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A New Information Environment: how digital fragmentation is shaping

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In honor of David Klatell.

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A New Information Environment: how digital fragmentation is shaping the way we produce and consume news

Acknowledgments

TheworkthatIhadtheopportunitytodevelopinthefirsthalfof2016atColumbiaJournalismSchoolwouldnothavehappenedwithoutthestimulusofLeeBollinger,whoin2013encouragedmetocarryoutstudiesaboutfragmentation.SheilaCoronelwasfundamentalinalsoencouragingmetofollowthrough.ErnestSotomayornotonlysupportedmegenerouslybyorganizingmystay,butalsogavemeexcellentworkingconditions.Tohim,Igivespecialthanks.Withcareandattention,LynNellHancockintroducedmetounforgettableresearchersandteachers. Amongthese,IamespeciallygratefultoMichaelSchudson,AvaSeave,andBillGrueskin,withtheirclassesandinspiringconversations,andAnyaSchiffrin,withhertremendousenthusiasmandconversationcircles.EmilyBellandClaireWardle,thanksfortheencouragementandforinvitingmetotheremarkablegroup"PlatformsandPublishers."SteveColl,thankyoufortheopeneddoors. DavidKlatellwasexcitedaboutthemattersIproposed,andwithhim,Ishareddrinksandtalks.Heleftussuddenlyinthemiddleofsummer. InBrazil,sincethebeginningoftheproject,myfriendandprofessorEugenioBucciwasaconstantpartnerintheacademicapproach,addingmoodandperspectives.Alongwithhim,BernardoSorj,CarlosEduardoLinsdaSilva,andSergioFaustoprovidedinputearlyintheprocess.CaioTulioCosta,whoalsogavemevaluableguidanceontheJournalismSchool,alsocontributed. ToresearchpartnersSergioBaratojo(BestForecast),KarlaMendes(Quantas),ManuelFer-nandesandErikaDias(Bites)andCarlosFernandoLindenbergNetoandRicardoPedreira(theNationalAssociationofNewspapers),thankyou. IamespeciallygratefultoFranciscoMesquitaNeto,ofEstadoGroup,forencouragingmeandsupportingtheproject. TheprojectwasmadepossiblebythesupportoftheLemannFoundation.Iacknowledge,inaspecialway,theencouragementandinspirationofJorgePauloLemannandDenisMizne.AnotheressentialsupportcamefromJoséRobertoWhitakerPenteado,fromthebusinessandcommunicationschoolESPM. Mywife,Karla,andmychildrenMarina,Antonio,andAlice,accompaniedmewithlove,pa-tienceandunderstanding.Togetherwelivedanunforgettablejourney.

Ricardo GandourisaBrazilianjournalistandavisitingscholaratColumbiaJournalismSchool.@rgandour

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ContentExecutive summary 4Introduction 61. Fragmentation: the defining characteristic of the new news and information environment 82.The effects of fragmentation: polarization 163. Effects of fragmentation: media literacy 194. Forces of consolidation 20 Anewtypeofcompetitor 21 Lossofscaleandmergers 245. Complementing the Information Environment: specialization under new models – non-profit journalism 27 Independence 29 Metrics 316. The risks of fragmentation: is journalistic culture advancing or retrogressing? Will a new standard be set? 347. The role of journalism schools in the new information environment 378. Closing Considerations and Suggestions 38 Fragmentation:from“searchengine”to“contextengine”.Howcan“na tivejournalism”survive? 39 Consolidation:thelargeandsmallworkingintandem 39 Specializationandniches:transparentcomplementation 40 Mediaandnewsliteracy:anewdisciplineforchangedtimes? 40 Work,teachingandresearchprocesses:thenewwillhavetolivewith theoldandpreservethefundamentalsofjournalism 41Notes 42

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Executive summary

Anewjournalisticenvironmentisbeingbuilt.Itischaracterizedbyconsolidationandfragmentation,twoconceptuallyopposedphenomenathatadvancesimultaneously. Peoplereceivednewsfromprofessionalnewsrooms,andjournalisticcompaniessustainedthemselveswiththatexclusivity.WiththeInternet,informationbecameabundantandmostlyfree.Withsocialmedia,contentfromnewsroomsisreplicatedinbrokenpieces.Andeveryonehasbecomecapableofcreatinganddistributingcontentandhavingapublicvoice.Thereisnowmoreinformation,andthisisundeniablygood. Butthroughsocialmedia,professionalandotherqualifiednewsismixedwithun-checkedinformationandopinions.Rumorsandgossipgetintheflow.Wecallthisdigitalfragmentation.Journalisticcompaniesarefacingseriousdifficulties.Manyareforcedtocutcosts,loweringtheircapacitytooffermorecorroboratednews,context,andanalysis.Thiscanlowerthequalityofthewholenewsenvironment. Oneeffectofdigitalfragmentationispolarization.Non-fact-basedopinionsandrumorsacceleratethebehaviorofquicklytakingashortcutto“like”or“dislike”.Thedebatelosesnuance.Theothereffectisonmedialiteracy.Peoplemaybelosingtheskillstodifferentiateinformationfromopinion. Whencompaniescan’taffordtheircosts,wesaytheyarelosingscale.Onesolutionistomerge.Anotheristoacquire.Bothstrategiesleadtoacontextofbigger,butfewercompanies.Thisiscalledconsolidation. Consolidationwillreinforceconglomerates.Theymanageportfolioswithbothhighlyprofitablemassmediaandprestigiousbutmodestlyprofitablevehicles.Anothereffectoffragmentationistheemergenceofsmallvehiclesdedicatedtospecifictopics,oftenunderanewmodelofnonprofitjournalism,fundedbydonations.Theycomplementthenewsarenaandhelptomediatethepublicdebate.Theyaresometimesseen,correctlyornot,asadvocacyorlobbying.Transparencyisamust. Newmediaventuresmaybefuturetargetsformoreconsolidation.Mid-sizeenterpriseswillfindlittleornospace.Workingprocessesareundergoinghugetransformations.Theseparationbetweenjournalismandentertainment,journalismandadvertising,journalismandadvocacyandinformationandopinion,is,inmanycases,unclearorfadingout.Insomecircumstances,journalismisbeingappliedasasimpletooloraformat.Journalismisamethod. Newsroompracticesmustbepreserved.Thesecandeterminethequalityof–andtheaccountabilityfor–thenewecosystemthatisbeingshaped.

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Inthisnewenvironment,journalismschoolsmust,morethanever,beinchargeofprovidingprofessionalsandorganizationswiththefundamentalsofthecraft.Otherwise,journalismwillfacetheriskoffalteringasoneofthemainstaysoffreedomofexpressionanddemocracy.

(Avideo-animationversionofthisexecutivesummaryisavailableathttp://www.cjr.org/analysis/why_the_news_isnt_what_it_used_to_be.php)

http://www.cjr.org/analysis/why_the_news_isnt_what_it_used_to_be.php

http://www.cjr.org/analysis/why_the_news_isnt_what_it_used_to_be.php

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Introduction

WhenChrisAnderson,EmilyBellandClayShirkywrotetheseminal“PostIndustrialJournalism–AdaptingtothePresent,”publishedbytheTowCenterforDigitalJournalismandColumbiaJournalismReviewinDecember2014,theybeganwiththefollowingstatement:“thisessayispartsurveyandpartmanifesto.”Thepieceisoneofthemostimportantrecentmilestonesinthedebateonthedirectionsjournalismistakingandhownewscompaniescansurviveinthepost-internet,social-mediaage. I’veneverforgottenthatline,whichIseeaseverybitaspreciseasitisnecessary.Inadditiontoresearch,journalismisindireneedofmanifestos.So,forthisintroduction,Itakethelibertyofborrowingthatphraseandappendingathirdelement.Thisessayispartsurvey,partmanifesto,andpartwarning. Asea-changeistakingplaceintheinformationalenvironment.Theinternethasmadeinformationabundantandfree.Nowanybodycanedit,publishanddisseminatecontent;haveapublicvoice.Thesocialmediahavebecomemegadistributionplatforms.Muchmoreinformationisnowavailableandaccessible,andthisisunquestionablyagoodthing. Butbyreducingthecommercialvalueofinformationtonearzero,thedigitalrevolutionhascheckmatedthemainproducersoforiginalinformation—thesocalled“traditional”newsroom,whichnowfindsitselffightingforsurvival.Thishasaffectednotonlymediacompanies,butjournalismasaprofession. Thistransformation,thetypeofenvironmentunderconstruction,andtheeffectsthistransitionishavingonjournalisticmethodwerethemainfociofmyresearchasavisitingscholarattheColumbiaJournalismSchoolfromJanuarytoJune2016. Afteralmostthirtyyearsasanexecutive,mainlyatnewsrooms,andanenjoyablefive-yearstintasabookeditor,everydayinteractionwiththeacademicworldtaughtmesomeunforgettablelessons,chiefly:

--neverjumptoconclusions;--asoundhypothesisisoftenbetterthanaprematureconclusion;--hypothesesdropwarningsandmakeusstudymore.

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I’mrecallingthesepointsinordertounderscorethatthethesesandideassetforthherearehypotheses,albeitverystrongones,thatremindustostayalertandredoubleourattention. RoundingoutmyownreflectionsandstudiesinBrazil,theresearchIconductedoverthesix-monthperiodincludesabibliographicalreview,visitstonewsrooms(ofthe“traditional”and“new”varieties),andinterviewsanddiscussionswiththeacademicsandspecialistsIwasfortunateenoughtoworkalongsideduringmystay.ThisessayisathoroughaccountofeverythingIread,sawandheard.Ihopeitprovesasignificantcontributiontothedebateonthedirectionsjournalismistaking.Thedigitalmediahaveusheredinmarvelouscommunicationpossibilities,vastlyimprovingmanyaspectsofthesocialandpoliticalinteractionwithinandamongpeoples,societiesandnations.Theaimofthisworkistowarnoftherisksthistransitionposestoonemultidisciplinarypracticeinparticular—journalism. Arecurringprobleminthisdebateisthefailuretounderstandthatthepositivesandnegativesofthistransitionarenotmutuallyexclusive.Sometimes,theactofwarningormappingdangersistakenasanegationof,orresistanceto,theincontestableadvancesthesenewtechnologieshavebrought.Misgivingsarealsooftendisregardedasthenostalgiaof“traditional”editors,butthisdismissiveapproachcanonlydrainandimpoverishthemuch-neededdiscussiononthefutureofjournalismasamethodandpractice. Abigportionofthecurrentgenerationofeditingprofessionals—whohavehadthepleasureofworkingwiththetypewriterandtelexaswellasthesocialmediaandsmartphones—hasadutytoinfluenceandhelpconstructthefuture.Ihavenoappreciationfortheexpression“followthetrends.”Trendsaresomethingwecanhelpshapeandforge.Likethefuturetocome.NewYorkCity,Summerof2016.

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1.Fragmentation: the defining characteristic of the new news and information environment Weareexperiencingasea-changeintheinformationecosystemandinthewayspeopleandsocietiesstayinformedandbuildtheirstandpointsandworldview.WearelivingthroughanotherchapterinthefascinatinghistoryofthemediathatbeganwithGutenberg’sfirstprintingpress.Priortotheinventionofmovabletype,knowledgewastransmittedorallyorthroughmanuscripts.ButwithGutenberg’scontraption,knowledgeandinformationcouldbedistributedinlargescaleacrossvastdistances. Indifferentwaysandtovaryingdegrees,changeslikethosewitnessedtodayhavealwaysoccurredwhenmediatransitioned.Thehistoryofthemediaisataleofsuccessivecyclesofnewplatformsrisingtoprominenceandfallingbythewayside. Intheanalogicalworld,emergingpossibilitiescameeitherasnewtransmissionchannels(radio,telegraph,TV,cableTV)orassomenovelphysicalsupport(blackandwhiteprint,colorprint,high-qualityprint,vinylrecords,CDs,CD-ROM,DVD…).Eachnewmediumimpactedandthreatenedtheexistingplatformsandchannelsofcommunication. In1844,thefirsttelegraphlinewasinauguratedbetweenBaltimoreandWashington.1 The followingyear,toutingtheir“NewYorkandOffingMagneticTelegraphLine,”SamuelColtandWilliamRobinsonnoted,2

Itisevidentthatthesystemoftelegraphingnewsisdestinedtosupersede,inagreatdegree,thepublicationofcommercialnewspapersinthisandothernortherncities.WhoinNewOrleans,forinstance,wouldsubscribetoNewYorknewspapers,andwaiteightortendaysforthereceiptofcommercialnewsbroughtbyanAtlanticsteamer,whentheycanbeinpossessionofitinasmanyminutesbyourtelegraphiccorrespondence?

Telegramsweretheemailsoftheday,andColtandRobinsonsawthemforwhattheywere:breakingnews,aclearandpresentdangertothedailynewspaper!Inthe50s,theinventionoftelevisionwasthoughttohavesealedthedemiseofradio,expectedtodisappearinamatterofyears.3

Aseachnewchannelorplatformarose,ittookawhileforthenoveltytoconsolidateandachieveastandardandformatthatallowedthemarkettogetatruemeasureofitspossibilities,

1.Fragmentation

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especiallythecommercialpotentialthatcouldunderpinabusinessmodel—theprerequisiteforlong-termviability.Atthesametime,theexistingmediums(declareddoomed)triedtoadapttothenewcompetitor,eitherbyrepositioningthemselvesorbyeffectingstructuralchanges. FortheBritishhistorianPeterBurke,withwhomIspokeinMarch2016,wearenowseeingincreasinglyshortercycles,withchangestakingplacemuchmorefrequentlyandquickly.Hence,forBurke,itisstilldifficulttopredictjusthowfarthepresenttransformationwillgo.“Itwashardtogaugetheconsequencesoftheprintrevolutionbecausethechangehappenedsoslowly.Ontheotherhand,itwillbehardtoassesstheconsequencesofthedigitalrevolutionfortheexactoppositereason;becauseit’shappenedsofast,”4Burkesaid. Thechangewe’reseeingnowisofanothernature.By“today,”wemeanthedigitalcyclethatbeganwiththeadventofthecommercialinternetin1995,andwhich,asBurkeremindsus,subdividesintoshort,swiftinnovationcycles. Today,thetransformationisnotconfinedtophysicalsupportsordistributionplatforms,butpervadesthelogicbywhichcommunicationisestablished.Inpre-internettimes,theprevailinglogicwasthatofsupply(newspapers,radioandTV)meetingdemand(fromreaders,listenersandviewers).Thesuppliersundertooktopackagesomethingand“deliver”ittothecustomers,whosesolerolewasto“use”whatwasdelivered.Theclient’sfunctionwaspassiveandreceptive. Thedigitalrevolutionchangedallthatbygivingavoicetowhoeverwantedone.ThisputanendtotheprimacyofwhatIcall“stableplatformsofproductionandpublishing,”chiefamongthemthetraditionalnewsroom(let’scallitthat),wherethepracticeofprofessionaljournalismis(still)pursued.Thenewsroomisaplacewhereprofessionalshired,trainedandpaidforthatpurposegathertomine,screenandpublishnews,analysisandcommentary.It’sanestablishedenterprise.It’sdifferenttoday.Theplethoraoftwo-waydigitalchannels,empoweredbypermanentforumsofexchangeandinteraction(socialmedia),havegivenjustaboutanyonethepowertoedit,publishandopine.There’ssomuchmoreinformationavailable,andthat’sundeniablygood.Butthereareaspectstothisnewscenariothatneedtobeassessed,alongwiththeirpossibleimpacts:

1.Peopletodayareexposedtoaninformationalmishmashofprofessionally-producednews,orsnippetsthereof,lacedwithrumor,gossipandopiniondrawnfromvariousdifferentsources;2.Themechanismsbywhichsocialmediagroupsareformedtendtowardsaclusteringoflike-mindedindividuals.Thisnaturaltendencycanbecatalyzedbyalgorithmsthatmanagecontentdistributionbasedonuserpreferences;3.Theweakeningofstableproductionandpublishingplatforms(newsrooms)cancausegeneralinformationalimpoverishment,adegradationoftheinformationecosystem.“Traditional”newsroomsarestillamajorsourceofsupplyforthenewsenvironment,butiftheyareundermined,whattypeofcontentwillbereplicated,eveninsnippets,onthesocial

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networks?4.Thedecadenceofthesestableplatformsofproduction—theestablishedmedia,responsibleforthelogicofsupply—couldenfeeblethesettingofwhatsocialscientistscalla“commonpublicagenda”;5. Theconsolidationofsocialmediaasthemaindistributorsofnewssparksanew,andmoreurgentlythanever,theolddebateonalgorithmtransparency(orlackthereof).Arethesesophisticatedrecommendersystemsandtheiradministratorsthedefactonew“editors”and“publishers”?

Thisnewenvironmentinwhichthe“stableplatformsofproductionandpublishing”aredeteriorating,whiletheInternetenablesanyonewithaccesstopublish,editandrepublishinformation,suggestsasinglewordwhosemeaningisaspowerfulasitisample:fragmentation. Theconceptisrelativelynewandthereisstillalotofresearchtobedoneonit,asTewksburyandRittenbergwarnedin2012:“Thesingleterm‘fragmentation’hasbeenusedtorefertoaudiencebehavior,mediacontentandoutlets,audienceinterests,publicdiscussion,andpublicagendas.”5 FortheauthorsofNews on the internet: Information and Citizenship in the 21st Century,“fragmentationisthedissolutionovertimeofaudiencenewsexposure,publicaffairsknowledge,andpoliticalbeliefsintosmallerunitsinasociety.”5Usingtelevisionasananalogy,TewksburyandRittenbergdescribefragmentationas“aprocessbywhichthemassaudience,whichwasonceconcentratedonthreeorfournewsoptions,becomeswidelydistributed.Asaresult,theaveragechannelaudiencebecomessmaller.” Theyaddedthat“fragmentationcanoccurwhennewsoutletsspecialize.”5 Specializationisanothercharacteristicofthepresenttransformation—notnecessarilyanewone,butsignificativeandoccurringnowinanothercontext—andwewillreturntoitfurtheron.Theauthorsalertedtoanimportanteffectoffragmentationandthelossofrelevanceoftheso-called“dominantmedias”:“Inafragmentedsociety,thepublicagendaandmasspoliticalbehaviorareunpredictable.” Whenthelogicofsupplyanddemandstillprevailed,itwasasifsocietyasawhole(demand)hadonlyoneorafewsourcestolookto(supply).Theinternetingeneralandthesocialmediainparticularhavebrokenthatlogic,placingsupplyanddemandonthesamelevel,withdemand,theaudience,perhapswieldingthegreater“power.”Yettotalfragmentationcanseverelyabradetheconceptofa“publicagenda.” NotlongafterTewksburyandRittenberg,in2013,BoczkowskiandMitchelstein6alsobroachedtheconceptoffragmentation:“Althoughsomeauthorshaveproposedthattheuseofonlinesourcesofinformationdoesn’tdiminishtheinfluenceofthemediaonthepublic’sagenda,othershavehypothesizedthattheonlineenvironmentmayerodeeditorialinfluenceoverthepublic’sagendaasaresultofthemultiplicationsofnewsoutletsandtheresultingfragmentationsoftheaudience.”

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Theauthors6added:Theconceptualandpoliticalimportofadiminutioninthepowerofthemediatosettheagendaisparticularlycriticalduringperiodswhenthecitizenrycouldbenefitmostfrominformationaboutpublicaffairs–periodsmarkedbymajorpoliticaloreconomicevents,suchaselectionsorcrises.(…)Thelossofleadingnewsmediaassourcesofinformationfordebatewouldleadtotheoverallimpoverishmentofpublicdeliberationandthefragmentationofoursharedpublicspace,asnationalmainstreammediaarereplacedbysmallernicheoutletsasscenariosfordeliberation.

BoczkowskiandMitchelsteincitedtheGermanphilosopherandsociologistJurgenHabermas:“‘Theriseofmillionsoffragmentedchatroomsacrosstheworldtends(…)toleadtothefragmentationoflargebutpoliticallyfocusedmassaudiencesintoahugenumberofisolated-issuepublics,’”wroteHabermas.Andtheyarguedthat“‘withinestablishednationalpublicspheres,theonlinedebatesofwebusersonlypromotepoliticalcommunicationwhennewsgroupscrystalizearoundthefocalpointsofthequalitypress,forexample,nationalnewspapersandpoliticalmagazines.’” Thereinresidesanapparentlyconflictingaspect.Evenfragmented,thenewsecosystemisstillbeingsupplied—intheliteralsense—bytheso-called“traditionalpress,”whichproducesmaterialwhichthesocialmediathenchopupanddistribute—i.e.,fragmentize.

Inshort:--socialmedia,especiallyFacebook,havecometotheforeasthemainchannelsofdistributionandare,inthesenseweareadoptinghere,themainagentsoffragmentation;--“traditional”newsroomsarestilltheprimarysourcesoforiginal,qualitycontentfortheconduitsrepresentedbythesemediaandtheiralgorithms;--fragmentationunderminesthesenewsrooms.Forcedtocutcosts,theyweakentheirreportingpowerandsoalsotheirabilitytosupplythenewmedia;--theusermaynotnotice,butthereislikelyaconsiderabledropintheoverallqualityofthecontentbeingproduced.

Conductedin2009andupdatedin2015,astudybythePewResearchCenter,7 aWashingtonD.C.-basedfacttankthatspecializesinthetrendsandissuesaffectingUSpolitics,observed“asignificantdeclineinthereportingpowerofmainstreammedia.”TheinstitutefocuseditsreportontheWashingtonpresscorps,specificallythe“dailynewspaper,historicallythebackboneofAmericanjournalism,whoserobustWashingtonpresenceandaggressivereportinghasuncoveredscandalsthattoppledapresident,sentmembersofCongresstojailanddoesthedailyjobofcovering

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congressionaldelegationsandfederalagencies.”7

Thisstreamliningisnotexactlynew:“Fromthemid1980sto2008,thenumberofpaperswithbureausinWashington,accordingtoHudson’sWashingtonDirectories,hasfallenbymorethanhalf.”7

Ithas,however,acceleratedinrecentyears:“Inthelastdecade(1997–2009,withnumbersupdatedtoincludethe2009-2010session),thenumberofnewspaperreportersaccreditedtocoverCongressinparticularhasfallenby30%.”7

Atthesametime,theywrote,“thenumberofspecialtynewspapers,magazinesandnews-lettershasrisenbyhalfsincethemid-1980s.Newslettersaloneareupnearlytwothirds.Andfrom1997–2009,thenumberofstafffromtheseoutletsaccreditedtocoverCongress,acountofCongres-sionalDirectoriesshows,grewbynearly50%.”7

Wewillreturntothisexplosionofsmallernichevehicleslateron.

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ThePewResearchCenterhadalreadyrungthealarmbellsin2010,withastudy8

oftheinformationecosysteminBaltimore,Md.:

Thequestionsarebecomingincreasinglyurgent.Astheeconomicmodelthathassubsidizedprofessionaljournalismcollapses,thenumberofpeoplegatheringnewsintraditionaltelevision,printandradioorganizationsisshrinkingmarkedly.What,ifanything,istakingupthatslack?

Thestudyfoundthatthenewsenvironment,whateverthechannelofdistribution,remainsheavilyreliantontheoriginalcontentproducedbytraditionalnewsrooms.“Whilethenewslandscapehasrapidlyexpanded,mostofwhatthepubliclearnsisstilloverwhelminglydrivenbytraditionalme-dia—particularlynewspapers,”theauthorswrote.

Thestudy,whichexaminedalltheoutletsthatproducedlocalnewsinBaltimore,Md.,foroneweek,surveyedtheiroutputandthendidacloserexaminationofsixmajornarrativesduringtheweek,andfoundthatmuchofthe“news”peoplere-ceivedcontainednooriginalreporting.Fullyeightoutoftenstoriesstudiedsimplyrepeatedorrepackagedpreviouslypublishedinformation.Andofthestoriesthatdidcontainnewinformation,nearlyall,95%,camefromtraditionalmedia—mostofthemnewspapers.Thesestoriesthentendedtosetthenarrativeagendaformostothermediaoutlets.Thelocalpapers,however,arealsoofferinglessthantheyoncedid.Forallof2009,forinstance,theSunproduced32%fewerstoriesonanysubjectthanitdidin1999,and73%fewerstoriesthanin1991,whenthecompanystillpublishedaneveningandmorningpaperwithcompetingnews-rooms.8

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Inotherwords,ifthe“traditional”or“legacy”outletsarestillresponsibleformostofthecredibleoriginalcontentproduced,whatcouldcomeofthedeclineoftheseorganizationsandtheirabilitytogatherandpublishoriginal,reliablenews? In2014,Pewalsotrackedthedeclineofstatehousereporting.9

“Idothinkthere’sbeenalossingeneralacrossthecountry,andthat’sveryconcerningtome,”saidPatrickMarley,ofMilwaukee Journal Sentinel.“Ithinkyou’reseeingfewerstories,”saidGeneRose,thelongtimeformercommunicationsdirectorfortheNationalConferenceofStateLegislatures.“Thepublicisnotbeingkeptawareofimportantpolicydecisionsthatarebeingmadethatwillaffecttheirdailylives.” Schudson10wascategoricalonthis:

Insum,thelossestodemocracyarerealandimpossibletocalculate.Andtheymaybegreatest

(…)inlocalandstatenewsreporting,notinnationalandforeignreporting.Thenewsfunctions

thatrequirethegreatestinvestmentinthetimeandskillofjournalistsandtheresourcesoftheir

newsorganizations–investigation,analysis,andsocialempathy–arethepartsofjournalism

mostinjeopardy.Theyoftenrequirepersistenceandevencourage,notonlyonthepartofthe

reporterbutonthepartofthenewsorganizationthathirestheinvestigativejournalistsandthat

maybeaskedtostandbehindthem,eveninthecourtroomifnecessary.

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InBrazilin2016,Iconductedtwoquantitativestudiesthathadneverbeendonebefore.ThefirstofthesewasamongNationalPressAssociation“qualitypapers.”Editors-in-chiefandexecutiveeditorsrespondedtoadetailedquestionnairecomparingtheenvironmentinwhichnewsisproducedandeditedtodayversusthatoftenyearsago.Editorsfromsixtydailiestookpartinthesurvey,to-getherrepresenting80%ofthetotalcirculationoftheBrazilianqualitypress.Themainconclusionswere:

--morenewsroomshadreducedthenumberofjournalistsontheirstaff(83%oftherespon-dents)thanhadthenumberofprintedpagesperissue(78%);--Localandnationalpoliticswerethesectionsleastaffected;evenso,34%oftherespondentshadreducedthenumberofpagesdevotedtolocalpoliticsand43%thesizeofthebureausassignedtotheissue.Intermsofnationalpolitics,38%oftherespondentshadreducedtheamountofcoveragewhile33%hadcutthenumberofassignedstaff;--thisrelative“preservation”ofpoliticalcoveragewasmoreevidentintheSoutheastwheretheabove-mentionedpercentageswerelowest.ThiswouldappeartomakesenseinthelightofthepoliticalturmoilthathassweptBrazilsince2005,wheninvestigationsbeganonthecorrup-tionschemeknownasthe“Mensalão”(payoutstolegislatorsinreturnforcongressionalsup-port).--boththeproductionofcontentanduseofcontentproducedbythirdparties(newswires)sawsignificantreductions(between29%and53%ofnewsroomscutbackonin-housenewspro-duction,while47%to55%boughtlesscontentfromnewswireservices).Inanotherstudy,Itriedtocomparethedigitalactivityofprofessionalnewsroomswiththatofstategovernments.IneachBrazilianstate,thestudymonitored:--thenumberofpostsonachosensocialmediaoutlet(Facebook);--thenumberofinteractions(“likes,”“shares”and“comments”)perpost.Wecompareddataforachosennewsvehiclefromeachstateandthegovernmentsofthosesamestatesoverdifferentperiods:--immediatelybeforethewaveofstreetprotestsinJune2013;--theendof2013;--thebeginningof2016.

Between2013and2016,thoseselectednewspapersincreasedtheiraveragenumberofpostsperdayby6%.Thenumberofinteractionsperpostroseby354%duringthesameperiod. Stategovernorsincreasedtheiraveragenumberofpostsby91%,attractinga654%hikeininteractions. Itshouldbenotedthatthestategovernmentpostingsweregrowingbyafarlowervolume.Beforethe2013protests,17ofthe27stategovernorshadnoonlinepresencewhatsoever.By2016,

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allbut2ofthe27governorshadtakentosocialmedia.11

Thestudy11providesquantitativedataforadiscussiononthefuturequalityoftheinformationecosystemasawhole,andonthekindofinformationcitizensandsocietieswillbeabletoaccess. Thestudyrevealedadecreaseininformationprocessedbyprofessionalnewsroomsandanupsurgeinofficialgovernmentpropagandaandcontentpropagatedthroughgovernmentshills. InBrazilasabroad,thefragmentationofthe“traditionalmedia”anditscorrosionasthegate-keeperofthepublicagendaisafact—inmyview,analarmingfact. ClayShirky12seesthecurrenttransitionasaninversionoftheclassicalcriteriafornewspro-cessing:filterfirst,thenpublish.Today,it’s“publishfirst,filterlater.”

Themedialandscapeistransformed,becausepersonalcommunicationandpub-lishing,previouslyseparatefunctions,nowshadeintooneanother.Oneresultistobreaktheolderpatternofprofessionalfilteringofthegoodfromthemediocrebeforepublication;nowsuchfilteringisincreasinglysocial,andhappensafterthefact.

MartinBaron,editor-in-chiefofTheWashingtonPost,isalsoalerttothisfragmentation.“Aswecansee,newsroomsareshrinkingandcoveringfewerstories.”Forhim,there’sbeenasurgeinniche-specificsites“withanagendaoftheirown,apoliticalagenda.”13

“Inthisfragmentedscenario,peoplewill‘farm’fortheirpreconceptions,seekout‘facts’thataren’tfacts.Recently,itwasallovertheinternetthatPresidentBarackObamawasborninKenya.Peopletookthatasfact,”Baronsaid.Theinformationwasfalse.ObamawasactuallyborninHonolu-luintheU.S.stateofHawaii.

2.The effects of fragmentation: polarization

Discussingfragmentation,BoczkowskiandMitchelstein6drewattentiontoonefurtherimpact:“Theerosionoftheagenda-settinginfluenceofmainstreammediaorganizationscouldleadtothedisappearanceofbroadlysharednationalconcerns,thusdiminishingtheabilityofthepublictocometogetheroncommonissuesandmaximizingsocialpolarization.” Polarizationisahottopicatanytime,butespeciallyduringelectionseason.Dictionariesdefineitasthe“divisionintotwosharplycontrastinggroupsorsetsofopinionsorbeliefs.”14

Thereisstrongempiricalevidencetosuggestthatfragmentationfeedspolarization.Iwentinsearchofevidencetosupportthiscontentioninstudiesandreports.Thesuperficialityofthedebateonthesocialmediaisanothercatalyst.Peoplewantshortcuts(speedbeingakeytraitofthecurrentinformationalenvironment)torapid“likes”or“dislikes,”andthisfurtherimpoverishesthedebatebyeradicatingallsemblanceofnuance.

2.The

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Oneofthemostfrequentlymentionedexamplesofpolarizationistheherdmentalityofthe“peergroup.”However,thiscliquishonlinebehaviorisnottheonlycase.Theso-called“traditional”mediahavealsowadedintothefracas,exacerbatingthepolarization. PriorarguedthatthetraditionalmediareactstotheInternetandsocialmedia,fomentingpo-larization.Thetraditionalmedia’sreactiontosocialmediais,inasense,anattemptto“compete”withthesenewplatformsbyjumpingonallthesamebandwagons.

Socialmediaraisethepossibilitythattechnologyunobtrusivelyselectscontentsforusers.(…)RecommenderagentsandsearchenginessuchasGoogleNewsexerciseselectivityandmay“learn”andreinforcethetastesoftheuser.(…)Filteringbyhumans–e.g.recommendationsthroughsocialmedia—maybemoreeffectiveingeneratingdefactopartisanselectivitybecausepeople’spersonalnetworkstendtobemorehomogenousthantheirmediaenvironments.Yet,so-cialmedianetworksmaynothavethesamepropertiesandcompositionasofflineinterpersonalnetworks.15

Allegationsof“biasedinterference”inthefindingsoftheFacebookalgorithmscameoutinMay2016.InareportonthesiteGizmodo,formerFacebooknewscuratorsspokeofroutinelysuppressingconservative-intereststoriesfromthetrendingtopicslist.16TherevelationsgaverisetoaseriesofreportsintheThe New York Times,whichdevotedagreatdealofinteresttothestory.17

Mutz18said:Socialnetworkstudieshavelongsuggestedthatlikestalktolikes;inotherwords,peopletendtoselectivelyexposethemselvestopeoplewhowillnotchallengetheirviewoftheworld.Networksurveyafternetworksurveyhasshownthatpeo-pletalkmoretothosewhoarelikethemthantothosewhoarenot,andpoliticalagreementisnoexceptiontothisgeneralpattern.Moreover,manypeopledonothavemuchdesiretoengageinpoliticaldebatetobeginwith,eventheinfor-malvariety.Exposuretodiversepoliticalviewpointsmaybewidelyadvocatedintheory,butismuchlesspopularinactualpractice.Inthissense,theextenttowhichpeopleareexposedtooppositionalviewsdemonstratessomeofthesamepatternsasexposuretodiversityalongotherdimensions,suchasraceandclass.Whilediversityisamuch-laudedpublicgoalintheaggregate,fewindividualpeo-plelivetheireverydaylivessoastomaximizetheirexposuretodifference.

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Shapiro19madeananalyticalreadingofMutz’workandcreditedmuchofthe“withdrawal”from(real)politicalconflicttothetraditionalmedia,too,notjusttothesocialmediaphenomenonofpeergrouping.

In Hearing the Other Side,DianaMutzposesaconundrum:Themoreoneisexposedtopoliticaldisagreement,themorelikelyoneistowithdrawfrompolit-icalengagement.Thisbehaviormayresultinpartfromthepoliticalpolarizationofrecentdecades,butitmayalsobeduetothetraditionalmedia,whichtendtomagnifypoliticalcompetitionandportrayitasabitterconflict.TheriseoftheInternetandsocialmediaofferedhopethatpeoplemightmorereadilyencountertheargumentsoftheotherside.Recentresearchsuggests,however,thatpeoplethusfartendtoconsumepoliticalinformationonlinejustastheydooffline:selec-tively.

“TowardtheendofHearing the Other Side,Mutzrecognizesthattheexpansionofmassme-dia,especiallyonlinemedia,canprovideaheterogeneityofviewpointsthatmightoffsetthepublic’shesitancetoseekoutdivergentviewpoints.However,shesuspectsthatpeoplewillself-selectandgravitatetowardcongenialinformationsourcesandopinions.ArecentflurryofresearchsupportsMutz’sskepticism.”19 However,Shapirotakesamoreoptimisticviewoftheeffectsoffragmentationandthese“groupbehaviors”onsocialmediaandofferssomecounterweights.“Therearemoreinformationsitesandsources,witheaseofaccesseliminatingbarrierstoinformation.Evenifusersself-selectwhichsitestovisit,oravoidsiteswheretheywouldencounterthosewithwhomtheydisagree,theywillstillbelikelytocomeacrosssomeopposingviewpointsserendipitously.Thisisconsistentwithsociologicalanalyses:asocialnetworkasawholecanbecharacterizedbyheterogeneity,evenwhilepartsofitarehomogeneousandpolarized.”19 “ThereisalsoaccumulatingevidencethattheInternetandsocialmediaprovidemoreexpo-suretodifferingviewpointsthandotraditionalmedia.(…)ThisislikelyduetothetendencyamongpoliticaljunkiestobecomeInternetjunkies,too,andtoaccessawiderangeofnewssourcesandout-lets.Eventhoughonlyasmallportionofthepossiblenationalnewsaudienceisexposedtodiversenewsandopinions,thatportionmaybeincreasing.” ForShapiro,“whiletheinternetmakesiteasiertoavoidattitude-discrepantinformation,onlinenewsseekersengageinthisavoidanceonlytoalimitedextent.”19

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3. Effects of fragmentation: media literacy

Theconceptofmedialiteracyiscomprehensive,coveringeverythingfromthediscussiononhowindividualsunderstandandassimilatewhattheyreadandhearaboutcomplexsubjectstohowwegraspstereotypesandissuesrelatedtoviolence. Noin-depthstudyhassofarlookedintohowthefragmentationofthedigitalmediacanaffectourcapacitytointerpretfactsanddata,ordistinguishthemfrominformation,analysis,andopinion.Ispoketovariouseducatorsandspecialistsaboutthisspecificissue,andtheyallagreedthatitisathemethatneedsmorethoroughexploration. Yet,ithasattractedinterestfromtheStonyBrookUniversitySchoolofJournalism,apartofStateUniversitylocatedanhourandahalfnorthwestofNewYorkCity.Thisinterestwasnoaccident:StonyBrookishometotheCenterforNewsLiteracy,conceived,founded,anddirectedbyProfessorHowardSchneider. Beforetalkingabouthowtorecognizeinformationcredibilityandquality,Schneider20saidhelookstoteachhisstudentstorecognize“whatneighborhoodthey’rein.”

Theyhavetolearntoscouttheterrainfirst,byrunningsomechecks.Firstofall,youhavetolookforsignsoffact-checking.Hastheinformationbeenveri-fied?Second,isthereindependencefrompoliticalparties,companiesorideolo-gies?Third,canyouidentifythecredentialsandqualificationsofthepublisher—thesourceofthatinformation?Ifthesethreefactorscheckout,thenyou’reinthenewsneighborhood.

Onlythen,saidSchneider,willreaders,especiallyyoungreaders,beabletofindtheirwaythroughthe“abundantandconfusingenvironment”inwhichwelive.“Thereissomuchinformationthatlooksjournalistic,thatlooksverifiedandindependent,butit’sactuallynot.It’sfalsenews,”hewrote. This“journalisticappearance”hasthepowertoaggregatecredibilitytoagivenpieceofin-formationthatisnotnecessarilyjournalistic.It’sinsituationslikethesethatjournalismisusedasasupporttool,aformat. “Thebordersbetweenjournalismandotherinformationneighborhoodsarebecomingblurred,ill-defined,”hesaid.Byother“neighborhoods,”hemeansareaslikeentertainmentoradvertising.Whataboutthedifferencebetweenjournalismandopinion?“Thelatterisasub-divisionofthefor-mer,”saidSchneider.Havingverifiedthatyouareinthenewsneighborhood,asecondstepistodeterminewhetherit’sfactualorassertive.” But,Schneideralsoseeswarningsignsinthismix:“Theproblemisthatallofthesepieces,

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ofdifferentnatures,someinformativeandothersopinion-based,arepackagedasoneandthesamething:news.” Schneidersaidthathetrainshisstudentsontwofronts,asconsumersandpublishers.“Aseverybodytodayisareaderandapublisheratthesametime,weshowthemhowimportantitisthattheyapplythesameprinciplestheyweretrainedtoasinformationreaders/consumers.”19

4. Forces of consolidation

Canyoumanageajournalismcompanythesamewayyouwouldabakery?Thequestionsoundsoldandoutdated,andweallknowtheanswer,butit’sworthreturningtononetheless.Mostcompanies,andthisholdsforthebakery,too,canbeanalyzedthroughthesimplelensofgeneralmanagerialpractice.Youproducethebreadandpastries,controlthequalityandcosts,takestepstoboostsales,andtracktheresults. Weknowthatajournalismcompanyisdifferent,butthedifferencesgofartherthanwemightexpect.BoczkowskiandMitchelsteinadoptthebakeryanalogytoillustratethedilemmasthatcomewithapproachingjournalismasabusiness.Intheirillustration,theytellthestoryofaneighborhoodbakerythatdecideditwantedtodomorethanmakemoney:itwantedtocontributetoitscustomers’wellbeing.So,inadditiontopopularrefined-flourgoodsthatsoldwell,theyintroduceda40%quotaofwhole-wheatflourgoodsthatsoldless,butwerebetterfortheircustomers’health.Theproblemwasthat10%to20%ofthewhole-wheatflourstockwentunsoldeachday,representinglossesandwast-age,whiletherefined-flourstuffsoldout. Theownersofthebakerydecidedtopersistinthissocialhealth-promotingmissionbycontinu-ingwiththewhole-wheatfloursupplydespitethelowdemand.

However,thingshavechangedinthepastfewdecades.Theneighbor-hoodhascontinuedtogrowatanormalpace,butthebakerynowhasmuchmorecompetitionfromotherbakeries.Inaddition,conveniencestoresoffermostlythetop-sellingbreadsandmakeiteasierforcustomerstoavoidthehealthieroptions.Thishasdecreasedtherevenuesoftheneighborhoodbakeryandthreatenedtheviabilityofitsbusiness.Thepeoplecurrentlyinchargeofthebakerywouldliketokeepitssocialmissionalive.Shouldtheygoonmakingabout40percentoftheirgoodswithwhole-wheatflour,withtheexpectationthatthepreferencesofconsumersmaychange?Orshouldtheycuttheirlossesandgivecustomersmoreofwhattheywant,eventhoughthatmaynotbeconducivetotheirwell-being?6

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Inotherwords,shouldwegoforhealthyortasty?BoczkowskiandMitchelsteinusedthecom-parisontoanalyzethejournalisticdilemmaofmakingsupplymeetdemand,somethingthatwouldabsolutelybethenormalwaytopursueanylineofbusinessexcepttheprovisionofnews,analysis,andopinion.

Theexampleofthebakeryparallelsthepredicamentofthemediaorganizations.Theyprovidereaderswithmuchofthenewsthatcirculatesinthesociety,particu-larlythenewsthatisessentialforhealthyfunctioningofthebodypolitic.6

Doestheglutofchoiceaffordedbythedigitalenvironment—marvelouslypositiveinmanyways—leadtooverconsumptionof“superfluous”itemstotheexclusionoftheinformationthatisactu-allyindispensabletopubliclifeandcitizen-formation?Theauthors,whoconductedempiricalstudiesonvariousnewswebsites,foundthat:

Althoughthenewsorganizationsdisseminatenewsaboutpolitics,interna-tionalandeconomicmatters,thestoriesthatgarnerthemostattentionfromthepublictendtobeaboutsports,crime,entertainmentandweather.6

Obviously,thisisnottosaythatstayinginformedaboutsports,crime,entertainment,andtheweatherhasnorelevanceorvalueinitself.Toreturntothebakeryanalogy,there’snothingwrongwiththeoccasionalsugar-coateddoughnut.Theproblemiswhenpersonaldemandpreferencesdic-tateallintaketothedetrimentofcontactwiththewider—and,inthiscase,healthier—supply. Whatwehavehereisanimportantreflectiononhowtomanagethesupplyofjournalisticcon-tent.Iftheconveniencestoreshadnotopenedintheneighborhood,wouldourbakeryhavebeenabletokeepupits40%quotaofwhole-wheatflourbakedgoods,andsocontributetosomedegreetoitscustomers’health? There’smaybeaparadoxhere.Theappearanceofnewcompetitionisalwayspositivefortheclient/customerrelationship.That’saclear,basicpreceptofgeneralmanagement.Classically,in-creasedcompetitionleadstobetter,cheapersupply,whichbenefitsdemandwithawiderselectionofgoodsatawiderselectionofprices. Intermsofjournalismthe(mis)matchbetweensupplyanddemandacquiresgravertones:wheredoesaudiencevolumeandscopeleavequalityandspecialization?

A new type of competitor

Itisinterestingtonotethatwehavesofarbeenanalyzingamarketcontext—takingtheneigh-borhoodbakeryasacase—inwhichthecompetitorsharesourbaseconcepts,inotherwords,the

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competitorisofferingsimilargoodsthroughsimilarchannelsatsimilarprices.There’salevelplayingfield. But,whathappenswhenacompetitorturnsupwhoisoperatingfromanothersetofpremis-es?Thisleadsustoaddresstwocontemporaryphenomena.Thefirstisnewsaggregators(suchasGoogleNews,YahooNews,blogs),andtheotherissocialmedia,suchasFacebook.Bothofthesetools,eachwithitsowncharacteristics,arerobustdistributionchannelsforcontentproducedbythirdparties. Theaggregatorsrosetoprominenceinthe2000s,sparkingdebateaboutthelegitimacyoftheiroperations,seeingastheyharvestandpresentinformationcontent(arankingofnewslinkscompiledbyalgorithmsandsometimesaccompaniedbysomehumancuration)withoutremuneratingtheoriginalproducers(thepublishers,newsrooms,“legacy”media).Intheirdefense,theaggregatorsarguethatthepublishersbenefitfromthewebtraffictheyredirect. AtheyandMobiusanalyzedtheeffectaggregatorshaveonweb-users’newsconsumption,withspecialfocusontheFrenchandSpanishmarkets.Oneoftheirmainconclusionswasthatthemass-distributioneffecttheaggregatorshavedoesactuallyincreasetheusers’contactwiththenews.21(Inotherwords,goingbacktothebakery,thosewho’dneverhadcontactwithanybreadbefore,nowdid,sotheaggregatorsmanagetofeedmorepeoplethanthebakeriesdoontheirown).Basically,thismeansthatevenlittle-knownmediacompaniesstarttobecomemorewidelyvisitedbecauseoftheseaggregators. That’sthepositivesideidentifiedbythestudy:anincreaseinthemassdistributionofcontentproducedbymediacompanies.Aggregatorsareconsiderabledigitalnewsmultipliers.However,thesamestudyalsonotesthatthepowertheserankingswieldhasasappingeffectonmediacompanycuratorship.Theyconcludethat,inpractice,theaggregatorsendupbecomingcompetitorsofthecompanieswhoseoriginalcontenttheyextractanddistribute. Evenso,AtheyandMobius21highlighttheroleofnewspapers—frontpagesandhomepag-es—inthatcuratorship.

Inofflinenewspapers,editorsselectwhichnewsmakesittothefrontpageandhowprominentlyeachstoryisdisplayed.Inonlinenewspapers,theindexpagetakestheroleofthefrontpage.AggregatorslikeGoogleNewsbypassthepub-lisher’sindexpage–theyessentiallyreplacethepublisher’sfrontpagewiththeirownindexpage.

InBrazil,thecaseoftheANJ,thecountry’sNationalNewspapersAssociation,wasanalyzedatconferencestheworldover.“Brazil’smainnewspapersabandonedGoogleNewsaftertheworld’stopsearchenginerefusedtocompensatethemfortherightstotheirheadlines.Themassrushstart-edlastyearwhentheNationalAssociationofNewspapersinBrazil,orANJ,beganrecommendingitsmemberstooptoutoftheservice.ANJ’srecommendationwasfollowedbyallofthe154newspapers

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thatbelongtotheorganizationandaccountformorethan90percentofthecountry’snewspapercirculation.Googlearguesthecompanydoesn'tneedtopayfortherightstouseheadlinesbecauseGoogleNewsbenefitsnewspapersbyredirectinglargevolumesofusertraffictotheirwebsites,”22

wroteIsabelaFraga. AtalectureontheeconomicscourseatColumbiaUniversity’sSchoolofInternationalPublicAffairs(SIPA),AmericaneconomistSusanAthey,23theEconomicsofTechnologyProfessorattheStanfordGraduateSchoolofBusiness,outlinedthemainfindingsofherresearch.Sheunderscoredthefactthattheaggregatorsfishtheirnewsfromthelegacymediaanddistributeitmassivelyacrossawideareatoavastaudience. Theproblem—shesaid—isthatthisaudienceisnotwillingtopayfornewscontent.Massdistributionovercomesnewsscarcity,butalsoreducesitsfacevalue.Asabundancetendstowardtheinfinite,facevalueslumpstowardzero. MyconversationwithAtheymademereturntothebakeryanalogy,anditsdilemmaofsatingversusnourishing. Imagineafoodproductioncompanythat,forthesakeofcomparativesymmetry,we’llsayalsocontrolsproductdistribution,whichisthecaseofthetraditionalmedia.Pictureacompetitiveenviron-mentcomposedofvariousproducersanddistributorsthatselltheirfoodstuffsforprofit. Nowimagineanewcompanycomesalongthatspecializesinthefree,massdistributionofthefoodsitobtainsfromtheseproducers.Thenewcompany’sfleetoftruckssweepsbytheproducerseverymorningandgathersupapickofwhateachmakesanddistributessamplesofthosegoods(inaselectionfargreaterthananyoneproducerwouldbeabletoprovidealone)forfreeinthesameneighborhoodthosecompaniescaterto.Thedistributordoesn’tpayforthesesamples,arguingthatgivingpeopleatasteofthegoodsonofferdrumsupinterestandcustomforthosecompanies.Certainaspectsareimportanttounderlinehere:

--thedistributionofthese“samples”isnotlimitedtoaspecificpromotionalperiod,aswouldnormallybethecasewith“teasers”(whichareexactlywhattheaggregatorsclaimtobeoffer-ing);--thesamplesaredistributedfreeofcharge;

Overtime,mostuserscontentthemselveswiththesefreesnacks.Somemaygototheorigi-nalproducersinsearchoflargerportions,but,inthelongrun,thefreeprovisionofsamplesendsupreducingtheproducers’sales. Aslumpinsales—consideredtemporaryatfirst—bringstheproducers’profitsdownandthatreducestheircapacitytoinvestinproductqualityanddevelopment.Buttheproducersdon’twanttocutbackonsupply,becausetheytrulybelievethesefreesampleswillstarttobringinmorecustom-erstorevivetheirshrinkingprofitmargins.Thisisthebackboneofthemass-distributors’argument

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andit’sthepromisetheproducersarebankingoncomingtrue. Afterawhile,theproducersbegintolowertheirqualitybar.Themega-distributordoesn’tcom-plainbecausetheendconsumersaren’tcomplaining—afterall,theproduct’sfreeanddoesthetrick.However,whatweobserveisagradualdeclineinoverallproductquality,includingthatofpaidmer-chandise.Inotherwords,peoplearegettingtheirfill,butthenourishmentvalueisless.It’simportanttonotethat,ifthemega-distributorweretopayforthesamplesitgivesaway,thepro-ducerswouldbeinabetterpositiontoinvestinproductquality,andthiswouldresultinagenerallyhigher-calibercommercialenvironment. Weknowthattheeconomicchallengesfacingjournalismcompanies,especiallythosethatproduceprinteditions,pre-datetheInternetage.Decliningadvertisingrevenuesstretchbacktotheearly90s,beforethefirstbrowsersmadetheinternet,hithertorestrictedtoacademicenvironments,aglobalphenomenon.Nobodyissuggestingherethattheadventoffreemass-distributionplatforms—newsaggregatorsand,later,socialmedia—arethesoleculpritsinthedecreasedinvestmentcapacityoforiginalnewsproducers. Whatweareproposingisthatweanalyzethisspecificvariable:theglutoffreesupply,butnotonlyintermsofitseconomicimpactonlegacymediaoutlets,butonthecharacteristicsandqualityofthenewinformationecosystemit’sengendering.

Loss of scale and mergers

Letusfirstlookattheissueofdecliningprofitmarginsandthesubsequentdropininvestmentcapac-ity.Weknowthat,inanymarket,oneoftheimmediateconsequencesoflossofscale(whenprofitmarginsnolongercompensateforfixedcosts,suchasinstallationsandadministrationetc.)isconsol-idation. Whentwocompaniesfacinglossofscalemergetheygiverisetoanewcompanythatisgen-erallymorerobust.Theneworganizationsharesthesamefixedcosts,buthasalargerproductport-folio.Withmoreproductsonsale(thesumofthetwopriorcompanies)andproportionatelylowerfixedcosts,profitmarginsreboundandinvestmentcapacityisrestored.Onthedownside,mergersusuallyleadtolayoffs,especiallyintheadministrativeareas(finances,HR,maintenanceetc.). Journalismcompaniesfaceaspecificrangeofissuesthatarechallengingifnotrestrictivewhenitcomestoconsolidationstrategies.Tounderstandthesedifficulties,itisinterestingtoremem-berthatorganizationslargelyconsistofabackstageandafrontstage,thebackofficeareasandthosedirectlyengagedinplyingproductsandservicestotheendcustomer. Normally,mergersstartbackstage.Themergingcompanieswilleachhaveitsownfinancial,legalandadministrativedepartments,andthesefunctionsneedtobecombinedtogether,resultinginimmediategainsforthenewcompany.

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Thefirstresultisthatyouhavetwocompaniesbeingmanagedatthecostofone,oralittlemorethanone–orlessthantwo–,dependingonthespecificities,astheyarenowrunningoffthesamebackoffice. But,whathappensonthefrontline,wherethecompanyinterfaceswithitspublic,sellingitsproductsandservices?Frontstagemergerstakeplaceataslowerpace.Imagineachainofdoughnutandcoffeeshopsthatmergeswithaburgerchain.Gradually,thenewoutfitwillanalyzethesharedorsimilarfunctionsandtrimofftheexcessandoverlap—forexample,theproductionofdessertsandjuices,etc.Manyindustrialandstorageprocessescanalsobeunified. Consolidationfollowstheequation1+1<2.Whenitcomestocosts,thenewcompanyisneverthesumofitsparts.Gainsinconsolidationarealwayssignificantforthebusiness,whichrecovers(ormaximizes)itsprofitmarginsallowingittoresumeinvestmentininnovation,qualityandmarketshare.Mergersleadtolayoffsintheshorttermwithaviewtowardlong-termemploymentgrowththroughbusinessexpansionfueledbynewinvestment. Publicperceptionpost-consolidationtendsnottobeaffected,unlessthemergerresultsinanorganizationalculturethatiscompletelyunrecognizable.Thisaspectismostcriticalintheserviceindustry,wherecustomerserviceiskey.Inthesesectors,mergersmayaffectthecustomer’sserviceperceptionandsatisfaction.Inthecaseofcompaniesproducingtangiblemanufacturedgoodsendqualitymaynotbeaffectedatall,thoughthisdependsonthedecisionstakenbythenewmanage-ment. Mergersaremorelikelyinorganizationswithprofessionalboardsofdirectors.Whenfoundersortheirsuccessorsarestillincharge,theretendtobemoreimpedimentstomergersandacquisi-tions.Decisionstakeninfamily-runbusinessesarenotalwaysobjectiveorrational,whichcandisruptandevenderailpotentiallyhealthymergers.But,theM&Acultureisprogressinginmediaindustry.EvenincountrieslikeBrazil,wherefamilybusinesses(i.e.wherethefounderand/ormajorityshareholderisatthehelm)arestillprominent,pro-fessionalizationisincreasing. Thechallengesfacingmergersbetweenjournalismcompaniesgobeyondthefactthatmostofthesearestillfamilybusinesses.Asweshallsee,thefrontstage/backstagedichotomyismoresensi-tiveinjournalism,especiallyatthefrontline. Behindthescenes,mergerstendtoproceedsmoothly,eveninmediacompanies.However,asineverylineofbusiness,eventhesupportfunctionshavetoadapttosuitthecorebusinessobjec-tives;inotherwords,financesandadminneedtomorphaccordingtowhat’sgoingonfrontstage,butthistendsnottobesoproblematic,astheirfoundingconceptsarefairlyuniversal. Thingsaremuchmorecomplicatedonthejournalisticfrontstage.Howdoyoumergetwopubli-cationsthathavedifferenteditoriallinesandstyles?Ofcourse,certainnewsroomtaskscanbeamal-gamatedrelativelypainlessly.Round-the-clockbulletinservices?Videoproduction?Photography? But,Imustconsiderthattheaboveanalysisismostlybasedonthepast,ontheanalogical

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age.Theinformationindustry,boostedinrecentdecadesbydigitaltechnology,maybeacceleratingadifferentscenario,asdescribedbyNorthAmericanprofessorandresearcherTimWuinTheMasterSwitch.ForWu,mergersarenotonlypossibleintheinformationindustry,butinevitable.Wupresentsfactsanddatatoillustratetheinexorabilityofwhathecalls“theirrevocabilityoftheCycleofinforma-tionempires,theireternalreturntoconsolidatedorderhowevergreatthedisruptiveforcesofcreativedestruction.”24

Wuseescharacteristicsintheinformationindustrythatmakeitscompetitionprocessandprofitwarsunique,unlikeanythingseeninanyotherlineofbusiness.

Wenowfacesquarelythequestionthatthestorytoldheretoforeismeanttohelpusanswer.IstheInternetreallydifferent?Everyotherinventionofitskindhashaditsperiodofopenness,onlytobecomethebasisofyetanotherinformationempire.Whichismightier:theradicalismoftheInternetortheinevitabilityoftheCycle?Whileperhapsnotimmediatelyobvious,suchdeeperquestionsareinfactattheheartoftheongoingstruggleoverthefutureoftheInternet.Andtocomeattheseproblemsafreshinthetwenty-firstcenturyistobestruckbyanobviousreality:informationhasbecomeexceptionalasanindustrialcategoryeveninrelationtothatindustry’sownhistory.24

ForWu,themaindifferenceisthat“oneuniversalnetworkcarriesnotafewthings,butevery-thing:voice,video,news,culture,andcommerce.Itisthereforestrangethatasthestakesgethigher,theconventionalwisdomhasleanedtowardapurelyeconomic,asopposedtopolitical,approach.Nowispreciselythewrongtimetoassumethatthepublicandpoliticaldimensionsoftheinformationeconomyhavesomehowdisappeared.”24

Wumadeitclear:Overthelonghaul,competitionintheinformationindustrieshasbeentheex-ception,monopolytherule.Apartfrombriefperiodsofopennesscreatedbynewinventionsorantitrustbreakups,thestoryismostlyoneofdominantfirms.Thereisstrongreasontobelievethatthereisnothingnewunderthesun,thatthegreatuniversalnetworkisasdisposedtomonopolyasitspredecessors.

Oneimportantpointemergesoutofthedynamicsoflost-of-scaledrivingtomergersandacqui-sitions.Theclassicalanalysisisnotenoughanymoretoframethecurrentmarketsimpactedbydigita-lizationandfragmentation.Itisthesocalled“networkeffect,”mainlyaresultofthefallofgeographi-calbarriers,astrongcharacteristicofthedigitalage.

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AsWupointedout:

Moreimportantthanefficienciesandcostandfunctionality,thedefiningprincipleofnetworkeconomicsistheso-callednetworkeffect,ornetworkexternality.Itisthesimple,butpowerfulideathatunlikemostproducts,anetworkbecomesmorevaluableasmorepeopleuseit.NoonejoinsasocialnetworklikeFacebookwithoutotherusers.Andanetworkthateveryoneusesisworthfantasticallymorethanthesumvalueofonehundrednetworkswithasmanyuserscollectivelyastheonegreatnetwork.Growthofanetworkaddsmorevaluethanthemarginalsaleofaconventionalproduct.24

Whichmeans,inthissense,sizemattersalot,takingthegenerallandscapeoftheinformationindustry.Inmanysectors,consolidationisanaturaltendency.Yet,asWuseesit,intheinformationindustryinthewakeofthedigitalrevolution,ithasbecomeaninevitablefuture. InconversationwithWuinJune2016,25heagreedthatconsolidationandfragmentationhavewalkedhand-in-glove.“What’sinterestingisthatconsolidationendsupstimulatingfragmentation,”hesaid.Theemergenceofsomanynichepublications,whichcomplementtheinformationenvironment,willbelookedatinthenextsection.

5. Complementing the Information Environment: specialization under new models – non-profit journalism

“Journalismhasalwaysbeensubsidizedbysomeone,”you’lloftenhearveteranreporterssay,sometimesnostalgically.Asthedebatecontinuesonwhetherornotthenewsindustrywillfindasustainablemodelonitswayforward,therehasbeenamarkedriseinthenumberofnonprofitnewsorganizationsintheU.S.,generallysmaller-sizedoutletsspecializinginnichethemes.Thecountry’staxlegislationfavorsandevenencouragesthepracticeofphilanthropyanddonations,and“philan-throjournalism”hasbenefittedfromthat.

Thephenomenonisnotexactlynew,butithasgatheredmomentuminrecentdecades.Ofthe172nonprofitnewsoutletsmappedbytheProjectforExcellenceinJournalism,fromthePewRe-searchCenter,intheFallof2012,71%werefoundedafter200826—hardlyincidentallytheyearthefinancialcrisishitthemediahard,sendingalreadyslidingadvertisingrevenuesintofreefall.

Besidesphilanthropiccapital,thenewmodelalsoattractedseasonedprofessionalsfromthemajor“legacy”newsrooms,wholenttheirtalentsandprestigetothesenewvehicles.Themainchar-

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acteristicsmostnonprofitnewsoutletsshareare:

--seedgrantsfromoneortwomajordonorsinthebeginning,thoughamorediversifieddonorprofiledevelopsovertime;--thevastmajoritydealswithnichethemesortakesanindependentinvestigativeapproach;accordingtothePewResearchCenter’sfindings,in2012roughly57%ofthe172nonprofitnewsoutletswereinvestigativeandtargeted“public&foreignaffairs”orothersuchniches.

Perhapsbecausetheyaremorerecent,niche-specificnonprofitnewsorganizationstendtostandoutmore,andhavebecometheposterboysforthecategory.Formereditor-in-chiefofThe New York Times,BillKeller,headsThe Marshall Project.Theoutlet’shomepagedeclaresitsmissioninthefollowingterms:“Thebestcriminaljusticenewsfromaroundtheweb,delivereddaily.”27

HiredinMarch2014,KellerlaunchedthesiteinNovemberthatsameyear.ByApril2016,hehadastaffof25journalistspackedintohalfafloorinanofficebuildinginmidtownManhattan.Billopenedthedoortomehimselfandbroughtmeaglassofwater. Kellerbelievesthatsometraditionalnewsrooms,suchasThe New York Times,willsurvivethepresentsea-change,“buttheywillpossiblyneedtodependonbiginvestors,orevenbenefactors,”hesaid,28citingasexamplesthebillionaireAmazonfounderJeffBezos,whoboughtThe Washington Postin2013,andMichaelBloomberg,founderofthenewsnetworkthatbareshisname. HesaidthatThe Marshall Projectvaluesitsneutralityanddealsonlyinfacts.Theoutfithasnocolumnists,thoughtheydorunopinionpiecesbycontributors. Thesiteisanewspaperwithasingle,hyper-specializededitorialline.Itpublishesthreetofourreportsaweek,buteveryoneontheteampursuesamajorprojectontheside.Inall,theyrun12to15long-formreportsperyear,saidKeller.

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Aswewillseefurtheron,thesenicheoutletsstrivetomaximizetheirimpactthroughpartner-ships,especiallythosethatcangarnerwideraudiences. By“partnership,”read“co-reporting,”whichcanoccurinmanyways.Sometimes,theysimplysupplythefinishedproductforthepartnerpapertorun,butonotheroccasions,theyactuallypooltheirresourcesanddecidetheagendaconjointly.The Marshall Project hasworkedthiswaywithThe Washington Post,The New YorkerandthesitesVice and 538,forexample. Kellerisemphatic:hethinksthattosurvivethefuture(whichmaybeherealready),journalismwillneedtorelyongoodwill,whetherfromlargefoundationsorsomesortofcrowdfunding.28

Independence

DuringaclassattheColumbiaJournalismSchoolinMarch2016,aquestionarose:whichismore“dangerous,”abigadvertiserorabigdonor(foundationsorindividualbenefactors)?Howjournalisti-callyindependentcananoutletbewhenitsfinancialhealthdependsonjustacoupleofdonors? PedroAbramovay,directorofOpenSocietyFoundations(OSF)forLatinAmerica,said,“wehavetobeverycarefultoensurethatphilanthropycomesinguaranteeingviability,butwithoutaf-fectingindependence.”29TheOSFwasfoundedbytheinvestorGeorgeSoroswiththemissionofworking“tobuildvibrantandtolerantsocietieswhosegovernmentsareaccountableandopentotheparticipationofallpeople.”30Theorganizationhasasuiteofinvestmentsinnewjournalisticinitiatives. AnotheremblematiccaseisthesiteInside Climate News(ICN),whichspecializesintheen-vironment.Havingstartedin2007asasimpleblog,itnowhasastaffof14journalistscrammedintosomeofficespaceinBrooklyn,overlookingtheHudsonBayandtheStatueofLiberty. In2013,ICNwonthePulitzer,journalism’shighestaccolade.ThereportersElizabethMc-Gowan,LisaSong,andDavidHasemyer“tooktophonorsinthecategoryfortheirworkon‘TheDilbitDisaster:InsidetheBiggestOilSpillYou'veNeverHeardOf,’aprojectthatbeganwithaseven-monthinvestigationintothemillion-gallonspillofCanadiantarsandsoilintotheKalamazooRiverin2010.Itbroadenedintoanexaminationofnationalpipelinesafetyissues,andhowunpreparedthenationisfortheimpendingfloodofimportsofamorecorrosiveandmoredangerousformofoil,”31saidICN. Other“native”digitalinitiativeshavetakenthePulitzerbefore,suchasProPublica(seebelow)and The Huffington Post—acommercialfor-profitenterprisenowcontrolledbyTimeWarner/AOL. DavidSassoonhadenjoyedasuccessfulcareerasaphotographeranddocumentarianbeforeco-foundingICNwithStaceyFeldman.Thefirst“donor”wastheRockefellerFoundation,whichbank-rolledtheventure100%.Today,Sassoonsaid32Rockefellerdonationsaccountfornomorethan15%oftheoutlet’sfunding.Therestcomesfromagrowingnumberofphilanthropists.Unlikemanynewsvehicles,ICNishiring.Theplanistoclose2016withastaffof25—thoughwithoutanychangeofaddress.

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“InsideClimate Newsisanindependent,nonprofit,nonpartisannewsorganizationthatcoverscleanenergy,carbonenergy,nuclearenergyandenvironmentalscience—plustheterritoryinbe-tweenwherelaw,policyandpublicopinionareshaped.Wearestaffedbyprofessionaljournalists,manyofwhombringdecadesofexperiencefromleadingmediaorganizationsinthenation,includingthe Wall Street Journal,The New York Times,ProPublica, Los Angeles Times,Bloomberg News and Frontline,”33thewebsitedeclares.“Ourmissionistoproduceclear,objectivestoriesthatgivethepublicanddecision-makerstheinformationtheyneedtonavigatetheheatandemotionofclimateandenergydebates.” Sassoondoesnotseetheoperationasacrusaderwithanagenda,assomeanalystsandevenfellowjournalistshaveclaimed.Hefeelsthey“fillagap,dealingwithissueswhichbigmediatendstooverlook.”32“Ourideaistobeanexampleofgoodjournalismandinfluencedialogue.We’renotdoingadvocacy,we’redoinggoodjournalism,withaccountability,”hesaid. Sassoonbelievesthat“nonprofitjournalismisthemostindependentjournalismthereistoday.”“Freedfromtheneedtobringinfinancialreturns,andstrivingonlyforsocialimpact,wecanworkfarclosertoourjournalisticmission.”32Healsoguaranteesthatthedonorsarenotinvolvedineditorialdiscussions. Thereisnoconsensusonthesubject.Professor,researcherandformereditor-in-chiefoftheColumbia Journalism Review,MichaelMassingseesthingsratherdifferently.InJanuary2016,hewrote in the The New York Review of Books:34

Overthelastfifteenyears,thenumberoffoundationswithabilliondollarsormoreinassetshasdoubled,tomorethaneighty.Asignificantportionofthatmoneygoestosuchtraditionalcausesasuniversities,museums,hospitals,andlocalcharities.Needlesstosay,suchmunificencedoesmuchgood.Thephilan-thropicsectorintheUnitedStatesisfarmoredynamicthanitisin,say,Europe,dueinparttothetaxdeductionsallowedunderUSlawforcharitablegiving.UnlikeinEurope,whereculturalinstitutionsdependlargelyonstatesupport,heretheyrelymainlyonprivatedonors.(…)Whendonorsapproachanonprof-it,“they’remorelikelytosaynot‘HowcanIhelpyou?’but‘Here’smyagenda,’”NicholasLemann,theformerdeanoftheColumbiaSchoolofJournalism,toldme.

Somerepresentativesofthephilanthropicsectorarequiteopenonthis.InOctober2013,thePewResearchCenterheldaroundtablediscussiononthenonprofitjournalismbusinessmodel.Ontheoccasion,DanielGreen,deputydirectorofstrategicpartnershipsfortheBill&MelindaGatesFoundation,tookpartinthedebate. AccordingtothePewCenterreport35“somemembersofthephilanthropiccommunitynoted

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thatfundersaremorelikelytoopentheirwalletsundercertaincircumstances.TheGatesFoundation,saidGreen,ismorelikelytoprovidelong-termsupportifthegranteeisengaginganaudiencearoundaspecificissuethatthefoundationconsidersatoppriority.” However,assaidbefore,nonprofitjournalismisnotallspecialization.Foundedin2009,Pro-Publicaisprobablythebestknownofthegeneralists.Its“specialty”isinvestigativejournalism. Editor-in-chiefStephenEngelberg,formerlyofThe New York Times,whereheworkedfor18years,isaveterannewsroomcommander.Ofthe45journalistsonhisstaff,24areexperiencedfulltimers.Theteamhasfoureditors,eightdatareporters,threevisualartsreporters,andthreesocialmediaspecialists.

Thesite’sstartingcapitalcamefromadonationfromHerbertSandler,anAmericanmillionairewhosetupafoundationaftersellinghisGoldenWestFinancialCorporation,aninvestmentfundhe’dbeenrunningsince1963.Today,Engelbergsaid36thatSandler’sfoundationaccountsfor20%ofthesite’stotalbudget.Another30%comesfromprivatedonations,andafurther20%fromrevenuesthesitegeneratesthrougheventsandothersourcesofincome.In2011,thesitestartedacceptinghand-pickedadvertisersandsponsors. Theirdeclaredmission:37“Toexposeabusesofpowerandbetrayalsofthepublictrustbygovernment,business,andotherinstitutions,usingthemoralforceofinvestigativejournalismtospurreformthroughthesustainedspotlightingofwrongdoing.” ThemoststrikingdifferencefromEngelberg’spreviousroutineasanewsroomeditorisnotwakingupwiththeday’sbreakingnews.Thefocushereisonwhatareusuallycalled“specials”or“stories,”andtheyrunsome600oftheseayear. Engelbergbelievesfragmentationisreallyunderway.“Themajorstructuresaredownsizingandhavelessclout.Therealpowerlieswiththecitizens.Butthat’snotenough.” ProPublicaalsodoespartnerships,forexamplewiththe The New York Times,The Washington Post and National Public Radio(NPR).Whateverittakesto“boostimpact,”thesector’smostimport-antmetric. Metrics

SchiffrinandZuckerman38exploredtheissue.

Allaroundtheworld,mediaoutletsarelearningthatsomefundersareuncomfortablewithsupportingjournalismmerelyasa‘publicgood.’Theywanttoseeproofofimpact.(…)Despitetheseconcernsandcaveats,severalorganiza-tionsaretakingstepstodevelopusablestandardsformeasuringmediaeffects.AmongthosegroupsaretheGatesFoundation,theJohnS.andJamesL.Knight

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Foundation,theNiemanJournalismLabatHarvardUniversity,theNormanLearCenterattheUniversityofSouthernCaliforniaAnnenbergSchoolforCommuni-cationandJournalism,thePewResearchCenter,andtheTowCenterforDigitalJournalismattheColumbiaUniversityGraduateSchoolofJournalism.

Analyzingthecriteriathatthevariousnonprofitoutletshaveadoptedasperformanceindica-tors,SchiffrinandZuckerman38distinguishbetween“REACH(howmanypeopleengagewithagivenbodyofmediacontent),INFLUENCE(howthatcontentaffectspublicdialogue)andIMPACT(howthecontenthelpsdrivepolicychangeormovementbuilding).” TheyciteacommentbyRobertL.Bartley,whowaseditoroftheWallStreetJournalopinionpageformanyyears,whooncesaid,“Ittakes75editorialstopassalaw.”

However,impactmetricsmustbeappliedwithcare.Theywrote:38

Mediaorganizations,meanwhile,mustwatchoutforthreatstonewsroomindependence.Theincreasingfocusonmeasurableimpactmaybecomeanexcusetodecidethatonlysomekindsofcoverageareworthsupporting.Ifnewsroomslimittheirreportingtostoriesthatcanhaveimmediateeffectsorquantifiableresults,theymightbeunwillingtocoverlarge,persistent—yetvitallyimportant—socialproblems.Ultimately,theimpactthatjournalistscanhaveonsocietywillerodeiftheymustservethewhimsoffunders.Thatistruewhetherthefundersinquestionaregovernmentofficials,advertisers,corporateowners,orwell-intentionedphilanthropists.

Ifweconsiderthattherecent,significant“explosion”innonprofitjournalismonlystartedin2008,lessthantenyearsago,wehaveeveryreasontodebatehowlastingtheseundertakingswillbe,especiallyastheyhavelargelyarisenascomplementstotheexistinginformationenvironment. In2013,thePewResearchCenter39analyzedthisandconcludedthat:“ThestudyfindsthatallbutninestatesintheU.S.haveatleastonenonprofitnewsoutlet.Mostarenottryingtoreplicatealltheeditorialfunctionsofmainstreammedia,butinsteadworkinspecializedjournalismniches.” Theinstitutecontacted172nonprofitsitesand93(54%)oftheserespondedtoitsquestion-naire.39

Theauthorsconcluded:

Whilemanynonprofitsinitiallyrelyonbiggrants,thatfundingsourcemaynotprovidelong-termsustainability.Nearlytwothirdsofthesurveyrespondents

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(61%)beganwithastartupthataccountedforatleastonethirdoftheiroriginalfunding,andamajorityofthosegrantswereforUSD100,000ormore.Butatthetimeofthisreport,only28%ofthoseorganizationsreportedthatthefunderhadagreedtorenewthatgranttoanydegree.(...)Nonprofitoutletsaretakingstepstowarddiversifyingrevenuestreams,butevenmanyofthosewithmultiplestreamsstillrelyheavilyononemainsourceforthebulkoftheirfunds(...)Opti-mismistheprevalentfeelingamongthoseworkingatnonprofitnewsorganiza-tions.Fourtimesasmanyoutletspredictedtheywillhirenewstaffinthecomingyear(40%)thansaidtheywillreducestaff(10%).39

Thefactisthemodelisundoubtedlyoneoftherarepiecesofgoodnewstoemergefromthenewssectorinrecenttimes.SomuchsothattheFrencheconomistJuliaCagédevotedawholebook40todefendingtheadoptionofaspecificmediamodelwhichshecallsNMO.

TheNewModelIpropose,whichIcalltheNonprofitMediaOrganization,(NMO)isahybridmodel,inspiredinpartbythemodelofthegreatuniversities,whichcombinecommercialandnoncommercialactivities.Onegoalistosecurepermanentfinancingforthemediabyfreeingtheircapital.Asecondgoalistolimitthedecisionmakingpowerofoutsideshareholderswithconstrainingbylaws.

However,notallofthesenewnicheoutletsarenonprofitorganizations.Thebest-knownfor-profitexampleisperhapsPolitico.Foundedin2008byRobertAllbritton,whohailsfromafamilyofregionalTVnetworkowners,thesitedeclaresitsmissionasfollows:“WecreatedPoliticowithasim-plepromise:toprovethere'sarobustandprofitablefuturefortough,fairandfuncoverageofpoliticsandgovernment.Todothis,weclingtoasimpleprinciple:alwayshirethemosttalentededitors,re-portersandnewsroomstaffandthensetthemlooseonmanyplatformsformodernmediaconsump-tion:print,online,mobile,videoandevents.41

Thesitehasastaffof200journalistsatitsheadquartersinWashingtonD.C.,afurther40inEurope(aspartofa50/50partnershipwiththeGermanAxelSpringergroup),20inNewYorkand10correspondentspostedacrossthecountry.42

Thefocusispoliticsandpower,which,fortheNorthAmericanedition,meansCapitolHill.Po-liticorunsadailynewspaperTuesdaythroughFridaywithaprintrunofaround15,000copies,plusabimonthlyprintmagazine. Anothersingle-focusoutlet,Politicohasalreadygrowntoaconsiderablesize.Inearly2016itmovedintothepremisesthatpreviouslyhousedUSATodayontheothersideofthePotomac,inthefederalcapital.

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6. The risks of fragmentation: is journalistic culture advancing or retrogressing? Will a new standard be set?

Canthesenewnewsventures,whetherfor-profitornonprofit,compensateforthedeclineintraditionalnewsrooms?PeterMicek,lawyerandlecturerininternetpolicyandgovernanceattheSchoolofInternationalPublicAffairs(SIPA)atColumbiaUniversity,doesn’tthinkitissoguaranteed.“Bloggingplatformscan’ttakeupalltheslackleftbyjournalism,buttheycancomplementthenewsenvironment,”43Miceksaid. Micekisparticularlyconcernedabouthowcost-cuttingisaffectingeditorialstandards.“Iffrag-mentationistotal,thesocialmediawilldominatedistribution,”hesaid.“Theproblemis,onthesocialmedia,everyonetalks,butno-onelistens.” As“legacy”newsroomsadapttothedigitalworldand“native”digitaloutletscomeonline,newsroompractices(practicesof“contentproduction”)arebeingtransformed.Whatdangersdoesthisposetojournalismasamethod? BuzzFeed isoneofthemosteye-catchingand—forthetimebeing,atleast—successfulcham-pionsofthe“newpractices”behindinformationsupplytoday.Thesitedoesnotrun“normal”ads,suchasbannersanddisplays,butratherpiecesthatlooklikeedited,fact-checkedcopy. Oneofthemostcontroversial“new”advertisingformatsis“nativeadvertising,”whichisbasi-callyapaidaddressedupas“journalisticcontent”andembeddedbytheadvertiserwiththepurposeofpromotinggoods,servicesorevenaconcept.Thepracticeexistsinthe“legacy”mediaas“brand-edcontent,”butinthesecasesitisusuallydistinguishedfromthenewsplatformbygraphicstyleorlabeling.InThe New York Times,thesepiecesarepackagedunderthe“NYTBrandStudio”seal,andthegraphicstyleisdifferentfromthatusedfornewsinprintoronthesite.InthecaseofBuzzFeed,theonlyindicationthatthein-feedcontentisembeddedadvertisingisthetag“promotedbycompanyX”andthebyline“brandpublisher.” CairaConner,newmarketsdirector,receivedmeoneFebruarymorningin2016atBuzzFeed’snewpremisesinManhattan.Connersaid44thatthenativeadsandnewsteamsworkseparately.Shetoldmeaboutsometypicalnewsroomritualsthathavebeenpreserved,suchasmorningbriefingsandinsistenceonthoroughcopyediting—whichisbasicallyqualitycontrolpriortopublication. AsofFebruary2016,thecompanyhadastaffof600inNewYorkalone,ofwhich300werejournalists,includinganinvestigativejournalismteam.Yes,BuzzFeeddoesinvestigativejournalismtoo.“Theyhiredajournalistexclusivelytocoverthecriminaljusticesystem,”28saidBillKeller,fromThe Marshall Project,forwhomBuzzFeedcouldbeapotentialcompetitorintheniche. Midwaythrough2016,theBuzzFeedsitestartedrunningahardnewssub-areacalled“Buzz-FeedNews”andcreatedaspecificappforthiscontent,BuzzFeedNews,which,uptoJune2016,wasavailableinonlyalimitednumberofcountries.Alsoin2016,thecompany’semailsstartedcarrying

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thesignature“BuzzFeed:thesocialnewsandentertainmentcompany.” InFebruaryofthisyear,BuzzFeedhad1,200employeesworldwideamongitsteamsinLosAngeles,SanFranciscoandWashingtonD.C.,intheU.S.,anditsinternationalofficesinAustralia,Brazil,Canada,France,Germany,India,Japan(inpartnershipwithYahoo),Mexico,Spain,andtheUK. But,whydidBuzzFeedstartflagginganewschannelonitsownwebsiteandadoptasignatureonitscorporateemailsthatseemedtowantto“explain”itshybridactivitiesacrosstheareasofnewsandentertainment? ForananswerwemightlooktoMichaelMassing’stourof“newnewsrooms”andtheresultingessayseriespublishedbyThe New York Review of Books.Massingseesintheseinitiativesatendencytoveerbacktowards“classical”formulasovertime,sothattheoutletscangarnermorerecognitionandprestige,and,asaconsequence,greaterrepercus-sion—whichishardcurrencyinthenewsindustry. “Thesesites,whichallseemtoblendintooneanother,rarelybreaknewsorcauseacommo-tion,”hewrote,45referringtoThe Huffington Post,Slate,Salon and The Daily Beast,allpurelydigitalventures.“Inmytourofdigitalsites,Ididfindonepioneerthathasevolved:Politico.Inthelastfewyears,however,PoliticohasbecomemoreandmorelikethePost—inagoodway.”

On BuzzFeed,hewrote:“Onewayoranother,BuzzFeedneedstobecomebolderandbrash-er.Otherwise,itwillremainknownmainlyforitscatphotos.”46

Helatersaid:46

Whenitcomestoimpact,traditionalnewsorganizationsretainanoverwhelmingedge.It’shardtothinkofWeb-basedstoriesthathaveproducedasbigabangasJaneMayer’sreportontheKochbrothersinThe New Yorker,DanaPriest’sexposésonWalterReedHospitalandCIArenditionsitesinThe Washington Post,AlanSchwarz’sstoriesaboutfootballconcussionsinThe New York Times,The Guardian’sbaringoftheBritishphone-hackingscandal,andPeterBeinart’sanalysisinthispublicationofthefailureoftheAmericanJewishestablishment.EventherevelationsofWikiLeaksandSnowden,whileinvolvingleaksofdigitalinformation,weredeliveredtothepublicviaprint-basedoutlets.

ForMassing46,giventheresourcesandattentionlavishedonthesenewplayers,theyshouldbynowhavecontributedmorerealvaluetotheinformationenvironmentthantheyhave:

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WhenoneconsiderstheamountofresourcesthatthesitesI’vementionedhaveconsumed,thelevelofattentionthey’vereceived,andthenumberofpeopletheyemploy,theresultsthusfarseemdishearteninglymodest.That’sespeciallysowhencomparedwiththeconsistentlyhigh-qualitymaterialproducedbysuchtraditionalinstitutionsasThe New York Times,the Washington Post,andThe Guardian.Theseorganizationsarecommonlyreferredtoas“legacy”institutions.(…)Whenitcomestoactualjournalisticpractice,however,it’sthemediastartupsthatingeneralseemthelaggards.

InhisrecentThe Watchdog that Didn’t Bark: the Financial Crisis and the Disappearance of Investigative Reporting,DeanStarkman47wentevenfurther.

Itshouldbesaidthatallofthenewentrantsputtogetherdonotoffsetthelossesofmajormetropolitannewspapers,liketheWashington Post and the Los Angeles Times,whichtogetherhavelostnearly1,000journalistsandhaveseverelycutbackonbusinesscoverage.Itisthedifferencebetweenjournalismonanartisanalscaleandanindustrialone.(...)Butevengrantingthevalueofnewentrantsandthepromiseofjournalism’sdigitalfuture,ifaccount-abilityreportingistobethepublic’slodestarthroughthecurrentjournalismstorm,andIbelieveitshouldbe,itfacesthreatsfromtwopowerfulforcesnowdominat-ingthenewecosystem.Oneisold:corporatism,withitslongstandinghostilitytothedifficulties,risks,andsubversivenatureofaccountabilityreporting.Theotheris‘new’;let’scallit‘digitism,’whichseekstodispensewithtraditionaljournalismformsmainlybecausedigitalmodelscannotaccommodatethem.Whiletheycomefromdifferentintellectualtraditions,theyhavemeshedtogetherwithanuncannyexactnesstounderminewhatismostvaluableinthenews.

Starkman47goesontocommentonwhathe’sbeencalling,since2010,the“futureofnewsconsensus.”

Underthisconsensus,newsisseenasanabundantandnearlyvaluelesscommodity.Newsorganizationswouldbecomelessproducersofnewsthanplatformsofcommunityengagement,andjournalistswouldactascuratorsandmoderatorsasmuchastheywouldreporters.Digitalnews,asoriginallyconceived,wasmeanttobefree–thebettertointeractwithreadersinaglobal‘conversation.’

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ThequestionisformulatedwithprecisionbythePewResearchCenterreportmentionedabove.Theproductionoforiginalinformationisstillconcentratedamongthe“traditional”newsrooms,andthesearealldwindlingfast.“Thisisonlytosaythatwhatappearstobeanincreasinglylivelyandabundantnewsenvironmentactuallyrestson—andmasks—ashrinkingfact-gatheringinfrastructure.Anditisonthetraditionalmedia,ultimately,thatthevastmajorityofpeoplerely.”7

Ifwewantaccountability,wemustpreservetheinstitutionalsideofjournalism.Starkmanadds47:“Institutions—flawedastheyare—haveprovenoveracenturytobethebest,mostpotentve-hiclesforaccountabilityreporting.Theydeliverthesupport,expertise,infrastructure,symboliccapital,and,still,massaudiencethatmakesforjournalismatitsmostpowerful.”

7. The role of journalism schools in the new information environment

Journalismisnotexactlyascience,butitisamethodderivedfromtheconfluenceofvariousdisciplines,anamalgamofconceptsdrawnfromotherfieldsofknowledge—history,thesocialscienc-es,psychology,knowledgetheoryand,morerecently,evencomputerscienceandstatistics—,andallofthatisroundedoutwithitsownsetofspecifictechniques,forinterviewing,text-construction,audioandvideoediting. Thereisoneveryparticularcharacteristicthatispropertothisprofession:continuedtrainingandlearning.Thisoccursinothersectors,too,andit’scommonlyknownas“on-the-jobtraining,”butinjournalism,mentorshipofyoungreportersbyseasonededitorsisastapleofthoselongdaysandnightsspenttoilingawayinthenewsroom.There’sasenseofritualandliturgyinthewaythejournal-isticmethodiscarriedthrough,fromagenda-settingandfact-checking,throughsourcescreeningandverification,downtothefinalcriteriaoftextandimageediting. Inthetransitiontothisnew,fragmentedinformationenvironment,inwhichthebordersbe-tweenjournalismandnon-journalism(advertising,advocacy,etc.)arebecomingincreasinglyblurred,theroleofsuperiorschoolsandresearchcentersismoreessentialthaneverifwearetopreservethefundamentalsoftheprofession—or“culture,”asthebusinessanalystsliketosay. Folkerts,HamiltonandLemann48seethisdigitaltransformationasanopportunityforschools:“It’sexcitingtothinkthatjournalismschoolshaveanopportunity,iftheycantakeadvantageofit,toturnthemselves,andthereforetheirgraduates,intomastersofthenewworldofdigitaljournalism.(…)Thatjournalismisgoingthroughprofoundchangesdoesnotvitiate—infact,itenhances—theimportanceofjournalismschools.” Fortheauthors,thefactthatjournalismisa“borrowingdiscipline,usingthetheoriesandmeth-odsofothers,”innowayweakensitsstructuralstandingintheacademicenvironment.

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Ratherthanfightingthis,journalismeducatorsshouldembraceitasastrengthandbroadeninterdisciplinarystudystillfurther.Journalismteachingandresearchcanbenefitfromincorporatingindustrialpsychology,computerprogramming,economics,psychology,management,andotherdisciplinesthathavethetoolstounderstandthefunctioningofnewsmediaandmakethemmoreeffective.48

Thenewdemandsintroducedbythedigitalmediahavetakenupsignificanttimeandenergyintheformationofnewprofessionals,andintherecyclingofveterans.Newskillsmustbemastered,suchasblogmanagement,imagecapture,videoandaudioeditingandpodcasting.However,forFolkerts,Hamilton,andLemann48neitherstudentsnoreducatorsshouldletthisdistractthem.

Itiscriticalthateducatorsandprofessionalsrecognizethatdigitalskills,whilenecessary,donotconstituteprofessionaljournalism.(…)Asjournalismeducationembracesthedigitalage,asitshould,it’scrucialthatthatprojectnotbeunderstoodasentailinganarrowfocusonskills.Infact,thenewageespeciallydemandsofjournaliststhekindofbroaderunderstandingthatuniversitiesareset-uptoprovide.Journalismeducationshouldnotignorethelargercontoursofthedigitalage—theriseofaninformationsocietyandthenatureofconvergencethatgoesbeyondmulti-platformapplicationsandtransitiontomobiledevices.(…)Thesesubjectsdemandthekindofbroadsocialandhistoricalunderstandingthatuniversitiesaremuchbetterthannewsorganizationsatproviding.

8. Closing Considerations and Suggestions

Thehistoryofcommunicationshasseenvariouscriticaltransitions,whatscientistsliketocall“tippingpoints,”majorchangesfollowedbyirreversiblerupture,afterwhichthingscanneverbethesameagain. Inthepresentwork,IlookedtosystematizesomeoftheissuesIconsiderfundamentaltothisparticularperiodoftransformation.Whetherornottheycorrespondtocriticalpointsoftransition,his-toryalonewilltell.Yet,Iseethemasnear-obligatorysubjectsofstudyandresearchthatwillhaverealimpactonnewsroomsandjournalismclassroomsand,ultimately,onpublicpolicy. Belowisabriefrun-throughofthesepointsandsomeideasforconsiderationbypublicandprivatestakeholders:

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Fragmentation: from “search engine” to “context engine”. How can “native journalism” survive?

Fragmentationstrikesmeasaninevitablephenomenon,theresultoftheinternethyper-con-nectednessandnetworkbehaviorthatnowpermeatestheinformationarena.Allinformation,regard-lessoforigin,movesinmultipledirectionsandveryoftenunderthesameguise,thatoffact-checked,verifiedandthereforecrediblenews.Howcanweteachmodernreaders/citizenstounderstandwhatthey’rebeinggivenandactaccordingly? Theanswermaycomefromtechnologyitself.Howcanwecomeupwithalgorithmsthatcom-batfragmentationandrestoresomelevelofinformationaltypologyandhierarchy? Weneedtomovebeyondtheageofthe“searchengine”andenterthatofthe“contextengine.”It’sataskforprogrammers,linguistsandresearchers,butalsoforthecompanies,markets,andfoun-dationsthatcanfinancetheseprojects. Onesubjectthatwillcontinuetocauseacertainanxietyistheinformationenvironment’sde-pendenceontheoriginalcontentproducedbytheso-called“traditional”newsrooms,whichweknowarenowfacingthechallengeofadjustingtothefuturewithoutcompromisingtheirqualityasaninfor-mationpipeline.Couldthe“contextengine”beawayforwardfor“nativejournalism,”ifImightcallitthat? Orarewelookingatthebuild-uptoanewhistoricalcycleinwhichearlyadopterschoosetodrawstraightfromtheoriginalsources,andthuscontributetowardfinallymakingdigitalsubscriptionaviablebusinessmodelforthelegacymedia? “Combatting”fragmentationwillalsohelpneutralizeoratleastcurbtheeffectsofpolarization.

Consolidation: the large and small working in tandem

Beingmidsizeisanenormouschallengeinanybusiness,especiallywhensurvivalrequirespermanentinvestment(asintechnology)andswiftadaptationtonewhabitsandstandards(suchaswebbehavior,andgroupandcommunityformation). Withsignificantvariationsbetweencountries—dependingonhowprofessionalistheirbusinessadministration,andonthetenetsofthelocalregulations—consolidationwillstomponwards,leavinglessandlessspaceformedium-sizedcompanies. Thesizeandinfluenceofoneparticulardistributorhavebecomecausefordebateinrecentyears.AsIcompletethistext,discussionragesoverFacebook’srapidascendancyasadistributionplatform.Fanningtheflamesofthedebatearethedoubtswidelyharboredaboutthetransparency

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andobjectivityofthealgorithmsused.Asweknow,algorithmsarenotasautomaticastheyseem,butcanbemanipulatedby“human”biasorpreference. Thereinresidesaveryimportantsubjectfordiscussion,especiallywhenweconsiderthefactthatmoreandmoreusersareturningtothissocialnetworkastheirmainorsolesourceofnews,asthe2016editionoftheReutersInstitute“DigitalNewsReport”showed.49ItwasreleasedintheUSAinJune2016,inthesameweektheTowCenterforDigitalJournalism(associatedwiththeColumbiaSchoolofJournalism)kickedoffitsambitious“PlatformsandPublishers”project.50

Specialization and niches: transparent complementation

Specializedandnicheinitiativesarenowcomplementingtheinformationalarena,andbe-comingincreasinglyessentialinthatrole.Atthesametime,theymightalsobefuturemerger-fodderthemselves. Itwillbeinterestingtofollowthedevelopmentoftheseoutlets,manyofwhichoperateasnon-profitorganizations,especiallyintheU.S.,wheretaxincentivesencouragecharitablegiving. Howmanyofthesewilllastthedistance?Justhowfarwillthephilanthropistsbewillingtocarrythem?Howtransparentwilltheiragendasbeorbeseentobe?

Media and news literacy: a new discipline for changed times?

Governmentsandeducatorsareracingagainsttimetoadapttothefactthatstudentscomeintotheclassroomarmedtotheteethwithinformationonarangeofsubjectsandwithquick-firean-swers(andindeedquestions)onlyasmartphoneaway. It’sonemorechallengetheyhavetoface.Perhapsnotfrommiddleschool,butcertainlyfromhighschoolon,Iseetheneedtointroduceacourseonhowtoreadandinterpretthenews,identifyitsgenres,discernitssources,hierarchiesandmodesofpresentation.Beingabletounderstandthecontextofnewsisnowessentialtothecitizen’seducation.Inthefragmentedenvironmentweface,readerswillfindthemselvesincreasinglyatthemercyofconfusedandhybridsignals,andtheywillhavetoknowhowtodealwiththat. Inadditiontotechnology,thepossibilitiesofwhichwerementionedabove,itseemsinexorabletomethattheschoolenvironmentwillhavetoadjusttothenewinformationalrealitytowhichstu-dentsareexposedandfindwaystohelpthemlearnhowtounpackwhattheyread.Schoolswillneedtoteachtheirstudentshowtoanalyzetextanddistinguishbetweentheinformativeandtheassertive—thatalonewillstandtheminverygoodstead.

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Work, teaching and research processes: the new will have to live with the old and preserve the fundamentals of journalism

Iftraditionalnewsroomsarestillthemainsuppliersoftheinformationenvironment,ascount-lessstudiesshow,thenwhatweareseeingisarenewedresponsibilityandimmenseopportunityforjournalism.Newsroomsshouldseizethemomenttoensuretheperpetuityoftheirbrandsassealsofqualityandcredibility.Asthe“origin”ofcontent,theylayclaimtotwofantasticderivations:“origina-tion”(bringingforth)and“originality”(singularity). Asforthe“new”newsrooms,thesocalleddigitalnatives,asmentionedbefore,manyofthosethatsurvivewillgrowtowardsthe“traditional”model,bothintermsofinternalorganizationandthewaytheyoffertheirnews.Thisshiftisnatural,almostobviousandcertainlyinexorable.Journalismisjournalism,andtherearenohalf-measures.Journalismisnotaformat,itisamethod,andhastobeappliedinfull,fromstarttofinish,fromgatheringandanalysisthroughtofact-checkingandpublica-tion. The“newnewsrooms”willhavetoensureconstantinterchangebetweengenerationssoastoconsolidatethehanding-downoftheprofession’svaluesandfundamentals. Inthisnewlandscape,thereisnodoubtthatschoolsofjournalismwillplayanevenmoreimportantrole,bothinteachingandinresearch.Thereisadualchallengetomeetinstructuringandupdatingcurriculaandclassroommethodologies.Wehavetostayuptospeedonthefreshpossibil-itiesininteraction,distributionanddataanalysisofferedbynewtechnologies.Andyet,atthesametime,weneedtoputthosenewtoolstotheserviceoffact-checking,investigation,contextualizationandthejournalisticnarrative.Thesewonderfultoolscannotbeallowedtobepurelycosmetic;theyhavetoservetheessenceofjournalisticcraft.

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2John,RichardR.23Feb.2016,NewYork,ColumbiaJournalismSchool.

3Briggs,Asa,andPeterBurke.ASocial History of the Media: from Gutenberg to the Internet.Oxford,England,BlackwellPublishingLtd.,2002.

4Burke,Peter.Personalinterview.15May2016.

5Tewksbury,David,andJasonRittenberg.News on the internet: Information and Citizenship in the 21st Century.NewYork,NY,OxfordUniversityPress,2012

6Boczkowski,PabloJ.,andEugeniaMitchelstein.“TheDivergenceintheContentChoicesofJournalistsandConsumers.”The News Gap: When the Information Preferences of the Media and the Public Diverge,TheMITPress,Cambridge,MA,2013,p.47. 7PewResearchCenter:JournalismandMediaStaff.“TheNewWashingtonPressCorps:AsMainstreamMediaDecline,NicheandForeignOutletsGrow.”Journalism and Media, Pew Research Center,16July2009,http://www.journalism.org/2009/07/16/new-washington-press-corps/. 8PewResearchCenter:JournalismandMediaStaff.“HowNewsHappens:AStudyoftheNewsEcosystemofOneAmericanCity.”Journalism and Media,PewResearchCenter,11Jan.2010,http://www.journalism.org/2010/01/11/how-news-happens/. 9Enda,Jodietal.“America’sShiftingStatehousePress:CanNewPlayersCompensateforLostLegacyReporters?”Journalism and Media,PewResearchCenter,10July2014,http://www.journalism.org/2014/07/10/americas-shifting-statehouse-press/. 10Schudson,Michael.“NewsinCrisisintheUnitedStates:Panic–andBeyond”.The Chang-ing Business of Journalism and Its Implications for Democracy,EditedbyDavidA.L.LevyandRas-musKleisNielsen,UniversityofOxford,ReutersInstitutefortheStudyofJournalism,Oxford,2010.

11Gandour,Ricardoet.al.Jornais no Brasil: um panorama da presença impressa e digital

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21Athey,SusanandMarkusMobius.The Impact of News Aggregators on Internet News Con-sumption: The Case of Localization.HarvardUniversity,IowaStateUniversityandMicrosoftRe-search,24Feb.2012. 22Fraga,Isabela.“BraziliannewspapersleaveGoogleNewsenmasse.”Blog.Journalism in the Americas.KnightCenterforJournalismintheAmericas,18Oct.2012.Web. 23Athey,Susan.Personalinterview.April2016.

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24Wu,Tim.The Master Switch: the Rise and Fall of Information Empires.NewYork,VintageBooks,2011. 25Wu,Tim.Personal Interview.June2016. 26“NonprofitNewsOutlets.”Pew Research Center’s Journalism Project,2012,http://features.journalism.org/nonprofit-news-outlets/.

27The Marshall Project.https://www.themarshallproject.org/?ref=nav#.ZMJEkE2A6.

28Keller,Bill.PersonalInterview.March2016.

29Abramovay,Pedro.31Mar.2016,SãoPaulo,Brasil,Gife Conference.

30Open Society Foundations.https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/.

31InsideClimateNewsStaff.“InsideClimateNewsTeamWinsPulitzerPrizeforNationalRe-porting.” InsideClimateNews.org,15Apr.2013,https://insideclimatenews.org/news/20130415/insideclimate-news-team-wins-pulitzer-prize-national-reporting.

32Sassoon,David.Feb.2016,NewYork,ColumbiaJournalismSchool.

33InsideClimate News.https://insideclimatenews.org/.

34Massing,Michael.“HowtoCovertheOnePercent”The New York Review of Books,14Jan.2016,http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2016/01/14/how-to-cover-the-one-percent/.

35Holcomb,Jesse.“What’sNextforNonprofitJournalism?”Journalism & Media,PewRe-searchCenter,3Oct.2013,http://www.journalism.org/2013/10/03/whats-next-for-nonprofit-journal-ism/.

36Engelberg,Stephen.Personalinterview.April2016.

37ProPublica.https://www.propublica.org/.

38Schiffrin,AnyaandEthanZuckerman.“CanWeMeasureMediaImpact?SurveyingtheField.Stanford Social Innovation Review.(Fall2015).

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39Mitchell,Amyetal.“Non-profitJournalism:AGrowingbutFragilePartoftheU.S.NewsSystem.”Journalism & Media,PewResearchCenter,10June2013,http://www.journalism.org/2013/06/10/nonprofit-journalism/.

40Cagé,Julia.Saving the Media: Capitalism, Crowdfunding, and Democracy.Cambridge,MA,TheBelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,2016. 41Politico.http://www.politico.com/.

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