.Women wore their hair long andloose.The Iroquois regarded bodyhair as unattractive, and both menand women plucked it.Women worejewelry including bracelets, necklaces,and earrings made from feathers,bones, clay, copper, and shells.

WampumTo the Iroquois, wampum was asymbolic, ritual object, exchangedduring important peace and war

Iroquois man with typicaldress and hairstyle.

The Iroquois tribes were linked bysimilar languages and a common wayof life.They farmed corn, beans, andsquash, and built longhouses in thethick forests along the east coast ofAmerica from modern NorthCarolina to Canada, and inland fromNew York to the Great Lakes.

The Iroquois made all of theirclothes from the furs and skins ofanimals, including deer, beavers,bears, bobcats, and squirrels.Theydecorated their clothes with fringe atthe edges, and embellishments likeshells, feathers, and porcupine quills.They wore moccasins made of elk ordeer hide.The Iroqouis also used red,black, violet, and green body paint onspecial occasions, and tattooed theirbodies with designs inspired byanimal and other natural forms.

Men’s ClothingMost clothing was made from leathersewn with sinew cords. During thehot summers an Iroquois man oftenwore nothing but a loincloth made ofsoft deerskin. He sometimes alsowore a fringed deerskin sash over hisright shoulder and attached to thewaist. In colder weather, men wore

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pacts and treaties between tribes.Wampum consisted of a string ordense web of sinew or hemp fibersup to five inches (13 cm) thick thatheld decorative beads. It could beworn around the waist or over theshoulders and chest as a scarf.

The Iroquois tribes made wampumfrom strings of purple, white, andblack shell beads that were woven insymbolic patterns into belts andgirdles.The color white symbolizedpeace, and black meant sorrow. Purplesignified seriousness, and was the mostvaluable color.When the Europeansettlers came they traded glass beadsfor wampum with the Iroquois, andthe Iroquois started to use wampumas currency for the first time.


In the winter, the Iroquoisdressed in warm furs anddeerskin leggings.

The three white rectangleson this purple wampumbelt may have symbolizedan alliance.

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The Algonquians

This Algonquian hunter is dressed for a special occasion in body paint, afringed deerskin apron, a puma’s tail, a long bead necklace, and feathers.

Algonquian is a term that refers to thefamily of languages spoken by dozensof distinct Native American tribes.These tribes lived in the woods nearlakes and rivers, in areas with lowhills and suitable hunting grounds, allacross North America.They fishedand farmed, but their main source offood was hunting. Most Algonquiantribes lived in wigwams, althoughsome built longhouses like theIroquois.Their clothes variedaccording to tribe, and they couldrecognize each other’s tribal identitiesthrough their dress.

Algonquian tribes included: thenorthern Micmac, who befriendedthe French fur traders; thePowhatans, who encountered theVirginia colonists; and the LenniLenape, who met the Dutch at NewAmsterdam.Another Algonquiantribe was the Wampanoag, who metthe Pilgrims when they arrived atPlymouth, Massachusetts. Most of thedescriptions below are based ondescriptions of Wampanoag clothing.

Clothing of HuntersThe Algonquians wore clothing madefrom animals they had killed whilehunting. Deerskin from white-taileddeer was the most common materialused for clothing. Sinew from deer,moose, and elk was used to sew thehides together to create garments. Incolder climates the Algonquianswould wear furs from whicheveranimals were in their localenvironment, including raccoons,bears, foxes, beavers, muskrats,squirrels, and harbor seals.They


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at the waist by a belt made fromplant fibers.Algonquian women woreskirts, or sometimes dresses, withdeerskin leggings underneath thattied just above the knee. Men worelong leggings that tied to theirloincloths with plant fibers or sinewat the waist. Like the Iroquois, theAlgonquians used wampum as aritual offering and a prestigiousgarment.Algonquian children did notwear any clothing until they were tenyears old.

decorated their clothing withporcupine quills, shell beads, feathers,bones, and stones.

Leaders and chief warriors sometimeswore long robes decorated withfeathers from wild turkeys or Canadageese. Both men and women worejewelry such as earrings, necklaces,armbands, and headbands made fromantlers, stones, shells, bones, andcopper.They also decorated theirbodies with tattoos and body paint.As the Algonquians were keenhunters, they wore cords around theirnecks that held knives in sheaths.They also carried tools and suppliesin deerskin pouches tied to theirwaists or around their necks.

Mantles and LeggingsThe basic garment for an Algonquianman was a loincloth worn betweenthe legs, tucked up under a belt tiedat the waist, with the ends hangingdown in front and in back.Womenwore a similar but slightly longergarment. In the cold north regions,both sexes wore mantles thatwrapped around their shoulders orshirts.These were sometimes secured

MoccasinashMoccasin is an Algonquian word that means “shoe.” The plural of moccasin in Algonquian ismoccasinash. Algonquian moccasins were made from deer, moose, or elk skins. Moccasinswere soft-soled, low shoes constructed from a single piece of leather. This leather was fittedto the foot from underneath and sewn at the top in a central seam, which puckered aroundthe instep. Decoration varied according to tribe and could include leather fringe, beadedfloral and animal designs, or porcupine quills. Moccasins protected the wearer from the coldand helped him or her to travel over ground covered in leaves or pine needles. Algonquianpeople often went barefoot in the summer.

Algonquian deerskin pouchdecorated with aThunderbird symbol.

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While the Spanish and Portuguese explored andcolonized South and Central America, English,

Dutch, and French explorers and settlers sought newland and treasures in North America. Many explorers,searching for a Northwest Passage to India and China,landed on the east coast of North America. John Cabotwas one of these men, and he claimed a large stretch ofthe Atlantic coast for England in 1497. Sir WalterRaleigh, a favorite of Queen Elizabeth I, attempted toset up a colony at Roanoke,Virginia, in 1585, but itsoon failed. His next attempt at Jamestown,Virginiafared better. Many English people who came to NorthAmerica were escaping religious persecution.Theyestablished colonies such, as Massachusetts, where theycould practice their religions.

Powhatan’s “Crown”In 1608 the Virginia Company that ran Jamestown ordered the colony’s leaders to makePowhatan a subject king under the overlordship of King James I, by pressing Powhatan toaccept a cheap copper crown and scarlet robe. Captain John Smith recorded that he hadgreat difficulty in getting Powhatan to wear the crown, as the chief had never seen anEnglish royal ceremony. Three colonists eventually forced the crown onto Powhatan’s head.Not having understood the ceremony, Powhatan assumed that he was still absolute ruler inhis land.

Chapter 6: The British and French Colonies

The British and French Colonies

Meanwhile, the French explorerSamuel de Champlain laid claim toportions of modern Canada forFrance in 1608, and the explorerHenry Hudson claimed the landsurrounding modern Manhattan forthe Dutch in 1609.All threecountries colonized and profitedfrom the beaver fur trade.

Jamestown, VirginiaIn May 1607 a group of 105unprepared settlers—rich gentlemenunused to hard work, and laborersunskilled in farming—landed in theswampland of Virginia to found thefirst permanent English colony atJamestown. Many arrived in clothingchewed by rats during the long sea

French colonists oftenwore fashions adoptedfrom their homeland, suchas the justaucorps (coat),breeches, and neckpieceworn by this man, and thefitted gown and chemiseworn by his wife.


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Pocahontas, theDiplomatThe English settlers had chosen toestablish their new colony in themiddle of territory controlled by thePowhatans, a powerful AlgonquianNative American tribe named fortheir ruler, Powhatan. In the bleakwinter of 1607, Captain John Smithand nine colonists, wearingElizabethan armor, ventured to meetPowhatan himself to trade forgrain. Despite theirsuperior arms, Smith’scompanions werekilled by Powhatanhunters, whobrought Smithbefore Powhatanand two hundredwarriors, all withtheir headspainted bright redand decked withfeathers. Powhatanordered Smith’sexecution, but hisdaughter Pocahontasrescued Smith by layingher head upon his.

In 1613 Pocahontas adoptedEnglish customs, including dress, andmarried the settler John Rolfe.TheRolfes then journeyed to England,where Pocahontas was presented atcourt as a “civilized savage,” dressedin stiff Jacobean attire, which hid hertattoos from King James I.

journey.The Virginia climate was hotand humid, and mosquitos swarmed.Dressed in the English style, in caps,doublets or jerkins, wide breeches tothe knees, stockings, and low-heeledshoes, the men suffered in thesummer heat.This was followed by abitterly cold winter, and they grew sodesperate for food that they ateboots, shoes, and any remainingleather scraps.

The first women, skilled inlaundering and sewing, arrived a yearlater. Clothing was so scarce that anylaundress caught stealing clothes waswhipped and sent to prison.After1612, Jamestown finally began tothrive by trading in tobacco,capitalizing on Sir Walter Raleigh’ssuccess in making pipe-smokingfashionable in London.

Sir Walter Raleigh (left) was renowned for hisflamboyant outfits and his taste for jewel-encrusted accessories.

The Algonquian princessPocahontas adoptedEnglish dress for her visitto the court of King JamesI in 1616.

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BuckskinsThroughout North America, men who ventured into the woods—pioneers, fur trappers, and soldiers—wore clothes made of soft, pliabledeerskin or buckskin, as this was the only fabric that would not rip orsnag on briars. Buckskin was used to make leggings, breeches,overalls, jackets, and moccasins. By the 1750s, yellow buckskin hadbecome fashionable in Europe among the elite, who wore buckskinbreeches and gloves made in America to go hunting and riding.

The Fur TradeThe great demand for furs inseventeenth-century Europe spurredthe explorer Samuel de Champlain tofound the French colony of NewFrance in present-day Quebec,Canada, in 1608.The colonists tradedgoods with the Native Americans forvaluable furs and then shipped thefurs back to France. New France hada tough climate with frequent heavysnow and bitter winds.The colonistssoon adopted many Native Americanclothes that were better suited to the

environment. Nevertheless, theyimported most of their cloth andclothing from France. Colonial menwore cotton shirts with fitted jacketsand breeches that tied at the knee.They wore a hat known as a tapabordwith sides that folded down toprotect the wearer from the windand rain.

Beaver HatsFrom the mid-sixteenth centurythrough the mid-nineteenth century,

Cheyenne war shirt.


beaver fur hats were very fashionablein Europe. By the late 1500s thebeaver had been hunted almost toextinction in Europe, and thedemands of the hat industry drovethe fur trade to North America.

Beaver fur was the best material formaking felt for hats because it hadinterlocking barbs that produce asmooth fabric, and it held its shapeeven in bad weather.To make aluxuriant felt top hat, hatters tookbeaver wool worked into felt, dyed itwith logwood, verdigris, and alderbark dye, then shaped the hat tocreate a smooth, cylindrical crownand upturned brim, and finallydecorated it with ribbon.As thisprocess involved imported materialsand many stages, beaver fur hats werevery expensive. Superstitions added totheir popularity: people believed thatrubbing beaver oil into the hairwould improve the memory, and thatwearing a beaver fur hat would causea deaf man to regain his hearing.

Fur TradeThe French settlers traded goods forfurs with the native Algonquians,Montagnais, and Hurons—enemies ofthe Iroquois League.Valuable fursincluded otter, mink, fox, bear,marten, lynx, and muskrat. Beaverfurs were so in demand that beaverpelts became a form of currency.Two-thirds of the goods traded withthe Native Americans were made ofwool, cotton, or linen cloth, or werefinished garments.The French alsotraded jewelry, including earrings,charms, pendants, and brooches, and

colored glass and porcelain beads.One very popular trade item was asilver brooch with a hole in thecenter and engraved zigzag motifs.

Coureurs des BoisThe first colonists to adopt nativeclothing were the frontiersmen andfur trappers, particularly the coureursdes bois, or outsiders who lived in thewoods.To survive in the forestenvironment they wore deerskinshirts and trousers lined withfringe, warm mittens, fur-lined coats, andmoose-leatherboots lined withfur.They alsolearned from theNative Americanshow to craft largesnowshoes made ofbentwood andrawhide lacings thatwould enable themto walk quickly overthe snow.

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The coureurs des boiswere the first Frenchcolonists to adoptnative clothing suchas fringed deerskinshirts and trousersand snowshoes.

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Falling BandsBack in England, the reign of King Charles I (1625–49)had ushered in a new style of neckwear that was lessstiff and cumbersome than the large, pleated ruffs thathad been so popular. The new style was called thefalling band. It was made of fine lace or lessexpensive white linen, and had two distinct ends thathung down over the chest. Both Pilgrim men andwomen adopted this new style, which was much morepractical for life in the American colonies.

Plymouth Colony

This woman is dressed in typical Pilgrim colonial attire.

The Pilgrims who foundedPlymouth colony in 1620 were agroup of English Puritans, Christianswho wanted to reform the Churchof England.They made theirpilgrimage to America to seekreligious freedom.

The Pilgrims wore clothing that wastypical of English yeomen and theirwives in the seventeenth century.Contrary to the popular image, theydid not wear buckles on their shoesor hats, as buckles were uncommonat the time.They did not wear onlyblack and white, but also gray, brown,red, yellow, blue, purple, and earthygreen. Colors did carry significancefor them, however. Black was thecolor of solid respectability, worn onSundays and formal occasions.Children and servants wore blue, andreddish-brown was regarded as acolor worn only in the country.

Collars and CuffsThe basic undergarment for Pilgrimmen was a loose linen shirt with longsleeves. Over this they would wear apadded doublet that buttoned downthe front, with broad shoulders andlong sleeves. Men sometimes worelace or cloth collars and cuffs inwhite, which contrasted with darkgarments.The most common style oftrousers was baggy breeches to theknees, which buttoned in front. Menwore knee-length stockings oftailored cotton or wool, held up withgarters. Leather shoes with low heelsand low sides were common, butboots in the style of King Charles I’scourt were also popular. Older or


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tapered in at the waist, or acombination of a fitted bodice thatbuttoned down the front and anankle-length skirt.The bodice mighthave long sleeves attached, orseparate sleeves that tied to it at theshoulders.Women wore stockingsand shoes similar to the men’s, andaprons to protect their skirts fromchores.A Pilgrim woman’s hair wasalways worn up and pulled tightlyback, covered by a linen cap called acoif.

Pilgrim ChildrenBlue was the most common color forchildren’s clothing, and boys and girlsdressed the same until they wereseven.Their basic undergarment wasa wool or linen shirt. Over this theywore a long gown wth long sleevesand a high neckline that fastened inthe back.When they played outsideor performed chores they woreaprons.All children wore a close-fitting cap that tied under the chin,called a biggin.A velvet cap could beworn over the biggin on formaloccasions.

more distinguished men wore full-length wool gowns over their otherclothes. Men wore felt hats bothinside and outside, and all men grewbeards.

Petticoats and CoifsPilgrim women wore a linenundergarment called a shift.This hadshort sleeves, fastened in the front,and was tied with ribbons at thecollar and cuffs. Over this, womenwore stays and one or morepetticoats that reached to the anklesand fastened at the waist. On top,women wore a fitted gown that

This painting depicts thePilgrims at the firstThanksgiving dinner in1621.

Simple falling band collars replaced the moreimpractical pleated ruffs of the previous erain the Plymouth colony.

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The Puritan Massachusetts BayColony was richer than Plymouthcolony, but it adhered to a strictercode of behavior that dictatedspecific rules on what its colonistscould wear.When the colony wasfounded in 1630, the courtiers inEurope were wearing many jewels,velvet flourishes, silk scarves, and laceruffles.The Puritans disliked thisostentation.The Massachusetts BayCompany, which founded the colony,supplied each man with relativelyplain and practical garments.Theseincluded three suits, four shirts, fourpairs of shoes, one black hat, five redknit caps, two falling bands, and apair of gloves.The Puritans woremany shades of brown, but also black,pale blue, pale green, beige, andoccasionally scarlet.

The Puritans

In this painting, (above)Massachusetts GovernorJohn Winthrop performsapothecary services inhis home.

The Puritans wore modestbut well-tailored garmentswithout embellishments.


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Clothes in CaptivityA war broke out between the localWampanoag natives and the colonistsin 1675.This was called Metacom’sRebellion after the Native Americanleader Metacom.The Wampanoagsattacked colonial villages andsometimes took hostages. Onehostage was Mary Rowlandson, whospent three months among theWampanoags and wrote about herexperience. She survived by makingstockings, aprons, and shirts for hercaptors, and watched them makewampum.After Metacom hadsuccessfully raided an English village,Mary witnessed his victory dance.She later described how he dressedby combining a colonial shirt,stockings, and garters with nativewampum and war paint. It wascustomary for victoriousWampanoags to wear their defeatedenemies’ clothing as a sign oftriumph.

Forbidden ClothingIn 1634 the governors ofMassachusetts passed a sumptuary lawforbidding the colonists from makingor buying any clothing with lace, goldthread, embroidery, or ruffs. Otherunsuitable items included: large,decorative shoe ornaments; beaver furhats; thick garters; perfumed gloves;showy feathered hats; and multiplerings or pearl necklaces.Another lawpassed in 1639 forbade poorercolonists from dressing above theirstation in large breeches, broad-shouldered tops, ruffles, wide boots, orsilk scarves. Short sleeves and longhair worn loose were banned as signsof immorality.

The Salem WitchTrialsThe colonial town of Salem,Massachusetts, was consumed by adeep fear of witchcraft in 1692. Inthis dangerous atmosphere the townleaders were prepared to convictwomen as witches on the basis offlimsy evidence. Bridget Bishop wasthe first woman tried in court forwitchcraft, and she was accused onthe basis of her beauty and her“showy costume.” Her black dresswith a red bodice, bordered andlooped with different-coloredthreads, was used as evidence againsther. So was her visit to the towndyer, asking him to dye “sundrypieces of lace” of “long andimmodest shapes.”The court searchedher body for any moles or warts—regarded as marks of the devil—andwhen one was found, they convictedand executed her.

The Scarlet LetterHester Prynne, the heroine of Nathaniel Hawthorne’snovel The Scarlet Letter (1850), was a seventeenth-century Puritan living in the Massachusetts colony. Shehad committed adultery, and was sentenced to wear ascarlet letter “A” on her dress forever as a symbol of herguilt. Hawthorne based his story around historical facts,including a 1694 law of Salem, Massachusetts, thatforced adulterers to wear a capital letter “A” two incheslong, made from different-colored cloth, stitched into thearms or backs of their clothing. In the novel, HesterPrynne embellishes her red cloth “A” with elaborateembroidery and flourishes of gold thread, and wears iton her front.

Pennsylvaniaknee-length coat that buttoned downthe front. Men wore wigs withoutexcessive curls or powdering. Plainhats with broad brims were sopopular with the Quakers that theybecame known by other colonists,derogatorily, as “broadbrims.”

Quaker women wore plain dressesmade of homespun fabric. Over thisthey wore a plain shawl that foldedthree times at the back of the neck. Itwas pinned at the shoulder and hadpoints that hung down in the front.On their heads, Quaker women worea white linen cap covered by a blackhood. In the late-eighteenth century,they began to wear bonnets.Themost popular style was a black“tunnel” bonnet with a brim thatframed the face.

Hodden GrayThe Quakers of the Delaware Valleybecame known for their homespun,soft, gray fabric called “Hoddengray.” Hodden gray was one of thefirst textiles to be manufactured on alarge scale in America.The Quakerswore colors other than gray, however,including soft browns, earthy greens,creams, and reds.They wore blackonly when in mourning. During theeighteenth century the Quakersboycotted indigo dye and indigo-colored clothing because indigo wassupplied through the slave trade.

William PennUnlike most Quakers,William Penncame from a wealthy family inEngland, and in his youth he woreexpensive, fashionable clothing with

A colonial Quaker woman wore a plain dress, apron,linen cap, and simple shoes.

William Penn founded the colony ofPennsylvania in 1682 as a religiousrefuge for English, German, andDutch Quakers.The Quaker religiontreated all people as equals, regardlessof race, sex, or origin, and theQuakers’ clothing carried noindication of a social hierarchy.

In North America the Quakers’ dressstyle distinguished them from theother colonists. Pennsylvania had no

official dress code, but in 1693William Penn instructed the

colonists on clothes by writing,“The more simple and plainthey are, the better. Neitherunshapely, nor fantastical, andfor use and decency and not

for pride.”

Simple DressFashionable items thatthe Quakers rejectedincluded cocked hats,twisted neck cloths,useless holes, buttons,

and pockets, widecuffs, excess lace,large buckles,colored linings,broad hems, andwide skirts.Instead, Quakermen wore plainshirts, breeches,and simplebuckled shoes.Over this, theywore a cloakor a simple


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large, silver buckles. His father was anadmiral in the British navy, andWilliam also considered a militarycareer. Ironically, the only authenticportrait that exists of William Pennshows him dressed in a full set ofarmor when he was twenty-two.Afew months after he posed for thisportrait, he converted to peacefulQuakerism, a religion in which menwere urged not to dress in a “warlikefashion.”

Amish DressThe Amish, a branch of the Mennonite religion, wereanother group who settled peacefully in Pennsylvania,arriving in the 1720s and 1730s. They dressed in aplain style of clothing that Amish people still weartoday. Amish women wear full-length dresses madefrom solid-colored fabric. Over this they wear an apron,and a cape in bad weather. They do not wear jewelry.An Amish woman wears her hair in a bun on the backof her head, and covers it with a white cap if she ismarried, or a black one if she is single. Amish menwear dark suits with straight jackets without lapels,solid-colored shirts, broad trousers with suspenders,black socks, black shoes, and broad-brimmed hats.Amish men grow beards after they marry.

Amish people living in America today wear clothes that are similar to those worn by their colonial ancestors.

William Penn, thefounder ofPennsylvania,encouraged thecolonists toadopt simpledress.

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Slave Hire BadgesFrom the mid-seventeenth century until the Civil War, some Southernstates operated a system of slave hire badges. These badges, wornaround the neck on a chain or string, identified the names andplantations of slaves who were leased out by their owners for short-term labor outside their plantations. The badges were made fromcopper and were most often shaped like squares or diamonds roughlytwo inches (5 cm) across.

SlaveryThe institution of slavery in NorthAmerica began in 1619 inJamestown,Virginia, and ended twoand a half centuries later, when theEmancipation Proclamation of 1863and subsequent laws finally abolishedit. During this period, roughly650,000 people were captured inAfrica and brought on ships to theNorth American colonies, wherethey were forced into hard, unpaidlabor and denied basic human rights.Around eleven million slaves werebrought to the New World as awhole.

Throughout the colonies, slaves werebought and sold as chattels, and usedto work on large farming plantationsand perform other work.Theslaveholders gave them the bareminimum of clothing required forsurvival, and used impersonal,uniform clothes, physical branding,and identification tags to reinforcethe slaves’ inhumane status.

Slave ShipsMost American slaves came from thecoasts of West Africa.They had avariety of cultural backgrounds,languages, clothing, and social

customs.When captured and soldinto slavery, these people lost all oftheir possessions, including theirclothing. Often the slave traderswould brand their skins with hotirons, leaving permanentidentification marks.A few captiveskept bead necklaces or small leatheritems, but most were forced onto theslave trading ships naked. On theships they were chained together andcrammed into such tight conditionsthat they could barely move. Manydied.When the survivors arrived inAmerica, they were sold toslaveholders and given coarsegarments.

Rough ClothingSlave owners gave their slaves aminimal amount of sturdy clothingto last through each year.Thisclothing was made from crudetextiles like rough, inexpensivewoolens, hemp, or cottons. Plainwhite, blue, and green were the mostcommon colors. Most male slaveswho worked in the fields onplantations were given only two suitsof clothing a year.These consisted ofone pair of winter trousers, a pair ofsummer trousers, two loose shirts, and

one waistcoat for warmth. Femaleslaves received two petticoats, twoloose shifts, and a jacket withoutstays—a sign of inferiority.Occasionally they wore loose dressesinstead. Most slave clothing fit poorly,and the shoes were so uncomfortablethat many slaves chose to gobarefoot. Many clothes for slaves hadinitials sewn into them to identify theslaves if they ran away.

The Cotton IndustryCotton grew easily in the southernAmerican colonies, but it was grownin only small quantities in Virginiauntil the end of the eighteenthcentury. Slaves were used to farm theraw cotton, which was then shippedto British textile producers.When theBritish and American textileindustries started to use steam powerin the late 1700s, demand for cottonyarn increased, and so did the


This book illustrates life onboard a slave ship and aslave auction.

demand for slaves. In 1793,Eli Whitney’s invention ofthe cotton gin, a machinethat removed cotton seedsfrom cotton fibers, led toan even greater demandfor slaves to pick rawcotton.

Slaves wore rough anduncomfortable clothingsupplied by their owners.

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By the eighteenth century, the colonies along theEast coast of America had become firmly

established.Their towns were filled with merchants, andtheir countryside with farmers who grew crops forboth home consumption and export.The colonists stillimported most of their textiles and clothing, however,and followed English fashion trends.

the dense forests of the northeast,native leather and fur clothing weremore effective for exploring andhunting. Some luxury items likestarched ruffles proved too fussy, stiff,or wasteful for the physicalrequirements of life in the colonies.Still, rich colonists continued to buyfanciful imported goods as luxuries.By the mid-eighteenth century,however, homespun colonial clothand handmade clothing had becomesymbolic of the emerging, new, self-reliant country.

Protected TradeBritain made large amounts ofmoney by exporting fabrics andclothing to the American colonists.Tailors and seamstresses working inLondon produced ready-madeclothes that were intended for exportto America.To protect thesemanufacturers from competition, theBritish government passed laws toprohibit France and other countriesfrom selling directly to the Americancolonies.The British government alsopassed laws to limit the quantities ofcloth and clothing that the colonistscould produce for themselves.

Chapter 7: American Colonial Style

American colonists in the eighteenth centurywore many English fashions.

Colonial Fashion

Over time, the Americanenvironment influenced colonialclothing styles.The southern colonieswere too hot for wigs and coats inthe summer, for instance, and men inVirginia often went without them. In

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American Colonial Style

that had been combed andsmoothed, or worsted, could betreated to make it look like silk.Many less expensive gowns weremade from worsted wool.

Silks were the most expensive fabrics,imported in small quantities fromEngland or China. Rich colonistswore elegant silk gowns, waistcoats,and jackets, and used colored silkthreads to brocade, or weave raisedpatterns, into garments.

Homespun FabricClothes that fit loosely over the body, such as linen nightclothes, everyday shirts, shifts, andbaby garments, were sewn by women of all social classes at home. Women also knittedstockings and gloves, sewed petticoats, and embroidered decorations on cloaks and pocketsfor their families. Many people living in rural areas made all of their own clothing. Thecolonists grew small amounts of linen, cotton, and hemp to create crude, homespun fabricsthat were far less valued than imported cloth. During the years leading up to the Americanwar, however, these homespun colonial fabrics became symbolic of the colonists’ growingself-sufficiency and independence.

As a result, it was often cheaper forthe colonists to buy their clothingdirectly from England.Tailors andseamstresses living in colonial citiescreated some individually tailoredclothes for their richest customers.More often they trimmed and soldimported waistcoats, shirts, petticoats,gloves, and other garments.

Qualities of ClothLinen, a light fabric, was most oftenused for clothes that were worn nextto the skin, such as shirts, shifts, babyclothes, and summer clothing forlaborers.The finest linen was soft,smooth, and bleached white.

Until the late eighteenth century,colonists grew only modest quantitiesof cotton. Instead, they relied uponimported British cotton orfashionable Indian cotton, whichcame in colorful patterns and soft,shiny chintz fabrics.The colonists farmed few sheep, andimported most of their wool fromBritain. Imported British woolranged from rough, sturdy fabricsused for laborers’ clothing to finebroadcloths used for men’s suits.Wool

Some colonial garments,such as this frock coat,were made fromeconomical homespunfabric.

This fashionable fabricfrom the 1740s–1770swas very expensive.

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WigsAt the start of the seventeenth century, King Louis XIII of France went prematurely bald, and disguised this by wearing a wig. This started a fashion among upper- and middle-class men for long wigs that lasted through the eighteenth century. Wigs were made from horsehair or, more expensively, human hair. Caring for them required frequent cleaning, curling, and powdering with scented starch powder to make them white. In the colonies, short, simple wigs known as “bob” wigs were popular. Some colonial ministers preached against wig-wearing as decadent, but eventually all wealthy colonial men wore them. In the years before the American Revolution, patriotic barbers were known to deliberately mishandle the wigs of their customers who sympathized with Britain.

Colonial MenWealthy men living in the British American colonies wore stiff, formal clothes that were similar to those worn by their counterparts back in Britain. It was a sign of privileged status for a man to wear three-piece suits made of soft fabrics, ruffled neckties, velvet shoes, powdered wigs, and other items that required care and were unsuitable for manual labor.

Life in the colonies was hard, however, and often required physical effort from every man, however rich. Plain, functional, and sober colonial

fashions eventually replaced more flamboyant and impractical ones, as an appearance of sober trustworthiness in business became more important.

Three-Piece SuitsAt the start of the eighteenth century, men wore formal three-piece suits. The suit jacket was long and grew slim at the waist, then flared outward and fell down to just below the knees. Under this a man wore a tight waistcoat, which might be embroidered in the center where the decoration could be seen. Under the waistcoast he wore a white shirt

with decorative ruffles sewn into its center and sleeve cuffs. The

third piece of the suit was a pair of matching knee-length breeches, worn with knitted stockings. The breeches could be lined with linen to serve as an undergarment, or

worn with separate linen underpants. In the middle of the century, suit styles

became slimmer, and men wore fewer ruffles, lace,

Colonial men styled their heads in various wigs, tricorn hats, and linen nightcaps.

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embroidery. By the end of thecentury, suits were made of dark,plain wool, and slim trousers hadreplaced breeches.

Neck Cloths andTricorn HatsMen started to wear neck cloths, aprecursor of the modern necktie, inthe seventeenth century.These camein a variety of styles that wereelaborate at first but became simplerover time. Neck cloths were madefrom gathered white linen, attachedto tabs that fastened to metal knobsor buckles.Wearing a starched andruffled neck cloth showed that thewearer had the time and moneyneeded to keep it clean.

Hats of many styles were worn bymen of all classes.A popular hat wasthe tricorn or “cocked” hat madefrom felt, which had a low crown anda brim that rolled up on three sides.

Dressing GownsWealthy men sometimes woreinformal clothing at home,particularly before they dressed in themorning, and in the evening beforethey went to bed.A banyan was along dressing gown made from linenor silk. It had long sleeves, and couldhave a simple standing collar. Menwore their banyans over shirts,stockings, breeches, and slippers.Athome, men removed their hats andpowdered wigs and wore simple linencaps instead.They slept in loose linenor cotton shirts. Poor men had tosleep in the same shirts that they woreduring the day, or else sleep naked.


The sixth Lord Baltimore of Maryland wearing an expensive three-piece suitand starched shirt for this formal portrait.

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Women who lived in the Americancolonies were judged not only by thequality of their clothing but also bytheir body posture and grace inmovement.To obtain the ideal figure,women wore corsets from an earlyage.These held their backs straight,and molded their chests and waistsinto shape. Poor colonial womencould not afford the stays, extrapetticoats, and neck cloths that richwomen wore as signs of goodbreeding.A wealthy colonial woman

Colonial Women owned many different gowns madefrom rich and colorful fabrics,decorated with expensive flourisheslike embroidery, ruffles, and lace.

Bodices andStomachersThe basic item of dress for a colonialwoman was a full-length gownconsisting of a fitted bodice withelbow-length or full sleeves, and askirt that fell to just above her shoes.Poor women who could not affordgowns wore separate fitted jacketsthat buttoned down the front overpetticoats that were intended asouterwear, or bed gowns (see pages58–9).

To decorate a gown a woman couldadd a stomacher—a triangular panelof stiff, ornate fabric worn betweenthe neck and the waist that tied tothe gown. She could also tie anembroidered apron around her waistto show at the lower front of thegown.Visible pockets wereconsidered lower class, so manywomen carried their personal itemsin pouches tied with strings aroundtheir waists or in discreetly sewnpockets, hidden beneath their skirts.

AccessoriesColonial women tied their hair backand covered it with a hat, bonnet, orcap.The styles of these headcoverings varied throughout thecolonies according to background,religion, and class.The most commonstyle in the English colonies was asimple white linen, or cotton cap,round in shape, that tied beneath the

This beautiful colonialgown is paired with adecorative underskirt andruffled sleeves.


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chin with laces, or was secured inplace by pins.Very expensive capswere handmade from lace andincluded long pieces of lace thathung down on both sides of the face.Poor women tied large cotton clothsaround their heads.

Rich women wore gloves, fans,earrings, and necklaces thatcomplemented their gowns. Jewelrywas made from gold, silver, ivory,pearls, amethysts, diamonds, and otherjewels. Silk shoes with leather soleswere luxury items, often orderedfrom Britain.

StaysThe ideal body shape for an eighteenth-century colonial woman combined a straight back with aflattened front, with breasts pushed up on the chest. To achieve this shape, women wore stays, orcorsets that contained stiff whalebones or—as a cheaper alternative—leather and cane. The beststays were sewn with tight stitches that held the bones in place in parallel grooves. Becausewomen wore stays from a very young age, their bodies conformed to the ideal shape by the timethey reached adulthood. Not wearing stays was disreputable. Still, they must have beenuncomfortable, particularly for working women who needed to scrub, bend, and carry heavy loads.

Corsets and stays were made from cotton orsilk and whalebones, leather, or cane.

Under the GownUnder her gown a woman wore abasic linen undershirt called a shift,which showed only at the neck andsleeves. Shifts sometimes haddecorative ruffles. Petticoats wereworn under the skirts of gowns togive them shape. Some women woreseveral layers of petticoats under theirgowns. Petticoats were madeof quilted silk or, morecheaply, from wool.Most petticoats wereintended asundergarments, butpoor women mightwear thickerpetticoats covered infabric instead of skirts.

Women oftenneeded help to tieup their tightcorsets.

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The American colonies that thrivedattracted many laborers who couldperform the hard work required toclear and farm the land, build houses,mill grain, and make the bricks, casks,furniture, iron tools, saddles, andother items that the colonists needed.These laborers and craftsmen camefrom the working and middle classesin Europe, and many of themtraveled to America in order to gainland and find better lives.Womenalso farmed in the fields, acted ashousehold servants, sewed, andlaundered clothing.Work clothing inthe colonies needed to be sturdy andflexible, and appropriately thick and

Work in the Colonieswarm for the bitterly cold winters, orlight and loose for hot and humidsummers.

Smocks and LeggingsSuits worn by gentlemen, with theirlong jackets and knee-lengthbreeches, were too tight-fitting andawkward for strenuous physical labor.Laboring men wore short frock coatsor waistcoats over loose shirts, or acombination of the two in layers,depending on the work and climate.They also wore loose smocks andhandkerchiefs over their other clothesto protect them from dirt andscratches. Instead of breeches, workerswore either fitted or loose pants tothe knees or tops of their shoes. If thework took them into the woods, menprotected their legs from branches,thorns, and snake bites with trousersor leggings made from rough wool orleather. Men wore caps or cloths ontheir heads in hot weather to absorbsweat and the heat of the sun.

Bed GownsThe working woman wore a loose,straight gown that fell to her ankles orto the floor. Called a bed gown ormanteau-de-lit, this dress allowed herto move more easily when scrubbinglaundry and carrying goods.The bedgown was fastened with pins, or heldin place by an apron tied at the waist.Aprons were made from simple linenor cotton fabrics, often in checkeredpatterns. Over their shoulders, womentied dark cloths similar to aprons tokeep themselves warm. Under theirgowns, working women wore asimple linen shift, a flannel petticoat,

Leather breeches protectedworking men fromscratches, bites, and the

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and rough wool stockings. Despitetheir impracticality, women oftenwore leather stays underneath theirgowns, if they could afford them.

Sturdy FabricsManual laborers wore durableclothes of heavy linen or cotton,rough wool cloth, or cheap,homespun fabrics. In the earlycolonial years, homespun cloth wasseen as cheap and practical, but in thelate eighteenth century it becamemore fashionable as a sign of growingindependence from Britain. Leatherwas considered an inexpensive anduseful alternative until the late 1700s,when leather garments inspired byNative American fashions, such asmoccasins and leather leggings,became fashionable as symbols of thepioneering spirit of a new nation.

Military GearGeneral George Washington appreciated thepractical value of Native American deerskinclothing, which was well-adapted for travelingand fighting in the American woods. Duringthe French and Indian War (1754–63),Washington ordered uniforms for his troopsthat borrowed elements from native clothing.Instead of the usual European militaryuniform of fitted jackets, waistcoats, andtight breeches, he ordered looser, moreflexible shirts and a thousand pairs of thickleather leggings to be made in Philadelphia.This uniform allowed his troops to navigateand fight in the woods more easily than theirFrench enemies. This clothing strategy alsoworked well during the American Revolution.

American colonistsbalanced their needfor practicalclothing with theirdesire for attractivefashions.

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TimelineBCEc. 3800 Brown and white cotton is

cultivated in the Andes Mountains of Peru in South America.

c. 2500 Portable backstrap looms are first used by the people of South America to weave cloth.

c. 2400 Native Americans start to create beads from shells.

c. 800 Camelid fibers are first used in cloth by the people of South America.

CE300s Mayan civilization develops, and the

Maya develop ideals of physical beauty, including corn-shaped heads.

c.1200 The Inca Empire rises to power. TheIncas wear textiles decorated with shawl pins, woven headbands, and

ear plugs. 1400s The Aztecs take control of the

Valley of Mexico, and wear elaborate feathered headdresses made from feathers gathered from

across the Aztec Empire.1492 Christopher Columbus lands at

Hispaniola and encounters native Taino people wearing gold nose ornaments.

1517 Fernandez de Córdoba and his conquistadors encounter the Maya

and trade beads, jewelry, and clothing with them. They bring

Mayan gold ornaments back to Spain.

1519 The Aztec ruler Montezuma I concludes that the Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes is thegod Quetzalcoatl on the basis of hiswhite skin, beard, and black robe.

1520s Cortes brings the first samples of cochineal dye back to Europe,where it becomes very popular withtextile dyers.

1527 Spanish conquistadors first encounter the Incas and bring gold,silver, jewels, and embroidered clothing back to Spain.

1550s Beaver fur hats become fashionablein Europe.

1560s The Spanish morion helmet becomes the most popular head armor for conquistadors.

1565 Tobacco, a key American crop, is first introduced to Europe, and smoking pipes become popular as accessories soon afterward.

c.1570 The Mohawk, Cayuga, Onandaga,Oneida, and Seneca Iroquois tribesenact a peace treaty through the exchange of wampum, and form theIroquois League.

1500–1650The Spanish ship 181 tons of goldand 16,000 tons of silver from theAmericas back to Europe.

c. 1580s The beaver has been hunted to extinction in Europe, and supply ofbeaver pelts shifts to North America.

1600s King Louis XIII of France goes prematurely bald and starts a fashion for wigs for men.

1616 Pocahontas travels to England andmeets King James I, dressed in European clothing which hides her tattoos.

1625 King Charles I becomes king of England and starts many newfashion trends, including boots andlooser neckwear.

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Glossaryamulet A piece of jewelry worn as a charm oras protection against evil.backstrap loom A loom which ties at one endto a pole and wraps at the other end aroundthe waist of the weaver, used by nativeAmerican people to weave small items.bandeirante A Portuguese settler in colonialBrazil in the sixteenth and seventeenthcenturies who explored the interior of thecountry.banyan A long, loose dressing gown worn by aman.bed gown A loose-fitting, ankle-length gownfastened with pins or held in place by anapron tied at the waist.biggin A close-fitting cap that ties under thechin, worn by Pilgrim children.brazilwood A tropical redwood tree native toBrazil that yields a reddish dye.breeches Short pants that cover the bodyfrom the waist to the knees.broadcloth A closely woven fabric with alustrous finish, made from cotton or wool.brocade A fabric richly ornamented with araised design of differently colored threads.buckskin Soft, pliable deerskin.camelid Any animal of the camel family,including the alpaca, llama, and vicuña.city-state A state consisting of a sovereigncity and the surrounding territories.coca A native American shrub, the leaves ofwhich were chewed by the Native Americanpeoples as a stimulant.cochineal A Mexican insect that feeds oncacti and that yields a crimson substanceused in dyes when crushed.cocked hat A felt hat with a low crown and abrim that rolls up on three sides. Also knownas a tricorn hat.coif A linen cap worn by Pilgrim women tocover their hair.conquistador A conqueror or adventurer fromSpain who traveled to the Americas in thesixteenth century.coraquenque A South American bird, thefeathers of which were used in Inca royalheaddresses.coureur des bois A French colonial fur trapperwho lived in the woods.cumbi Cloth woven from alpaca or vicuñafibers, used as a diplomatic gift by Incanobility.

doublet A close-fitting jacket worn by men inEurope during the fifteenth and sixteenthcenturies.felt A cloth made from woven wool or cotton,or a mixture of wool and fur, that is smoothbut firm.filigree Delicate, fanciful ornamental workmade of twisted metal wire.garter A band worn around the leg to hold upa stocking or a sock.guild An organization created to control thetraining, working conditions, and prices for aparticular trade.harquebus A heavy gun with a long barrel thatwas invented in the fifteenth century.hemp A tall, Asian plant with a tough fiber,sometimes used to make rope or cloth.hieroglyph A picture or symbol thatrepresents an object, idea, or sound.hose A garment that covers the leg from thefoot to the knee or to the waist.huipil A Mayan woman’s long blouse thathangs down past the waist.indigo A plant that yields a blue dye.ingot A piece of metal cast in a shape that iseasy to store and transport.Iroquois League A Native Americanconfederacy consisting of the Iroquois tribes:the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onandaga, andSeneca, and later including the Tuscarora.ishtaboli A stick-and-ball game played byNative Americans istle A strong fiber obtained from varioustropical American plants, including the agaveand yucca.Jacobean Relating to King James I of Englandor to the period of his rule (1603–1625).jade A gemstone that varies in color fromwhite to green.jerkin A sleeveless and collarless fittedjacket worn by Europeans in the sixteenth andseventeenth centuries.jet A hard, black variety of coal that can bepolished and used for jewelry.labret A long piece of shell or bone insertedthrough the lip as an ornament.loincloth A long piece of cloth that wrapsbetween the legs and ties at the waist, wornas a basic garment or undergarment.maguey Any of various tropical Americanagave plants, the fibers of which can be usedto make rope or cloth.

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mail Armor made from interlocking metalrings.neck stock A piece of neckwear made fromgathered white linen, attached to tabs thatfasten with metal knobs or buckles.obsidian A dark volcanic glass formed by thecooling of molten lava.ocher A natural, yellowish-orange earth usedas a pigment or cosmetic by some ancientpeoples.pectoral A body ornament worn on the chest.pendant An ornament that hangs from apiece of jewelry.Quaker A member of the Religious Society ofFriends, a Christian denomination founded in1650 in England.quetzal A Central and South American birdwith red, white, and bright green feathers.ruff A circular neck garment, often pleated orgathered and made of linen or muslin, worn bymen and women in the sixteenth andseventeenth centuries.sachem A lord or chief in a Native Americantribe.shift A loose shirt worn by women, often asan undergarment.stay A corset that is stiffened with strips ofbone or leather.stomacher A triangular panel of stiff, ornatefabric worn between the corsage and the waistthat ties or pins to a gown.sumptuary law A law that restricts theluxuries that can be obtained or worn byparticular people.tapabord A French style of hat with sides thatfold down to protect the wearer from the windand rain.tocapu A small figure repeated within alarger, rectangular geometric pattern in an Incatextile.tricorn hat A felt hat with a low crown and abrim that rolls up on three sides. Also knownas a cocked hat.tumbaga An alloy of copper and gold.tupu A long, straight metal pin used by anInca woman to fasten a shawl.vicuña A animal similar to a llama, native tothe Andes Mountains of Peru.wampum A symbolic object made of a stringor web of fibers that holds decorative beads,exchanged by Native Americans during

Further InformationAdult Reference SourcesBaumgarten, Linda, What Clothes Reveal: TheLanguage of Clothing in Colonial and FederalAmerica (The Colonial Williamsburg Foundationin association with Yale University Press,2002)Bingham, Hiram, Lost City of the Incas(Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 2002)Bray, Warwick, Everyday Life of the Aztecs (BTBatsford, 1968)Brogan, Hugh, The Longman History of theUnited States of America (Longman GroupLimited, 1985)Davies, Nigel, The Ancient Kingdoms of Peru(Penguin, 1997)Domenici, Davide, Mexico: A Guide to theArchaeological Sites (White Star Publishers,2002)Griffin-Pierce, Trudy, Native Americans: EnduringCultures and Traditions (MetroBooks, 1996) Everyman Guides: The Route of the Mayas(David Campbell Publishers, 1995)Kolchin, Peter, American Slavery (HarperCollinsCanada, 1993)Mason, Antony, Ancient Civilizations of theAmericas (BBC Worldwide Limited, 2000)Milton, Giles, Big Chief Elizabeth: TheAdventures and Fate of the First EnglishColonies in America (Farrar, Straus & Giroux,2000)Smith, Joseph with Francisco Vinhosa, AHistory of Brazil: Politics, Economy, Society,Diplomacy (Pearson Education Limited, 2002)Tait, Hugh, 7000 Years of Jewellery (BritishMuseum Press, 1989)Wood, Michael, Conquistadors (BBC WorldwideLimited, 2000)Dress Magazine, 1991, Volume 18: “Cloth,Clothing, and Early American Social History” byLaurel Thatcher Ulrich.

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Young Adult Reference SourcesByam, Michelle, EyewitnessGuides: Arms & Armour (DorlingKindersley Limited, 1988)Deary, Terry, Horrible Histories:The Incredible Incas (ScholasticChildren’s Books, 2000)Drew, David, Early Civilizations:Inca Life (Snapping Turtle /Ticktock Publishing, 2000)Murdoch, David, EyewitnessGuides: North American Indian(Dorling Kindersley Limited,1995)Platt, Richard, EyewitnessGuides: Pirate (DorlingKindersley Limited, 1995)Wood, Marion, The World of theNative Americans (Hodder &Stoughton, 1997)

Internet Resources: AdultEarle, Alice Morse, The ProjectGutenberg eBook, Two Centuriesof Costume in America, Vol. 1(1680-1820), E-text prepared byCharles Aldorando, KerenVergon, Susan Skinner, and theProject Gutenberg OnlineDistributed Proofreading Team,2003.

AZTEC WARRIORS ANDWEAPONSwww.atlatl.com/article1.htmlwww.balagan.org.uk/war/1492/mexico/painting_guide_aztec.htm

BRAZILwww.saopaulo.sp.gov.br/ingles/saopaulo/historia/colonia.htm

FUR TRADEwww.civilization.ca/hist/histe.aspwww.collectionscanada.ca/caninf(National Library of Canada &National Archives of Canada)

INCASwww.culturalexpeditions.com/history_peru_textiles.htmlwww.hartfordhwp.com/archives/41/414.html

NATIVE AMERICANSwww.civilization.ca/hist/histe.aspwww.tc.umn.edu/~mboucher/mikebouchweb/choctaw

PILGRIMSwww.pilgrimhall.org

QUAKERSwww.nanning.nildram.co.uk/quakers/history/Dress001.html

SALEM WITCH TRIALSetext.lib.virginia.edu/salem/witchcraftwww.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/salem/SAL_ACCT.htm

Internet Resources: Young Adult

AMISHwww.amish.net

AZTECSwww.ancientmexico.com

BRAZILwww.geographia.com/brazil/brazihistory.htm

COLONIAL AND REVOLUTIONARYPERIODSwww.walika.com/sr/uniforms/uindex.htmwww.geocities.com/revwarcostume/www.englishcountrydancing.org/colonial6.htmlwww.history.org

FUR TRADEwww.whiteoak.org

INCASwww.nationalgeographic.com/channel/inca

www.theincas.comwww.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/peru/worlds/artefacts2.html

JAMESTOWNwww.vahistorical.org/storyofvirginia.htmwww.virtualjamestown.org

MAYAww.rutahsa.com/traje.html

NATIVE AMERICANS1704.deerfield.history.museum/list/artifacts/ceremonial.dowww.oneidanation.net/wampum_exhib.htmltuscaroras.com/graydeer/pages/childrenspage.htm

PIRATESwww.noquartergiven.net/www.cindyvallar.com/buccaneers.htmlwww.piratehaven.org/~beej/pirates/

PLYMOUTH COLONYwww.plimoth.orgwww.rootsweb.com/~mosmd/clothing.htm

SALEM WITCH TRIALSwww.nationalgeographic.com/salemwww.salemwitchmuseum.com

SLAVERYwww.afro.com/history/slavery

SPANISH COLONISTSwww.flmnh.ufl.edu/histarch/staugustine.htmwww.pem.org/embroidery_arts/overview.htmlwww.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/eurvoya

Amazonian people 33aristocrats 14, 15armor 22, 29, 31, 41

bandeirantes 33beards 45, 49belts and sashes 8, 9, 15, 19, 38blouses 13bodices 45, 47, 56body painting 33, 35, 36, 39, 41body piercings 10, 15, 20–21, 33, 35Brazil 32breeches and leggings 31, 35, 37,

38, 39, 42, 44, 48, 54, 55, 58, 59brooches and pins 9buccaneers 30

Canada 36capes and cloaks 13, 14, 17, 19, 37Caribbean 30ceremonies 13, 14, 15, 24, 25children 39, 44, 45collars 44, 45colonies

Amish 49Jamestown 41Pennsylvania 48–49Plymouth 38, 44–45Puritans 44–47

colonists 27, 30–32, 41–49, 52–59colors 6, 19, 44, 45, 46, 48, 50Columbia 6, 11Columbus, Christopher 26conquistadors 26–29corsets and stays 56, 57, 59cotton 6, 8, 13, 17, 18, 42, 51, 53,

55cuffs 44, 54

decorations 7,13, 14, 15, 18, 22, 31,35, 36, 39, 56

deerskin 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 42doublets 31, 44dresses 8–9, 15, 39, 47, 48dressing gowns 55dyes 6, 13, 19, 32, 48

embroidery 19, 29emperors 10, 11, 17, 21, 24, 28

farmers 7feathers 11, 21furs 36, 37, 38, 42–43, 52

gods and goddesses 6, 7, 15, 24gold 6, 11, 17, 20, 27, 29, 32gowns 56, 58Guatemala 12–15

hairstyles 9, 19, 23, 37, 45, 47, 49,56

hats and caps 9, 26, 42–43, 45, 48,55, 56–57, 58

headdresses 6, 8, 10, 11, 14, 15, 20,28, 33, 37

helmets 8, 22, 27homespun cloth 52, 53, 59

jackets 26, 31, 37, 42, 56jade 20, 21jewelry 5, 10, 11, 15, 17, 20, 29, 35,

37, 39, 43, 57

King Charles I 44

leather 8, 18, 36, 39, 52, 59linen 18, 44, 45, 53, 55loinclothes 8, 13, 14, 19, 33, 36, 38,

39

makeup 19, 25masks 36merchants 17Mexico 16–25, 30moccasins 36, 39Moche peoplemummies 7

neck cloths 55nobility 6, 7, 9, 10, 11., 17, 19, 21

patterns and symbols 6–7, 14, 18,37

peasants 9Penn,William 48–49Peru 30petticoats 45, 56, 57, 59Pocahontas 41pockets and pouches 8, 19, 39, 56

poor 18, 19, 55, 56, 57Portuguese 5priests 21, 24, 25, 31

Quakers 48

rich 17, 18, 19, 54, 55, 56, 57robes 3, 37, 39royalty 10, 11, 14–15, 17

shawls 9, 48shifts 45, 57, 59shirts 19, 31, 37, 39, 42, 44, 45, 48,

54, 55, 58shoes and sandals 8, 14, 18, 26, 36,

39, 43, 44, 45, 48, 54, 57silk 53silver 20, 29skirts 13, 19, 33, 37, 38, 39slaves 50–51smocks 58sports 14, 34suits 54, 55symbolism 6–7, 11, 13, 14

tattooes 13, 33, 35, 36, 39trade and export 6, 17, 27, 42–43,

52tribes 34, 35

Algonquians 34, 35, 38–39, 41, 43Choctaw 34, 35Iroquois 35, 36–37

tunics 8, 13, 15turquoise 11, 20

waistcoats 54, 58wampum 37, 39, 47warriors and soldiers 15, 17, 22–23,

25, 27, 31, 38, 39, 41weaving 6–7, 13wigs 48, 54wool 6, 8, 18, 53

Yucatan peninsula 27

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Index

a history of fashion & costume - vol.4 - early america

Documents