Managing postharvest temperature in cutflowers:

A review of overseas practices

A report for RIRDC by

Daryl Joyce CSIRO Division of Horticulture

October 1996

RIRDC Research Paper No 96/11

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© 1996 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. All rights reserved. ISBN 0 642 24617 3 ISSN 1321 2656 "Managing postharvest temperature in cutflowers: a survey of overseas practices” This publication is copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research, study, criticism or review as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced in any form, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted without the prior written permission from the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction should be directed to the Managing Director. RIRDC Contact Details Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Level 1, AMA House 42 Macquarie Street BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604 Phone: 06 272 4539 Fax: 06 272 5877 email: rirdc@netinfo.com.au Internet: http://www.dpie.gov.au/rirdc Researcher Contact Details Dr Daryl Joyce, Department of Plant Production The University of Queensland LAWES Qld 4343 AUSTRALIA Phone: 074 601 236 Fax: 074 601 112 Copied by DPIE Copyshop, Canberra

October 1996, Canberra

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Contents Sections page no. 1. Executive Summary 3 2. Report Structure 7 3. Introduction - temperature management overview 9 4. Literature Search 13 5. Exporter Survey 15 6. Activities Overseas 17 7. Report and Recommendations 23 8. Conclusion 26 9. Acknowledgments 28 Appendices A1. Terms of Reference 30 A2. References 32 A3. Survey Form 39 A4. Survey Responses 53 A5. Overseas Travel Itinerary and Contacts 98 A6. Additional Information 100

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1. Executive Summary The terms of reference for this consultancy (Appendix A1) were essentially: (i) to define the extent, commercial significance and implications of temperature control problems during postharvest handling and transport of Australian cutflower exports, (ii) to provide information on commercial approaches to postharvest temperature control practised by the world cutflower trade, (iii) to assess the effectiveness of existing, and the opportunities for improved, commercial temperature management as practised by the Australian cutflower industry, and, (iv) to report on cutflower temperature management research overseas, and on potential collaborative research and development links. Towards addressing these terms of reference; (a) published temperature management literature was collated, (b) Australian exporters were surveyed and/or interviewed, and (c) selected research and industry personnel in The Netherlands, Israel and California were interviewed. Through these undertakings it became apparent that, although the principles of good temperature management are well established, they are not being applied throughout the postharvest handling chain for Australian floriculture products. By and large, Australian exporters are aware of the fundamental importance of good temperature management. A number clearly strive at an individual level to achieve prescribed temperature management objectives. However, their efforts are sometimes frustrated by poor temperature management practices at the farm level in Australia and throughout postharvest handling overseas (e.g. Japan). Flowers must be cooled as soon as possible after harvest, whether or not they are in cartons (dry) or in buckets (wet). Forced air cooling (f.a.c.) facilities are important for effective temperature management of packaged flowers. Refrigerated road transport is apparently readily available in Australia, although it is not always utilised by growers or exporters. Lack of coolstorage immediately before air shipment, during air transport and immediately after air shipment is perceived as a significant problem. However, this limitation may be largely overcome through the use of insulation (e.g. polystyrene sheets) and heat sinks (e.g. gel-ice packs) to maintain low temperatures during these relatively short (compared to the whole postharvest handling chain) periods. More severe limitations appear to exist in the form of the deficiencies in coolstorage and refrigerated transport overseas (e.g. Japan). Scheduling for rapid handling and transport is an integral part of good temperature management. With this in mind, in addition to financial and marketing considerations, exporters generally strive to move product as rapidly as possible.

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Factors limiting good temperature management at the domestic level have largely been overcome overseas. Co-operative arrangements are in place in The Netherlands, Israel and California to ensure that relatively small growers have access to state of the art cooling and coolstorage facilities. Such arrangements may be between growers or with refrigerated transport companies. Bigger growers have their own facilities. Refrigerated transport is the rule, rather than the exception. As described above, heat sinks and insulation are used to carry flowers through periods when refrigeration is not possible (e.g. air transport). In addition, dry ice or liquid nitrogen (N2) cooling systems could be utilised (although a need for R&D to optimise efficacy is evident). The problem of poor temperature management in the receiving country is seemingly one that is at least partly a lack of will and/or interest. Australian flowers are mostly exported to economically developed countries, wherein refrigeration is both widely understood and applied. Their handling and transport overseas is mostly under the control of individuals or companies with considerable experience in fresh flower imports, and often with their own domestic product as well. Accordingly, improved temperature management of Australian flowers overseas might best be achieved through greater financial commitment (e.g. joint ventures), communication (e.g. face to face discussion of problems) and education (e.g. postharvest characteristics of the Australian product). Financial considerations clearly impinge on temperature management strategies for Australian fresh flower exports. Good temperature management involves considerable expense throughout the postharvest handling chain (e.g. farm coolrooms, heat sinks and insulation liners in cartons, refrigerated transport, and so on). Nevertheless, the lesson from overseas (e.g. The Netherlands) is that this commitment should be made if Australia is to maintain and expand cutflower exports. Cutflower quality at the marketplace is of paramount concern, and competent current or potential competing suppliers abound (e.g. The Netherlands, Israel and California). Currently, the data base for Australian flowers describing relationships between temperature and time and quality is inadequate, if not non-existent. Similarly, thorough documentation of temperature profiles associated with exporting to various markets or in various seasons has never been undertaken. Without such information, informed cost-benefit analysis cannot by carried out. The conclusion of this report on temperature management practices, as they apply to Australian cutflower exports, is that they are seriously deficient. Deficiencies exist both in terms of achieving the best market quality (i.e. preventing significant deterioration), and relative to practices of more experienced industries overseas (viz. The Netherlands, Israel and California). The Australian problem has both common and unique aspects. Good temperature management is fundamental to the postharvest handling of all fresh horticultural produce (fruit, vegetables, ornamentals). In this respect, improved knowledge of and/or application of the principles of good temperature management for cutflowers is required throughout the postharvest handling chain. However, the extent to which, and the way in which, improved temperature management strategies can be applied is dependent upon unique characteristics of the Australian industry (e.g. the specific postharvest characteristics of the crops involved).

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Accordingly, the Australian industry is advised to facilitate research and development towards establishing information/data bases upon which sound and objective financial decisions relating to temperature management protocols might be based. [To this end, researchers in The Netherlands, Israel and California have expressed a genuine willingness to collaborate where practical (e.g. finance-wise) and as appropriate (e.g. intellectual property-wise)]. It is also advised to facilitate the development of novel temperature management protocols likely to afford it a competitive advantage in the marketplace. In addition, it is advised that the industry facilitate both extension of information on the principles of temperature management and education on the unique postharvest characteristics of Australian cut flowers to all personnel both in Australia and overseas who are involved in the postharvest handling chain.

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2. Report Structure This report is divided into 6 discrete sections. The `Introduction - temperature management overview' section (sect. 3) describes the general principles of temperature management as they apply to harvested horticultural crops. The overview is based on the `Literature Search' section; and, has been prepared for submission for separate publication (with minor revision) to `Australian Horticulture' magazine. The `Literature Search' section (sect. 4) records the number of references uncovered in searching specifically for those pertaining to cutflower handling. The references are listed under complimentary headings in Appendix A2. Referenced articles have also been photocopied and provided to RIRDC under separate cover. The `Exporter Survey' section (sect. 5) presents a summary appraisal of the data. The survey form itself is reproduced in Appendix A3, and raw data and summary tables are presented for perusal in Appendix A4. The section on `Activities Overseas' (sect. 6) records information relating to temperature management. This information was obtained through interviewing research and industry personnel in The Netherlands, Israel and California. The `Report and Recommendations' section (sect. 7) suggests various initiatives that might be undertaken to improve cool chain establishment and maintenance as it relates the Australian export cut flower industry. Recommendations are reiterated in summary form in the `Conclusion' section (sect. 9), and are presented in a general context in the `Executive Summary' section (sect. 1).

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3. Introduction Principles of good temperature management for cutflowers. 3.1 Importance of temperature ... keywords: biological processes (activity, sensitivity; plant, pathogen, insect) Temperature is, overall, the single most important environmental factor affecting the postharvest longevity of cutflowers. It determines the rate of all chemical reactions and physiological processes, including senescence of plant material. The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of deterioration. For example, carnations respire around three times faster at 10 than at 0oC, and about 8 times faster at 20 than at 10oC. Specific processes which influence the rate of senescence of cut flowers include: (i) sugar consumption in support of respiration, and (ii) production of and sensitivity to ethylene, the gaseous senescence- and abscission-inducing phytohormone. Similarly, both pathogen and insect activities are highly responsive to temperature. Their activities may ruin packaged cut flowers through direct damage (e.g. pathogen-associated flower abscission in waxflower). They also represent a problem when plant quarantine measures are an issue. 3.2 Sources of heat ... keywords: biotic (vital heat), abiotic (environment) Heat sources may be divided into two broad general categories, biotic and abiotic. The most important biotic source of heat in a packed carton of flowers is, of course, the flowers themselves. They are alive and breathing. The waste heat of respiration is called `vital heat'. At 0oC the vital heat of respiration of carnations is around 97 kJ/tonne.hr, whereas at 20oC the vital heat yield is about 2,370 kJ/tonne.hr. As the flower temperature rises, its vital heat production rises, and the temperature rises still further. Accordingly, in-carton heating might be considered somewhat analogous to a `runaway nuclear reactor'. Common biotic sources of heat are the sun, and electrical and mechanical equipment. Such equipment includes heaters and air conditioners (heating mode), and truck and forklift motors. 3.3 Cooling ... keywords: room, f.a.c., vacuum, liquid N2, dry ice To avoid heating, heat must be removed by cooling. Common means of cooling include room and forced air or pressure cooling (f.a.c.). Both use air cooled in it's passing over an expansion coil. The principal involved is absorption of heat by a refrigerant rapidly expanding (latent heat of vaporisation) in the coil. Both operations are carried out in an insulated room (coolroom). However, in f.a.c. the cold air is passed through the cartons of cut flowers, rather than over them. Consequently, product cooling is more rapid. Vacuum cooling also works well for some cutflowers. The principle here being the same, but the vaporising agent is water from within the tissue. A common analogy in human physiology is the cooling effect of air blowing over wet skin. Liquid N2 and dry ice are also used to cool flowers, but usually in transit after initial f.a.c. or room cooling. The latent heats of vaporisation of liquid N2 and solid CO2, respectively, withdraw heat from the surrounding environment.

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3.4 Heat flux ... keywords: conduction, radiation, convection, reflection Heat moves from it's source towards cooler regions. Conduction is commonly involved, whereby heat diffuses through a matrix or matrices (e.g. coolant passing through an engine block). Other means of heat movement are radiation (e.g. direct sunshine), convection (e.g. thermal air or water currents) and reflection (e.g. mirrors on solar hot water heaters). Just as in these everyday examples, heat can move into and within cartons of cutflowers. 3.5 Preventing heat flux ... keywords: heat sinks, insulation, reflective barriers In addition to direct cooling (heat removal), temperature control can be achieved via heat fluxes. Heat sinks, such as gel-ice or plain ice packs can be included in cartons. Ice absorbs heat (latent heat of sublimation) as it melts to water. Efficiency is a function of total mass (capacity) and the rate of heat flux to the ice pack. Insulation can be utilised to restrict the ingress of heat from the external environment. However, caution should be applied in the use of insulation, as it may equally efficiently trap heat (e.g. vital heat) within a container. Thermal blankets and polystyrene sheets or containers are practical insulation materials. Reflective materials, such as silvered paper or reflective foil coverings, may be useful in reducing radiative heat loads. 3.6 The cool chain ... keywords: time by temperature integral, combinations of methods Ideally, cut flowers are cooled to their optimum storage temperature (ca. 0.5 to 1oC for flowers which are not chilling sensitive) and are kept at this temperature throughout postharvest handling. Of course, the real world is far from ideal, and flower temperatures vary widely in postharvest handling chains. Accordingly, the critical objective is to keep flower temperatures down and near the optimum storage temperature whenever and wherever possible, and for as long as possible. In the absence of continuous refrigeration (e.g. coolroom door to coolroom door by refrigerated truck), maintaining the cool chain will involve mixing technologies. For example, f.a.c. initially and at the receiving end, with heat sink, insulation and reflection technologies being applied in transit (e.g. air), possibly in combination with dry ice or liquid N2 located above the cartons. 3.7 Scheduling ... keywords: speedy handling Good temperature management goes hand in hand with good time management. At any constant temperature, flowers will deteriorate more as time passes. And, of course, the senescence process occurs much more rapidly as temperatures increase. Care must thus be taken to avoid holdups of cut flower shipments due to weekends, public holidays, ceremonies, industrial disputes, and so on.

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3.8 Monitoring ... keywords: temperature logging A number of mechanical and electronic devices, which fit into flower cartons, are available for monitoring temperatures experienced during shipment. Their regular use is advisable, since temperature management problems can be readily identified. 3.9 Conclusion ... keywords: awareness, responsibility, education, communication Despite general public and industry awareness of the principles of good temperature management outlined above, they are seldomly wholly and/or effectively applied in the Australian domestic and export cutflower trade. Likely reasons for poor levels of adoption are cost and inconvenience. However, it should be recognised that the cutflower industries of The Netherlands, Israel, and California would not have achieved the prominence they enjoy today if they had compromised good temperature management for such reasons. Good temperature management is the responsibility of everyone handling cutflowers, whether they be managers (e.g. the director of an export company) or technicians (e.g. the fork lift operator in that company). The best way to alert people to their responsibility is through education. Education communicates reasons why temperature control is important and informs individuals of how they can help achieve the critical objective of good temperature management. [note: this article (section 3) has been prepared as a `stand alone' document intended for publication in `Australian Horticulture'.]

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4. Literature Search 4.1 Objectives: i. To identify references in the published research and extension literature on

temperature control for cut flowers, with particular emphasis on temperature control during transport. (#see Appendix A2).

ii. To assemble a library of the published literature on temperature control for cut flowers for provision to RIRDC with the report. (#under separate cover).

4.2 Method: Computer and manual searches of the literature. 4.3 Results#: see Appendix A2 for reference lists. 4.3.1 Popular publications ...... 4.3.1.1 General ... 15a 4.3.1.2 Cut flowers ... 20 4.3.1.3 Other crops ... 5 4.3.2 Scientific publications ...... 4.3.2.1 General ... 16 4.3.2.2 Cut flowers ... 13 4.3.2.3 Other crops ... 3 (a numbers of references listed in appendix A2 for each category) The number and nature (i.e. content) of the references uncovered in the course of the literature search suggest that ... There are relatively limited bodies of both popular and scientific literature which espouse and demonstrate the principles of good postharvest temperature management in a general context, and also specifically in relation to the handling of harvested cutflowers. This published literature is particularly useful from a technical perspective (e.g. use of forced air coolers). However, it typically does not present `novel innovations' for achieving good temperature management (e.g. during export by air). Furthermore, the published literature offers little information in a form that an individual firm might use as a basis for decision making (e.g. to enable cost-benefit analysis). These deficiencies suggest the need for research aimed specifically at developing: (i) novel and effective temperature control measures (e.g. regulated metering of liquid nitrogen), and (ii) data bases for decision making (e.g. time by temperature vase life data matrices). [Note: Literature on postharvest temperature control can be obtained via. government research and extension personnel, government and public libraries, literature search services (e.g. D.P.I. Qld.'s `Growsearch') and private consultants. Copies of all the references reported herein (Appendix A2) have been provided to RIRDC along with this report.]

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5. Exporter Survey 5.1 Objectives: i. To gauge the perceived importance of temperature control for export cut flowers. ii. To obtain opinions on how optimum temperature control for export cut flowers

can be achieved in a cost effective manner. 5.2 Method: Survey form distributed to exporters. 5.3 Results: The survey form is reproduced in Appendix A3, and responses to the questions posed in the survey are presented in Appendix A4. Seventeen companies or individuals responded to the survey. Of these, four were from WA, six were from Vic. (three phone interviews), one was from NT, one was from Tas, three were from NSW (one phone interview), and two were from Qld (two phone interviews). The survey data, as interpreted by the author and the collator of the data, suggest that... Exporters, in general, have limited knowledge of the processes and conditions applied to cut flowers both before they come into their hands and after they surrender them to freight forwarders, etc. Furthermore, detailed knowledge of overseas market characteristics, both at wholesale and retail levels, is apparently lacking. It may be considered surprising that a number of exporters do not appear to be concerned about this lack of knowledge. Transport is a particularly weak link in maintaining the cold chain. Some road and rail transport is unrefrigerated. Additionally, handling by airlines, both within Australia and overseas, is characterised by apparent total disregard for refrigeration.

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6. Activities Overseas 6.1 Objectives: i. To establish links with world authorities on temperature control for cut flowers,

thereby opening lines for communication and the exchange of information. (#see Appendix A5)

ii. To determine best industry practice in California, Holland and Israel. 6.2 Method: i. Visit the University of California (USA), ATO Agrotechnologie (Holland) and

Volcani Centre (Israel) to meet with and obtain temperature control information from postharvest authorities.

ii. Via postharvest authorities, obtain visits to key industry personnel in the USA, Holland and Israel in order to see best practice in these regions.

6.3 Results#: 6.3.1 Researchers ...... 6.3.1.1 The Netherlands - modelling of forced air cooling, modelling of product quality as a function of temperature * modelling of forced air cooling within cut flower cartons is being undertaken. A test perspex f.a.c. test chamber has been constructed within a controlled temperature room. It has been fitted out for measurements of temperature, airspeed and air front movement (by CO2 doping and sensing). * cooling and slow rewarming increased Botrytis cinerea incidence on packaged roses. This was a function of water condensation on the rose petals. Provision of large ventilation holes and effective air ventilation around flower heads reduced the incidence of Botrytis cinerea incidence on packaged roses. Ideally, the coolchain should be managed to avoid/minimise temperature fluctuations and, consequently, condensation. * computer models for cut flower quality have allowed explanation of around 80%, and generally better than 95%, of variation due to a range of variables, including temperature. Data collected by the Dutch auctions over many years was used to devise and test the models. Appropriate models may be based on Arrhenius-type equations. Accordingly, they are relatively simple. However, ideally, they should be tailored to describe responses for each different crop (e.g. rose cf. carnation). * interest was expressed, by representatives of both the f.a.c. and quality modelling groups, in collaboration on temperature control research with Australia. Access to computer models (copyrighted and with `front and rear' ends in Dutch) describing temperature responses in quality terms could be negotiated.

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6.3.1.2 Israel - nil * no current coolchain research. 6.3.1.3 California - monitoring * three insulation systems are used in California: i. thin layer spray-on polyurethane (boxes supplied flat and are folded prior to use), ii. thick layer spray-polyurethane (boxes supplied folded), and iii. polystyrene sheets inserted into normal cartons as `liners'. * ice packs have been shown to be beneficial, especially when used in for air transport. Ice packs may constitute ice sealed in bags or free ice separated from the flowers by paper. Precooling and ice packs are a useful combination. * reflective `insulation' has not proven to be of great value, although it may be if consignments are directly exposed to sunlight. Corrugated cardboard is also, generally, of little benefit. It provides only limited insulation, but does stop air movement. * refrigerated air containers are available. These utilise dry-ice for cooling and a battery operated fan to circulate the cold air. However, they are not in use for cut flowers. * a recent survey has shown that prescribed low temperatures are not being achieved in practice (e.g. inaccurate coolroom temperature settings). Standards are relaxed over time (e.g. within 2 years). Ongoing R&D, extension and education is necessary. * f.a.c. of cartons with both closed and blocked (e.g. by plastic liners) has been observed in cutflower packinghouses. * one truck transport company ships most of the flowers in California. This company keeps temperature records (insert a probe into cartons and manually record the temperature). * small temperature probes despatched with prepaid return mail envelopes are in use. * in order to define `boundaries', it is necessary to formally document the conditions that cutflower consignments experience over time (i.e. throughout the year). * simple cost-benefit analysis should be undertaken since, for example, neither ice nor insulation are expensive or without problems. 6.3.2 Industry ...... 6.3.2.1 The Netherlands - cooling, coolchain (international, truck) and speed * Flower Auction Holland (Naaldwyck) runs coolstores at 2 (roses), 8 (carnations) and 12oC (chrysanthemums) and houses the worlds largest coolstore; pot plants are stored at 15oC.

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* export from Holland to England: coolstore --> process (e.g. assemble mixed bunches) --> coolstore --> temperature controlled truck --> (ferry to England or Channel Tunnel) --> coolstorage depot --> retail store (3 to 5 day shelf period at ambient temperatures); maintain 5+2oC water (in buckets) temperature throughout handling ... export takes only 2 days. * temperature data is collected, using small electronic data loggers, in handling and transport trials conducted by the postharvest laboratory of the flower auction (Aalsmeer). * export flowers (to Japan) are handled at 2 to 15oC; in summer, they are forced air cooled; one or two ice packs are included in each carton. * within Europe, flowers are exported in refrigerated trucks. Operating temperatures are generally 2 and 15oC for cut flowers and pot plants, respectively. 6.3.2.2 Israel - cooling, coolchain (international, air) and speed * flowers sent to the central packinghouse at Ben Gurion airport must arrive at temperatures between 2 and 4oC. * central packinghouse flower handling protocol: arrive in refrigerated truck --> unload into 12oC coolroom --> withdraw samples for inspection in air conditioned hall --> move flowers into a low temperature (2oC) coolstore --> export by air (load from store into plane). For distant markets, 1 to 1.5 kg ice packs are included in the cartons. Chilling sensitive flowers are handled similarly, however, they are not f.a.c.; the f.a.c. holes are kept closed. During air transport, temperatures are monitored (normal range = 6 to 8oC). * High temperatures have been encountered in export to Japan. Temperatures of 30 to 35oC have been recorded in some cartons of cut flowers. The problem has been associated with deficiencies in (i) re-cooling facilities and (ii) refrigerated transport in Japan. This is particularly a problem with waxflower. * Israel's central and regional packinghouses have coolstorage and f.a.c. facilities. * ca. 45% of Israel's cut flower exports pass through Telmond regional packinghouse. A trend is for more and more growers to pack on farm and send to the packinghouse, which provides the packaging materials. Flowers should arrive cool (e.g. 4oC) at the packinghouse. The packinghouse f.a.c. cools for ca. 1.5 hours. * Telmond packinghouse flower handling protocol: pack on farm --> dispatch in refrigerated truck --> f.a.c. at Telmond packinghouse --> x-ray boxes --> palletise according to auction --> hold in coldstore --> dispatch in refrigerated truck --> subsequent handling by Carmel at Ben Gurion (see above). * flowers generally leave the country in < 1 day of harvest and packing. * some pot plants are exported from Israel by sea to Europe (e.g. France and Italy) in refrigerated containers.

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6.3.2.3 California - cooling, coolchain (transcontinental, truck) and speed * one grower operates coolers (one for cut flowers and one for foliage) at 34oF. F.a.c. is to be installed. The current handling system is: flowers arrive at packinghouse in buckets --> held overnight in the cooler --> packed cool with gel-ice packs --> dispatched by truck/plane. This company has assembled their own gel-ice packs, but is moving to new quilted tear-off gel-ice pack systems, where the desired area gel-ice can be readily selected. Four to six small gel-ice packs are put in each carton during the summer period. Special attention is paid to ensuring rapid transport, which is given higher priority than refrigerated transport. * roses are packed in cartons with ice over the paper on the stem ends. However, this practice is only expected to maintain temperature (i.e. not to cool the flowers). Most rose boxes, especially those destined for interstate, are insulated with polystyrene (20%) or polyurethane (80%). The cost of insulation is ca. US$3 per carton (costs: plain fibreboard = US$10, spray-on polyurethane or polystyrene lined fibreboard = US$13, styrofoam caskets = US$15). No charge is made for ice (made on premises), but a charge of US$ 0.5 to 1 per pack is added for gel-ice. Roses marketed locally are not precooled or handled in insulated cartons. Flowers other than roses are packed in normal fibreboard cartons, unless they are destined for a warm place. All flowers are f.a.c. Coldroom `specifications' are 34oF, high relative humidity, ethylene scrubbing, truck loading bays. It is considered that gypsophila, statice and heather generate of lot of their `own' (vital) heat. * one packhouse in the Watsonville area handles both their own production of ca. 50 lines of cut flowers plus other growers in the area. The notion of co-operatives of small growers for precooling was promoted (viz. wet handle --> co-op for cooling, packing, f.a.c., unitisation --> transport). Some companies actually have their cartons packed inside coolrooms (no problems if the right clothes are provided to workers). In California, trucking companies may offer precooling for US$ 1 to 1.5 per carton. Temperature fluctuations during transit are considered harmful. Speed of transport is as, if not more, important than refrigeration during transport; especially when precooling (e.g. 1 h), ice-packs and insulation are used. * refrigerated trucks are operated at 36 (summer) to 38oF (winter). These trucks are fitted with air delivery chutes, ribbed air returns, racking capability and digital temperature readouts in the drivers cab. Associated handling involves f.a.c. and the use of direct truck to coolroom seal doors. At most, the turn around time at the consolidation facility is 1 day. The possibility of f.a.c. during transport has been investigated. However, problems were encountered including varying carton sizes, f.a.c. holes not `punched out' and poor alignment of cartons. Ryan recorders are used with all consignments going long distances. Staff education is an issue ... they need to know what they are handling. * one importer near San Francisco uses refrigerated trucks to collect flowers from Australia at the L.A. airport. The normal handling protocol is: arrive LAX --> f.a.c. (and plant inspection) --> coolroom --> refrigerated truck --> f.a.c. again at premises. Flowers arriving at San Francisco airport are not handled in refrigerated truck. Flowers are normally cooled to high 30's or low 40's oF. Flowers arriving at the airport are normally ca. 50oF. However, temperatures in the 70's, 80's and even 90's oF are recorded on occasions. On the opposite end, dry ice burn (especially to uppermost cartons in stacks) is

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a problem that occurs relatively frequently. A perception of the importer was that handling practices (especially temperature management) at the farm level are somewhat wanting in Australia. The information on activities overseas suggests that ... There is limited research activity overseas (e.g. The Netherlands, California) on temperature management for cutflowers. However, a need for increased research activity is generally perceived, particularly in Israel (e.g. for long distance export of waxflower to Japan) and in California (e.g. where industry temperature management standards established in the late 1970's have `slipped' in recent years). Collaborative research effort between Australia and The Netherlands, Israel and/or California is feasible and would be welcomed overseas by both industry and research personnel. In an overall industry context, the general level of attention to coldchain maintenance and monitoring in The Netherlands, Israel and California substantially exceeds that evident in Australia. All of the commercial operations that were visited overseas were acutely aware of the critical importance of temperature management, and had made substantial commitments in this area. Where the costs of providing temperature control infrastructure were beyond the means of individual concerns, co-operative arrangements were in place with government or private firms in order to access necessary facilities. Such co-operation underpinned the early development of the export flower industries in both The Netherlands and Israel.

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7. Report and recommendations 7.1 Objectives: i. Prepare a report on temperature control for cutflowers, with particular emphasis

on temperature control during transport and including recommendations for the Australian export cut flower industry.

ii. Provide a library of information on temperature control for cut flowers to

RIRDC, for use by the Wildflower and Native Plants committee as is seen appropriate. (#see section 4).

iii. Prepare a draft popular publication covering temperature control during export of

Australian cut flowers. (#see section 3). 7.2 Result#: The information provided herein constitutes the report on temperature control for cutflowers. It has been confirmed that a real temperature control problem exists. Although the financial cost of addressing the problem requires quantification, it is likely to be significant. Only limited information and assistance with temperature management can be obtained overseas. General recognition of the problem is needed within Australia, as is acceptance of responsibility for solving the problem. Novel solutions pertaining to the Australian situation are required. 7.2.1 RECOMMENDATIONS: 7.2.1.1 Research and Development: A concerted Australian R&D program on temperature management for export cutflowers is required to provide: 1. data on the consequences of inadequate temperature control, 2. a data base of temperatures experienced during export, and, 3. new and improved means of maintaining low temperature during export. 7.2.1.2 Extension: A dedicated Australian extension program on temperature management for export cutflowers is similarly required to: 1. reinforce generally accepted principles of good temperature management. 2. `convert' data generated through R&D into a popular format.

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7.2.1.3 Education: A parallel Australian education program on temperature management for export cutflowers is also required to: 1. `empower', through knowledge and understanding, all people involved with the

handling of export cut flowers. 7.2.1.4 Implementation: The suggested R&D, extension and education initiatives should be underpinned by implementation, as a matter of some urgency, of: 1. cooling and recooling operations wherever appropriate (e.g. at overseas

airports) in the postharvest handling chain. 2. renewed negotiations (e.g. with the Australian Government, the Federal

Airports Corporation (F.A.C.) and airlines, both individually and collectively) towards provision of coolstorage and f.a.c. facilities at all Australian airports where cutflower consignments are handled.

3. careful scheduling for speedy postharvest handling (export, distribution,

marketing) 4. co-operative arrangements among growers to provide central packhouse

facilities, especially f.a.c. facilities.

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8. Conclusion As a result of extensive consultation with industry and research personnel concerned postharvest handling of cutflowers both in Australia and overseas, four general recommendations can be made. These are to: 1. Examine measures to lift cool chain performance throughout the whole

postharvest handling chain. 2. Initiate research to provide (i) a data base relating temperature

management and cutflower quality, and, (ii) new and/or improved methods of cooling and/or maintaining low temperature.

3. Undertake extension to make information on (i) the principles of good

temperature management, and, (ii) the temperature response characteristics of Australian cutflowers available to managers and their advisers.

4. Facilitate an education program to ensure that information on

temperature management and product response characteristics is available to, and regularly reinforced with, everyone involved in the postharvest handling system.

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9. Acknowledgments The author thanks colleagues overseas (especially Ernst Woltering (The Netherlands), Sonia Philosoph-Hadas and Shimon Meir (Israel), and Michael Reid (California)) for their invaluable assistance, time and attention. Other researchers and the technical, extension and industry personnel in The Netherlands, Israel and California who gave freely both their time and knowledge are also thanked; as are the Australian exporters (especially Jamie Creer) who responded to the mailout and phone survey, and Kim James (FECA) for assistance with the survey. The advice of David Evans and RIRDC Wildflower and the Native Plant Committee is also gratefully acknowledged, as also is assistance from Anthony Shorter (CSIRO) and Suzanne Campbell (UQ) in collating the literature review and survey responses, respectively. "The value of an idea can scarcely be recognised if the value of the

material is the only thing under discussion." (Andy Warhol, c. 1980)

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A1. Terms of Reference A1.1 In the context of the international air trade in cut flowers and in consultation with

allied industry and research personnel, to define the extent, commercial significance and implications of temperature control problems during postharvest handling and transport.

A1.2 To provide information on commercial approaches to postharvest temperature

control practised by the world cut flower trade in general, and, in particular, by cut flower producers exporting to distant markets.

A1.3 To assess the effectiveness of commercial approaches to temperature

management, particularly with regard to identifying practices and technologies with potential to benefit the Australian industry and highlighting areas where R&D could improve current technology or offer better alternatives.

A1.4 To report on: A1.4.1 research overseas aimed at improved temperature control during the

postharvest handling and transport of cut flowers, and A1.4.2 potential research and development linkages that would ultimately result

in improved maintenance of the cold chain for Australian cut flower exports.

23

A2. References A2.1 Popular publications A2.1.1 General 1. Bartletta, A. (1995). Shipping flowers via air. FloraCulture International March: 17-23. 2. Drewitt Smith, D., and Sharp, A. (1982). Hand-held digital thermometers for the measurement of fruit and vegetable temperatures: an evaluation. CSIRO Food Research Report 160: 34 pp. 3. Irving, A.R. (1988). Refrigerated shipping containers: Understanding their operation and using them effectively for the carriage of horticultural produce. CSIRO Food Research Quarterly 48: 1-18. 4. Irving, A.R. (1986). Food-serving tray: An evaluation of its thermal performance. CSIRO Division of Food Research. Food Research Report No. 186: 1-4. 5. Irving, A.R., Sharp, A.K., and Wild, B.L. (1975). Operation co-operation in a container. Rural Newsletter December: 12-13. 6. Irving A.R. Transport of fresh horticultural produce under modified atmospheres. CSIRO Food Research Quarterly 44: 25-33. 7. Sharp, A.K. (1986). Humidity: measurement and control during the storage and transport of fruits and vegetables. CSIRO Food Research Quarterly 46: 79-85. 8. Sharp, A.K. (1989). Air transport of strawberries from Australia: requirements and possibilities. Council of Australian Food Technology Associations, Inc. Food Australia May: 755-760. 9. Sharp, A.K. (1978-79). Disinfestation of grain with carbon dioxide, in freight containers. The Australian Institute of Agricultural science. Consultants Section. Proceedings of 1979 Annual Conference and 1978 Mid-year Conference: 78-84. 10. Sharp, A.K. (1984). Evaluation of tempchron time-temperature indicator. CSIRO Division of Food Research. Food Research Report no. 173. 11. Sharp, A.K. The use of thermocouples to monitor cargo temperatures in refrigerated freight containers and vehicles. CSIRO Division of Food Processing: 10-18. 12. Sharp, A.K. and Irving, A.R. Towards the maintenance of a uniform and constant temperature in a cargo of respiring produce. CSIRO Division of Food Research: 397-406. 13. Sharp, A.K., Irving, A.R., and Beattie, B.B. (1985). Transporting fresh produce in refrigerated trucks. Agfacts No. H1.4.3, Agdex 201/56.

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14. Sharp, A.K. and Spraggon, S.A. (1988). Airfreight of foods to distant markets: Trial 1: A mixed load of fruit, Sydney to London, December 1987. CSIRO Division of Food Processing. CSIRO Food Research Report No. 201. 15. Zoost, W., and Bergmann, F. (1984). Optimisation of the application of packaging material. Verpackung (leipzig) 25 (1): 27-28. A2.1.2 Cut flowers 1. Barletta, A. (1994). Computer modelling predicts vase life for cut flowers. FloraCulture International December: 24-25. 2. Bryant, R. (1986). Export flowers face heat treatment. Southern Horticulture 25: 42. 3. Cumming, B. A. and Peggie, I. D. (1987). Coolstore and precooler design for cut flowers. Protea National. April: 9-15. 4. Douglas, F. (1985). Solving quality and freight problems in flower export. Australian Horticulture July: 30, 32. 5. Downs, C., and McDonald, B. (1986). Cut Flowers. Forced-air cooling. Aglink HPP325. Information Services, MAF, NZ. 6. Farnham, D. S., Thompson, J. F., Hasek, R. F., and Kofranek, A. M. (1978). Forced-air cooling for California flower crops. Florists' Review 161 (4162): 36-38. 7. Farnham, D. S., Thompson, J. F., and Kofranek, A. M. (1978). Temperature management of cut roses during simulated transit: The effect of summer stress temperatures on flower quality delivered to customers. Florists' Review 162 (4195): 26-27, 65-68. 8. Farnham, D. S., Thompson, J. F., Kofranek, A. M., Hasek, R. F., and Rij, R. (1978). Forced-air cooling questions and answers. Florists' Review 162 (4188): 33, 79-82. 9. Farnham, D. S., Thompson, J. F., Kofranek, A. M., Hasek, R. F., and Rij, R. (1978). More questions and answers about forced-air cooling. Florists' Review 162 (4189): 33,66. 10. Harvey, J. M., Uota, M., Segall, R. H., Lutz, J. M., Ceponis, M. J., and Johnson, H. B. (1962). Transit temperatures in cut flowers shipped from California. U.S. Department of Agricultural Marketing Service 11 pp. 11. Harvey, J.M., Uota, M., Segall, R.H., and Ceponis, M. J. (1963). Transit times and temperatures of transcontinental cut-flower shipments. Marketing Research Report 592: 4-16.

25

12. International Trade Centre UNCTAD/GATT (1993). Manual of the packaging of cut flowers and plants. Finland. 13. Joyce, D. (1988). Cooling cut flowers and foliage. Western Australian Department of Agriculture. Farmnote No. 88/88, Agdex 280/60. 14. Joyce, D. (1988). Cooling and storage of Protea and "Wildflowers". Western Australian Department of Agriculture. Commercial Protea Growers of Western Australia (Inc.), Conf., Perth Zone. 15. Joyce, D. On-farm postharvest handling of cut flowers: Temperature and water status. Western Australian Department of Agriculture. Miscellaneous Publication No. 21/87: 1-12. 16. Molenaar, W. H. (1979). Why pre-cool cut flowersR. Vakblad voor de Bloemisterij 34 (43): 80-81. 17. Molenaar, W. H., and Nieuwenhuizen, G. H. van (1976). Insulated transport of pre-cooled cut flowersR. Vakblad voor de Bloemisterij 31 (41): 74-75. 18. Moody, H. (1995). Diversify and conquer, exporters told. Australian Horticulture December: 50-52. 19. Rij, R. E., Thompson, J. F., and Farnham, D. S. (1979). Handling, Precooling, and Temperature Management of Cut Flower Crops for Truck Transportation. Agricultural Research (Western Region), Science and Education Administration, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Oakland, California. Advances in Agricultural Technology Western Series No. 5, leaflet 21058. 20. Wetzler, A. (1995). Japan's flower power makes it hard for importers. AirCargo Asia-Pacific, November 24 - December 15: 20-25. A2.1.3 Other crops 1. Bartsch, J.A. (1995). The right storage system keeps vegetables fresh. American Vegetable Grower 43 (6): 28. 2. International Trade Centre (1988). Export Packages - What is required for fresh fruit and vegetables. International Trade Forum July - September: 14 - 32. 3. Noble, R. (1990). Cool distribution of mushrooms using thermotainers. Mushroom Journal 213: 331, 333. 4. Noble, R. (1990). Comparison of market containers for cooling and storing mushrooms. Mushroom Journal 213: 333, 335. 5. von Stempel, A. (1988). Flying fruit: a new report examines the technical and logistical problems of shipping fruit in air cargo containers. Cargo Systems May: 111.

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A2.2 Scientific publications A2.2.1 General 1. Banks, H.J. and Sharp, A.K. (1979). Insect control with CO2 in a small stack of bagged grain in a plastic film enclosure. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 19: 102-107. 2. Gac, A. (1991). Which cold chain for ornamental horticulture? Acta Horticulturae 298: 367-372. 3. Irving, A.R. (1986). Water accumulation in certain integral refrigerated containers. CSIRO Division of Food Research. Food Research Report No. 191: 1-10. 4. Irving, A.R. (1992). Refrigerated shipping containers: Understanding their operation and using them effectively. CSIRO Division of Food Processing April: 26-27. 5. Irving, A.R., and Sharp, A.K. (1975). The use of heat dissipation factor in the calibration of thermistor anemometer. Institute of Instrumentation and Control, Australia: 2.1-2.4. 6. Irving, A.R., and Sharp, A.K. (1976). Use of dry ice for controlling the temperature of chilled foods in insulated containers. Bulletin of the International Institute of Refrigeration 1976-1: 477-484. 7. Irving, A.R., and Sharp, A.K. (1976). Measurement of air circulation in a refrigerated iso container. International Institute of Refrigeration, Australian National Committee. Joint meeting of Commissions. CSIRO Division of Food Research. 64: 1-8. 8. Irving, A.R., and Shepherd, I.C. (1982). Measurement of air circulation rate in integral refrigerated shipping containers. International Journal of Refrigeration 5: 231-234. 9. Kazuhiro, A. (1994). Effects of pre-cooling temperature and time on the shelf-life of some leafy vegetables and their quality changes during storage. Journal of the Japanese Society for Cold Preservation of Food 20 (3): 121-126. 10. Mellor, J.D., and Irving, A.R. (1969). Product quality in freeze drying. International Institute of Refrigeration Commission X Conference on Surface Reactions in Freeze-Dried Systems Paris, December. pp. 9-14. 11. Mellor, J.D., and Irving, A.R. (1969). Role of an excipient in freeze-drying for improving the quality of the product. International Institute of Refrigeration Commission X (Paris) Meeting 2: 225-232. 12. Sharp, A.K. (1973). Heating with humid air. CSIRO Division of Food Research. Food Technology in Australia January: 18-20. 13. Sharp, A.K. (1973). The use of an analogue computer to determine the heat and mass transfer coefficients during transient condensation of water vapour at ambient conditions.

27

1st Australian Conference on Heat and Mass Transfer. CSIRO Division of Food Research Section 5.1: 9-16. 14. Sharp, A.K. (1985). Temperature uniformity in a low-pressure freight container utilising glycol-chilled walls. Revue Internationale du Froid 8 (1): 37-42. 15. Sharp, A.K. and Banks, H.J. (1980). Disinfestation of stored durable foodstuffs in freight containers using carbon dioxide generated from dry ice. First International Conference on Technology for Development November: 310-314. 16. Sharp, A.K., and Irving, A.R. (1981). Insulating covers for pallets of food. Refrigeration Science and Technology 1981-1: 139-148. A2.2.2 Cut flowers 1. Farnham, D. S., Byrne, T. G., Marousky, F. J., Durkin, D., Rij, R., Thompson, J. F., and Kofranek, M. (1979). Comparison of conditioning, precooling, transit method, and use of a floral preservative on cut flower quality. Journal of the American Society of Horticultural Science 104 (4): 483-490. 2. Goorts, A. C. J., and Weel, P. A. van (1976). Harvesting and handling of roses (2). Great variation in harvesting and handling methods for rosesR. Vakblad voon de Bloemisterij 31 (44): 24-25. 3. Halevy, A. H., Byrne, T. G., Kofranek, A. M., Farnham, D.S., Thompson, J. F., and Hardenburg, R. E. (1978). Evaluation of postharvest handling methods for transcontinental truck shipments of cut carnations, chrysanthemums, and roses. Journal of the American Society of Horticultural Science 103 (2): 151-155. 4. Jones, R. and Faragher, J. (1991). Cold storage of selected members of the Proteaceae and Australian native cut flowers. HortScience 26 (11): 1395-1397. 5. Nowak, J., Goszczynska, D. M., and Rudnicki, R. M. (1991). Storage of cut flowers and ornamental plants: present status and future prospects. Postharvest News and Information 2 (4): 255-260. 6. Reid, M. S. (1991). Effect of low temperatures on ornamental plants. Acta Horticulturae, Hortifroid 298: 215-223. 7. Rudnicki, R. M., Nowak, J., and Goszczynska, D. M. (1991). Cold storage and transportation conditions for cut flowers, cuttings and potted plants. Acta Horticulturae 298: 225-236. 8. Staby, G. (1986). Long distance flower transport. Acta Horticulturae 181: 297-303. 9. Swart, A. (1991). The effect of low temperatures on the keepability of bulbflowers. Acta Horticulturae 298: 263-265. 10. van Doorn, W.G. and Tijskens, L. M. M. (1991). Flores: a model on keeping quality of cut flowers. Agricultural Systems 35 (2): 111-127.

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11. van Doorn, W. G., and Tijskens, L. M. M. (1991). A dynamic computer model predicting in longevity of eight cut flower species. Acta Horticulturae, Hortifroid 298: 189-194. 12. Veerbeek, W., and Bons, R. G. (1981). A rapid cooling method for flowers in transport packsR. Vakblad voor de Bloemisterij 36 (30): 28-29, 31. 13. Wang, H. and Janssens, F. M. (1994). Modelling of pre-cooling process of cut flowers. Agrotechnological Research Institute (ATO-DLO), Wageningen, The Netherlands. Actes Editions Rabat: 349-364. A2.2.3 Other crops 1. Gormley, T.R. (1987). Handling, packaging and transportation of fresh mushrooms. Proceedings of the 5th National Mushroom conference. Kinsley Research Centre. Dublin Republic of Ireland: 12-17. 2. Philippon, J. (1986). Time-temperature and stability of quality in frozen fruit and vegetables. Revue Generale du Froid 76 (3): 160-164. 3. Sharp, A.K., Fenner, T.L., and Van S. Greve, J.E. (1979). Prevention of condensation damage to cocoa beans shipped in containers. Journal of Stored Product Resources 15: 101-109. (R reprint not available) (note: the two `other crops' categories list limited numbers of generally relevant references obtained whilst searching databases for references specifically on temperature management for cutflowers.)

29

A3. Survey Form Dear Exporter TEMPERATURE CONTROL DURING HANDLING AND TRANSPORT OF AUSTRALIAN CUT FLOWERS FOR EXPORT ..... SURVEY OF INDUSTRY PRACTICE: We are writing to you, as a key operator in the export of fresh cut flowers and foliage from Australia, to request your input to this survey on temperature control during handling and transport. The survey is being conducted as part of a RIRDC (the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation) sponsored project. This project aims to draw together as much available information on temperature control for export fresh cut flowers and foliage as possible. The survey also has the support of FECA (the Flower Export Council of Australia). Maintenance of the coolchain during export of fresh cut flowers and foliage is notionally considered highly desirable. Through this survey we hope to clearly identify steps and/or processes which might be targeted for research, development and/or extension aimed at enhancing maintenance of the coolchain. All data collected will be treated in a confidential manner. It will not be released individually. Respondents will not be identified by name. Only processed (combined and collated) data will be published in reports arising from this project. All respondents will be provided with a copy of the report arising from the survey. The survey is divided into ten sections: 1. Grower practice 2. Domestic transporter practice 3. Exporter practice 4. Export freight forwarder practice 5. Airline practice 6. Import freight forwarder practice 7. Market practice 8. Wholesaler practice 9. Retailer practice 10. R & D requirements It is realised that responses to some of the questions will be necessarily speculative. Nevertheless, we would value your 'best guess' where this is indeed the case. Would you please mail the completed survey form, by Friday, 10th November 1995, to: Mr Anthony Shorter CSIRO Division of Horticulture 306 Carmody Road ST LUCIA Qld. 4067 Thank you in advance for your time and attention. Yours sincerely (Daryl Joyce) POSTHARVEST HORTICULTURIST

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1. Grower practice (a) How many different growers supply your company with fresh cut flowers and foliage? ..... _____ (b) What proportion of your growers have handling temperature instructions printed on boxes for cut flowers and foliage? ..... _____% (c) What proportion of your growers have a coldroom facility? ..... _____% (d) What proportion of your growers have a coldroom facility with forced air cooling capability? ..... _____% (e) What temperatures do your growers run their coldrooms at? ..... (range across growers) _____ to _____oC (f) How long do your growers hold fresh cut flowers in coldrooms before dispatch to you? ..... (range in time) _____ to _____ hours. (g) What proportion of your growers use in-package temperature control measures (e.g. ice packs, polystyrene boxes)? ..... _____% (h) What in-package temperature control measures do they use? 1. ________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________ (i) What proportion of your growers include temperature monitoring devices in boxes of cut flowers and foliage? 1. sometimes ..... _____% 2. regularly ..... _____%

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2. Domestic transporter practice (a) How many different domestic transport companies service your company in delivery for export of fresh cut flowers and foliage? 1. air ..... _____ 2. land ..... _____ (b) What modes of land transport do they utilise (e.g. non-refrigerated truck, refrigerated truck, rail)? 1. __________________________________________________ 2. __________________________________________________ 3. __________________________________________________ (c) What proportion of your transport service companies use cold chain facilities? 1. refrigerated transport ..... _____% 2. cold storage for holding at dispatch and arrival terminals ..... _____% (d) What proportion of your transport service companies have coldrooms with forced air cooling facilities? ..... _____% (e) What temperatures do your transport service companies run their cold transport and storage facilities at? ..... _____ to _____oC (f) How long do your transport service companies have possession of fresh cut flowers destined for you? ..... (range in time) _____ to _____ hours. (g) What other (besides refrigeration) in-transit temperature control measures do they utilise (e.g. dry ice)? 1. ________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________ (h) What proportion of your transport service companies monitor transport temperatures? 1. sometimes ..... _____% 2. regularly ..... _____%

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3. Exporter practice (a) What proportion of your consignments are consolidated at your premises? ..... _____% (b) Do you check the temperature of consignments upon arrival at your premises? (please circle the correct response)..... Yes or No (c) Do you have a coldroom at your premises? ..... Yes or No (d) What temperature do you operate your coldroom at? ..... _____oC (e) Do you have forced air cooling facilities in your coldroom? ..... _____ (f) Do you apply any in-transit temperature control measures (e.g. dry ice) to consignments before they are despatched from your premises? 1. ________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________ (g) Do you install any in-transit temperature logging equipment in consignments before they are despatched from your premises? ..... Yes or No (h) If yes, what types (e.g. make) of device do you use: 1. ________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________ (i) Who retains documentation of temperatures logged during transport and handling of your consignments? 1. ________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________

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4. Export freight forwarder practice (a) How many different export freight forwarder companies service your company in delivery for export of fresh cut flowers and foliage? ..... _____ (b) What proportion of your export freight forwarder service companies use cold storage at their terminal? ..... _____% (c) What temperatures do your export freight forwarder service companies run their transport and storage facilities at? storage ..... _____ to _____oC transport ..... _____ to _____oC (d) How long do your export freight forwarder service companies have possession of your fresh cut flower consignments? ..... range = _____ to _____ hours. (e) What other in-transit temperature control measures do they use (e.g. dry ice, polystyrene insulation in air containers, reflective film)? 1. ________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________ (f) What proportion of your export freight forwarder transport service companies monitor transport temperatures? 1. sometimes ..... _____% 2. regularly ..... _____%

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5. Airline practice (a) How many different export air transport companies service your company in the export of fresh cut flowers and foliage? ..... _____ (b) What proportion of your export air transport companies use cold storage at dispatch and arrival terminals ..... _____% (c) What temperatures do your export air transport service companies run their transport and storage facilities at? at terminals ..... _____ to _____oC in the air ..... _____ to _____oC (d) How long do your export air transport service companies have possession of fresh cut flowers destined for you? ..... (range in time) _____ to _____ hours. (e) What other in-transit temperature control measures do they use (e.g. dry ice)? 1. ________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________ (f) What proportion of your export air transport service companies monitor transport temperatures? 1. sometimes ..... _____% 2. regularly ..... _____%

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6. Import freight forwarder practice (a) How many different import freight forwarder companies service your company in delivery for export of fresh cut flowers and foliage? ..... _____ (b) What proportion of your import freight forwarder companies use cold storage at their terminal ..... _____% (c) What temperatures do your import freight forwarder companies run their transport and storage facilities at? storage ..... _____ to _____oC transport ..... _____ to _____oC (d) How long do your import freight forwarder companies have possession of your fresh cut flower consignments? ..... range = _____ to _____ hours. (e) What other in-transit temperature control measures do they use (e.g. dry ice, polystyrene insulation in air containers, reflective film)? 1. ________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________ (f) What proportion of your import freight forwarder transport companies monitor transport temperatures? 1. sometimes ..... _____% 2. regularly ..... _____%

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7. Market practice (a) How many primary markets (e.g. OTA, Aalsmeer) do your flower consignments reach in: 1. Japan ..... _____ 2. Europe ..... _____ 3. North America ..... _____ 4. Elsewhere ..... _____ (b) What proportion of each of these markets offer coldroom facilities? 1. Japan ..... _____% 2. Europe ..... _____% 3. North America ..... _____% 4. Elsewhere ..... _____% (c) What temperatures do the markets run their coolrooms at? ..... (range in temperature across markets)_____ to _____oC (d) How long are your fresh cut flower consignments at the primary market? ..... (range in time) _____ to _____ hours.

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8. Wholesaler practice (a) Please estimate how many wholesalers and/or secondary markets might handle fresh cut flowers consigned by you? ..... _____ (b) Please estimate what proportion of these have and utilise coolrooms? ..... _____% (c) Please estimate the period during which flowers consigned by you are in the hands of secondary markets and/or wholesalers? ..... (range in time) _____ to _____ (hours)

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9. Retailer practice (a) Please estimate how many retailers might handle fresh cut flowers consigned by you? ..... _____ (b) Please estimate what proportion of these have and utilise coolrooms prior to display? ..... _____% (c) Please estimate the period during which flowers consigned by you are in the hands of retailers? ..... (range in time) _____ to _____ (hours)

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10. R & D requirements (a) Are you satisfied with current temperature control procedures as they relate to the export of cut flowers and foliage from Australia? ..... Yes or No (b) Would you please indicate what you consider to be critical problem areas related to the export of cut flowers and foliage from Australia: 1. ________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________ (c) Do you consider that further research, development and extension aimed at maintaining the cold chain for export cut flowers and foliage from Australia is necessary? ..... Yes or No (d) Do you consider that such research, development and extension would be justified on a cost/benefit basis? ..... Yes or No (e) Would you please indicate benefits that might accrue from improved maintenance of the cold chain for export cut flowers and foliage (e.g. increased sales, improved importer confidence)? 1. ________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________ Please provide your name and mailing address below, in order that we can send you a copy of the survey report in due course. Thank you. Respondents name: _____________________________________________ Company name: _____________________________________________ Address: _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________

40

A4. Survey Responses Key: n/a Respondent response was `not applicable'. Un. Respondent response was `answer unknown'. / Respondent struck the question out.

41

1. Grower practice (a) How many different growers supply your company with fresh cut flowers and foliage? ..... _____ (b) What proportion of your growers have handling temperature instructions printed on boxes for cut flowers and foliage? ..... _____% (c) What proportion of your growers have a coldroom facility? ..... _____% (d) What proportion of your growers have a coldroom facility with forced air cooling capability? ..... _____% (e) What temperatures do your growers run their coldrooms at? ..... (range across growers) _____ to _____oC (f) How long do your growers hold fresh cut flowers in coldrooms before dispatch to you? ..... (range in time) _____ to _____ hours. (g) What proportion of your growers use in-package temperature control measures (e.g. ice packs, polystyrene boxes)? ..... _____% (h) What in-package temperature control measures do they use? 1. ________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________ (i) What proportion of your growers include temperature monitoring devices in boxes of cut flowers and foliage? 1. sometimes ..... _____% 2. regularly ..... _____%

42

1. Grower practice

Respondent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

How many growers? 53 0 10 0 2 40 1 >130 1a

70 15-

20 60 30 3 15 >300

Handling instructions? (%)

100 / 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 20 100 0 0 33 40 20

Coldroom facility? (%) 60 / 0 0 0 3 100 80 100 50 100 75 15 100 95 70

Forced air cooling? (%)

5 / 0 0 0 3 0 10 0 5 25 0b 10 66 0 2

Coldroom temperature? (oC)

2-5 / / 12-15

/ 4-9 0-2 2-5 2 2-5 2-10 6 2 2-4 2-5 2-6

Time before dispatch? (h) 12-36

/ / / 24-48

12-48

24-72 6-18 4-48 24-96

1-24 4-6 24-168

48-120

6-72

In-package temperature? control (%)

0 / 0 / / 0 100 0 0 0 0 2 20 0 0 8

Temperature monitoring devices, sometimes? (%)

0 / 0 / / 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0

Temperature monitoring devices, regularly? (%)

0 / 0 / / 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

a Supply themselves (volunteered information). b Comes in a bucket (volunteered information).

43

Summary: Grower practice

Mean Mode Range No. respondents

How many growers? 45.8 0-300

Handling instructions? (%) 27.5 0 0-100 15

Coldroom facility? (%) 56.5 100 0-100 15

Forced air cooling? (%) 8.4 0 0-66 15

Coldroom temperature? (oC) 4.5 0-15 13

Time before dispatch? (h) 39.4 1-168 12

In-package temperature control? (%)

10 0 0-100 13

Temperature monitoring devices, sometimes? (%)

7.7 0 0-100

Temperature monitoring devices, regularly? (%)

0 0 0

44

1. Grower practice ... What in package temperature control measures are used?

Respondent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Ice packs

Freezing gel

Boxes lined with bubble plastic

Pre-cooling

Refrigeration prior to packing

Cool pansa

/

None

note: shaded rectangles indicate an affirmative response. a 12 to 15oC (volunteered information).

45

Summary: Grower practice ... What in package temperature control measures are used?

Mean Number of respondents

Ice packs 0.08 13

Freezing gel 0.08 13

Boxes lined with bubble plastic 0.08 13

Pre cooling 0.08 13

Refrigeration prior to packing 0.08 13

Cool pans 0.08 13

None 0.62 13

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2. Domestic transporter practice (a) How many different domestic transport companies service your company in delivery for export of fresh cut flowers and foliage? 1. air ..... _____ 2. land ..... _____ (b) What modes of land transport do they utilise (e.g. non-refrigerated truck, refrigerated truck, rail)? 1. __________________________________________________ 2. __________________________________________________ 3. __________________________________________________ (c) What proportion of your transport service companies use cold chain facilities? 1. refrigerated transport ..... _____% 2. cold storage for holding at dispatch and arrival terminals ..... _____% (d) What proportion of your transport service companies have coldrooms with forced air cooling facilities? ..... _____% (e) What temperatures do your transport service companies run their cold transport and storage facilities at? ..... _____ to _____oC (f) How long do your transport service companies have possession of fresh cut flowers destined for you? ..... (range in time) _____ to _____ hours. (g) What other (besides refrigeration) in-transit temperature control measures do they utilise (e.g. dry ice)? 1. ________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________ (h) What proportion of your transport service companies monitor transport temperatures? 1. sometimes ..... _____% 2. regularly ..... _____%

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2. Domestic transporter practice

Respondent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14a 15 16 17

No. of air? / 1 2 5 2 1 2 1 1 0 3 0 2 2

No. of land? 10 / 4 5 2 6 1 >6 11 5 1b 12 3 2 5

Refrigerated transport facilities? (%)

20 / 50 50 100 5 0 90 0 92 50 100 25 n/a 75 Un.

Cold storage facilities at arrival and dispatch terminals? (%)

20 / 60 0 80 0 100 100 100 100 50 100 25 0 100 Un.

Forced air cooling facilities? (%)

Un. / 0 / / 20 0 <50 0 0 0 100 17 n/a 0 0

Transport and storage temperature? (oC)

2-5 / Un. 12-15

2-5 n/a Un. 2 5-8 2-15

2-4 6 n/a 5-10

2-8

Time in transporters hands? (h)

1-8 / 2-36

96-120

24-48

12-20

12-24

3-4 8-36

5-20

6-10

1-12

n/a 3-24

6-15

Temperate monitoring devices, sometimes? (%)

/ / / 0 Un. Un. 0 0 50 0 5 n/a 5 0

Temperature monitoring devices, regularly? (%)

20 / / / 0 Un. Un. 0 0 0 100 0 n/a 0 0

a Couriered to freight forwarder, volunteered information). b Do all transportation themselves (volunteered information).

48

Summary: Domestic transporter practice

Mean Mode Range No. Respondents

No. of air? 1.7 2 0-5 13

No. of land? 5.2 5 1-12 14

Refrigerated transport facilities? (%)

50.5 50, 90 0-100 13

Cold storage facilities at arrival and dispatch terminals? (%)

59.6 100 0-100 14

Forced air cooling facilities? (%)

17 0 0-100 11

Transport and storage temperature? (oC)

5.8 2-15 10

Time in transporters hands (h)

21.4 1-120 13

Temperature monitoring devices, sometimes? (%)

7.5 0 0-50 8

Temperature monitoring devices, regularly? (%)

13.3 0 0-100 9

49

2. Domestic transporter practice ... what other (besides refrigeration) in-transit temperature control measures are utilised?

Respondent 1 2 3 4 5a 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

None

/

n/a

'Keep em green' inhibitor

note: shaded rectangles represent an affirmative response. a 99% of cut flowers are grown on the property (volunteered information).

50

2. Domestic transporter practice ... type of land transport utilised?

Respondent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Refrigerated pantecs

Refrigerated truck

Non-refrigerated truck

Private vehicle

Refrigerated rail

Open rail

Non-refrigerated pantecs

note: shaded rectangles represent an affirmative response.

51

Summary: Domestic transporter practice ... what other (besides refrigeration) in-transit temperature control measures are utilised?

Mean Number respondents

'Keep em green' inhibitor .1 9

None .9 9

... what type of land transport is utilised?

Refrigerated pantecs .07 14

Non-refrigerated pantecs .07 14

Open rail .07 14

Refrigerated rail .07 14

Private vehicle .14 14

Non-refrigerated truck .57 14

Refrigerated truck .71 14

52

3. Exporter practice (a) What proportion of your consignments are consolidated at your premises? ..... _____% (b) Do you check the temperature of consignments upon arrival at your premises? (please circle the correct response)..... Yes or No (c) Do you have a coldroom at your premises? ..... Yes or No (d) What temperature do you operate your coldroom at? ..... _____oC (e) Do you have forced air cooling facilities in your coldroom? ..... _____ (f) Do you apply any in-transit temperature control measures (e.g. dry ice) to consignments before they are despatched from your premises? 1. ________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________ (g) Do you install any in-transit temperature logging equipment in consignments before they are despatched from your premises? ..... Yes or No (h) If yes, what types (e.g. make) of device do you use: 1. ________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________ (i) Who retains documentation of temperatures logged during transport and handling of your consignments? 1. ________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________

53

3. Exporter practice

Respondent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15a 16 17

Consignments consolidated at premises? (%)

100 / 100 / 99 100 100 100 100 100 100 90 80 0 0 100

Check temperature upon arrival?

Yes / No No No No Yes n/ab No No No Yes n/a No Yes

Coldroom facilities? Yes Yesc Yes No Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Coldroom temperature? (oC)

3 3 3 / 2.5 0-2 2 2 1.5-2

2-5 2 2 2-4 4 3

Forced air cooling? No Yes No / Yes No Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

In-transit temperature control?

Yes Yes No / No Yes Yes No No Yes No Yes n/a Yes Yes

In-transit temperature logging?

Yes Yes No No Yes No Yes No No Yes Yes Yes n/a Yes Yes

a Goes direct from the farm to Ansett (volunteered information). b The company picks, processes and packs for export (volunteered information). c High humidity coldroom with forced air (volunteered information).

54

Summary: Exporter practice

Mean Mode Range Yes (%) No. respondents

Consignments consolidated at premises? (%)

83.5 100 0-100 14

Check temperature upon arrival? 30 12

Coldroom facilities? 87.5 16

Coldroom temperature (oC) 2.6 0-5 14

Forced air cooling? 71.4 14

In-transit temperature control? 61.5 13

In-transit temperature logging? 64.3 14

55

3. Exporter practice ... what in-transit temperature control measures are used?

Respondent 1 2a 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15b 16 17

Dry ice

Foil wrap

Ice bricks

Ice packs

None

Insulation

N/A

/

note: shaded rectangles represent an affirmative response. a Not carried out on a regular basis (volunteered information). b Done sometimes (volunteered information).

56

3. Exporter Practice ... what in-transit temperature logging equipment is used?

Respondent 1 2a 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11b 12 13c 14d 15e 16 17

Ryan recorder

Cox 2 recorder

DTR 7 day logger

5 day, non-returnable thermograph

Temperature Gauge

None

TNT-timer temperature (16 day)

/

note: shaded rectangles represent an affirmative response. a Not carried out on a regular basis (volunteered information). b On occasional shipments (volunteered information). c Once or twice a week (volunteered information). d On shipments that are of high economic value only (volunteered information). e On Geraldton waxflower shipments (volunteered information).

57

Summary: Exporter practice ... what in-transit temperature control measures are used?

Mean Number respondents

Dry ice .23 13

Foil wrapping .08 13

Ice bricks .08 13

Ice packs .23 13

Insulation .15 13

None .38 13

... what in-transit temperature logging equipment is used?

Ryan recorder .18 11

Cox 2 recorder .18 11

DTR 7 day logger .09 11

5 day, non-returnable thermograph .09 11

Temperature gauge .09 11

TNT-timer temperature (16 day) .18 11

None .18 11

58

3. Exporter practice Documentation of temperatures logged during transit is retained by: Respondent Retainer 1. Exporter 2. Importer 5. Customer, unless there is a claim against the airport 8. Exporter, clearing agent and customer 11. Customer, if there is a problem they have them 13. Exporter 14. Exporter 15. Not all documented, exporter 16. Consigned (NB. In the cases where the exporter has the documentation it is returned to the exporter by the freight forwarder or the customer.)

59

4. Export freight forwarder practice (a) How many different export freight forwarder companies service your company in delivery for export of fresh cut flowers and foliage? ..... _____ (b) What proportion of your export freight forwarder service companies use cold storage at their terminal? ..... _____% (c) What temperatures do your export freight forwarder service companies run their transport and storage facilities at? storage ..... _____ to _____oC transport ..... _____ to _____oC (d) How long do your export freight forwarder service companies have possession of your fresh cut flower consignments? ..... range = _____ to _____ hours. (e) What other in-transit temperature control measures do they use (e.g. dry ice, polystyrene insulation in air containers, reflective film)? 1. ________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________ (f) What proportion of your export freight forwarder transport service companies monitor transport temperatures? 1. sometimes ..... _____% 2. regularly ..... _____%

60

4. Export freight forwarder practice

Respondent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

No. of export freight forwarders?

1 4 1 5 1 6 1 3 2 3 1 1 3 1 4 3

Cold storage at terminals? (%)

0a 100 100 0 100 60 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Temperature of storage facilities? (oC)

n/a 3-5 2-4 2-5 2-5 2-5 Un. 2-4 Un.b 2 2-4 4-8 3-5 3-6

Temperature of transport facilities? (oC)

n/a 3-5 /c / Un. Un.d Un. 2 8 n/ae 10-25 Un.

Time in freight forwarder's possession? (h)

n/a 6-12 6-12 0-30 12-30 24-36 2-40 4-24 0.5-1 4-12 0.5-12

1-24 2-24 3-12

Temperature monitoring in transport, sometimes? (%)

0 / / Un. Un. 0 50 0 0 100 40-50 /

Temperature monitoring in transport, regularly? (%)

0 90 0 / / Un. Yes Un. 0 0 0 100 0 0 /

a Load containers at premises (volunteered information). b Controlled at unknown temperature (volunteered information). c Freight forwarders are 100 m from Qantas terminal (volunteered information). d Uncontrolled temperature (volunteered information). e 10 minute transfer (volunteered information).

61

Summary: Export freight forwarder practice

Mean Mode Range No. respondents

No. of export freight forwarders?

2.5 1 1-6 16

Cold storage at terminals (%) 85 100 0-100 16

Temperature of storage facilities? (oC)

3.6 2-8 11

Temperature of transport facilities? (oC)

7.9 2-25 4

Time in freight forwarder possession? (h)

12.8 0-40 13

Temperature monitoring in transport, sometimes? (%)

27.9 0 0-100 7

Temperature monitoring in transport, regularly? (%)

21.1 0 0-100 9

62

4. Export freight forwarder practice ... what in-transit temperature control measures are used?

Respondent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

None

Dry ice

Reflective film

Insulation

Aluminium foil

Bubble wrap

n/a

/

note: shaded rectangles represent an affirmative response.

63

Summary: Export freight forwarder practice ... what in-transit temperature control measures are used?

Mean Number respondents

Dry ice .18 11

Reflective film .09 11

Insulation .09 11

Aluminium foil .09 11

Bubble wrap .09 11

None .73 11

64

5. Airline practice (a) How many different export air transport companies service your company in the export of fresh cut flowers and foliage? ..... _____ (b) What proportion of your export air transport companies use cold storage at dispatch and arrival terminals ..... _____% (c) What temperatures do your export air transport service companies run their transport and storage facilities at? at terminals ..... _____ to _____oC in the air ..... _____ to _____oC (d) How long do your export air transport service companies have possession of fresh cut flowers destined for you? ..... (range in time) _____ to _____ hours. (e) What other in-transit temperature control measures do they use (e.g. dry ice)? 1. ________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________ (f) What proportion of your export air transport service companies monitor transport temperatures? 1. sometimes ..... _____% 2. regularly ..... _____%

65

5. Airline practice

Respondent 1 2 3a 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

No. of airlines? 4 2 Un. 2 1 6 1-2 6-8 >5 8 3 5 12 10 15 8

Cold storage at terminals? (%)

100 0 Un. / 100b Un. 0 Un. 0 25 100 100 100 0 90 30

Storage temperature at terminals? (oC)

2-5 / Un. / 2-5 Un. 12-40c

Un. 2-5 Un. 4-6 n/a 5-10

4-8

Transport temperature in the air (oC)

Un. / Un. / Un. Un. Un. Un.d Un. Un. 8 n/a 6-12

15-23

Time in airline's possession (h)

2-4 12-17

Un. / 48-72

3-5 6-8 10-24 12-20

10 12-24 2-5 12-48

9-36

Monitor transport temperatures, sometimes? (%)

Un. / Un. Yese 0 0 0 Un. 0 0 0 /

Monitor transport temperatures, regularly? (%)

Un. / Un. / Yes 0 0 100 Un. 0 0 0 /

In-transit temperature control measures?

Un. / Un. Yesfg No No Un. Un. Yesh No No Yesi

a This part of the procedure is left to the export freight forwarder (volunteered information). b Unknown at arrival terminal, therefore 100% at dispatch (volunteered information). c Ambient (volunteered information). d Unknown temperature, assumed to be ambient (volunteered information). e For shipments bound for Europe and USA (volunteered information). f Insulation, g Dry ice, h Dry ice, i Cold storage agents

66

Summary: Airline practice

Mean Mode Range Yes (%) No. respondents

No. of airlines? 6 2, 5, 8 1-15 15

Cold storage at terminals? (%) 53.8 100 0-100 12

Storage temperature at terminals? (oC)

7.9 2-40 7

Transport temperature in the air? (oC)

12 6-23 3

Time in airline's possession? (h)

17.1 2-72 12

Monitor transport temperatures, sometimes? (%)

6

Monitor transport temperatures, regularly? (%)

6

In-transit temperature control measures?

42.9 7

67

6. Import freight forwarder practice (a) How many different import freight forwarder companies service your company in delivery for export of fresh cut flowers and foliage? ..... _____ (b) What proportion of your import freight forwarder companies use cold storage at their terminal ..... _____% (c) What temperatures do your import freight forwarder companies run their transport and storage facilities at? storage ..... _____ to _____oC transport ..... _____ to _____oC (d) How long do your import freight forwarder companies have possession of your fresh cut flower consignments? ..... range = _____ to _____ hours. (e) What other in-transit temperature control measures do they use (e.g. dry ice, polystyrene insulation in air containers, reflective film)? 1. ________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________ (f) What proportion of your import freight forwarder transport companies monitor transport temperatures? 1. sometimes ..... _____% 2. regularly ..... _____%

68

6. Import freight forwarder practice

Respondents 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12a 13 14 15 16 17

No. of import freight forwarders?

15 4 Un. / Un. 10 9 5 1 6 1 /

Cold storage at terminals? (%)

Un. 100 Un. / Un. 100 66 20 100 50 100 /

Temperature of storage? (oC)

Un. 3-5 Un. / Un. Un. 5-8 2-5 2 4-8 3-8 /

Temperature of transport? (oC)

Un. 3-5 Un. / Un. Un. Un. 2-5 2 Un.b 10-25 /

Time in import freight forwarder's possession? (h)

Un. 6-12 Un. / Un. 6-10 24-48 1-5 1-4 24-72c

2-8 /

Monitor transport temperatures, sometimes? (%)

Un. 0 Un. / Un. Un. Un. 0 100 0 0 /

Monitor transport temperatures, regularly? (%)

Un. Un. / Un. Un. Un. 0 0 0 0 /

In-transit temperature control measures?

Un. Un. Un. / Un. / Un. Un. 0 0 0 /

a The flowers are consigned to customers, thus there is no import freight forwarder (volunteered information). b Unrefrigerated (volunteered information). c Time it takes to clear (volunteered information).

69

Summary: Import freight forwarder practice

Mean Mode Range No. respondents

No. of freight forwarders? 6.4 1 1-15 8

Cold storage at terminals? (%) 76.6 100 20-100 7

Temperature of storage? (oC) 4.6 2-8 6

Temperature of transport? (oC) 6.75 2-25 4

Time in import freight forwarder's possession? (h)

15.9 1-72 7

Monitor transport temperatures, sometimes? (%)

20 0 0-100 5

Monitor transport temperatures, regularly? (%)

0 0 0 4

In-transit temperature control measures?

0 0 0 3

70

7. Market practice (a) How many primary markets (e.g. OTA, Aalsmeer) do your flower consignments reach in: 1. Japan ..... _____ 2. Europe ..... _____ 3. North America ..... _____ 4. Elsewhere ..... _____ (b) What proportion of each of these markets offer coldroom facilities? 1. Japan ..... _____% 2. Europe ..... _____% 3. North America ..... _____% 4. Elsewhere ..... _____% (c) What temperatures do the markets run their coolrooms at? ..... (range in temperature across markets)_____ to _____oC (d) How long are your fresh cut flower consignments at the primary market? ..... (range in time) _____ to _____ hours.

71

7. Market practice ... How many primary markets do flower consignments reach?

Respondent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

a) Japan 230 Yes 4 40-50

0 >50 Yes 7 3 0 6 100 15 40-100

b) Europe 6 Yes 0 1 0 2 Yes 3 0 1 8 1 0 6

c) North America 0 Yes 0 6 0 1 0 1 0 12 0 2 12

d) Elsewhere 4 Yes 0 0 1 >5 3a 1b 14c 16d 0 4 15

... What proportion of these markets offer coldroom facilities? (%)

a) Japan Un. 100 Un. Un. 10 Un.e 57 100 100 Un. 40 Un.

b) Europe Un. 100 Un. 100 100 100 100 100 100 Un. Un.

c) North America Un. 100 Un. Un. 100 100 100 100 Un.

d) Elsewhere Un. 100 Un. 100 Un. 100 100 30f 60 75 Un.

Coldroom temperatures? (oC)

Un. 3-5 Un. Un. Un. Un. 8g Un. 2-5 4-6 Un. Un.

Time at primary markets? (h)

Un. 6-12

Un. Un. 2-6 6-12

Un. Un. 1-72 1-12 1-24 12-24

6-18

a One in Canada, two in Taiwan (volunteered information). b In Taiwan (volunteered information). c Ten in Hong Kong, three in Singapore and one in Taiwan (volunteered information). d In Asia (volunteered information). e Importer has coldroom facilities (volunteer information) f 100% in Singapore and 0% in Hong Kong and Taiwan (volunteered information). g Relates to Japan only, as other information was not known (volunteered information).

72

Summary: Market practice ... How many primary markets do flower consignments reach?

Mean Mode Range No. respondents

a) Japan 44.2 0 0-230 12

b) Europe 2.3 0 0-8 12

c) North America 2.8 0 0-12 12

d) Elsewhere 5.3 0 0-16 12

... What proportion of these offer coldroom facilities? (%)

a) Japan 67.8 100 10-100 6

b) Europe 100 100 100 7

c) North America 100 100 100 5

d) Elsewhere 80.7 100 30-100 7

Coldroom temperatures? (oC) 5.1 2-8 4

Time at primary markets? (h) 13.4 8

73

8. Wholesaler practice (a) Please estimate how many wholesalers and/or secondary markets might handle fresh cut flowers consigned by you? ..... _____ (b) Please estimate what proportion of these have and utilise coolrooms? ..... _____% (c) Please estimate the period during which flowers consigned by you are in the hands of secondary markets and/or wholesalers? ..... (range in time) _____ to _____ (hours)

74

8. Wholesaler practice

Respondent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

No. of wholesalers ?

Un. 600 2 Un. 2 1 >10 Un. 10-12a 20 15 140 100 20 200

Utilisation of coldrooms (%)

Un. 75 Un. 0 100 100 Un. 0 100 50 80 0 60 Un.

Time flowers are with wholesalers? (h)

Un. 12-24

Un. 1-24 12-36

Un. Un. Un. 1-120 1-48 1-36 12 2-24

a Relates to Japan only (volunteered information).

75

Summary: Wholesaler practice

Mean Mode Range No. respondents

No. of wholesalers? 93.4 2, 20 1-600 12

Utilisation of coldrooms? (%) 56.5 0, 100 0-100 10

Time flowers are with wholesalers? (h)

22.9 1-120 8

76

9. Retailer practice (a) Please estimate how many retailers might handle fresh cut flowers consigned by you? ..... _____ (b) Please estimate what proportion of these have and utilise coolrooms prior to display? ..... _____% (c) Please estimate the period during which flowers consigned by you are in the hands of retailers? ..... (range in time) _____ to _____ (hours)

77

9. Retailer practice

Respondent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16a 17

No. of retailers? Un. >2000 Un. 20 Un. Un. Un. 50-100

22 420 100 80-100

Un.

Use of coldrooms prior to display? (%)

Un. 50 Un. 30 Un. Un. 100b <50 15 80 10 45-50

Un.

Time flowers are with retailers? (h)

Un. 12-48 Un. 12-36

Un. Un. Un. 24-120

48 1-36 10-100

1-24 Un.

a The company does not sell to retailers in export and did not source information (volunteered information). b Japan only (volunteered information).

78

Summary: Retailer practice

Mean Mode Range No. respondents

No. of retailers? 389.6 20-2000 7

Use of coldrooms prior to display? (%)

47.8 50 10-100 8

Time flowers are with retailers? (h)

37.1 1-120 7

79

10. R & D requirements (a) Are you satisfied with current temperature control procedures as they relate to the export of cut flowers and foliage from Australia? ..... Yes or No (b) Would you please indicate what you consider to be critical problem areas related to the export of cut flowers and foliage from Australia: 1. ________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________ (c) Do you consider that further research, development and extension aimed at maintaining the cold chain for export cut flowers and foliage from Australia is necessary? ..... Yes or No (d) Do you consider that such research, development and extension would be justified on a cost/benefit basis? ..... Yes or No (e) Would you please indicate benefits that might accrue from improved maintenance of the cold chain for export cut flowers and foliage (e.g. increased sales, improved importer confidence)? 1. ________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________

80

10. R & D requirements

Respondent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Satisfied with current temperature control procedures?

No Yes No No No No No No No No No No No No No No

Is R & D on cold chain maintenance necessary?

Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Would R & D be justified on a cost benefit basis?

Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Summary: R & D requirements

Yes (%) No. respondents

Satisfied with current temperature control procedures?

6.3 16

Is R & D on cold chain maintenance necessary?

82.4 17

Would R & D be justified on a cost benefit basis?

80 15

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10. R & D requirements Critical problem areas related to export of cut flowers and foliage from Australia. Respondent Comment 1 Delay in product getting into airport coldrooms prior to departure. 2 Air space. 3 Coolroom facilities at airports. 4 Poor storage facilities. Export freight from Australia to high $. Total lack of understanding of greenlife products. 5 The way all the airlines do not care about the handling of fresh flowers after they leave

the freight forwarders. This observation is as a result of temperature on arrival at destination.

6 Quality. Price/Costs. Skills and craftsmanship. 7 Poor infrastructure in importing countries. Unrefrigerated land transport. 8 Domestic transit. Lack of knowledge by transport companies. Time spent on tarmac. 9 Lack of perishable product facilities at airport terminal. Airfreight space and cost of freight. Airfreight space and Australian costs. 10 Shorter cut-off time at airport (last on, first off). Acceptable refrigeration standards at point of departure from airport. Wholesalers and retailers in Japan do not handle well. 11 Being stored with other products (eg. fruit), thus being stored at the wrong temperature. Not maintaining the cold chain. Lack of information on handling by airlines. 12 Offloaded and held-over, not put into cool storage quickly over seas and in Sydney.

The problem here is getting from the domestic to the international airport. 13 Acceptance of airlines in Australia - bad facilities and not put into cold storage. 14 At airline of dispatch, left in the sun before put on the plane. At arrival terminal overseas (Tokyo), left in the sun. 15 Packaging in flimsy boxes. Availability of information. Freight forwarders need refrigerated transport, the growers cool at the farm then it heats

up again in transport. Offloading from planes is not a high priority. Growing season needs to be extended and quality improved, thus achieve consistency

of supply, this is the biggest problem. 16 Flower drop (ethylene build up). Airport handling systems. Continuity of supply. 17 Inspection breaking open containers/cartons, letting in heat. Lack of cooling at all growers. Quarantine inspection fees.

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Benefits that may accrue from maintenance of the cold chain? Respondent Comments 1 Increased sales. Improved importer confidence. 2 See no benefits accrued within our present organisation. It may be beneficial to other

growers. 3 Improved quality on arrival. Increased sales. Customer satisfaction. 4 Increased sales. 5 Increase in price. 6 Professionalism. Profitability. Stable trade. 7 Improved confidence. Increased sales. 8 Increased sales. Improved importer confidence. 9 Almost all control is lost by exporters after product is in the possession of the freight

forwarders. Total control is lost when product is with the airline. Importers confidence will improve with better quality.

Increasing sales will be difficult as Australian costs and charges are making exports uncompetitive.

10 Increased quality. Increased price. Quality assurance/control. 11 Increased quality and returns. Less chance of damage. 12 Product arrive in better condition, leading to increased sales and price. 13 Increase total turnover. 14 Increase value added - better prices. Increased sales. Improved importer confidence. 15 Increased sales. Improved reputation - international respect. Improved importer confidence. Development of the industry. 16 Improved importer confidence. Increase in range of product that can be sold. Hopefully increase in sales. 17 Improved quality (vase-life) at other end. Improved perception of quality in Japan.

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A5. Overseas Travel Itinerary and Contacts A5.1 The Netherlands A5.1.1 Datesa: 1.11.95 to 3.11.95 A5.1.2 Contact Research Organisation: Agrotechnological Research Institute

(ATO-DLO), Bornsesteeg 59, P.O. Box 17, NL-6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands.

A5.1.3 Meetings/Visits: Dr. E.J. Woltering and colleagues (ATO-DLO,

Wageningen), Mrs. I. van der Pluym (Bloemen Veiling Holland, Naaldwijk), Mr. R. Timmerman (Bloemenveiling Aalsmeer, Aalsmeer), Dr. R. van Gorsel and colleague (Research Station for Floriculture and Glasshouse crops, Aalsmeer).

A5.2 Israel A5.2.1 Dates: 5.11.95 to 9.11.95 A5.2.2 Contact Research Organisation: Agricultural Research Organisation, P.O.

Box 6, Bet-Dagan 50250, Israel. A5.2.3 Meetings/Visits: Carmel export facilities (Ben Gurion airport), Australian

native cut flower and pot plant growers (NIR Nursery, Kfar-Hess, and Mashiah Nursery, Tzur Moshe), Drs. S. Meir and S. Philosoph-Hadas and colleagues (The Volcani Centre, Bet-Dagan), cut flower packing house (Telmond) and Australian native plant nursery (Wende Nursery, Ein Vered), Prof. A. Halevy and colleagues (The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot).

A5.3 California (USA) A5.3.1 Dates: 13.11.95 to 17.11.95, 20.11.95 to 22.11.95, 24.11.95 A5.3.2 Contact Research Organisation: University of California, Davis CA

95616, USA. A5.3.3 Meetings/Visits: Prof. M. Reid and colleagues (University of California,

Davis), cutflower (including Australian natives) growers (Dos Osos Multiflora, Pajaro Valley, Brothers Brothers and US Flowers, Watsonville), cut flower transport facility (Wilsey Bennett, Watsonville), wholesale cut flower market (San Francisco), cut flower importer (Bill Suyeyasu Wholesale Florist, Fremont).

(a travel and weekend or public holiday dates are not shown.)

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A6. Additional Information A6.1 from Holland: * natural anti-ethylene products (like AVG) are being isolated from bacteria; aim is reduced cost through production in bioreactors. * essential oils which inhibit fungal growth and development are being tested. * bacteria which inhibit fungal growth and development are being tested. * the molecular basis of carnation (climacteric) and iris (non-climacteric) senescence is being investigated; in iris, the early stages of senescence are being examined with a view to down regulate genes controlling senescence of this short vase life (3 to 4 d) flower ... membrane changes are also being studied. * anti-ethylene treatment of iris helps ensure peduncle extension; otherwise, no role of ethylene in development or senescence. * ethylene, not ACC, is the factor moving to petals during pollination-induced petal senescence. AIB is an analogue of ACC. * water uptake by roses is greater in deep than in shallow water, possibly because of hydration of the bark and/or infusion via lenticels (localised dye uptake can be seen). * chlorophyll fluorescence is being developed as a technique to `predict' postharvest performance of pot plants and cut flowers and foliage. * headspace ethanol and acetaldehyde concentrations and `electronic nose' technology (generates a `headspace signal' with solid state sensors) is being applied in modified and controlled atmosphere storage research. Electronic feedback controllers will then be made available to industry. * carbohydrates and proteins are successfully being used in pilot scale manufacture `environmentally friendly' films for packaging. * research into tomato softening at the molecular level is being undertaken. * the Flower Auction Holland auction is comprised of the following areas: growers (delivery) area --> storage (coolstore/presentation) area--> auction --> buyers (purchase assembly) area --> transport; the auction also negotiates on the behalf of growers (i.e. brokers) sales of large quantities directly to individual buyers; in addition, the auction operates a cash-and-carry sales centre. * Dutch auctions operate on the falling price clock system, where potential buyers compete against each other. * most product from Flower Auction Holland goes to Germany, Great Britain, France and other European countries. * roses, carnations and chrysanthemums are the major flower lines, and kalanchoe, African violet, chrysanthemum and ficus are the major pot plant lines. * the auction conducts testing for both `external' and `internal' quality; external quality is assessed by trained inspectors; internal quality and tests for pretreatments are conducted by the auction's postharvest laboratory (e.g. bacterial counts in stems, silver content of STS-treated flowers); the postharvest laboratory also tests new i. pretreatments, ii. lines of pot plants or cut flowers and foliage, iii. techniques for quality testing, and iv. packaging; longevity comparisons of local versus imported cut flowers are also conducted; a project to develop a quality label for pot plants, utilising chlorophyll fluorescence to assess internal quality, is underway ... Flower Auction Holland (Naaldwyck), United Flower Auctions (Aalsmeer) and Agrotechnological Institute (Wageningen) are partners in this project.

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* overseas suppliers whose product does not meet auction standards are given one warning; next time the product is banned ... for local growers, this strict regulation is not possible; a private auction (cf. the co-operative auctions) has been established, which does not have such strict requirements of imports. * the future for STS as an antiethylene treatment is limited; STS is still allowed for 2 years minimum; STS solution cannot be taken to the auction, thus, it must be applied on farm and the excess taken to a chemical depot; nowadays, all pretreatments must be registered (e.g. aluminium sulphate, chlorine, wetters, quaternary ammonium compounds) as they are treated as pesticides; AOA is widely used for carnations in place of STS, but is toxic to other cut flowers. * chlorine is registered as dry tablets; registration of liquid chlorine is in progress. * trend is towards registration for treatment of specific products (e.g. STS for delphinium). * another trend is towards MPS rating of individual growers for chemical input (growers record everything they use; ratings are A = very little pesticides, B = more, C = more again) ... versus no MPS rating; low MPS rating is preferred by buyers (e.g. exports to Switzerland). * manganese sulphate is used as a tracer for chlorine and gibberellin treatments; it is proposed to develop a bioassay (e.g. rice coleoptile extension) for gibberellin pretreatment * wholesalers / exporters buy both through the auctions and from growers. * reputation is a major factor determining the volume purchased and the price paid for cut flowers. * wholesalers / exporters tend to have their own quality control department; they also work with Dutch auction employees to test longevity characteristics of pot plants and cut flowers and foliage lines; simulated transport is included in postproduction quality testing programs. * more and more flowers are being exported as mixed bunches (e.g. summer, fall, winter and spring colour mixes). * supermarket customers seek and prefer guaranteed product (e.g. 7 and 14 day customer guarantees on bunches of mixed cut flowers and foliage). * in Europe, a great proportion of the flowers are handled wet because they stay `fresh' and it is easy for the store to display them in their non-returned buckets. However, packing for transport is not space efficient; one exporter estimates 20 to 30% wet and 70 to 80% dry, and expects more like 50:50 in 12 months time. * flower exports to Japan experience three inspections for insects: i. auction, ii. exporter and iii. Japanese inspector. Methyl bromide fumigation facilities are available at Aalsmeer. However, if insect problems are experienced, the more common solution is to "find another grower". * one exporter has a team of people specifically trained to pack flowers for dispatch to Japan. Packaging materials include: slip-prevention foam (on the bottom), wood wool (at the ends), liners (between the wood wool and the flower heads), sleeves (for each bunch) and ice packs (2 per carton). * new cut flower cultivars are tested for longevity by the Research Station for Floriculture (Aalsmeer); those that do not achieve a high quality rating are not accepted by the auction markets. * mixtures of bacteria are used to inoculate vase solutions used in tests. These mixtures are stored in a freeze-dried state. * roses vary in their sensitivity to Botrytis cinerea (e.g. Sonia and Mercedes are sensitive and Frisco is not) ... surface properties of petals may affect the ability of Botrytis cinerea

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spores to germinate on and penetrate into the tissue. Control of Botrytis cinerea is a major research area in Holland. * the water relations of cut flowers are under investigation, especially with a view to reducing bent neck in roses and gerbera. Cold, de-aerated water is useful, possibly because it absorbs air in stems. * simulated transport studies involve holding pot plants or cut flowers at 70% relative humidity and 15oC for 2 days in the dark. Vibration effects have been investigated, and it is found that a lot of physical injury occurs. Organs rub against one another; e.g. a leaf edge may cut into another organ, such as a flower stem. There does not appear to be an increase in ethylene production as direct result of vibration. Disease incidence may increase because of all the wound sites resulting from rubbing. * the effects of preharvest factors (e.g. irrigation with saline water) on postharvest performance of cut flowers and potted plants is another area of investigation. * proposed research will investigate in detail the physiology of the response of plant material and insects to disinfestation treatments (e.g. controlled atmospheres) with a view to reducing reliance on less `environmentally friendly' treatments and in support of increased marketing into Japan. A6.2 from Israel: * Carmel is the main export company for Israeli flowers. It is part of Agrexco, the government's export company for fruit, vegetables, flowers and grains. About 30% of cut flowers are marketed by Carmel, whereby Carmel takes responsibility for their quality. The rest, around 70%, are exported in bulk packs directly to the Dutch auctions. In this case, Carmel may still handle them but takes no responsibility for their quality. There are eight packing houses for flowers in Israel. Each has its own quality control inspection, but final inspection is undertaken at Carmel's facilities at the Ben Gurion airport. All flowers leave Israel via Ben Gurion airport. Carmel has six branch offices overseas (Europe, USA). * growers pack some flowers, but most arrive in buckets at the regional packinghouses. * the central packinghouse has 10 cut flower quality inspectors. Possible outcomes of poor rating upon inspection by Carmel at Ben Gurion are: i. reduce quality rating (lower price), ii. reduce price paid to regional packinghouse (lower return), or iii. don't ship (no return). Handling protocols and quality standards are set by commodity branches under the flower board. Quality defects include bent stems, fungal infection and visible spray residues. * if insect disinfestation is needed at the central packinghouse, the responsible grower is ultimately charged accordingly. * from the total returns, the central packinghouse pays itself out, then pays the regional packhouses, who then pay their growers. * major costs to Carmel include airfreight (ca. $1,000 per tonne) and packaging (ca. $3 per box). * Bulk cut flower packs are called `tivols'. Growers can put as many flowers as fit and whatever mixes they like into tivols. These flowers go to the Dutch flower auctions, where they are put into buckets. * most flowers are exported during the Dutch winter period. There is a move the produce summer flowers, but there are quality problems. * Israeli growers can import native Australian plant material as cuttings and in tissue culture. Small field trials to evaluate floriculture potential may be undertaken. Selection,

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and in some instances (e.g. waxflower, kangaroo paw), breeding and selection (deliberate and chance crosses) is carried out. * waxflowers (including C. uncinatum * C. megallopetallum hybrids and species other than C. uncinatum e.g. C. ciliatum), verticordias, boronias, woollybush, hypocalyama, thryptomene, smoke bush, stirlingia, kangaroo paws, diosma and banksia are among the flower crops of Australian origin which are grown or are under evaluation. Big differences in the survival and growth of different waxflower genotypes are observed in test plots. * all genetic material is tested for postharvest longevity (vase life). A vase life of 7 to 10 days at room temperature (20 to 25oC) is considered acceptable, although shorter vase lives are O.K. for material with `novel' characteristics. * property size is increasing; it used to be that 2000 m2 was O.K. for native cut flower growers, now-a-days 10 to 30,000 m2 is more economically viable. * powdery mildew is a problem of waxflower. It appears to clear up after rain. As it causes leaf drop, infected plants do not recover too well from heavy pruning. * k. paw is mostly grown under shade cloth, which offers protection from rain and hail damage. * waxflower flowering can be advanced by 2 weeks (in a shadehouse) and retarded by 2 weeks (with nitrogen fertiliser). * a particular problem with material of Australian origin is nutrition on neutral (pH 7 to 7.2) soils, so NH4 and SO4 are widely used; also, Fe sprays are needed. * bypass or on- growth is reduced by reducing water supply (reduce irrigation frequency, but not the total amount). * it is not a problem to get phytosanitary certificates and send rooted cuttings to Japan in Jiffy Pots. * flowering pot plants (e.g. waxflower, k. paws) are exported to Europe by air. Woolly bush makes a nice potted foliage plant. * a big problem in export of ornamental material is rough handling. * a commercial enterprise growing plants of Australian origin as flowering pot plants may grow 3 or 4 cultivars (e.g. colours) of 3 or 4 species (e.g. waxflower, thryptomene, boronia, diosma) in several pot sizes (e.g. 4 inch up to landscape plants). * flowering pot plants are typically exported to Europe, but may go as far a Japan (provided insects can be eliminated). * plant growth regulators are used to control cut flower (e.g. increase stem length and straightness) and pot plant (e.g. compact) form of plants of Australian origin. * grevillea is grown by one grower / nurseryman as an export cut flower line; viz. `Spiderman' = G. whiteana (white). G. `Honey Gem' and G. `Pink Parfait' are grown for yellow and pink inflorescences, respectively. Good yields and financial returns are achieved, despite agronomic problems with chlorosis, stunting and flower drop / abortion. At present, cut grevillea flowers are handled in chlorine solution, which helps clean up the superficial fungus that can discolour stems. * trouble, in terms of stunting and chlorosis, is experienced in growing some banksias in Israel. * herbs are exported to Europe: basil is stored at >12oC and all others at low temperature. M.A. bags (i.e. no holes) are used to package those which yellow (e.g. coriander, parsley) [increased CO2 inhibits ethylene], and microperforated bags are used for those that blacken [avoids M.A., but keeps R.H. very high]. * ixora is chilling sensitive, and leaf abscission results. Treatments with anti-oxidants and NAA reduce injury, STS treatment does not, and exposure to sunlight exacerbates the damage (photooxidation). ACC content increases, but not ethylene production.

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Accordingly, a relationship between auxin metabolism and leaf abscission is hypothesised. * the leaves of solidaster, solidago and chrysanthemum wilt earlier than the flowers, thereby giving poor visual appearance. Treatment with cytokinin (e.g. BA) and/or with wetting agent (e.g. CTA) delays leaf wilting and senescence. Anti-transpirants may also be useful. * the control of flowering in waxflower and kangaroo paw is an area of research interest. * the development of new ornamental crops is a significant issue in Israel. Rose sales are stable or maybe increasing only slightly; carnation sales are falling (due to competition from African states). Mixed lines of relatively minor crops account for ca. 1/2 of the Israeli cut flower industry. Scented flowering phlox is a popular line, as is peony. Breeding of improved perennial limonium (e.g. for smaller stem angles to facilitate packing) and carnations (e.g. for sprays of 10's of 0.5 to 2 cm diameter flowers per stem) are examples of successful projects. With new anenome varieties, profits of ca. $10 thousand per ha are being achieved. It often takes a strong partnership with a private company, and 7 to 10 years support, to develop a new crop. An important research and extension strategy is to develop a package (culture, flowering control, postharvest) for industry. * High CO2 (e.g. 2%) in CA storage induces leaf fall in waxflower. Sensitivity to ethylene increases following storage of waxflower plants for 2 weeks at 6oC. Storage at 6oC is better than storage at 2oC. Exposure to 5% CO2 for 1 day at 20oC may help `pop' waxflower flowers open, but causes some leaf abscission. * acetaldehyde or ethanol accumulation may increase sweetness in non-climacteric fruit. They may delay ripening in non-climacteric fruit. High N2 and high CO2 and low O2 all induce acetaldehyde (AA) accumulation in plant tissue. * flower abscission in a number of harvested waxflower cultivars was not induced by water stress, unless it was very severe. Studies are now focusing on the role of auxin metabolism in postharvest flower fall in waxflower. * ethylene and roses: ethylene affects carbohydrate metabolism in roses, such that ethylene can induce starch breakdown. The opening response to ethylene of rose flowers varies with cultivars. In some cultivars, ethylene treatment promotes opening while in others it retards opening. * senescence (phaleanopsis orchid): in plant senescence, membranes act as sensing sites for environmental stimuli. Stimuli result in gene activation and protein synthesis via signal transduction. Exogenous jasmonic acid (a possible product of membrane degradation) treatment of flowers induces pigmentation, senescence and ethylene production. However, it does not induce its own accumulation or that of enzymes (e.g. LOX) that control its endogenous production. Short chain fatty acids, which might also accumulate as a result of membrane breakdown or pollination, increase sensitivity to ethylene and alter membrane properties. Signal transduction apparently involves sensing of s.c.f.a. by membranes and activation of GTP binding proteins to bind more GTP. GTP binding proteins can be activated by cholera toxin, which also induces senescence. Experiments with EGTA and channel blockers have shown that Ca2+ fluxes are also involved in signal transduction. The is no proof that PKC (animal signal transduction) is involved in transduction, but PK's (protein kinases) in general are involved and protein phosphorylation occurs. * pigmentation (petunia): gibberellin is involved, and wounding can also induce pigmentation of flowers (e.g. wounding at harvest). The proposed mechanism involves Ca2+ fluxes and phospholipid metabolism. As yet, there is no evidence for protein

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phosphorylation. Genes are activated, including chalcone synthase. Gibberellin may act by promoting growth, a consequence of which is pigmentation. * treatment of excised petunia buds with gibberellin induces an increase in the uptake of sucrose, as has been shown in carnations. * chilling injury: many tropical ornamentals have been looked at for production in Israel. Chilling thresholds have been determined in time * temperature matrix experiments. Ethylene production and respiration changes do not appear to be intimately involved in the chilling response. Differences in chilling sensitivity between clerodendron lines have been determined, and were maintained in cell cultures derived from the different lines. Protein metabolism is altered by chilling, and a single polypeptide was found to increase. Crops may be hardened for 3 or 4 days to be made more tolerant of chilling, but the response is transient. Hardening can be mimicked by treatment with triazoles, and lasts over 1 month. Data suggests that if sterol levels in membranes are lowered, they are more fluid, and the tissue is more tolerant of chilling. However, direct evidence is lacking. * some geophytes grow better (e.g. gladiolus produced flowers and bigger corms) when supplied with salty water. Preferential translocation of carbohydrates and water to the corms was apparent. * there is interest in understanding, at a molecular biological level, dormancy in tubers. * water stress results in senescence via increased ethylene production and sensitivity. Cycloheximide treatment reduces the sensitivity of cut flowers to water stress (i.e. recover faster, suffer less). CHI lowers protein synthesis and maintains a lower steady state level. * yeasts (Candida sp.) may be useful biocontrol agents for Botrytis cinerea in waxflower. Yeasts may colonise flowers better than Trichoderma, another biocontrol agent. Yeasts control wound pathogens by competition for nutrients. They product B-galactosidase, which may aid their attachment to fungal hyphae. Promising yeast lines have been isolated in Israel. An area of opportunity is to upregulate B-galactosidase production by yeasts. A commercial biocontrol agent is being developed in co-operation with USDA and Ecogen. Trichodex is a commercial Trichoderma-type formulation. Trichoderma has been successfully tested at the flower senescence stage in France (Dubois et al.) for control of Botrytis cinerea on grapes. * a research objective of two separate groups is to improve waxflower outturn in shipments to Japan. Strategies involve studying auxin metabolism, water relations and abscisic acid metabolism. Auxin treatment is thought to delay senescence of waxflower. A6.3 from California: * research has shown MCP treatment to be extremely effective for delaying and preventing, respectively, postproduction senescence and abscission in ornamentals (cutflowers and pot plants). Liquid as well as gas formulations are being tested. A commercial organisation in California has acquired the right to manufacture and market MCP. It should replace STS and other anti-ethylene treatments, being both simple to apply and highly effective. No significant restrictions to its registration are anticipated. * the respiratory climacteric is not present in tomato and melon fruit ripened on the vine. (Note: melons picked later than horticultural maturity typically show the climacteric ripening characteristic.) * kunzia foliage, eucalypt buds, flowers and foliage, banksia flowers and foliage, thryptomene, waxflower and kangaroo paws are among the ornamental products of Australian origin which are grown in California. Riceflower is viewed as a promising crop.

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* a lot of waxflower is imported from New Zealand. * marked flower fall and on-growth (bypass growth) afflicted waxflower from Australia which was on display in the San Francisco markets. * `new' flowers are highly sought after. Sunflower has had the biggest impact recently; before that it was liatris. * Californian growers are diversifying their crop range. They cannot compete with cheap, high quality carnations from South America. * flowers are generally kept in some form of preservative solution during wet handling. * waxflower from Australia is regarded as being somewhat inferior in quality much of the time. Specific problems mentioned were: i. <35% flowers open (beginning of the season), ii. overmature (end of season), iii. flower fall, and iv. dry ice burn. (Note: an importer was discarding two pallet loads of very overmature waxflower from W.A. when visited; a portion of this same consignment was also suffering dry ice burn.) * dyed waxflower is a popular line. * night harvesting, when the v.p.d. is low, may be an alternative to wet handling of cut flowers. * lasers that emit in the UV range are being developed to disinfect farm and nursery water suppliers (especially recycled water), and may also have a use in surface disinfection of harvested product. * virtually any stress will predispose tissue to pathogen invasion. This may be because stress-induced redirection of metabolism limits the subsequent host defence response. * auxin in pollen seems to induce an auxin-responsive ACC synthase that results in increased ACC and then increased ethylene production (with increased ACC oxidase activity). ACC is probably the mobile (labellum --> petals, etc.) senescence factor.