A Study On Opportunities and Services for Persons with Disabilities in Addis Ababa

ENDAN/CCM 2010

Table of ContentsList of Abbreviations 1. Introduction 2. Background 3. Available Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities3.1 State Measures 3.2 Trends in International Cooperation and Development

4 5 7 1616 23

4. Available Services for Persons with Disabilities 5. Level of Utilization of Available Opportunities and Services

25 27

6. Challenges of PwDs in Using Available Opportunities and Services 29 7. Strategies to Expand Opportunities and Services 8. Strategies for Disseminating Information Regarding Available Opportunities and Services 9. Conclusion and ImplicationsConclusions Implications for Project Implementation

30 31 3333 34

AnnexesAnnex A: List of Documents Reviewed Annex B: List of Institutions and Persons Contacted

3535 37

List of TablesTable 1. Table 2. Disability by Type and Percentage Disability Prevalence by Disability Type 12 13

List of AbbreviationsAAU CBR CCM CwDs DPO EC ENDAN ICF ILO MoLSA NGO PwDs ToR TVET WHO WwDs Addis Ababa University Community-Based Rehabilitation Comitato Collaborazione Medica Children with Disabilities Organizations of Persons with Disabilities /disabled person organization/ Ethiopian Calendar Ethiopian National Disability Action Network InternationalClassificationofFunctioning,DisabilityandHealth International Labour Organization Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs Non-governmental Organization Persons with Disabilities Terms of Reference Technical and Vocational Education and Training WorldHealthOrganization Women with Disabilities

1. IntroductionThe need to make special provision for those members of the community who live through the effects of disabilities has long been recognized in Ethiopia and beyond. Creation of special facilities fortheeducation,trainingandrehabilitationofpersonswithdisabilitiesisregardedasbeingof central importance in terms of improving the rights of a significant minority of the countrys population. Recentyearshavewitnessedadoptionoflaws,policies,strategies,programsaswellasissuanceof directivesandcircularsbytheFederalgovernmentofEthiopia,andtosomeextentbytheAddis AbabaCityAdministration,producingarangeofopportunitiesandfacilitiesforthissegmentof the society. Theprovisionofacomprehensiverangeoffacilities,servicesandopportunitiesforpersonswith disabilitiesthrougheducation,vocationaltraining,employmentandsupportduringadultlifecannot beamatterleftforthegovernmentalone.Particularly,theprovisionandgrowthofservicesof real quality requires the active co-operation of a large number of non-state actors at federal, regionalstate,cityandcommunitylevels,alongwiththeinvolvementoffamilies,professionalsand communities at large. Indeed,formostpersonswithdisabilitiesinEthiopia,supportandassistancecomesmainlyfrom familiesandfriends.However,theFederalgovernmentandthecityadministrationprovidearange of services both directly and indirectly to support their inclusion. Civil society organizations and the private sector also provide different preventive and rehabilitative services. Apart from disabilityspecificservices,thegovernmentandcivilsocietyorganizationsattempttomainstream theneedsofpersonswithdisabilities(PwDs)intheirplans,programandprojectinterventions. The services and opportunities made available are essential to enabling persons with disabilities to live independently as respected and equal members of society. As it is elsewhere in other partsofthedevelopingworld,however,availableopportunitiesandservicesforPwDsinEthiopia are limited. It goes without saying that enabling all PwDs in the country fully participate in social, economic, cultural and political lives cannot be done overnight. Full realization of such task requires enormous resource including trained human power which the state and non-state actorsalonecannotaffordatpresent.Progressively,however,stateandnon-statedevelopment actors are creating conducive environment for PwDs especially in Addis Ababa where the bulk ofopportunitiesandservicesareconcentrated.Nevertheless,PwDsinAddisAbabaarenotfully utilizingsupportservicesandopportunitiesmadeavailablefortheirbenefitdueto,interalia,lack ofinformation.Experienceofothercountriessuggeststhatserviceproviders[forPwDs]often concentrateonestablishinganddevelopingservices,butgivelessthoughttohowpersonswith disabilitiesfindoutaboutandaccessthem. Although there are researches conducted on various disability issues at the city and/or country level,thereremainsademonstratedgapintermsofeffectivelyrespondingtothepressingneedof availing such information to PwDs. Most of the research works undertaken so far are theoretical andnotactionoriented.Theremainingavailableaction-orientedstudiesalsofailtofillthegapas theyarecarriedoutwithotherobjectivesthanofspecificallyprovidingcompleteandpractical information to PwDs on available services and facilities.

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Systematiccollection,organizationanddisseminationofcomprehensiveandpracticalinformation onavailableopportunitiesandservicesisthushugelyimportantatleastfortworeasons.First,it is a crucial step in terms of creating a situation where PwDs can have effective access to available resources,andultimatelyfacilitatingtheirenablementtowardsanindependentliving.Second,it helps stakeholders, particularly ENDAN members, better plan their interventions, coordinate their efforts and avoid possible duplication as well as overlap of efforts. In view of this, ENDAN and CCM commissioned this assessment to document available opportunities and services in the Addis Ababa City Administration. The assessment is an initial step towards creating and maintaining a comprehensive database of non-governmental, governmental and private institutions engaged in providing services for PwDs inAddisAbaba, as well as of government policies, programs, laws, strategies, directives and circulars, which all together create opportunities for PwDs in the city. Although the present study is limited in scope toAddisAbaba,theresultshavebroaderimplications.Specifically,discussionaboutopportunities primarilyconcernsopportunitiescreatedbythefederalgovernment,andhencehascountrywide relevance.Inaddition,majorissuesaddressedbythestudywithrespectto,forinstance,challenges faced by PwDs are widely applicable to PwDs irrespective of their place of residence. Thegeneralobjectiveofthisresearchistoproduceacataloguewhichcontainsopportunitiesand theservicesPwDshaveinAddis.Thespecificobjectivesoftheresearchare: ToexploreandproduceacatalogueoftheopportunitiesandservicesthatPwDshavein Addis To share information with organizations which the consultant/researcher will contact To develop possible strategy/mechanisms of disseminating information regarding the opportunities and service available in the future To briefly describe challenges that PwDs face on getting opportunities and services available to them Toachievetheobjectives,bothqualitativeandquantitativeinformationwascollectedfromprimary andsecondarysourcesthroughvariousmethodsincludingthefollowing: Review of regulatory documents, policies, strategies, programs and reports of earlier studies(seeAnnexAforthelistofdocumentsconsulted). Key informant interviews with management and technical staff of relevant institutions and interviewswithPwDsingroups(listattachedasAnnexB)usingchecklistofquestions prepared for each group of stakeholder. Results of the study are presented in two volumes. This document provides some background information on the sate of disability issues and discusses existing opportunities and services available for PwDs in the city. It also presents the challenges commonly faced by PwDs and suggestsmechanismstodisseminatetheinformationtovarioustargetgroups.Theothervolume, whichispresentedseparately,providesthebasicinformationoninstitutionsrenderingservices to PwDs.

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2. BackgroundTo put the research in context, background information on the subject of disability in general, and in Ethiopiainparticular,isgiveninthissection.Thesectionpresentsgeneralinformationonopportunities and services availed for persons with disabilities; the situation of persons with disabilities in the country andaswellasthecountryspolicy,regulatoryandinstitutionalframeworkspertinenttodisabilityissues.As apreludetothis,theconceptofdisabilityisbrieflydiscussedtoestablishcommonunderstanding.

Conceptual frameworkSincedisabilityisarelativeconcept,itsnowonderthatitisdifferentlyunderstoodaccordingtocultures, attitudesandprevailingsocialnorms.Notwithstandingtheconceptsrelativenature,theneedtohavea framework for understanding and analyzing disability was felt decades ago and efforts made towards this haveproduceddifferentframeworksormodels.Identifiedmodelsofdisabilityare:themedicalmodel,the charitymodel,thesocialmodelandthebio-psychosocialmodel. Ofthesemodels,themedicalandsocialmodelshavelongbeendebatedandimpactedontheevolutionof the concept of disability. Different eras in world disability movement witness prominence of one model over the other. The medical model is a traditionally held view according to which disability is an individual persons medicalconditioninneedofcure,rehabilitationandadaptationtosociety.Inthismodel,focusisplaced onlimitationstododailyactivitieswithinthehome,suchasabilitytowalkorabilitytodressoneself;as such enabling persons with disabilities do the stated activities is equated with making them reach their maximumpotential. Ontheotherhand,thecharitymodelofdisabilityviewspersonswithdisabilitiesashelplesswhoneedto becared.Sincethismodelpresumespersonswithdisabilitiesasdependentbeings,itemphasizesondoing things for them rather than making sure that they have the resources to do it for themselves. In contrast to the medical and charity models, the social model of disability underscores inclusion or participation of persons with disabilities in society. It considers environmental or social factors as reasons forpersonswithdisabilitiesexclusionormarginalizationinsociety.Therefore,accordingtothismodel,the barrier for persons with disabilities participation in society is the society in which they live. The society doesnotprovidefortheneedsofpersonswithdisabilities(inaccessiblebuildings,nobrailbooks,nosign languageinterpreter,etc.)andthusdisablesthepersonbynotallowingfortheirinclusion.Thechallengeis forthesocietytoadjustortoaccommodatePwDs. The model which established the framework for contemporary understanding of disability is the biopsychosocial model.This approach acknowledges the significance of addressing both the medical and social dimensions of disability and as such views disability as multi-dimensional phenomena. Disability is understoodasaproductofinteractionbetweenapersonscertainconditionsandhisorherphysical,social, andattitudinalbarriers.Accordingtothismodel,medicalandrehabilitativeinterventionsareimportant in addressing body-level aspects of disability, i.e. impairments and limitations in a persons capacity to perform actions; while at the same time environmental and social interventions are essential to deal with restrictionsinapersonsparticipationineducational,economic,social,culturalandpoliticalactivities.1

1 WorldHealthOrganization/UnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacific, TRAININGMANUALonDISABILITYSTATISTICS(WHO/UNESCAP,2008),p.14 3

Box1:ICFConceptualizationofdisability2 Disabilityistheumbrellatermforanyorallof:animpairmentofbodystructureorfunction, alimitationinactivities,orarestrictioninparticipation.Thekeycomponentsofdisabilityare definedasfollows: Body functions are the physiological functions of body systems (including psychological functions). Body structures are anatomical parts of the body such as organs, limbs and their components. Impairmentsareproblemsinbodyfunctionandstructure,suchassignificantdeviation or loss. Activityistheexecutionofataskoractionbyanindividual. Participation is involvement in a life situation. Activitylimitationsaredifficultiesanindividualmayhaveinexecutingactivities. Participationrestrictionsareproblemsanindividualmayexperienceininvolvement in life situations. Environmental factors make up the physical, social and attitudinal environment in which people live and conduct their lives. These are recorded as either facilitators orbarriers(bothona5-pointscale)toindicatetheeffecttheyhaveonthepersons functioning.The bio-psychosocial model is theWorld Health Organizations (WHO) framework for understanding disabilityandhasformedthebasisfortheInternationalClassificationofFunctioning,DisabilityandHealth (ICF).TheidentificationofopportunitiesandservicesavailableforPwDsinthisstudyfollowsthisholistic model.

Prevalence of Disability and Situation of Persons with DisabilitiesAdequate and accurate information on the prevalence and situation of PwDs in Addis Ababa is indispensable for assessing availability of opportunities and services for PwDs in the city. Considering the significant implicationsuchinformationhasonthefindingsoftheresearch,aspartofdatacollectionactivityofthis researchsignificanteffortsweremadetoproducenumericalandqualitativeinformationontheprevalence and situation of PwDs.Accordingly, various research works have been assessed.These research works made by various organizations and individuals however fail to provide comprehensive information which isacceptablebyall.ItisnowonderthereforethatTirussewconcluded,informationontheprevalenceand situationofPwDsinthecountryarefragmentary,incompleteandsometimesmisleading3.Inparticular, available numerical information on the prevalence of disability is inconsistent and comprehensive numerical information on situation of PwDs has yet to be developed.This section therefore examines numerical information on the prevalence of disability in the country and the city and secondly provides generalized and qualitative information on the situation of PwDs in the country.

Prevalence of DisabilityAccordingtotheWorldHealthOrganizationestimates,10percentofadevelopingcountryspopulation hassometypeofdisability,and80percentoftheworldspersonswithdisabilitiesliveinthedeveloping world.Amongthem,20percentisestimatedtoliveinurbanareas.

2 WorldHealthOrganization(2002)Towards a Common Language for Functioning, Disability and Health The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF). WHO/EIP/GPE/CAS/01.3 Geneva, World Health Organization, pp. 10-12 3 TirussewTeferra,Disability in Ethiopia: Issues, Insights and Implications(2005,AddisAbabaPrinting Press),p.2 4

The number of PwDs is increasing due to population growth, aging, emergence of chronic diseases and medical advances that preserve and prolong life.4 As the United Nations Expert group noted, an even more increase in the number of PwDs can be imagined in Ethiopia due to poverty, ignorance, war, famine and drought coupled with unavailability of adequate preventive and rehabilitative services.5 ReviewofliteratureshowsthatWHOsestimatesaretheoftencitedsourcesindeterminingtheprevalence ofdisabilityindevelopingcountries.Moreover,itisobservedthatsomeinternationalorganizationsand internationalaidagenciesworking on disabilityissuesusethesefigures in their work.In thecourse of collecting datafor the research, many institutions contactedfor interview are noticed frequently using WHOsfiguresasastandardformeasuringtheprevalenceofdisabilityinthecountry,despitethefactthat therearecensusandsurveyreportscontainingcountryspecificinformationontheprevalenceofdisability in Ethiopia. Questions surrounding the reliability of information from domestically available census and survey reports mightexplainNGOsinEthiopiaapparentpreferenceforWHOsfigure.However,itshouldbepointedout herethatWHOsfigureshaveyettobesubstantiatedbystatisticalmethods,ascollectinginternationally comparabledataondisabilityisdifficult. sweshallseeindetaillaterinthissection,theissueofinternational A comparability of disability statistics or data is controversial not only in Ethiopia but also across the world. Inprovidinginformationontheprevalenceofdisabilityinthecountry,thisSectionwillprovideestimates fromdomesticallyavailabledatasources,inadditiontofiguresbasedonWHOestimates. Fromdomesticdatasourcesthreedocumentsareconsidered,namelythe1994andthe2007Population andHousingCensusReportsoftheCentralStatisticalAgency(CSA)andtheBaselineSurveyonDisability in Ethiopia conducted in 1995 by Institute of Educational Research, Addis Ababa University. Indeed, PopulationandHousingCensusReports,andforthatmatterotherstatisticalreportsproducedbythe CSA,areofficialsourcesonstatisticalinformationinthecountry.Althoughthe2007CensusReportisan updateofthe1994CensusReport,the1994CensusReportwillbeconsideredasthelatterhelpsinclearly understandingtheproblemondisabilitystatisticsinthecountry.Thoughnotasrecentasthe2007Census Report,AAUsSurveyReportwillalsobebrieflyconsiderednotonlybecauseitisregardedasoneofthe firstmajorundertakingsinthecountryondisabilityinformation,butalsoforsamereasonasthe1994 Census Report. The Section begins by providing information on the prevalence of disability in the country basedonWHOestimates. Given Ethiopias current total population figure which is 73,750,9326, the number of PwDs that live in thecountrybasedonWHOs10percentestimateismorethan7.37million.Ofthe7.37PwDsinthe country,about5.9millionofthemliveinruralareasandtheremainingabout1.47millionliveincities.If WHOsestimateissimilarlyadoptedfordeterminingprevalenceofdisabilityinAddisAbaba,thenumber ofPwDslivinginthecityisabout273,955,i.e.10percentofthecitysestimated2,739,551population7. AccordingtoWHOsestimates,thenumberofpersonswhohavesomeformofdisabilityinthecountry issignificant.SufficetosayaboutWHOestimates,nowthethreedomesticdatasourceswillbeexamined in chronological order.Thefirstofthethreereportstobeexaminedisthe1994CensusReport.AccordingtothisReportofthecountrys 53milliontotalpopulation988,885,or1.85%ofthetotalpopulation,werePwDs.Distributionofdisabilityinrural andurbanareaswas83%and17%.ThereportfurtherrevealsthatinAddisAbabatherewere45,936PwDswhich is2.18%ofthecitys2,100,031totalpopulation.TheReportthusprovidesdifferentfiguresthantheonesgenerated basedonWHOsestimate.Particularly,disabilityprevalencefigurethe1994CensusReportprovidesisthusmuch lessthanWHOs10percentfigure.However,thisReportisthoughttohaveunderestimatedthenumberofPwDsin the country.8 4 WorldHealthOrganization,GlobalProgrammingNote2006-2007:CallforResourceMobilizationand EngagementOpportunities(2006,WHO).p.1 5 UnitedNations,United Nations Expert Group Meeting on Disability-sensitive Policy and Programme Monitoring and Evaluation-Country Paper: Ethiopia(UNHQ, New York, 3-5 December 2001). Section D 6 CentralStatisticalAgency,PopulationandHousingCensus,(CSA,2007).p.7

7 8

Id. p. 1775

International Labour Office, Employment of People with Disabilities: The Impact of Legislation (East

The1994CensuscontainscountryandAddisAbabaleveldisabilityinformationdisaggregatedbydisability type at. Table 1 shows disability prevalence by type in Addis Ababa.

Table 1.

Disability by Type and Percentage

Disability Type

Prevalence

Percentage 28% 33.3% 13.9% 12.8% 5.8% 4.1% 1.8%

Visually 12,888 Physically 15,320 Hearing 6,402 Mental 5,912 Leprosy 2,673 Multiple 1,887 Others 854 Total 45,936 Source:CSA1994CensusReport

Domestic data source that comes after the 1994 Census report is the 1995 Survey Report.Though produced within similar timeframe as the 1994 Census Report, the Survey report provides different disability prevalence figure than the Census Report. According to the Survey Report, the countrys disabilityprevalencefigureis2.95%.Indeed,the2.95%figureishigherthanthe1.85%figuregeneratedby the1994CensusReport,yetitismuchlowerthanWHOestimate.AsshowninChart1providedbelow, the Survey Report contains distribution of disability according to disability type. It should be noted here thatdisabilitytypeclassificationusedintheSurveyReportisdifferentfromthatusedintheCensusreport, the two Reports data on prevalence of disability by disability type is not comparable.

Figure 1.

1995SurveyReportonthePrevalenceofDisabilitybyTypeattheNationalLevelSpeech and Language Cognitive Imapairmen Disability, t, 2.40% 6.50% Behavioral Multiple Problem, Disability, 2.40% 2% Motor Disorder, 41.20%

Visual Impairment, 30.40% Hearing Impairment , 14.90%

Africa)Ethiopia Country Paper (ILO, 2004). p.3 6

The third domestic data source to be examined is the 2007 Census Report. Compared to the other domesticdatasourcesconsidered,the2007CensusReportisproducedrecently,andassuchcontains mostrecentinformationavailableondisabilityprevalenceinthecountry.AccordingtotheReport,the numberofPwDsinthecountryis805,492whichis1.09%ofthecountrys73,750,932totalpopulation. Disabilityprevalencefigurethe2007CensusReportprovidesisnotonlymuchlowerthanWHOs10% estimate,butalsoislowerthanthe1994CensusReportandthe1995SurveyReportprovided.Same reportfurtherrevealsthatwomenaccountforabout47%ofPwDswhereasmenaccountforabout53%. Inadditiontoinformationatcountrylevel,the2007CensusReportalsoprovidesinformationatAddis Ababalevel.Ofthecitys2,739,551totalpopulationtheReportshowsthat32,630i.e.,1.19%arePwDs. Womenaccountforabout45%ofthecitysPwDspopulationwhilemalesaccountfortheremainingabout 55%.ThefollowingTable-2showstheReportsstatisticalinformationdisaggregatedbydisabilitytype.

Table 2.

Disability Prevalence by Disability TypeCountry Level Prevalence by Percentage Disability Type limbs, 160,172 20% 19% 12% 9% 9% 8% 6% 6% 5% 3% 2% 1% Addis Ababa Level Prevalence Prevalence by Percentage Disability Type 11,820 33% 4,149 3,090 2,807 2,929 2807 2,404 1,273 2550 600 475 309 32,630 12% 9% 8% 8% 8% 7% 4% 7% 2% 1% 1%

Disability Type

Non-functional lower Standing, Walking Difficulty Seeing 154,634 Blind 94,015 Other 75,845 Difficulty Hearing 73,632 Non-functional upper limbs, 60,341 Gripping, Handling Body Movement Difficulty 48, 384 Deaf and Unable to Speak Learning Difficulty Deaf Difficulty Speaking Unable to Speak Total SourceCSA2007Report 45,939 41,487 27,288 12,572 11,183 805,492

Generally,disabilitystatisticsordatabaseproducedindevelopingcountriesisnotedashavinggenerateda muchlessdisabilityfigurethanWHOs10%estimate.1.85%,1.09%and2.95%prevalencefigurethe1994 and2007CensusReportsandthe1995SurveyReportreinforcethestatement.Whiletherearemany reasons given to explain such a huge discrepancy, the following four are considered the main reasons inEthiopiascontext.OneisnegativeattitudetowardsdisabilityandPwDsprevalentinsomecultures, whichmakesparentsreluctanttodisclosePwDfamilymemberwhencontactedforcensusorsurveys, forexample.Thesecondreasonisabsenceofanestablishedsystemfordetectingpersonswithinvisible or less visible disabilities coupled with parents and communities low level awareness on these types of7

disabilities. The low technical competency of survey or census takers is the third reason given.9 The fourth andmajorreasonforwardedrelatestotherelativenatureoftheconceptdisabilityandtheimplications ithasindisabilitycollection.Indeed,itisdifficulttoimagineinternationallycomparabledisabilitydatainthe absenceofacommonoperationaldefinitionofdisabilitythatguidescountrieslikeEthiopiainmeasuring and collection of disability information. The fourth reason is forwarded not only to explain the discrepancy betweenWHOs estimates and domestic data sources, but also to explain inconsistency of figures observed between domestic data sources.Asnotedbefore,informationthethreedomesticsourcesprovideontheprevalenceofdisabilityin thecountryisinconsistent.Inconsistencyoffigureisobservedevenbetweendataproducedwithinsimilar timeframe.Suchinconsistencyismainlyexplainedbydifferencesinconceptualizingdisabilityaswellasin measurementsandclassificationsusedforcollectingdisabilitydata. Sincevariousstatisticaldatacitedifferentfiguresonprevalenceofdisabilityinthecountry,itisunlikelythat any the three sources can be treated with certainty. It is no wonder therefore that disability prevalence datatheMinistryofHealth(MoH)andtheMinistryofEducation(MoE)citeinrespecttocertaindisability typessignificantlydifferfromdatageneratedbytheCensusandSurveyreports.10 Understanding the need for producing internationally comparable disability statistics or data,WHO is nowleadinganinternationaleffortaimedatprovidingaunifiedandstandardlanguageandframework for understanding disability and for measurement and collection of information. This standard which the WHO re-launched in 2001 is now called the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health(ICF).Iffullyandmeaningfullyimplementedbyallnations,ICFisbelievedtohelpproduceconsistent and internationally comparable disability data. Todate,actorsinvolvedincollectingdisabilitydatainEthiopiahavenotfullyusedICFasaframeworkin their work. The fundamental question surrounding the reliability of disability information in the country will continue to be unanswered. If the question has to be answered soon and also the country is able to reapthebenefitsofadoptingit,ICFshouldbeadoptedassoonerthanlater. Indeed,theissueofdisabilitystatisticsistoowideandtoodeeptobedealtwithinthisresearch.Sufficeto say for now that when considering data sources the reader should always bear in mind the issue. Though disability statistics is, and continue to be, a controversial issue in the country, there are good enough information (numerical and otherwise) available to start action. The Condition of Persons with Disabilities Compared to information regarding other vulnerable groups such as women and children, information on the situation of PwDs inAddisAbaba, and in the country for that matter, is not well developed. DisabilityinformationgeneratedbythedatasourcesconsideredintheprecedingSectiondoesntinclude information on the life conditions of PwDs. Also, other surveys and studies conducted to generate statistical information on various socio-economic matters in the country have yet to provide disaggregated information.InformationprovidedinthisSectionwillbemoreofqualitativethannumerical.Totheextent possible effort will be done to provide numerical information. Despitedecadesofeffortsbymembersoftheglobalcommunityofpersonswithdisabilitiesforequality, it is a common knowledge that all over the world PwDs are excluded from mainstream society and9 HarilynRousso,Education for All: A Gender and Disability Perspective,Anunpublishedreportpreparedby HarilynRousso,CSW,DisabilitiesUnlimited,fortheWorldBank.p.1 10 Seedisabilityprevalencefigurescitedinthe2006 Special Needs Education Strategy of the Ministry of EducationandfiguresrevealedbyMinistryofHealths2006 National Survey on Blindness, Low Vision and Trachoma in Ethiopia.

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experience severe difficulties in accessing support services and facilities. In developing countries such asours,thegravityoftheirconditionisbelievedtobeevenworse,asresourcelimitationcanbeabig challenge,amongothers. PwDs dismal condition in the country and in Addis Ababa can be understood by looking into the multitude ofobstaclestheyencounterintheirlife.Suchobstaclesincludepoverty,resourcelimitation,publiclimited awareness on disability and negative attitude towards PwDs. ThoughthemajorityofPwDsinAddisAbabaareconsideredtobepoor,theexactmagnitudeofpoverty cannot be known as statistically representative information on distribution and level of poverty amongst PwDsinthecityhasyettobegenerated.Nonetheless,generalinformationonpovertyinEthiopiacombined with theWorld Banks default estimate figures, and the theoretical relationship between disability and poverty may provide some picture. InEthiopiapovertyisextensive.11Statisticalfiguresfortheyear2004/05showthatthenumberofpoor peopleinthecountryexceeding27.5million. 12Forthesameyear,inurbanareastheproportionofthe populationestimatedtobebelowpovertylineis35.1%.13GivenAddisAbabasvastpopulationsize,itwill notbedifficulttoimaginethenumberofpoorpeopleinthecity. Moreover,accordingtotheWorldBankthemajorityofPwDsindevelopingcountriesliveinpovertyand PwDs comprise about 20 per cent of the poorest of the poor.14BasedontheWorldBankestimate,PwDs makeupadisproportionatenumberofthecityspoorestpopulation. The strong relationship between disability and poverty can also indicate the disproportionate size of the citys PwDs living below poverty line. Poverty makes people become more vulnerable to disability, and disability reinforces and deepens poverty.The following quote describes the vicious cycle relationship very well: ... disabled individuals are faced with discrimination, social exclusion and stigma the moment they are perceivedtobeaffectedbyimpairment.Ifleftunaddressed,theseimpairmentstendtoaccumulateand translateovertimeintoaseriesofcumulativeexclusionsthatresultinsocialdisabilitiesandpoverty.15 Inlightofwhathavebeendescribedabove,onecanguessthatinAddisAbabathenumberofPwDsliving below poverty line is high. Indeed,povertyseverelylimitsPwDsmeansofsecuringsupportandfacilitiestheyneedontheirown.In ordertogettheneededsupportandfacilitiestheywillhavetorelyonfamilyandfriends,whomayormay notbeabletosecureforthem.Asfarasthepracticalsituationisconcerned,supportPwDsgetfromfamily andfriendsisoftenconfinedtoeverydayactivitieswithinthehome.Therearetworeasonsforthis.One reason for this is the prevailing tendency on the part of family and friends to view disability as a charity or asamedicalissue.Theotherreasonrelatestofinancialsituationoffamilies.Formanyfamilies,meeting alltheneedsofPwDs,particularlyforthosewhoseneedscannotbemetwithouthighleveloftechnical intervention,iseconomicallydifficult.Atthisjuncture,theroleofcommunitiesandotherdevelopment actorsincomplementingfamilieseffortsbecomesveryimportant. Communitiesandotherdevelopmentactorsdoindeedprovidemainstreamanddisabilityspecificfacilities11 CentralStatisticalAgency,WelfareMonitoringSurvey,(CSA,2004),p.2 12 MinistryofFinanceandEconomicDevelopment,APlanforAcceleratedandSustainedDevelopmentto EndPoverty(PASDEP)(2005/06-2009/10),p.26 13 Id. p. 23 14 Disability in Development: Experiences in Inclusive Practices (Handicap International and CBM Christoffel-Blindenmission Christian Blind Mission e.V. 2006). p.vii 15 World Bank, POVERTY REDUCTION STRATEGIES: THEIR IMPORTANCE FOR DISABILITY, Disability

and Development Team, July 7, 2004. p.5

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andservicesinthecity.Physicalinaccessibility,lackoftrainedhumanpower,etcarebigchallengesPwDs facedinbenefitingfrommainstreamservices.AvailableservicesspecificallytargetingPwDsinthecity,though animportantstep,areconsideredinadequateinmeetingtheprevailingneed.Inrespecttoadequately availablefacilitiesandservices,PwDsstillfailtoutilizethemduetolackofaccesstoinformationontheir availability. Itshouldbementionedherethat,thoughthecommunityhaveanacknowledgedcrucialroleindisability intervention,negativeattitudeaboutdisabilitythatisprevalentinsocietycontinuestobeadisablingfactor. Insomecommunities,thetraditionallyheldviewwhichconsidersdisabilityasacurseorasapunishment ofGodonPwDsandtheirfamiliesisaliveuptothepresentmoment.Moreover,societysperceptionabout PwDs and their potentials in life is distorted. The comment Dr. Tirussew made at the national level also illustrates the scenario in the city. InEthiopian,thereisageneraltendencytothinkofpersonswithdisabilitiesasweak,hopeless,dependent, and unable to learn and the subject of charity. The misconceptions of causal attribution added to the misunderstandings of the capabilities have resulted in a generally negative attitude and stereotyped discernment towards them.16 Itshouldbepointedoutherethatdisabilityhasgenderandagedimensions.Inotherwords,womenwith disabilities (WwDs) and children with disabilities (CwDs) face more serious challenges than PwDs in generalface.Ongroundsofgenderanddisability,societytreatsWwDsdifferently.Accordingly,theyhave less access to essential services and facilities.17Forreasonsofageanddisability,CwDsaccesstoessential services is likewise limited. In sum, the condition of PwDs in general, women and children in particular, is far from the ideal. If all PwDs should be able to live independently and participate fully in all aspects of societys life, disability interventions should take into account gender and age dimensions of disability. General information on opportunities and services for PwDs InterventionsforimprovingtheconditionsofPwDstakenoteofthemultidimensionalnatureofdisability, andassuchtakeintoaccountthefollowingareasofconcernasamatterofprinciple: Autonomy and independence of PwDs; Non-discrimination; Full and effective participation and inclusion in society; Respect for difference and acceptance of PwDs as part of human diversity and humanity; Equality of opportunity; Accessibility; Equality between men and women; and Respect for the evolving capacities of children with disabilities.

Followingthelistedthemesasguidingprinciples,developmentactorsstriveforimprovingtheconditions ofPwDsintwoways.Firstisbyfacilitatingthecreationofalevelplayingfieldthatequalizesopportunities for all PwDs. And second is by availing resources bent towards speeding up the inclusion of persons with disabilitiesinallaspectsofsocietylife,whethereconomic,social,andcultural,etc.

16 Tirussew,supranote3,p.7 17 World Programme of Action concerning Disabled Persons, adopted by the General Assembly in December 1982. 10

ExpandingopportunitiesandavailingfacilitiesandsupportservicesforPwDsrequireawholerangeof measuresandprovisionswhicharetoomanytolisthere.However,thefollowingprovisionsandservices canprovidesomepicture: FacilitatingaccessbyPwDstothephysicalenvironment,suchastransportation,buildings,roads, indoorandoutdoorfacilities,includingschools,housing,medicalfacilitiesandworkplaces,libraries, sporting,recreationalandtourismvenues; Developing and implementing of minimum standards and guidelines for the accessibility of facilities and services open or provided to the public; Promoting the design, development, production and distribution of accessible information and communicationstechnologiesandsystems,includingtheinternet; Providing information intended for the general public to PwDs in accessible formats and technologies appropriate to different kinds of disabilities; Promoting awareness on the capabilities and contributions of PwDs; Promotingthephysical,cognitiveandpsychologicalrecovery,rehabilitationandsocialreintegration ofpersonswithdisabilitieswhobecomevictimsofanyformofexploitation,violenceorabuse; FacilitatingaccessbyPwDstoqualitymobilityaids,devices,assistivetechnologiesandformsoflive assistanceandintermediaries,includingbymakingthemavailableataffordablecost; Facilitatingtheuseofsignlanguages,Braille,augmentativeandalternativecommunication,andall otheraccessiblemeans,modesandformatsofcommunication; Providingearlyandcomprehensiveinformation,servicesandsupporttochildrenwithdisabilities and their families; Promoting and delivering education to PwDs in the most appropriate languages and modes and meansofcommunicationfortheindividual,andinenvironmentswhichmaximizeacademicand social development; Providingcomprehensivehabilitationandrehabilitationservicesandprogrammes,particularlyin theareasofhealth,employment,educationandsocialservices; Provide PwDs appropriate and affordable services, devices and other assistance for disabilityrelated needs; Toensurethatpersonswithdisabilitieshaveanopportunitytoorganize,developandparticipate indisability-specificsportingandrecreationalactivitiesand,tothisend,encouragetheprovision, on an equal basis with others.

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3. Available Opportunities for Persons with DisabilitiesOver the past few decades various measures development actors undertook to alleviate the conditions ofPwDshaveresultedinthecreationandexpansionofopportunitiesforPwDsinAddisAbaba.Ofthe developmentactors,measurestakenbythefederalgovernmentandtheAddisAbabaCityAdministration havegreatlyexpandedopportunities.Inaddition,trendsininternationaldevelopmentinterventionaswell as increase in disability awareness also have contributed for the creation of various opportunities PwDs in the city have at present.

3.1 State MeasuresWith a view to advance the status of PwDs and improve their life both the federal government and the AddisAbabaCityadministrationhaveadoptedprogressivepolicy,legislativeandotherregulatorymeasures. BymodifyingorabolishingexistingbarriershinderingPwDsparticipationinsocietyaswellasbyproviding disabilityspecificaffirmativeactionmeasures.IftappedandwellutilizedbythePwDs,thesemeasureswill undoubtedlyfacilitatethecreationofequalopportunityforthecitysPwDsandtheirfullparticipationin societyinallaspectsofsocietyslife. Ofthetwotiersofgovernmentsmostoftheopportunitiesareprovidedinthepolicy,legislativeandother regulatorydocumentsofthefederalgovernment.Listofthemajorlegislativeandregulatorydocuments and type of opportunity the documents provide will now be described.

Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (Proclamation No. 1/1995)Asupremelawofthecountry,theFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthiopiasConstitution(hereinafter calledtheconstitution),aboveenshriningtheprinciplesofequalityandnon-discrimination,incorporates a provision specifically acknowledging PwDs need for rehabilitation and support services.The relevant ArticleisArticle41(5),andthisArticlestatesthat[t]hestateshall,withinitsavailablemeans,allocate resourcestoproviderehabilitationandassistancetothephysicallyandmentallydisabled.

The Federal Civil Servant Proclamation (Proclamation No. 262/2002)The2002FederalCivilServantProclamation,thoughapplicabletogovernmentcivilserviceemployees, containprovisionwhichsignificantlyexpandsPwDsopportunityforparticipatinginemployment.Inthe samewayasthe1994RightofDisabledPersonstoEmploymentProclamation,itincorporatestheprinciple ofnon-discrimination.Unlikethe1994,however,itfurtherstipulatesthatintherecruitmentofemployees affirmativeactionbegiventoPwDs.Article13(4)oftheProclamationstateswhenfillingvacantposition prioritiesofappointmentshallbegiventocandidateswithdisabilitieswhomeettheminimumpassing score.Accordingly,scoringthepassingmarksufficeforaPwDemploymentcandidatetobegivenpriority in employment over the able bodied ones. What is more, inArticle 46 the Proclamation provides for pension and compensation payments to be accordedtoPwDs.AccordingtoArticle46(1),[a]permanentcivilservantwhohassustainedpermanent totalorpartialdisabilityduetoemploymentinjuryshallbeentitledtobenefitsprovidedforintherelevant pensionlaw.Insub-Article2,itstatesthat[a]temporarycivilservantwhohassustainedpermanenttotal disabilityshallbeentitledtocompensationamountingtofivetimesofhisannualsalary.Anotherrelevant provisionissubArticle5,whichreads: Whereanemploymentinjuryresultedinthedeathofthecivilservant,hissurvivorsshallbeentitledto: (a) survivors pension gratuity payable under the relevant pension law if the deceased was a permanent civil servant; or (b) compensation under Sub-Article (2) of this Article, if he was a temporary civil servant.12

Labour Proclamation No. 377/2003The2003LabourProclamationhasnospecificprovisionswhichdealwithemploymentopportunitiesfor PwDs.However,insamewayasthepreviouslystatedtwoProclamations,thisProclamationincorporates the principle of non-discrimination in employment. Moreover, inArticle 29, particularly in sub-Article (3)(d)theProclamationextendsprotectiononthesecurityofemploymentforPwDswhenemployers undertakeworkforcereduction.AccordingtoArticle29: Whenever a reduction of work force takes place [] workers having skills and higher rate of productivity shall have priority of being retained in their posts and, in the case of equal skill and rate of productivity, the workers to be affected first by the reduction shall be in the following order : [] those having the shortest length of service in the undertaking; those who have fewer dependents; those not covered under sub-article 3(a) and (b) of this Article; those who are disabled by an employment injury in the undertakings; workers representatives; expectant mothers. AccordingtoArticle99oftheProclamation,disablementisanyemploymentinjuryasaconsequenceof whichthereisadecreaseorlossofcapacitytowork.

Right to Employment of Persons with Disabilities Proclamation No.568/2008The 2008 Right to Employment of Persons with Disabilities Proclamation is a landmark legislative document enacted to facilitate the creation of equal opportunity for PwDs in the area of employment. TheProclamationprovidesadefinitionforPwDs,andthusonlythosewhofallwithinthecontoursofthis definitioncanavailthemselvesofopportunitiestheProclamationsocreated.AccordingtoArticle2ofthe Proclamation,PwDsis: anindividualwhoseequalemploymentopportunityisreducedasaresultofhis[orher]physical,mental orsensoryimpairmentsinrelationwithsocial,economicandculturaldiscrimination. FavourableopportunitiesthisProclamationavailedforPwDscoversmattersofnon-discrimination,accessto appropriatetrainingandemploymentopportunities,includingopportunityforreasonableaccommodation andaffirmativeaction,andwagesandbenefits.Article4(1)stipulatestheprincipleofdiscriminationand readsthat: [U]nless the nature of the work dictates otherwise, a person with disability having the necessary qualification and scored more to that of other candidates shall have the right without discriminationa) to occupy a vacant post in any office or undertaking through recruitment, promotion, placement or transfer procedures; b) to participate in a training programme to be conducted either locally or abroad. Moreimportantly,theProclamationenshrinestheaffirmativeactionthatshouldbeaccordedtoPwDs. Accordingly,inrecruitment,promotion,placement,transferortoparticipateintrainingpreferencewillbe giventoaPwDwhoacquiresthenecessaryqualificationandhavescoredequalorclosetothatofother candidates.InArticle4(3)itisprohibitedtorefertodisabilityofacandidateonselectioncriteriaunless the nature of the work dictates otherwise. What is even more important of the Proclamation is the idea of reasonableaccommodationitenshrinedinArticle6.AsperArticle6(1),anyemployerisrequiredtotake measures to provide appropriate working and training conditions and working and training materials for PwDs.Insub-Article(2)employersarealsorequiredtotakeallreasonableaccommodationandaffirmative actiontowomenaswell.Moreover,theemployerisrequiredtoassignasassistanttoenableaPwDto performworkandfollowtraining.Reasonableaccommodation,accordingtoArticle2(5),isanadjustment oraccommodationwithrespecttoequipmentinattheworkplace,requirementofthejob,workinghours, structure of the business and working environment with a view to accommodate persons with disabilities toemployment. Furthermore,theProclamationincorporatesimportantproceduralrules.Article7(1)oftheProclamation providesthatPwDswhoallegesdiscriminatedinrespecttorecruitment,promotion,placement,transfer or other conditions of employment have the right to bring suit to a competent courtwithout the requirement of the burden of proof. In other words, when PwDs institute a case pursuant toArticle 7(1)theyarenotexpectedtoprovetothecourtthatdiscriminationexists.Indeed,thisisanexception13

to the general procedural rule whereby persons alleging rights violation bear the responsibility of proving existenceofviolation.AccordingtoArticle7(2)oftheProclamation,itisthedefendantwhoisresponsible to prove that there was no act of discrimination. The fact that the Proclamation applies on all employers makes this Proclamation a remarkable one. With aviewtoensureproperimplementationoftheProclamation,preparationofdraftregulationiscurrently underway.

Value Added Tax Proclamation No. 285/2002The2002ValueAddedTaxProclamationcontainsprovisionexpresslyreferringtoPwDs.InArticle9(2) (o)thisProclamationexemptsfrompaymentofvalueaddedtaxonthesupplyofgoodsorservicesby aworkshopemployingdisabledindividualsifmorethan60percentoftheemployeesaredisabled.As suchthisProclamationhastheeffectofexpandingopportunitiesforPwDsinemploymentandinstarting business of their own.

Ethiopian Customs Authority Custom Tariff Book (Volume II-2003)The 2003 Ethiopian Customs Authority Custom Tariff Book provides PwDs with the opportunity to import items custom free or with small rate of custom tariff. Following is the list of relevant items and the rate oftariff: 1) Carriages for disabled persons, whether or not motorised or otherwise mechanically propelled.18 Not mechanically propelled - free Other free 2) Parts and accessories of vehicles of Carriages for PwDs on all of the following items19: Motorcycles(includingmopeds)andcyclesfittedwithanauxiliarymotor,withorwithoutsidecars; side-cars- free Bicyclesandothercycles(includingdeliverytricycles),notmotorized-free Carriagesfordisabledpersons,whetherornotmotorisedorotherwisemechanicallypropelledfree 3) Orthopaedicappliances,includingcrutches,surgicalbeltsandtrusses; splints and other fracture appliances; artificial parts of the body; hearing aids and other appliances which are worn or carried, or implantedinthebody,tocompensateforadefectordisability.20 Orthopaedicorfractureappliances-5% Artificialteethanddentalfittings: Artificialteeth-5% Other-5% Otherartificialpartsofthebody: Artificialjoints-5% Other-5% Hearingaids,excludingpartsandaccessories-free Pacemakersforstimulatingheartmuscles,excludingpartsandaccessories-5% Other5%18 Ethiopian Customs Authority Custom Tariff Book (Volume II-2003) From Section XII - Section XXII Section XVII Chapter 87. p. 572 19 Id. Chapter p.573 20 Id. Chapter 90, p. 591 14

Privileges provided in the 2003 Ethiopian Customs Authority Custom Tariff Book is not limited to PwDs. NotforprofitorganizationshavealsoprivilegeswhentheyimportitemsforPwDsconsumption.TheBook incorporatesCouncilofMinistersRegulationsNo.6/1996-therelevantregulationonGoodsImportedby AgenciesoftheEthiopianGovernmentandnon-governmentalOrganizations.AccordingtoArticle9ofthe Regulation,[a]rticlesandequipmentspecializedforusebythedisabledorhandicappedarefreefrom custom tariff. 21

Higher Education Proclamation (No.650/2009)The2009HigherEducationProclamationcontainsprovisionsconcerningPwDs.AccordingtoArticle2subArticles(8)and(9)ofthisProclamation,theProclamationappliesbothonpublicandprivateeducational institutions undergraduate and graduate academic programs. The Proclamation in Article 20(3) recognizes sign language as medium of instruction on educating students withcompletehearingimpairment.UnderArticle32(1)(a),itfurtherprovideshighereducationacademic staffsdutytoprovideappropriateassistancetostudentsinneedofspecialsupport.Moreover,inArticle 39(4)itenvisagesspecialadmissionprocedurefordisadvantagedcitizensaccordingtoregulationofthe CouncilofMinisters.PwDsareconsideredpartofthedisadvantagedcitizenstoinclude.Itshouldbe mentionedherethat,thoughthisProclamationenvisagesaregulationbytheCouncilofMinisters,the2003 HigherEducationProclamation(replacedbythe2008Proclamation)hadamorespecificprovisionsonthe issue. And the relevant Article 22reads: Entry assessment or admission procedure designed for any female, disabled student, a student who has completed high school education in a developing Region and who is native of the nationality of such Region or a student from the nationality whose participation in Higher Education is low shall be different from others.They shall, during their stay in the institution, get special support; particulars of such support shall be determined by the Ministry.[Authors emphasis] In 2001 E.C. the Ministry of Education has issued a Directive on the Placement of Students in Government HigherEducationalInstitutions23whichprovidesmorespecificprovisions.ThisDirectiveinparagraphthree states that PwDs will be placed in institutions and academic programs they will be able to attend. The directive also contains procedural rules for implementing the privilege. Whatisremarkableaboutthe2009ProclamationistheArticle40,titledPhysicallyChallengedStudents. ThisArticleprovidesforarangeofmeasurestoaccommodatetophysicallychallengedstudents,tothe extentpossible.Theseincludeaccessibilityofbuildings,facilitiesandprograms,classrelocation,availability ofalternativetestingprocedures,provisionofeducationalauxiliaryaidsandacademicassistance.

21 22 23

Id. p.663 The2003HighierEducationProclamation-ProclamationNo.351/2003 AccessedfromtheMinistryofEducationswebsite. 15

Box2:HigherEducationProclamation250/2008, Article40:PhysicallyChallengedStudents 1. Institutions shall make, to the extent possible, their facilities and programmes amenable to use with relative ease by physically challenged students. 2. Institutionsshall,totheextentthatsituationsandresourcespermit,relocateclasses, develop alternative testing procedures, and provide different educational auxiliary aids in the interest of students with physical challenges. 3. Buildingdesigns,campusphysicallandscape,computersandotherinfrastructuresof institutions shall take into account the interests of physically challenged students. 4. Institutions shall ensure that students with physical challenges get to the extent necessary and feasible academic assistance, including tutorial sessions, exam time extensionsanddeadlineextensions. Ethiopian Building Proclamation (No. 624/2009)The2009EthiopianBuildingProclamationisaproclamationthatprovidestheminimumnationalstandard for the construction and modification of buildings.This Proclamation contains a specific article dealing withfacilitiesforphysicallyimpairedpersons.AspertheProclamation,anybuildingshouldbedesignedin suchawayastoaccommodatetheneedsofpersonswithphysicalimpairments,includingthosewhouse wheelchairsorthoseunabletoclimbsteps.Inaddition,inbuildingswhereinstallationoftoiletfacilities is required, toilets facilities built accordingly should be accessible and suitable for use by persons with physical impairments. The pertinent provisions of the Proclamation are found in Article 36 (1) and (2) of the Proclamation. SubArticle(1)reads: Any public building shall have a means of access suitable for use by physically impaired persons, including those who are obliged to use wheelchairs and those who are able to walk but unable to negotiate steps. Andsub-Article2reads: Where toilet facilities are required in any building, as adequate number of such facilities shall be made suitable for use by physically impaired persons and shall be a[cc]essable to them ThoughthisProclamationwaspromulgatedinthe6thofMay2009,accordingtothecorrigendumattached toit-CorrigendumNo.4/2009-thislawcomesintoforceoneyearfromthedateofpublicationinthe Negarit Gazeta. IntheProclamationissuanceofRegulationforimplementationisenvisaged,andcurrentlypreparationof the regulation is underway. Addis Ababa City Administration InadditiontolegislativeandregulatorymeasuresadoptedbytheFederalgovernment,theAddisAbaba City Administration has taken similar measures to further facilitate the creation of equal opportunity to the citys PwDs and their participation in society. Legislative and regulatory documents of the City Administration which contain important provisions regarding PwDs are the Charter of Addis Ababa City Administration; Proclamation to provide for the Responsibilities of the City Government organs in theTransfer of the City Government Houses and its execution (No. 19/2005); and City Governments ConstructionPermit/LicenseRegulationNo.1/97.

Charter of the Addis Ababa City Administration16

According to the Charter of theAddisAbaba CityAdministration, one of the objectives of the City Administration is to make the city a place where the well-being and comfort of residents is safe and particularlywherechildren,women,personswithdisabilities,theelderlyandotherdisadvantagedsegments ofsocietyavailofspecialsupport.BecausetheCharteristhefoundingdocumentoftheCity dministration, A the fact that PwDs are referred to as such have the potential to influence the CityAdministrations developmentundertakingsinapositiveandsignificantway.

Proclamation to provide for the Responsibilities of the City Government organs in the Transfer of the City Government Houses and its execution (No. 19/2005)AProclamationoftheAddisAbabaCityAdministration,itprovidespreferentialtreatmenttopersonswith mobilitydisability.AccordingtoArticle6(7)personswithmobilitydisabilitywhofulfiltherequirementsfor acquiringownershipofCityGovernmenthousehaveprioritytopurchaseunitsontheaccessiblefloorof abuilding,subjecttotheirchoices.

Construction Permit/License Regulation No. 1/97CityGovernmentsConstructionPermit/LicenseRegulationNo.1/97isaregulatorydocumentoftheCity Administration which establishes the conditions for undertaking construction works in the City. One of the concerns the Regulation try to address is the question of accessibility, and as such it provides for a range of rules that contractors should comply with to make sure that buildings they construct are accessibletoPwDs.ExamplesofsuchrulesincludeaccessibilityoftoiletfacilitiestoPwDsandavailability of designated parking spots for PwDs. International Agreements Inadditiontotheaboveregulatorydocuments,thefederalgovernmenthasratifiedinternationalagreements which greatly expand opportunities for PwDs.Two of the major international agreements are the ILO Convention concerningVocational Rehabilitation and Employment (Disabled Persons) No. 159 (1983) ratifiedin1991andthelandmark2006UnitedNationsConventionontheRightsandDignityofPersons with Disabilities (CRDPD). Policy and Programme Documents Asnotedearlier,appropriatemeasuresthefederalgovernmenttooktocreateandexpandopportunities for PwDs also includes policy and program measures. Of the various policy and program documents adoptedbythefederalgovernment,thefollowingarethemajorones:DevelopmentalSocialWelfarePolicy of1977;NationalProgrammeofActionforRehabilitationofPersonswithDisabilitiesof1999;andthe 2006 Special Needs Education Strategic Programme.

Developmental Social Welfare Policy - 1997The Developmental Social Welfare Policy envisages efforts towards the creation of conditions that will enable PwDs to use their abilities as individuals or in association with others to contribute to the developmentofsocietyaswellastobeself-supportingbyparticipatinginthepolitical,economicand socialactivitiesofthecountry.Morespecifically,itunderscorestheneedforcreatingconditionswhere rules,regulations,programsandservicescouldbestrengthenedandexpandedwhilstenhancevocational trainingandplacementopportunitiesforpersonswithdisabilities. Moreover,thePolicyhassetoutspecificareaswhereeffortsforenhancingopportunitiestoPwDsshould bedirectedat.Theseare: Increasingeducation,skilltraining,employmentopportunitiesandotherservicesandadoptionof appropriate legislations with a view to ensure the welfare of persons with disabilities;17

Creating mechanisms for providing PwDs with appropriate medical/health services and supportive appliances; EstablishingmechanismstoprovideforPwDsappropriatesupportservicesinthecontextoftheir family and community; Establishment of special centres to care for PwDs without any family support will; Launching appropriate and sustainable educational programs and awareness-raising campaigns; Formulating prevention strategies and programs; RemovalofphysicalbarriersandensuringPwDsaccessibilitytoresidentialareas,workandother public places; and Supporting non-governmental organizations and voluntary organizations providing services to PwDs. TheDevelopmentalSocialWelfarePolicyiscurrentlyunderrevision,andaccordingtotheannualplanof MoLSA (for the year 2002 E.C.) a revised social welfare policy document will be produced.24 NationalProgrammeofActionfortheRehabilitationofPersonswithDisabilities-1999 The1999NationalProgrammeofActionfortheRehabilitationofPersonswithDisabilitiesisa documentpreparedbytheMinistryofLabourandSocialAffairs.ThemainobjectivesoftheProgrammeare: To take disability prevention measures by promoting community participation; To enable persons with disabilities to achieve a better standard of living by building their capacity; and To ensure their equal rights and full participation in society. This Programme document was prepared on the basis of the UN Standards Rules on Equalization of OpportunitiesforPersonswithDisabilitiesandtheDevelopmentalSocialWelfarePolicyofEthiopia,and as such it sets out to address wide-ranging disability issues in a comprehensive manner. Matters the Programmecoversare:disabilityprevention,medicalrehabilitation,educationalrehabilitation,vocationalrehabilitationandemploymentservices,accessibility,awareness-raising,strengtheningandexpandingdisabled persons organizations, religion, culture sport, recreation, and family life.Accordingly, opportunities the document sets out to create for PwDs are vast.

Special Needs Education Program Strategy- 2006The 2006 Special Needs Education Program Strategy is prepared by the Ministry of Education to enhance participation of children with disabilities in Education. The document begins by stressing Ministry of Educationscommitmenttoachieveuniversalprimaryeducationby2015andaimtoestablishaneducational systemthatistobeopentoall.Similarly,itemphasizestheideathatallchildrenandstudentscanlearn.It underscoresthesubstantialeffortneededtoexpandandstrengthensspecialneedseducationandtraining provisions,enhanceinclusiveeducationandenrichtheregulareducationcurricularmaterials. It recognizes that inclusive education requires two things. One is identifying barriers that hinder learning and/or participation. And, secondly it requires reducing or removing barriers in early education in particularandschools,technicalandvocationaltraining,highereducation,teachereducation,andeducation managementingeneral.Towardsthis,thestrategyisdirectedto: ImplementtheEducationandTrainingPolicy,andrelevantinternationalprinciplesendorsedby the government; Develop and implement guidelines for curriculum modification and support system development in schools for learners with special needs; Facilitate the participation of students with special needs in technical and vocational education and other higher education institutions; Strengthen special needs programms in teacher education institutions; and improve quality of trained human resource and appropriate materials to schools and other learning institutions.24 MOLSA2002AnnualPlanDocument,accessedfromhttp://www.molsa.gov.et/ 18

Strategicprioritiesasidentifiedinthedocumentarethefollowingthree: 1. Inclusion of special needs education in national and regional education sector planning and reporting systems; 2. Developmentofguidelinesandprovisionoftechnicalassistancetoregions,and 3. Strengthening the capacity of the education system. Itshouldbementionedherethatthe2008TechnicalandVocationalEducationandTraining(TVET)Strategy oftheMinistryofEducationhasaspecificobjectiveof,amongothers,ensuringthatwomenandpersons with special needs have equal participation opportunity inTVET.25 Moreover, it provides in Part 7.1.2 TVETexecutorsresponsibilitytomakesurethattraininginstitutionsareopenwithoutdiscriminationand ineachinstitutionfacilitiesimportantforpersonswithspecialneedsarefulfilled.Itisalsoimportantto mentionthattheMinistryofEducationiscurrentlydevelopingadocumentexclusivelyconcerningSpecial Needs Education in TVET.

3.2 Trends in International Cooperation and DevelopmentIn2002,theformerheadoftheWorldBank,JamesWolfensohn,hasnoted:unlessdisabledpeopleare broughtintothedevelopmentmainstream,itwillbeimpossibletocutpovertyinhalfby2015ortogive everygirlandboyachancetoachieveaprimaryeducationbythesamedate.26The idea Mr. Wolfenson expressedaboutadecadeagohasformedthebasisforintegratingdisabilitywithdevelopment.Andnow, the idea of inclusion of persons with disabilities in development is considered important not only to improvingtheirandtheirfamilieswelfare,butalsointheeffortfortheachievementofinternationalglobal developmentgoals,suchastheMDGs.The2007ReportoftheUnitedNations(UN)Secretary-General shows how this idea has gotten translated in practice by development actors at the UN level. The relevant paragraphoftheReportreads: Many Member States and United Nations agencies, programmes and funds as well as the regional commissions have committed themselves to programmes and policies aimed at ensuring the full participation and equality of persons with disabilities, a sign of the growing recognition that the Millennium Development Goals cannot be achieved without the full inclusion of persons with disabilities in all development efforts and without making existing projects accessible to persons with disabilities.27 Even more so, a May 2010 research report from theWorld Bank, titledDisability and International CooperationandDevelopment:aReviewofPoliciesandPractices,hasclearlyshowntheexistingtrend amongst development agencies in terms of integrating disability in their policies and/or programs by incorporating disability-specific and mainstreaming/ inclusion/integration programs. Furthermore, the Research concludes that disability has become a part of international cooperation and development aid.2825 MinistryofEducation,NationalTechnical&VocationalEducationandTrainingStrategy22 August 2008 / 2nd Edition, Part 2.0.2, p 12 26 Wolfensohn:Poor,DisabledandShutOutTheWashingtonPost,December3,2002 27 Report of the Secretary-General, Implementation of the World Programme of Action concerning Disabled Persons: the Millennium Development Goals and synergies with other United Nations disability instruments United Nations General Assembly Sixty-second session (United Nations A/62/157). par.8, p.5.

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DISABILITY AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT: A REVIEW OF POLICIES AND PRACTICES JANET LORD, ALEKSANDRA POSARAC,MARCO NICOLI, KAREN PEFFLEY, CHARLOTTE MCCLAINNHLAPO AND MARY KEOGH MAY 2010(SP Discussion Paper No. 1003, Social Protection and La-

bour, The World bank).p 3019

The trend at the international level obviously will affect development intervention approach taken by developmentactors.Currently,moreandmoreaidagenciesandinternationalorganizationsaredirecting resourcesforaddressingdisabilityinthecountry.Asamatteroffact,ithasbeenlearntthateventheso called mainstream developmental NGOs operating in Addis and beyond are now integrating disability in their works.The more the resource are, or will be, made available to organizations operating inAddis Ababa,thestrongerthecapacityofthecapacityofOrganizationsofPersonswithDisabilities(DPOs); organizations working on disability issue and mainstream development organizations to create wider opportunities and services for PwDs in the city.

Economic Globalization and Advances in TechnologyThe presence of products and services of multinational companies is increasingly being felt in Addis Ababa. Products In some of the countries where these products and services are manufactured or provided sensitivity to disability is high even among business community. Mobile phone products and Ethiopian airlinesalliancewithothermultinationalcompaniescanbegoodexamples.Sointhiswayglobalizationis expandingopportunitiestoPwDsinAddisAbaba.

Prominence of Disability IssueFollowingthetrendatthenationalandinternationallevels,disabilityissuesaregraduallybecomingmore prominentinthelocalmedia,particularlyintheradio.Previously,mediacoverageofdisabilityissueswas infrequent,andwaslargelyanannualeventcoveredinconnectionwithcelebratinginternationaldisability day.Coverageofdisabilityissueinthemediahasgonemorethananannualevent.Increasingly,disability issuesaregettingmediacoverage,andmoreimportantly,thereareseveralradioprogramsdedicatedto disability issue and which are being broadcasted regularly. Given the prevalent negative attitude towards disabilityandPwDsinAddisAbaba,theroleofthemediainchangingsuchattitude,therebyenhancing PwDsparticipationisthesocietyslifeisundoubtedlyconsiderable.Particularly,theroleofradiointhe countryscontextissignificant.

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4. Available Services for Persons with DisabilitiesAt the federal level the main governmental organ responsible for coordinating activities undertaken in labor andsocialaffairsareas,includingondisabilityarea,istheMinistryofLabourandSocialAffairs(MOLSA). MOLSA is one of the Federal Ministries of the Federal Government which aspires by engaging stakeholders and in coordination with them, inter alia, to extend the social welfare development services of PwDs through conducting research, formulating laws, policies, legislations as well as directions and following up their implementation.29 One of the powers and duties of MOLSA is undertaking and facilitating implementationofstudiesanensuringandimprovingthesocialwell-beingofcitizens,inparticular,onthe creation of equal opportunity for persons with disabilities. WhileMOLSAhasfourexecutivedepartmentsandoneteam,concerningdisabilitythepertinentisthe DepartmentofWelfare.AtAddisAbabalevel,theAddisAbabaBureauforLabourandSocialAffairs(BOLSA) isresponsibleforemploymentandsocialissuesinAddisAbaba,inapolicyframeworkdefinedbyMOLSA. Aspartofitsmandate,BOLSAisresponsibleformobilizingpublicandprivateservicesandforpromoting integration of persons with disabilities. Besides, there are other Ministries of the Federal Government and Bureau of theAddisAbaba City Administration involved in the effort to improve the lives of PwDs. The situation of PwDs in Addis Ababa and beyond is such that requires a multisectoral approach involving many branches of several Ministries30 andBureausuchas,MinistryofHealth,MinistryofEducation,BureauofHealthandBureauofEducation. Inaddition,therearemanynon-governmentalorganizationsandinternationalagenciesworkingondisability issues inAddisAbaba.This includes persons with disabilities organizations (DPOs), non-governmental organizations exclusively working on disability, development organizations working on disability and internationalagenciessuchasILO,UNESCO,etc. Both governmental and non-governmental organizations render services to PwDs in Addis Ababa. In additiontotheaforementionedactivities,governmentalorganizationsarealsoengagedinthedeliveryof tangibleservicestoPwDs,particularlyinemploymentand,educationandhealthsectors.Andtheservices theyprovideincludeeducationofvisually,aurallyandmentallydisabledchildren,provisionofmedicalcare, vocationaltrainingprograms,employmentopportunities,sports,librariesforthevisuallyimpaired,etc.31 Other than that, the bulk of tangible service availed to PwDs in Addis Ababa is provided by nongovernmental organizations. Services rendered by non-governmental organizations include community basedrehabilitation(CBR),rehabilitationcentres,specialneedseducation,vocationaltraining,employment, assistivedevices(artificiallimbsandprosthetics),assistivetechnologiesandsoftware,basichealthfacilities, recreationandsport,empowerment,includingcomputertraining,signlanguagetraining,lifeskillstraining etc. Moreover,personswithdisabilitiesinAddisAbabaandbeyondhaveorganizedinvariousassociationsto advance their status and improve their lives. Some of these DPOs organizations are constituted decades ago,andovertimesassociationofparentsofpersonswithintellectualdisabilitiesandothernumerousself helpgroupsofassociationsofPwDShavebeenestablished.SomeofthemainDPOsare: Ethiopian National Association for the Blind Ethiopian National Association of the Deaf Federation of Ethiopian National Associations of Persons with Disabilities (FENAPD) EthiopianNationalAssociationforPhysicallyHandicapped Ethiopian Women with Disabilities National Association Ethiopian National Association on Intellectual Disability Ethiopian National Association of Persons Affected by Leprosy29 30 31 MOLSAWebsite,http://www.molsa.gov.et/ UNExpertMeetingonEthiopia,Supranote5. Id. 21

Ethiopian National Association for the Deaf-Blind AAU Physically Impaired Students Association AAU Visually Impaired Students Association The target groups of the associations mentioned above are the blind, the deaf, the physically impaired, the intellectually disabled, the leprosy patients, the persons with physical disability, and persons with multiple disabilities. The associations participate in the formulation of policies and proclamation as well as variousprogrammesrelatedtodisabilityissues.Inaddition,theyareactivelyengagedinthecelebration ofInternationalDayofPersonswithDisabilitiesandotherevents.Moreover,theyprovidefacilitiesand support services to their members. (Vide Catalogue Part of this Research for information on the list of service provider organizations non-governmental or otherwise- and the type of service they render). Itshouldbenotedherethat,inviewoftheprevalenceofdisabilityinthecity,bothgovernmentallyand non-governmentallyavailableservicesareincommensuratewiththeexistingneedofthecitysPwDs.For one,theseservicesarenotprovidedinacomprehensiveandconsistentmanner,rathertheyareprovided in piecemeal approaches according to the aims and objectives of the service provider organizations establishment.32 Secondly, due to financial and human resource constraints the capacity of many organizationstoaccommodatepotentialserviceseekersisquitelimited.Herementionshouldbemade that some non-governmental organizations have adopted cost recovery scheme to mitigate the problem ofresourceconstraint.Moreover,intermsofaggregateservicedeliverythereisatendencyonthepart of service providers to concentrate on physical disability which renders availability of services for persons with intellectual disability and autistic children even less available. Insum,thelonglistoforganizationsworkingonvariousdisabilityissuesandlistofdifferenttypeservices noted to be available is in no way conclusive evidence for actual availability of tangible services for PwDs ingeneral,forpersonswithintellectualdisabilityandautisticchildreninparticular.

32

Id. 22

5. Level of Utilization of Available Opportunities and ServicesKnowledge of Available Opportunities and ServicesInorderforPwDstapandutilizeavailableopportunitiesandservices,theyortheirguardiansshouldbe knowledgeableaboutthem.However,PwDsandtheirguardiansingeneralarenotsufficientlyaware. To begin with, information intended to the general public is not disseminated to PwDs in accessible formatsappropriatetodifferenttypesofdisabilities.Otherthanthemainmeansofcommunication,i.e. TVandRadio,InEthiopiatheuseofsignlanguage,Braille,augmentativeandalternativecommunicationsin promoting opportunities and services is not familiar. Though the importance of TV and Radio cannot be denied,thosewhodonothaveaccesstoTVorRadioorthosewhocannotmakeusethemduetotheir disabilitytypeandsoremainexcludedfromtheinformation. Increasingly more and more organizations in the city are launching websites and are promoting services throughtheinternet.Howeverencouragingsuchmovesmightbe,theaddedvaluetheinternetbringsin informing PwDs seems very marginal. This is so because the level of internet users in the country is small. And the number of PwDs considered to have access to computers is even smaller. ThisistheexistingsituationinthecityasfarasPwDsaccesstoinformationonavailableopportunitiesand servicesotherthanTVandRadio,includingtheinternet.Whenconsidering,knowledgeofthePwDs,this situation should be kept in mind. Aside the above issue, it should be pointed out that knowledge level of PwDs and their parents on available opportunities and services differs between those who have organized themselves in associations ororganizationsandthosewhohavenot.First,PwDsnotorganizedinassociations. The level of knowledge PwDs not organized in associations have about available opportunities and services are much less than those organized in associations.As with the case of PwDs in general, the majorityareexcludedfromgettingtherequiredknowledgeforvariousreasons.ThesePwDsarepoorand overwhelmingmajorityofthemisilliterate.Becauseofthepublicsnegativeattitudetowardsthemand theirfamily,manyofthemarehiddeninhomes,andthepossibilitytogettinginformationoutofhomeis limitedaccordingly.Althoughmediacoverageondisabilityissuesisontheincrease,informationonavailable opportunitiesandservicesisonpiecemealbasis;specificallyinformationsharedisusuallylimitedtothe organizationsponsoringtheprogram.Inotherwords,suchinformationisnotdeliveredincomprehensive and systematic way. Moreover, the condition of many of them is such that their constant concern is securingdailymeal,ratherthansolicitinginformationonavailableopportunities,inparticular.Whatismore, sincetheyarenotorganizedinassociations,theirmeansofgettingorganizedandpracticalinformationis significantlycurtailed. Intermsofnumber,thesePwDsrepresentasignificantportionoftheentirecommunity.Althoughthereis nostatisticalevidencethatshowstheexactnumberofthesePwDs,DPOsandotherdisabilityorganizations contactedforinterviewexpresslystatedthattheproportionofPwDsnotorganizedin associationsis significant.IfthesePwDsrepresentasignificantportion,itwillnotbedifficulttoseethemagnitudeof PwDswhoarenotbenefitingfromtheveryopportunitiesandservicesmadeavailabletothemduetolack of access to information. InregardtoPwDsorganizedinassociations,thesearetypeofPwDswhowentbeyondhomeandareable topaymembershipandotherfeestotheirDPOs.AsamembertoaDPO,theybenefitfromtheservices theirorganizationprovidesandpotentiallyhaveaccesstotherelevantinformation,atleasttotheextent that their organization have. As noted before, DPOs are actively involved on issues affecting their members.Also, they have strong connectionwithotherorganizationsworkingoncommonareasofinterest.Asaresult,asanorganization,23

DPOs have good level of knowledge about available opportunities and services. However, this doesnt necessarily mean that such knowledge is comprehensive enough and also it is shared by all member PwDs as well. In organizations where there is an established system to devolve organizational knowledge to members,memberssharetheknowledgeaccordingly.Inpractice,indeed,someDPOsorganizeregular sessions to members to discuss on issues of interest. During these sessions the DPOs inform their members aboutvariousdisabilityissues,aboutavailableopportunitiesandservices.Forthisreason,relativelythese PwDs have better knowledgeable about available opportunities and services. However, information these PDOs have is by no means sufficient. In fact it is fragmented and not comprehensive. This might have to do with the fact that there is no comprehensive and up-to-date databaseavailableeventotheorganizations.Still,gaphasbeennoticedbetweenknowledgeatorganization levelandknowledgemembershave.Atthispoint,theneedandimportanceofadoptingaspecificformal strategy by DPOs on how they effectively devolve organizational knowledge to all members cannot be over emphasized.

Accessibility of Services by PwDsDespitetheprogressivetrendintheexpansionofopportunitiestoPwDsinthecity,facilitiesandservices opentothepublicareinaccessibleforPwDs.Currently,thephysicalstructureoffacilitiesandservices offered to the public both by the government and the private sector are in general inaccessible to persons with physical impairments. Such facilities include: buildings, roads, transportation, indoor and outdoor facilities,includingschools,housing,medicalfacilitiesandworkplaces,theatres,museums,cinemas,libraries andtourismservices,sportingandrecreationalareas. There are several reasons for the unfavourable situation. Overall the physical environment within the city is established long before much of the laws and regulations that deal with accessibility take into effect. Although there are efforts by the government to make publicly open places and facilities accessible to PwDs,theresultofsuchefforts,thoughencourageable,isinquitelimitedplaces.Resourceconstraintis notedtobethemajorreasonforthelimitedresult. In regard to the private sector, however, not much of such effort is observed. It is the profit motive that primarily directs investments. Currently, however, most business managers are unconvinced that accommodating PwDs in the delivery of their service enhance their overall performance.33 Probably a manifestationofthestereotypicalviewprevalentinthepublic,thecitysbusinesscommunityhasyetto appreciate the importance of accommodating PwDs. Inadditiontothephysicalenvironment,distancetofacilities andservices specifically madeavailableto PwDs is a big challenge for the PwDs. While mainstream services are available here and there across thecity,disabilityspecificfacilitiesandservicessuchasspecialneedsschoolsandrehabilitationcenters arefoundinlimitednumbersandplaces.Inordertoutilizesuchservicesandfacilities,PwDs,andtheir guardiansinsomecases,needtotraveldistantplaceandshouldbeinapositiontopayfortransportation. However,physicalimpairmentandeconomicconditionpreventscausesmanyofthemtoshyawayfrom utilizing services and facilities made available for free. Evenwhenavailablefacilitiesandservicesarephysicallyaccessible,thecostofutilizationisanotherbarrier. Indeed,manyorganizationsprovidetheirservicesforfree.However,thereareorganizationswhichhave adopted cost recovery schemes and require payments. Compared to the market value, the fee these organizations charge is nominal or small. In some cases though, in view of the condition of PwDs, the amount of money required to be paid is unaffordable. Becauseoftheseandotherreasons,levelofutilizationofavailableopportunitiesandservicesbythePwDs is low.33 Yetneberesh Negussie interview with Yelibenwork Ayele, The Reporter - English , Posted Saturday, 17 April 2010 03:00

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6. Challenges of PwDs in Using Available Opportunities and ServicesThere are numerous challenges PwDs face in utilizing available opportunities and services. Concerning availableopportunities,themorepronouncedchallengeisawareness.Utilizationofopportunitiesmade available by legislative and regulatory measures can require technical knowledge for understanding and thentoseekforenforcement.However,PwDsaccesstoinformationandtheireducationallevelmakesit difficultforthemtoutilizeopportunities.Asnotedbefore,informationandeducationarealsofactorsfor non-utilization of available services. Another major challenge PwDs facedin utilizing available services relates to institutional problem that existsonthepartofserviceproviderorganizations.Organizationsthatprovidedisabilityspecificservices donthavetherequirednumberoftrainedhumanpower.Indeed,thisproblemparticularlymanifestsitself in special needs education, rehabilitation (physical or otherwise) that require a high level of technical intervention,intheproductionofassistivedevices,includingorthopaedicandprostaticmaterials.Aspart oftheefforttoalleviatethisproblem,increasinglymoreandmoreeducationalinstitutionsareproducing the needed types of professionals. Compared to the existing need however this problem will remain sufficientlyunsolvedformanyyearstocome. Financial capacity is another problem of the service providers affecting PwDs. Virtually all institutions contactedforinterviewhaveexpressedfinancialconstraintsasabigchallengetheyfaceinthedeliveryof services.Accordingly,theserviceisinadequateandimportantsuppliestheyprovidearescarce.Inaddressing the financial problem system these organizations installed varies.Among the institutions contacted for interview,itisnoticedthatorganizationsworkingextensivelyoncommunitybasedrehabilitation(CBR) service have adopted in partnership with pertinent institutions a system of referral. This is indeed a positive approach in the effort to make services PwDs receive adequate. Other than this, the general picture is that services PwDs are receiving is inadequate. IncontrasttotheorganizationsprovidingCBRservice,thereareorganizationswhichadoptedasystemof cost recovery. The appropriateness of such system is still a debatable issue. The main argument forwarded in favour is that, above filling short term resource gaps, it contributes in building a sustainable, locally financedservicedeliverysysteminthelongerterm.Ontheotherhand,thosewhoareagainstmaintain thatthesystemofcost-sharingwillinmanywayscreateasignificantbarriertopoorpeopleseekingthe services.Accordingtothelatter,costsharingcompoundsinequitiesinaccesstoserviceandcontributes tothedestitutionofthemostvulnerable.Moreover,theyarguethatthepoormaybewillingtopayto access service,but they may be unable to do so without sacrificing their longer-term economic wellbeingthroughunsustainableborrowingorsellingproductiveassets.34Howeverthesystemisdebatable,in practiceitisrunningtothedisadvantageofmanyofthecitysPwDs. Another challenge PwDs faced in utilizing available opportunities is security and safety related. As noted before, because of gender and age grounds women and children with disabilities are more vulnerable to sexual and other violence. Especially, women and children with intellectual disability are vulnerable to sexual violence.There are actual instances where sexual violence is committed against intellectually disabledwomenandachild,whowerenotaccompaniedbyguardiansorparents.Theseincidentshave beenbroadcastoverthemedia.Consequently,guardiansofintellectuallydisabledstudentswhocouldnt accompany the students to and from school are reported to have rendered these students stay at home.

34 TimothyPoletti,Cost-recovery in the health sector: an inappropriate policy in complex emergencies, HumanitarianExchangeMagazine(March2004Issue26)accessedathttp://www.odihpn.org/report.asp?id=2609 25

7. Strategies to Expand Opportunities and ServicesInordertoexpandopportunitiesandservicesforthecitysPwDs,astrengthenedeffortisrequired on the part of development actors. Towardsthis,DPOshavethepotentialtoplayaninstrumentalrole.Ascurrentstateofaffairs suggest DPOs are not in a position to live up to their potential. This is because the proportion ofmemberPwDstonon-membersissignificantlysmall.Whetherornotthestructureofthese DPOs,especiallymembershipfeeandregularpaymentstheyrequire,hasbecomeabarrierfor thepresentnumberofmembers,issomethingthatwouldneedaresearchofitsown.Whatever the case, DPOs need to be able to install accommodating structures and procedures for the poorestofthepoorandsignificantlyexpandtheirmembers.OncesDPOsmanagedtodothis,it wouldbemucheasiertoclosetheinformationgapthatexistsamongstPwDsregardingavailable opportunities and services. Thisisthegeneralstrategicapproachthefindingsofthisresearchcallfor.Otherthanthis,different approachesareneededforexpandingopportunitiesorexpandingservices. Opportunitiescreatedbylegislativeandregulatorymeasuresareextensive,butinactualityPwDs utilizationoftheseopportunitiesisquitelessthanthepotential.Inthisregard,thelowlevelof awareness PwDs and stakeholders have played a big part not only in PwDs non-utilization of availableopportunities,butalsoinlimitingactualavailabilityofopportunitiesforPwDs.Therefore, asfarasexpandingopportunitiesgoes,effortsshouldbedirectedatimplementationsideofthe legislations and regulations. Regarding,availableserviceseffortsshouldbedirectedtowardsresourcemobilization,including by undertaking awareness campaigns. There is a tendency amongst some development actors of viewing disability interventions from a narrow and short-term perspective. In other words, interventionsmadetowardsenablingpersonswithdisabilitiesareconsideredasexpensesandthe potential and actual contributions PwDs made or are making to the society is overlooked. As we haveseenbefore,prevalenceofsuchviewinthebusinesscommunityisvividlyobserved.Probably unavailability of data on the purchasing capacity of PwDs coupled with publics stereotypical attitude towards PwDs have contributed to the unfavorable attitude, following assessment on the prevalence of business communitys attitude on disability interventions.A research on the purchasing capacity of PwDs in the city and awareness raising campaign targeting the business community is recommended. Moreover,consideringthenumberofPwDsthathavebeenorcouldbenegativelyaffectedbycost recoverysystem,theimpactofthissystemonPwDsingeneral,onthepooronesinparticular, needstobestudied.Basedonthefindingsofthestudy,appropriatemeasuresneedtobeadopted. Comparedtoothertypesofdisability,disabilityinterventionsinAddisAbabaseemtobedirected disproportionately towards persons with physical disabilities. The fact that currently available statistical figures show more numbers and the relatively lower level of technical competence requiredtosupportthem,mayexplainthesituation.

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8. Strategies for Disseminating Information Regarding Available Opportunities and ServicesInformationneedtobecommunicatedinaneffectiveandefficientmannersothatthebestpossibleresult is obtained. It is important to think about what we want to achieve s a result of receiving the information and then assess which method is most appropriate for this circumstance.35 These are the general strategic considerations one has to make before communicating a message to an audience. Specificstrategicconsiderationswhichneedtobemadeindisseminatinginformationregardingavailable opportunitiesandservices,aredescribedindetailhereinbelow.Thestrategicconsiderationssodescribed below are informed by existing practices on disability inAddisAbaba and the Catalogue onAvailable Opportunities and Services for PwDs in Addis Ababa.

Setting communication objectivesThefirststepforeffectivelydisseminatinginformationonavailableopportunitiesandservicesissetting communicationobjective.Ingeneral,settingcommunicationobjectivecanmeanarticulatingthemainpoint whyonecommunicatesonesaudienceandwhatideasonehopestheaudiencewilltakeawayafterreceiving themessage.Inourcase,theobjectiveistoprovideessentialinformationtodifferentgroupsofPwDs aboutavailableopportunitiesandservicesusingappropriatemeans,modesandformatsofcommunication. Referring communication means, modes and formats as a matter of objective is important since as it emphasizestheessentialelementincommunicatingPwDs,butwhichpromotionalactivitiesinAddisAbaba and beyond demonstrably lack. Andappropriatemeans,modesandformatsofcommunicationsreferssignlanguages,Braille,augmentative andalternativecommunication,andallothers.

Suggesting key messages to be disseminatedHavingsetcommunicationobjectives,thenextstepissuggestingthekeymessagestobedisseminated.In ourcontext,thekeymessageshouldfocusonavailableopportunitiesandservices.Alsoitshouldbedirected atraisingawarenesslevelofcommunitiesandinstitutions,includinggovernmentalandnon-governmental organizations as well as the private sector. Key message intended to be communicated to communities should focus on promoting positive perceptions and greater social awareness towards PWDS and PwDs contributions to society. In regard to NGOs, particularly the so called development NGOs, a message aimed at convincing them mainstream disability in their work is recommended. Concerning the private sector,whatwillberecommendedisamessagetomakethemunderstanddisabilityissueandtoconvince them facilitating PwDs access to facilities and services they provide to the general public is not only a moralissue,butalsomakesgoodbusinesssense.

Defining target groups/audiencesOureffortoninformationdisseminationcantargetawideaspectrumofaudiences.Amongtheseare: PwDsingeneraloraccordingtodisabilitytype,gender,age,etc PwDsguardians,parentsandfamilymember Communities Institutions,e.g.governmental,non-governmental,privatesector Iddirs Religious institutions

35 Lindblom/Nylund, Advocacy and Lobbying Manual,TheSecretariatoftheAfricanDecadeforPersons withDisabilities,2006.p.11 27

Identifying appropriate channels of communicationsAvailable channels of communications are many (brail, sign language, electronic, broadcast, etc), and in communicating the message the effectiveness of one channel over the other need to be considered. More importantly,whentargetingPwDs,theneedtoemploycommunicationchannelaccordingtodifferentkinds ofdisabilitiescannotbeoveremphasized.Availablecommunicationchannelsinclude: Broadcastmedia,RadioandTV; Printmedia,newspapers,magazines,leaflet,pamphlets,banners,signboards,etc; Electronicmedia,theinternetandwebsites; EventsincludingInternationalDisabilityDaycelebration,workshops,seminars,conferences,etc; Schools,clubs,mini-media,etc; Communicationmaterials,catalogue,card,etc. Means,modesandformatsofcommunications;signlanguages,Braille,augmentativeandalternative communications

Defining responsibilities for information disseminationOncetheappropriatecommunicationchannelsaresortedout,thenextstepisdefiningresponsibilities. Theresponsibilitiesofthetargetsaredefinedaccordingtotheirroleincommunityandopportunitiesthey haveintermsofdisseminatingtheinformation.Theresponsibilityofthetargetsisasfollows: Governmentorganizations:participatePwDs;organizeawarenesscampaigns;organizeworkshops, particularly on available opportunities; NGOs:disseminateinformationtoPwDsandtheirparentsandtotheprivatesector. Schools:establishclubsondisability;allottimeonmini-mediaforentertainingdisabilityissues. Idirs and Religious institutions: educate the public about disability during general meeting and preaching sessions respectively.

Framework for monitoring of the effectiveness of communication strategies.Lastly,inordertogaugetheeffectivenessofcommunicationstrategies,aframeworkformonitoringand evaluationshouldbeestablished.Suchframeworkshoulddefinemonitoringandevaluationtools,including indicators.Accordingly,itshouldmeasureaccessibilityandutilizationofinformation,identifythesourceof information PwDs received.

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9. Conclusion and ImplicationsConclusionsHoweverimportant,adequateandaccurateinformationontheprevalenceandsituationofPwDsinAddis Ababa has yet to be developed. On the prevalence of disability, available statistical information shows contradictory figures while no such information is available on the welfare of PwDs. But it is believed thatthenumberofPwDsinAddisAbabaexceedsonemillion.AndthemajorityofthisPwDslivebelow poverty line and PwDs make up disproportionate number of the poorest of the poor. In order to provide thesePwDsequalopportunitiesandenablethemfullyparticipateina