a survey of recent chilean historiography

8/2/2019 A Survey of Recent Chilean Historiography

1/35

A Survey of Recent Chilean Historiography, 1965-1976Author(s): William F. SaterSource: Latin American Research Review, Vol. 14, No. 2 (1979), pp. 55-88Published by: The Latin American Studies AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2502879 .

Accessed: 18/05/2011 16:15

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless

you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and youmay use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.

Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at .http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=lamer. .

Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed

page of such transmission.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of

content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms

of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

The Latin American Studies Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to

Latin American Research Review.

http://www.jstor.org
http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=lamerhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/2502879?origin=JSTOR-pdfhttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=lamerhttp://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=lamerhttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/stable/2502879?origin=JSTOR-pdfhttp://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=lamer


2/35

A SURVEY OF RECENT CHILEANHISTORIOGRAPHY, 1965-1976*

William . SaterCaliforniatateUniversity,ongBeachThe past elevenyearshave been extremelyruitfulor hilean pecialists. ari-ous scholarshave formulatedheories o explainChile'spolitical, ocial,andeconomic evelopment; ew monographss wellas doctoral issertationsaveprovided rist or hegeneralist's ill; nd studies n mining-particularlyhenitrateector-agriculture,heroleof abor, nd moredetailed olitical urveyshave been published. ncreasingly,ne notes tendency o undertake rojectsthatwill nvestigatewentieth-centuryopics.This essay reviews ome of therecent ontributionso Chile's already ichhistoriographynd attemptso in-clude material rom therdisciplines s wellas history.twill not, however,discuss heAllendeperiod,whose massive nd still rowingiteratureequiresseparate reatment.hose nterestedn this opicmight rofitablyonsult herecent ork fArturond SamuelValenzuela, Visions fChile" LARR 10, no. 3[1975]:155-75).A fewoverviews f Chileanhistory ave appeared.One still nfinishedprojects a four-volumetudy, nder hegeneral ditorshipfSergioVillalobos;three olumes re n print. he first ontains wo essays:Osvaldo Silva coverstheoften gnored re-Columbianeriod, nd the ate Patricio stelle escribesthe onquista.stelle nd Villalobos ollaborated n the secondvolume,whichanalyzes he seventeenthnd eighteenthenturies. he latest ook also con-tains wo essays: synthesis f the ndependence eriod nd theformationfthe Portalian epublic, y Villalobos; nd a workby Fernando ilva on theperiod1830-60.These volumes, lthoughwithout ootnotesrbibliography,provide useful ummaryfChile'shistory.he authors avenot nly ncludedmaterial nChile'spolitics ut, nrichlyllustratedomes, ave sought o ncor-porate nformationn ts conomic nd socialdevelopmentswell.The ateJaime yzaguirrelso published comprehensive ork n Chile,intwovolumes: hefirst, reprintf 1965 tudy, escribes hilefromtspre-Columbian eginning hrough 817; he econd,Ladefinicionel stado a inte-graci6ne a sociedad,xtends is analysis p to 1861. Originallyhis olumewasto nclude heBalmaceda eriod, utthe uthor's ntimely eath ut hort hiswork.)Elegantlyllustrated,hesevolumes lso describe he ivesofthepeopleofChile as well as emphasizinghatnation's c6nomic, ocial,and culturaldevelopment.2*The uthorwishes oacknowledgehekind ssistance fJacques arbier, aroldBlake-more, imonCollier,nd Brian oveman.

55


3/35

LatinAmerican esearch eviewAnextremelymbitious rojects Luis Vitale'snterpretacionarxistae ahistoriae Chile, n effort hichhas been nterrupted,opefullyor nly shorttime, y he 973 oup. Vitale's nitial olume ombines study fpre-ColumbianChile and the impact f the conquista.According o Vitale,Spain was stillemergingrom eudalism hen tundertookheconquest ftheNew World.The discoveryf hisnew continentrovided he berian ationwith he ppor-tunity o establish capitalistociety. hile,unlike ther ations, id nothaveto pass through feudal hase butwas integratednto heworldwide apitalisteconomys a rawmaterialroducer.In the secondvolume,Vitale oncludes, ot unexpectedly,hat he Warforndependence asbasically conomicnnature, clashbetween ompetingeconomic roups.Proponentsf ndependence rgued hat n end toSpanish

domination ould bring ree rade, mprove pportunitieso market heir wnproducts, nd theflight f speciefrom hile,reduce axes nd instituterotec-tionistaws to nsulate ome ndustries,nd create merchant arine. nitially,thewealthy irected his evolution;he ower lassesdidnotbecome nvolveduntil panishrepression rove heproletariato oin theresistancemovement,mainly s guerrillas nder he eadership f men ikeManuel Rodriguez. heinfluence f deologywas minimal: andowners,miners, nd merchantssedLiberalismorationalize change n thepoliticalaqade, ut hey efused o alterthefundamentaltructuref ociety.Thethird olume mphasizes heparticipationf he ower lasses nthelatter artof the revolution, hich Vitale claimstraditional istorians averefused o acknowledge. La guerra muerte" 1819-22),he argues, houldbemoredeeply nalyzedbecauseit reveals n abortive ttempt yworkersndpeasants to revampChile's economic nd political nstitutions.nlikeotherscholars, econsiders he1833 onstitutions the onsolidationf hepower ftheemerging ourgeoisie;he nstitutionalizationfan export conomy aseduponthe sale of Chile'sagriculturalnd mineral roducts. y refusingo in-dustrializehile, hebourgeoisiemerelyntensifiedhe panish olonial eritageofunderdevelopment.ndeed,Chilewas forced o continuentheroleof rawmaterialxporternorder opayformported ritishmanufacturedoodsandto servicetsforeign ebt,whichhad been floatednLondon. Vitale'swork sinnovative, ellresearched,nd a splendid xample fMarxistxposition.3TwoAmericans ave dedicated heir ffortsoa general istoryfChile:JayKinsbruneras written shortworkthat s designedfor lassroom se;andOxford niversityresshas commissioned rian oveman o do a similarstudyfor tsLatin American eries.4Hernan Godoydescribes hile's socialdevelopmentromts nceptiono the modernperiod.His uniquevolumeofeditedworks,which ombines ommentarys wellas useful rimarynd sec-ondarymaterials,lso includes n extensive ibliography.5omerecently ub-lishedreference orksmay also provehelpful. he political ictionaryfLiaCortes nd Jordi uentes,which omplementsheir arlierwork,s quitegoodand anexcellentource or nformationnChile'smyriad olitical artiesnd tsvarious ublicfigures. alvatore izarro'swork, n theotherhand, s often funeven uality, articularlyor henineteenthentury.656


4/35

CHILEAN HISTORIOGRAPHY, 1965-1976Many uthors ave focused n thepoliticalspects f heColonial eriod.Fernando ilva studies he functioningf the Hacienda Real and records heresults f tsfirstisita. ella Flushedemonstratesow Santiago's abildo trug-gled to improvehehealth are of tscitizens s well as how it nteracted iththe lergy.omescholars avepaidmore ttentionothe elationshipsfChurchand state.FatherAliaza Rojas has noted hat, ontraryo theprovisionsf thePatronato, hileanbishops ommunicatedirectly ith he Holy See. Clerics,particularlyembers ftheSociety fJesus,ought ostopforcedndian aborandtoend thefrontierars;but, s Father ugeneKorth bserves,hedemandsof the elites formanpower revented ither heclergy r local governmentofficialsrommplementingeforms esigned o improve he situationftheIndian.7Numerous istoriansave challengedhesupposed mpact ftheBour-bon reforms.ernando ilva'swork howsthat he ContaduriaMayoroftenfunctionedndependentlyf Spanishbureaucratsndactuallyworked, t eastduring headministrationf Ambrosio 'Higgins, s an agent f decentraliza-tion.JacquesBarbier lso demonstrateshat he Bourbonmonarchs ouldnotalter he political ulture f the Hapsburgs nd thatfriendshipnd marriagebetweenCreoles nd Spanishcolonial fficialsluntedmany fMadrid'spro-posed changes. ndeed, s both ilva nd CarlosUgarte ote,Chileans egan ochafe nder mperial ule nd soonbeganto formulateome oftheir wnpoli-cies.8Disagreementsver dministrativeoalswerebutone factorna growingsplit etween pain andChile.Differencesnracial omposition,conomicom-petition ithinhe mpire s well s with pain, ndJesuitdeology roducedvague sense of Latin American egionalismhat ventuallymatured ntona-tionalism.9imonCollier rgues hat heChileansweddeda growing ride ntheir ndigenous raditionso EuropeanLiberalismnorder o rationalize heirindependencemovement.0Mary elstinerndRogerHaigh, n the ther and,see the ndependence eriod s a struggle etween ristocraticamiliesnxiousto protect nd expand their ower.Eventuallyhisambition recipitatedotonly he trugglegainst pain,but civilwar mong he riumphantamilies.1Raul SilvaCastroprovides s with listof the participantsn the1810CabildoAbierto.12Within even years, panishofficials ad deported oJuanFernandez hosewho supported he "gobiernontruso."'13 mall wonder hattheremainingixty-one ho composed he1817 Cabildo Abiertowere eitherRoyalists r toodiscreet o proclaim heir issatisfactionith hat ause.14Theodyssey fone exile,Manuelde Salas, has alsobeentraced, s well s thefate fa SpanishRoyalist.15The independencemovement ot only disrupted ndi-vidual ivesbuteven convulsed upposedly piritual rganizationsike heCa-bildoEclesiastico.6Once independence ad been achieved, he nation till aced mportant

political ecisions.Duringthe period 1817-30,Chileans experimented: ewconstitutionsere mplementednd rejected; ew deas weredebated; hewarinthe southwas fought; nd Peruwas freed.7 Distressed y thefailure fthenewleadershipo achievepolitical tability,ortions f the nation's lite,par-57


5/35

LatinAmerican esearch eviewticularlyheestanqueros,ebelled.'8 When thecivilwarended, Chilehad re-turned o itsSpanish heritage-to a highly entralized overnmentnd to alegislature hose powersweremore onsistent ith he Cortes hanwith heassembliesfFrance rAnglo-America.9Thenoble xperimentith ederalismfailed, imon Collier rgues,becauseitwas inappropriateo Chile'spoliticalculture.20Otherhistorians laimthatfederalism ad falsely aised toomanyexpectations; hen tcould notsatisfyhesepromises,tfell ntodisrepute.2'The nation hat merged romheunrest fthe arly ineteenthentury astobearthe mprintndnameofDiegoPortales-a conservativeovernmentoberuled ythewealthy nd thepowerful-althoughome laim hat he nfluenceof hemerchantrince asbeenover mphasized.22The firsterious ssaultupon the tolid tructurefPortalianhilecamewith he1851 nd 1859rebellions. ccordingo LuisVitale, he1848Revolutionin France, antiago'sexploitationf theprovinces, nd heavy mining axesunified raditionallyiffuse lements nto an alliance thatreactedviolentlyagainst hegovernment. hen heproletarianarticipantsried oradicalize he1851movement,hebourgeois ebels apitulated. hesuppressionf herebel-liondidnoteradicatets root auses: ncreased axation, conomic epression,andthe nimus f henorthern inerndsouthernarmeroward he ommer-cialand landedelites fSantiago recipitatednother utbreak fhostilitiesn1859.Therebels ailed gainbut, sVitale otes, his efeatwas notunexpected:the lliance fsuch disparate lements rovedunequalto thecombined ffortsof theoligarchsnd theshipsof the British avy.Had therebels riumphed,theywouldhave quandered heir ictoryndissent.3Some historians aveconcentratedheir ffortspondescribingheef-fectsf he ivilwaronspecificities. uthturriaga,hosupportshe conomicinterpretationf he1851 ebellion,races heresistancefLa Serena.GuillermoDonoso, however, rgues hatpurely ocalevents,many otally ivorced romeconomic actors,roducedhe1851 utbreaknTalca.24The 1859 defeatdid notdestroy iberalism.Within decadeof CerroGrande, iberal lubs e a reformaerepreachingheirecular ospel.25 ythe1870s, heConservative arty ad ceasedparticipatingngovernmentnd in-steadbecame politicaleper, ermittedo hold eats nthe egislatureutnotministerialortfolio.hristian egers nalyzes heregimefAnibal into1876-81), oneof hefirst iberals orule fter he ollapse f heLiberal-Conservativefusion.26 into, lackluster ut honestman, had themisfortunefrulingnation irstesetbya severe conomic epression nd then ried y theWar fthePacific. ontraryo whatmany avebelieved, his truggleailed ogeneratemuch nthusiasmmong he ivilians ordid treveal heChileanmilitaryobeparticularlydroit.27 n thecontrary,he conflicteverely trained hile's re-sources ndtested ts eaders oth ivil ndmilitary.hile ventuallyriumphedduemainly otheheroism f ts roops nd the neptitudef ts nemies.One of hemost opular hemes fmodern hileanhistoriographys themartyrresident oseBalmaceda.The studies fJulio esarJobet nd HernanRamirezNecochea rgue hat nefarious ritishitratemagnate, ohn homasNorth,workingn league withhis Chilean ackies,overthrewhe economic58


6/35

CHILEAN HISTORIOGRAPHY, 1965-1976nationalist Balmaceda because he threatened North's mining interests.A lesssatisfying ork s Cris6stomoPizarro's,which argues thatBalmaceda's policy ofenlargingthebureaucracyand encouraging mmigrationhreatened o displacethe elite's power base. Consequently, he oligarchymoved against the presidentwho could not defend his regimebecause both the working class and the pro-gressiveDemocraticpartywere tooweak to help him.28Recent scholarship challenges the economic and sociological interpreta-tions of Balmaceda's fall. Harold Blakemorecarefully nvestigates he role of thenitratebaron in Chile. He concludes that North had capitalized on inside in-formation o purchase controlling nterests n various salitreras ocated in Tara-paca. The Englishman subsequently acquired holdings in a bank and a localwaterworks. Perhaps North's greatest asset was the Tarapaca NitrateRailwayCompany, the only rail inkbetweenthe salitreras f the interior nd the embar-kation ports of Iquique and Pisagua. Because he enjoyed a monopoly, Northcould and did levy excessively high freight harges. The salitreros ad but twochoices:paythe nflated hargesorsit on theirnitrates.By the ate 1880s, the nitrate xport axnot onlyprovided Chile with40 per-cent of tsordinary evenues, itconstituted he ifeforce ustainingBalmaceda'sambitious and expensive public worksprogram. Eventually,he concluded thatbecause itcould reduce the flowof nitrates o thecoast,North'srailwayconces-sion posed a threat o thisprogram.The presidentalso fearedtheformation fnitrate artelsor combinations,whichsoughtto increase theworldmarketpriceof salitre hrough estricting roduction.Butanyreduction ntheexportsofthismineralwould reduce thenation's revenues. Thus, in1889,Balmaceda launcheda series of verbal attacks on the presence of foreign nterestsand cancelledNorth'srailroadmonopoly, nhopes thatthiswould open the area up tocompe-tition, educefreight osts,and stimulateproduction. t was thisact, nconjunc-tion with threats to nationalize the salitreras,the Left argues, which droveNorth nd his Chilean minions tooverthrow he Balmaceda government.Blakemorequestions Balmaceda's commitment o economic nationalism.The president authorized the sale of publicly owned nitrate ands to foreigninterests, nd, although Balmaceda had revoked North's railroad concession, hewas willingto grantsimilarprivileges to other British apitalists.He opposedNorth's railway monopoly not because it was foreign owned but because itlimited nitrate revenues; for this same reason he opposed the formation fnitrate artels. fNorthhad indeed supportedtheCongressional forces,he wasquicklydisappointed:thenew leaders would not restorehis railroadconcession.As the authorcogently rgues, we must seek thecauses ofthe1891 revolutionnChilean domesticpolitics nd notin thesupposed machinations fforeign api-talists.29Julio Heise Gonzalez's Historiade Chile: el PeriodoParlamentario,861-1925, provides precisely this nformation. hrougha detailed study ofChileanconstitutionalaw and precedent,he demonstrates hatChile had evolved intoade facto fnot de jure parliamentary emocracy.Lamentably,Balmaceda refusedto accept the fact that this transformation ad occurred:his arbitrary oliciesalienated his allies, the MonttVaristas;his attemptsto impose his successor

59


7/35

LatinAmerican esearch eviewdividedhis ownLiberal arty; ndhe became o isolated hat e sought o forgean alliancewith heultramontaneonservative arty.When, ate n 1890, hepresident ouldnotreplace isministerss the egislatureemanded, ongressretaliated y refusingo approve henational udget or he coming ear husprecipitatinghe rebellion.Heise's portrait f Balmacedacontradictshosepainted yearlier istorians ho had praised hepresidents a defenderftheworking lass. Instead,Balmaceda s shown to have cruelly uppressed henitratetrikersf 1890 nd to haveharrassed heprogressiveemocratic arty.Far from sympatheticigure, e emerges s an insensitiveutocrat uling isnationwithmethods hatwerebothbrutal nd inappropriateor hepoliticallysophisticatedhileans.30Raul Silva Castro s even essgenerous n his appraisal fBalmaceda. nwhatmaybe charitablyescribeds a psycho-historicalpproach, ilva arguesthat he neurotic resident ouldnot accept hathe was notall powerfulndthathe would have to compromise ithhis egislature. almaceda s notonlyblamedfor tartinghecivilwarbutfor rolongingt;for rderinghedestruc-tionof thenitrate orks, n order o deprive heConstitutionalistsffinancialsupport or heir ause; for ot bdicatingfter lacilla; nd for ot urrenderingValparaiso nd Santiago o the revolutionaryunta,whichwould have sparedthenation dditional loodshed ndlooting. ilva evendenigratesalmaceda'ssuicide s anunnecessaryomantic esture,he ctof narcissus ho fears hathe mightuffereprisals or isearlierntransigence.31

Blakemorend Heise have provided s with erhaps hemostdefinitiveworks n the Balmaceda xperience. nfortunately,heParliamentaryegime(1891-1925),he reationf he1891 evolution,till emainsargely ntouched.Traditionally,any consider his an era of ineptgovernmentnd excessiveexpenditures-la lase errochadoraastingtspatrimony,ndthat f hemother-land, n an orgy fconspicuous onsumption.hecivilwarended decades ofstrong xecutiveeadership; enceforth,ocal government,ot Santiago, egu-latedthe elections. he hacendados,ho could mpose heirwillon their nqui-linos, ecamethepowerbrokers-caciquesho either xercised owerdirectlyordispensed tto their ronies.Thiscorruptionpreadto thecitywhere herecentmigrant ollowed heurban oliticos blindlys his formeratr6n,r fellunder hedominationfhisemployer.he more ndependentimplyoldtheirvote, hus ssuring hemselves f small utgratefullyeceivednnuity. eisearguesthat uchpolitical buses afflictedll nations volving rom "semi-feudal grariantructureto n]industrialociety."32ventually,he nfusionfnewculturaldeas, he irstWorldWar, rbanization,ndchangesnthe grarianstructures well s publicmoralityeganto alter he ystem.ndeed, fter915thecacique's powerstarted owaneand by1921 t had virtuallyeased tobeeffective.ManyChileans epudiatedhe ystemf ohecho,rpolitical orruption.Pedro Montt, orexample,originally leader n themovement o establishparliamentaryule, nsuccessfullyought oreformhe ystem ehelped reate.Unhappily,sJuan duardoVargas otes, hepoliticalarties-Liberals,onser-vatives, nd Radicals-hadbecome aroque nstitutionsith ssifieddeologies.60


8/35

CHILEAN HISTORIOGRAPHY, 1965-1976Still,new forces,ikethePartidoNacionalista, emanded return o a strongpresidencyndeconomic ationalismongbeforeherise fAlessandri.33Although hesereforms ere to wait foryearsbeforemplementation,theParliamentaryeaders werenotunmindfulf theneed for hange.TheCuesti6n ocial,firstrticulatedyOrrego uco n1884, ecame rallying ointfor eformers.34his movementtruggledo improve heworkingnd livingconditions f the owerclassand, contraryo what s generally elieved, heRight idnotoppose suchproposals.ndeed,theUni6nCat6lica ndCatholicintellectualsuch as Juan EnriqueConcha and VicenteEcheverria oughtworkmen'sompensation,he reationf griculturalolonies, mproved ork-ingconditions, nd decenthousingfor he owerclass. As SilvaVargas ndPedro fiiguez emonstrate,onservativeartyupport f he socialquestion"antedated hatof theRadical party nd it was theRightwhichencouragedPresident iescoto workmoreactively o implementeform. amesMorrisindicateshat hemiddle-class lianza Liberal lso supported program,or-mulated y Jorge rrazuriznd BenjaminVicuna, o improveworkingondi-tions. Both theapproachof the Alianza and thatof the Conservatives asbasically aternalistic-elitistoblesseobligeforwhichthepoorwereto bevocally rateful.Whenthesereformsinally ecame aw,moreover,twas be-causeof he1924 oupandnot hroughhe raditionalegislativerocess.35Unfortunately,here s no definitivetudy ftheParliamentaryegime.Somehistorians aveanalyzed he deological ositionsndpolitical latformsof hevarious arties uringhe ongressionalndpresidentiallection f1915-16.36Similar esearch rojectswouldobviously ncrease urunderstandingfthis eriod. ernando into agarrigueas writtengeneraltudy f he wen-tieth enturyhat ffersome briefnsightsnto heParliamentaryeriod, utgenerallyhework s superficial,nd Jorge arria'sMarxist verviews toocursory.7Perhaps hebestworkyet oappear s stillHeise'sHistoria, hich eeks orefutehe rgumenthat heParliamentaryeriodwaspoliticallyterile.ndeed,heargues hat heyears 891-1924 rovided ime or heemerging ourgeoisieto earn he rt fpolitics; transitionaleriod romheoligarchicalovernmentofthenineteenthenturyo the age ofmassdemocracyhat eganafter 925.The authordoes not deny thattheParliamentaryegimewas elitist ut,henotes, owasevery emocracytthat ime. espite tsdefects,heParliamentarygovernmentsermittedreedomor he ndividual, hepress couldfunction,intellectualsould dispute, ndnewculturalmports ransformedhenation.38ButHeise overstates iscase; theruling lass was not s virtuous s he claims.Therepression f aborunions, hewreckingf nsolenteft-wingresses, ndtheharrassmentfRecabarrenndicate hatndividualiberties adbecome heprerogativesfthegente ecente.ronically,ome historiansikeEnriqueReyesseemalmostdelightedwith hisrepressionecause tforged sense of classconsciousness hich ecame heseedbedof theLeft-theAnarchists,hePar-tidoObrero ocialista, ndtheCommunists.39Chile,at least,was stablewhencomparedwithotherLatinAmericannations. espite hegovernmentfmen ikeBarros uco-whose most asting

61


9/35

LatinAmerican esearch eviewcontributionoposteritypparently as the ntroductionf thegrilledmeat-and-cheese andwich hatstillbears his name-Chile survived ntact.LikeFranceduring he ThirdRepublic, t was governmenty inertia nd bureau-cracy. hat t evenfunctionedt all underthese circumstanceshouldmeritsome dmirationomatterow tingedwithrony.Thechronicle fthecollapseof theParliamentaryovernmentnd themeteoric ise ofAlessandri, lthough nalyzedto some extent, tillremainsincomplete. or xample, herole f hemilitarynthe1924-25 oups s unclear:Rene Millar rgues hat he officerorpswas mostdispleased boutwretchedsalaries ndpoorcareer pportunities,nd theyoungerfficersidnot ntendto aunch coupuntilAlessandri nticedhemnto hepoliticalockpit. rederickNunn, on the otherhand, claims hat he desireforgeneral eforms well asprofessional iscontent ncouragedmen likeGrove and Ibafiez o act.40 heactualoverthrow as mostrecently een describeds well n theentertainingbut necdotal tudy fRaulAldunate hillips.41Althoughhe1925 onstitutionnvestedhepresident ith reater ower,Arturo lessandri ever inished isterm foffice. ome historianslaim hathe fell ecausehe could not fulfill is earlier romises.42banfez,n the otherhand, enjoyedmore uccessperhapsbecausehe assumedthe presidency n-fetteredy earlier ommitmentsnd, as Hugh Bicheno otes,unrestrainedypoliticaldeology r affiliation.hefirstbanezregime1927-31) ccomplishedgreat eal andmanaged o establishmany fthe nstitutionshatbecamethefoundationfmodernChile.Unhappily, hegeneral'spoliticalmethods ndcrassrepressionngendered ostilityhat oon was transformedntovariousattemptso overthrowim. Carlos Charlin blydescribes he abortive alaisconspiracynd theludicrous ffairfthe Avi6nRojo, and also records heeventual ollapseof baiiez,theMonteronterregnum,ndthefirst art ftheSocialist epublic f 100Days.This sone ofthefew omprehensivetudies fthis rucial eriod nd constitutesn excellent ourcefor nyone nterestednthisera.43Thedepression hat verturnedbainez ad other olitical amificationsas well.Reformshatwouldhavebeen mpossibleo mplementarlier ecamefeasible ecause he lectoratetself ad becomemore iberal. ormerupportersofBarros orgonioecame onvertso thecauseofAlessandri, hile hosewhoonce followed he Lion ofTarapaca-the leftwing oftheRadicalparty, hedem6cratas,ndtheworking lass-switchedtheir llegiance othenew forcesonthepolitical orizon:heCommunistsndSocialists. heChilean pper lassaccepted tate nvolvementn economic evelopmentnd revisionsn theelec-toral ystem,npartbecause tbenefitedhem, utalso because these hangeswerefarmore alatable han hemore adicalmeasures eing roposed.44Numerous cholars aveemphasized hegrowthndtheroleofspecificpolitical arties. uisPalma ndPeter now, he atter ithmore uccess,havestudied hePartido adical.GeorgeGrayson's ooktraces heChristian emo-crats romheirnceptionotheFrei dministration.he nternaltruggles ithintheSocialist anks, rom hefoundingf thepartyn1932 hroughheSecondWorldWar, reanalyzedbyPaulDrake.Jack homas oncentratesn thecau-62


10/35

CHILEAN HISTORIOGRAPHY, 1965-1976dillo-like igure fMarmaduke rove-the Marxist ho sreputed otto havereadMarx-and describes is abortive 932 ampaign or hepresidency henhe was nominatedwhile mprisonedn the South Pacific.MiriamHochwald'sdissertationxamines he variousforces hat nfluencedhegrowth f the So-cialist arty. ulio esar JobetndAlejandro helenRojas,themselvesromi-nent ocialists, ave also writtenistoriesf hisMarxistarty.erhaps hebestwork s the oint ffortfFernando asanueva ndManuelFernandezwho notonlytracethehistorical evelopmentf theSocialistparty, utdescribe tsideologicalrowths well s its nteractionith ther oliticalrganizations.45Theephemeral nd happily hort-lived ational ocialist arty as beenstudied yMichaelPotashnik, hoanalyzes he ntellectualoots fthemove-ment nditscontradictoryole nChile'shistory-itwas theonlyNazipartyosupport hePopularFront, political oalition f the Leftdesigned o opposeHitler.46fthe dissertationsow underway n both he United tates nd En-gland arecompleted,we shall have more nformationn thevariouspoliticalparties, articularlyn theCommunists. he latter dditionwould be mostwelcome nd wouldsupplement hewell-known utpartisanwork f HernanRamirez ecochea.47Some generalworksdescribing hile'spolitical ystemhave also ap-peared.Ben Burnettnalyzes hevariouspressure roups peratingnChile,whileFedericoGil studies not only thenation'shistorical evelopment utincludesnformationn thevarious olitical arties nd recent lectoralontests,as well s dissects heorganizationf hegovernment,ureaucracy,ndofficialagencies.Weston gor robes hefunctioningf he enate.48GermanUrzuaValenzueland Anamaria arciahavewrittenhistoryfthebureaucracyrom 818 o 1968.Thiswork,whichs invaluable or hepost-1925period, races he growth f various tate nstitutionsnd their articipa-tionnthenation's ocial nd economic evelopment.49rzuahas also writtengeneral urveyfChilean olitical istory.is nitialssaydescribes owChile'sfirstarties volved rom nstable ressure roups o organizationshat tressedthepersonalityf heireadermore han deological urity. uring hePortalianperiod, Partido ficial eveloped, ut tdissolved ventuallyecauseof dis-sentwithin he ristocracy.lthough variety fpolitical artiesmerged, heywereprimarilyoncernedwith bstractssues and did notbecome nvolvednsocial or economic uestionsuntil heturnof thecentury. rzua notesthechangesproducedby adoptingplatformshatadvocatedmorethanpoliticalreform,ythe formationf thePartido em6crata, nd by thecreation f theMarxist eft,whichhe analyzes longwiththe moretraditionalolitical r-ganizations.50As we progressnto he1930s, hematerialeemsto declinenquantity.What has appearedtends to be autobiographical-the orksofAlessandri,Gonzalez Videla,Guzman, ndtheprofessionalpostateMarcosChamudes-andhence essobjective. omeof hefew yntheticorks reuneven nqualityandpartisan,ike hoseof Jorge arria nd Hugo Zemelman; icheno's Anti-Parliamentaryhemes"provides panoramic weep of the post-1920 eriod;Maria nfanteoncentratesnthe 938 residentiallection;ndRicharduper'sdissertations a detailed hronologyf hePopular ront1938-41).

63


11/35

LatinAmerican esearch eviewIf the1930shave been barely ouched, he subsequent ecades are avirtual abularasa.With heexceptionf Arturo lavarria'sasttwovolumes

and hisChilebajo a democraciaristiana-neitherne of which s striking-thearea is openfor he historian.Wehave precious ew works n Ibaiiez,Ales-sandri, r Freiand almostnothing n Rios orGonzalezVidela.52 he recentcoupwilldoubtless ivertheeffortsfmany. ndeed, here avealready eennumerousworkswritten-somewithmixed esults-andmore hallbe avail-able soon.While his opic sofgreatmportance,nunderstandingfpre-1970Chilewillbe essential fwe are to put the UnidadPopularexperiencentoperspective.Ironically,ne of themajoreventsthattransformedhile's economy

occurred otwithin hatnation ut n Peru: n earthquaken 1687destroyedmuchof theLima valley rrigationystem nd devastatedocal agriculture.Stimulatedythe openingup ofthePeruvianmarket, hilechangedfrompastoral conomyo cereal ultivation.andwas enclosed ndintensivelyul-tivatedndthe cattereduralaborforcewas concentratednthefarms, hileitsdutieswere ncreased nd itsperquisites erediminished. hilebecameseigneurialociety, nationwhose economic owerwas concentratedn thelandowninglite.While heCentralValley, articularlyheSantiago rea,became argelyagricultural,he conomyf heNorte hicowasnot odrasticallyltered.nLaSerena,miningontinuedoflourishndhence ompetedwith hehacendadosfor abor.The north,moreover, id not export s muchgrainbecauselocalminers onsumed t. Concepci6n, n the otherhand,formerlyhe center flivestockroduction,lso began he ultivationfwheat.Generally,seigneur-ial social tructureccompaniedhe doption f ereal roduction.ecause f tsgeographicalocation,antiago mergeds thenation's rincipalconomicen-ter. tscommerciallite ecame hemiddlemenetween hehacendado ndthePeruviannd, ater, heBritishmerchant,xchanginghileanwheatfor uro-peanmanufacturedoods.Thus, ccordingoMarcello armagnani,hilebe-camea rawmaterial roducer,ubordinatingtself irsto themarketsfPeruand,afterndependence,oEngland.53DemetrioRamosdemonstrateshat he economic elationshipetweenLima and Santiagowas morecomplicated. raditionally,hile's ocalofficialshad toreconcilewoopposing oals: hat f hewheatproducer, hosought hemaximumrice ndthewidestmarket or isgoods;andthat fthe onsumer,whodemandednexpensiveood. antiago's abildonormallyried o delay heexport f cerealsuntil heneeds ofthe local populationwere firstatisfied;consequently,hileanwheatexports o Peruoften luctuatedn response odomesticemand.In the arly ighteenthentury,eruviansgainbeganto cultivate heatbecauseof temporaryeclinenChileanproduction. ot unreasonably,eru-vian agriculturalistsemandedprotectionrom oreignompetition.hileanhacendados, nxious oretainheirbynow)traditional arkets,esistedhesemeasures ndwerefortunateodiscover hat heyhad the support fCallao's64


12/35

CHILEAN HISTORIOGRAPHY, 1965-1976shippingndcommercialnterests. henPortobello'sair ecame ess ucrative,thenavierosf Callao soughtnew markets. hey uickly erceived hat xport-ingwheatfrom hile oPerumight ompensate hem or hedestructionftheflota ystem. onsequently,eru's navieros oined Chile's hacendados n de-manding hatViceroyMansode Velasco ermitmorewheat o enter ima.Anxious o makePeru elf-sufficientn wheat ndyetunwillingo alien-ate another ortion f the empire, e compromised:enceforthothChileanandPeruvianwheatwouldbe sold n Lima.The navierosncouraged heuse ofChileangrain y sellington credit o Lima'sbakers, nd theCallao merchantscorneredheChileanend of the market,manipulatingarm rices nd thusartificiallyepressing hem. ater, n 1755,Peruvian armersgaindemandedpreferentialosition n the ocalmarket. hisrequest ntagonized otonly henavieros uttheChileanhacendado lass,who requestedhatCaptainGeneralManuelAmatdefend hem.The atter emanded hat hePeruvians easedis-criminatinggainstChilean mports.54arlos Ugarte lso indicates hatSan-tiago's abildo,whichhad earlier rohibitedxports, ow sought o protecthewheatfarmergainstfraudulent ractices nd to expand his markets.t waspartially ue to thecabildo hat iscriminationgainst hileanproducts ndedand thatChileans ould selltheirwheatdirectlyo Panama, husdestroyinghePeruvian heatmonopoly.5Trade withArgentina, hichhad begun n the sixteenth entury,x-panded substantiallyfterhe Bourbon ings penedthe Strait n1740,56 ndeventuallyhisroute uperceded hePacific onnection. enceforth,hilere-ceived steady tream fsupplies, hroughegalas well as clandestine han-nels, from he Platine rea. Indeed, both Villalobos nd Eyzaguirre oncludethat he 1811Free TradeDecree was mainly political esture hat helocalcommerciallitesopposed.57Certainly he Bourbon eforms educedChile'sdependence ponPeru.As Silva Vargasnotes,Chilehad embarked pon eco-nomicpoliciesdesigned o end Peru's control. y theend of the O'Higginsadministration,he Peruvian iceroyaltyouldno longer mpose ts policiesupon its southern eighbor.58hileanshad developed ocal nstitutions-themint ndthe onsulado-which reed henation rom epending pon thevice-royaltynLima.Other cholars o not gree hatChile njoyedmuchmaterialrogressntheColonialperiod.HernanRamirezNecochea, or xample, rgues hatChilepossessedno nationalndustries,hattsufferedrom rade eficits,ndthat tcontinued o be exploitedyboth he mpirend ts nforcer,heviceroyaltyfPeru. t was to correcthiseconomicmbalance hat he Creoleeliterebelledagainst pain.AndreGunder rank laims hat ndependence idnotend theeconomic ervitude:hile imply xchangedmastersndEnglish eplaced pan-ish as the anguageof the exploiters ho dominated he new nation's om-merce, opper,wheat, nd, ater, itrates.educedbythefalsedoctrine ffreetrade ndtheglitterfEuropean onsumeroods,Chileans ejected rotection-ism nd instead ept heir ation rawmaterial roducer-an economic aponincapable f reproducingts wealth.Some nationalndustries eveloped, utFrank rgues hat heseweredominated y either oreignersr first-generation

65


13/35

LatinAmerican esearch eviewChileanswho happily etrayedheir ew homeland o gratifyngland. ndeed,accordingoJacinto aello,Chilebecame virtual ominion fBritain hich,nleaguewith ocalcapitalists,iquidated henation's ndustry,enationalizedhenitrate ines, nd even ssertedtspower verChile's conomic tructure.59A more easoned roponentf hedependencyhesis s the talian cholarMarcello armagnani, ho blames hefailure odevelop ndustriesn the ackofcapital ccumulation. hisphenomenon, hich heauthor laims haracter-ized the entireHispanicworld,was due to the overwhelmingresence fanindustrializedurope,particularlyngland.Historically,hile had been sub-ordinated oGreatBritain utthis ervitude ecame nstitutionalizeduringheperiod1870-95.A worldwide epression educed heprice frawmaterials,Chile'sprincipalxport; imultaneously,nglish apital egan oflow ntoChile,particularlyts salitreras. his new money timulatedaw material xports ndaccelerated he decline n commodity rices.Thus Chile found t extremelydifficulto accumulate he fundsneeded to modernize herest f tseconomy.Some ndustryiddevelop,npart ecauseofdomesticnflation-theecliningpeso ncreased heprice fforeign oods,providing hilewith de facto ystemofprotectionism-buthileanndustryemained t a primitiveevel,producingmainly ondurable onsumer oods. Manufacturers,oreover,ouldnotcom-pete uccessfullyith ther ectors f he conomy, articularlyanking,or hecapitalneeded to modernize nd expandplantfacilities.venwhen the statebegan oparticipateneconomic evelopment,tdidnot lter hebasicdilemma:thecost of equipment hat uickly ecameoutdated imply ncreased he na-tion's ndebtednessnd thusdeepened hecycle f dependency.ndeed, inceforeignersontrolled ining,hemost ynamicectorf he conomy, hiledidnot venown themeans fbuyingtself utof conomicondage.60BothCharlesPreggerRoman nd RogerBurbach lso support he de-pendencyhesis. he formerrgues hat heformationf orporationsermittedone economiclementopenetratendeventuallyominatether ectors f heeconomy. nce in power, hesecorporatenterests,n conjuinctionith heirBritishllies,refused o industrializehile and emphasized nstead he exportsectorndthe mportationfmanufacturedoods.Even theGreatDepressionandsubsequent rogram feconomic ationalismid notendthedependency.Burbach laimsthatforeign apital voided the tariffarrier y buying ntoexisting hilean ndustries. he national ourgeoisie ermittedhis, n part,because it needed advanced technologynd capital.Hence, in return or"piece ofthecorporate ction," hileans penedthe door toforeignomina-tion.61Thedependencymodel,however, uffersrom ertain laws hat ecomeevident s new research s published. . F. Edwards ndicateshat s early s1811,Chile ought o alter tseconomic tructure.hegovernmentncouragedthedevelopment f national ndustries-especiallyextiles-as well as a mer-chantmarine;t imited oreignraders hilegiving hilean ommercialnter-estscertaindvantages;nd itsought o stimulategriculture.hese measuresfailed or variety f reasons.Local merchantsould notcompete uccessfullydespite heir dvantages. he greatest roblemwas that heChilean conomy66


14/35

CHILEAN HISTORIOGRAPHY, 1965-1976could not simultaneouslyeformtself nd generate nough ncome o sustainthegovernmentnd support hewar forndependence. ustoms rovidedhelion's share of the nation'srevenues nd any measurethatrestrictedhemstrangled overnmentervices.JohnRector eaches imilar onclusionsndargues hatneo-mercantilismimply pawned nefficientndustriesroducinghigh-costoodswhiledivertingeededresourcesrom griculturend mining.Rawmaterial roductiont eastgenerated unds or he upport f hegovern-mentnd eventual rowth.2In the1870s,Chileenacted protectionistduana ode and compensatedfor he ostrevenues y imposing taxon income,gifts,nd inheritances.63Nativendustries id develop nd, as HenryKirsch otes, hesemanufacturersprovided nough o satisfy uch fChile's onsumernd militaryeedsduringtheWar fthePacific.64he egislatureubsequentlyassedadditional rotec-tionistaws thatenjoyedthesupportnot onlyof industrialistsut also thehacendados,who saw the tariffs a meansofdefendingheir eef nd wheatmarkets. heSantiago iots f1905 ndicate, owever, hat igher omestic oodpricesntagonizedhepublic.65Domestically roduced temswereoftennondurable oods thatwereconsumedocally; thers,uch as sulphuriccid,cement, ailway ridges,ndlocomotives,ontributedothegrowth fheavyndustry.hileanmanufacturersbecame strong noughto satisfyocalneeds during he FirstWorldWar.AsOscarMufioznotes,the onsetofthedepressionnd the Second WorldWarprovided dditionalncentiveshat,nconjunction ith policy f mportub-stitution,timulatedhenation'sheavy ndustryndmetallurgicalectors.Ad-mittedly,omesticallyroduced oodswere more xpensive, utat leasttheybore hemessage: fabricacionhilena."66Significantly,henation's ransportationystem id not anguish.RobertOppenheimer emonstrateshatprivate hileancapital nd thegovernmentfinancedheconstructionftheCentral alley ail ystem. ventuallyheMo-nedahadto assumethe dministrationfthis ndeavor,making hilethefirstLatinAmerican ation ocontroltsownrailroads. ppenheimer's ork s alsoimportantecauseheshows hat hehacendados omprisedhe argest egmentoftheshareholdersf railroad tock, husputtingorestthe thesis hat heagriculturalistas not nnovative. ohnWhaley's xcellent issertationracesthe mpact ftherailroadn Chile's outh.While herail ystempenedup thefronteraor ettlement,heauthor rgues hat talso destroyedocal ndustriesand thus ubordinatedhe south o thedomination fthe Central alley, ar-ticularly antiago.67While hedependencyheorymayhave some ppeal, t s oftenmislead-ing.AsHaroldBlakemore otes,Chilewas simply ot hat elpless. ven ttheapogeeofBritish ower,Santiago uccessfullyefused o acceptfinanciale-sponsibilityorPeruvian uanodebts, ne of the unwanted ividends ftheWarofthePacific.68 he Chilean capitalist,moreover,was neitherhesitantnorincompetent:e openedup traderoutes o Australia n theearlynineteenthcentury;nd Chilean meltersmportedresfrom olivia, eru, ndArgentina,which hey efinednd exported.69ayKinsbruner emonstrateshatEnglish

67


15/35

LatinAmerican esearch eviewmerchants,nitiallytleast,did notmonopolize ommercendthat heir om-mercial uccesswas due to theirkills nd notthe nterventionfthe Britishgovernment.ndeed,not all oftheforeign nterprisesesultedn profit:hegreatWilliamWheelwright,s KinsbrunerndRolandDuncanshow, ailed nmore han ne occasionnhisventuresnChile.70New research ndicates hat Chile constructedn adequate economicfoundationn thenineteenthentury ut that t failed o modernize.Kirschclaims hatChilean apitalistsesitatedo nvestnnewtechnology,nd ndus-tries tagnated ecausetheirmoney lowed nstead nto hort-term,igh-profitenterprisesather hanheavyndustry.hus,manyChileans nvestedapitalnBolivianmines ndArgentinestanciasecausetheyproduced higher eturnon theirnvestment.71

MarkosMamalakis'mostrecent tudy lso notes thatChiledevelopedsubstantiallyuring henineteenthentury utcouldnotmeet heneeds of tsexpanding opulation. hilefalteredecause hegovernmentailed o mposerational ax system hatcould have invested herevenues n education nddiversifyingheeconomy.Mamalakis ffectivelyemonstrateshat he mpactofforeignnvestmentnd inflation as been overemphasized.He argues n-stead that he CentralValley,whichdevelopedbecause ofthetaxon mining,never ontributedothegrowthf herest fthenation.Unlike armagnani, ebelieves hat herewasadequate apital ccumulationut hat twasconsumed,not nvestednthe conomy.ubsequently,fterhe asymoney fnitrates adevaporated,hevarious ectors ad tocompete or diminishinghareof re-sources, hus imitinghenation's conomic rowth. heauthor, neconomist,hasprovided s with superb xpositionescribinghile's conomic evelop-ment hroughhe wentiethenturynd ncludinghegovernmentfAllende.2Some historiansfferlternativexplanationsor hile's conomic rob-lems.PierreVayssiere,or xample, laims hatChileowes itsunderdevelop-mentnottodependency utto tsfiscal ystem. oon afterndependence,henew nation ost tsgoldand silver,whichwas remittedbroadtopayfor hepurchases fEuropeanconsumer oods. The nation iterallyad run out ofspecie-thegovernmentad tomintopper oins ndprivate ompanies tartedthe nfamousystemffichas-thus tunting,fnotsuffocating,conomic e-velopment. fter850,when he conomy egantoexpand, o didthedemandfor pecie;unfortunately,hile'smineral roductionegantodecline.Finally,the tate,nthenameofLiberalism,bandoned ontrolfthemoney upply oprivate reditnstitutionshatbeganto print anknotes. ocal capitalistsn-vested his funnymoney"not ntheeconomy,ut nmaintaining preten-tiouslyhigh standard fliving.73 armagnanilso criticizes hegovernmentbecause tpermittedoreignanks osiphon ff apital rom hemoredynamicsectors; hese fundswent to finance entures hat,while ucrative, id notbenefitthe Chilean economy.74Two recent doctoral dissertations also studyvarious spects f henation'smonetaryolicy.5Manyfind tdifficultoaccept ny generalizednterpretationf Chile'seconomic evelopment.. F. Edwardsmaintainshatwe cannot ormulateuchtheories ecauseof thepaucity f iteraturen thebasic sectors f Chile'seco-68


16/35

CHILEAN HISTORIOGRAPHY, 1965-1976nomy. appily, arious cholars ave embarkedpon research rojects hatwillprovide s with he necessary ata. One of themoregratifyingxampleshasbeenthestudy f thenitratendustry.scarBermuidezupplements iscom-prehensive ook on salitrewith n article escribingowChile regulated henitrateieldsnoccupiedAtacama nd Tarapaca. homasO'Brien'spainstakingeffortshow thatSantiagoreturnedhenitrates o private ands becauseofconflictinglaims fownershipndbecause tcould ll ffordo finance oth heWar f thePacificnd the redemptionf thePeruvian itrateertificates.ub-sequently,oreignontrolncreased ecause Chilean apitalists referredo n-vest heir unds n more raditionalectors fthe conomy,ure hat heprofitsof revived itratendustry ould ventuallyercolatento heir ands.MichaelMonteon rovides noverview fBritishconomicnvolvementntheAtacamanitratendustryrom he1870s ntil he1891 evolution.76Ricardo ouyoumdjian'superb rticlenHistoriahows hatwhileWorldWar increased onsumptionf nitrates, hileanminers ackedthemeans toshiptheir roducts o Europe.Although hile retained monopoly ver thesalitreras,heAllies ould nddid force owntheprices yrestrictinghe aleofneededraw materials, articularlyil. Increasingly,he Chileangovernmentbecame nvolvedn theregulation f the nitrate rade.Whenthe warended,prices ell; hepostwar epression, lus theHaberprocess, ignaled he loseofthegolden ge ofnitrates,nerathatwas not oberevived espite he ffortsftheGuggenheimsnd theirmagical rocess.Ofcourse, or omethedemise fthesalitrerasroducedno mourning. s Monteon,Reyes, nd theBermuidezstudy fNicolasPalaciosdemonstrate, orking onditionsn thenortherni-trate ieldswereunbearable nd thedecline fthe alitrerasnded a sad era nChilean aborhistory.7Foreignerslayed nimportantole ndeveloping hile's opper swell.ClaudioVelizstudies he AlsatianCharlesLambert,who made itpossible osmelthigh ulphate res;and PierreVayssiere otesthatforeigners,his imeAmericans,esurrectedhemoribundopperndustry hen heChileans hosenot to invest n this sector fthe economy. hisinfusion f funds nd newtechnologymade themine pits moreproductive. he Gran Mineria omplexescapedtaxation ntil 931when,atthe onsetof thedepression, he govern-ment egantolevy mposts n the redmetal.This change n fiscal olicy-inthe sense thatcopperreplacednitrates s the objectof taxation-laterwasaltered oencourage dditionalnvestmentythe opper ompanies. ccordingto ClarkReynolds, owever, herevenues enerated y copper upported en-eralgovernment xpenditures,not thediversificationfChile's economy.78The favored tatus f the copper ompanies xcited ostility,nd evenright-wingoliticiansikeMariano ugaattacked heYankee rganizationsnddemanded heir xpulsion.n 1971, he AllendegovernmentxpropriatedheGranMineria. wo Americancholars ave studied he mechanicsfnational-ization s well as itsbackgroundnd results.George ngram rgues hatmostChileans, ot usttheLeft, elieved hat henation adtobreak utof he ycleofdependencymposed pon tbyforeignatural-resourcexploiters.heodoreMoran,whosework ttemptsostudy hebroader ssue of therelationshipf

69


17/35

LatinAmerican esearch eviewthe multinationalorporationnd thehost country,laims hat heAmericanAlliance or rogress emandsfor andreformo angered he Right hat heyceased to protecthecoppercompanies rom he ChileanLeft.79 othworksprovide thereader with a generalunderstanding f thenationalization rocess.Some general studies on mininghave also appeared. Leland Pedersonhas written n excellentworktracing heexploitation f theNorteChico's min-eralresources from heSpanish conquista to the modernperiod.An interestingcompanion piece is the somewhat superficialbut still useful effort fAugustoBruna, who traces the evolution ofChile's miningcodes from heirRomanLawbackground ntothis entury.80Recentefforts ave substantiallyncreased our understandingof Chile'sagrarian ector.ArnoldBauer, Horacio Aranguiz,and others do an excellentobof describingthe least visible and yetmost discussed Chilean: the inquilino.81There are also studies of individualfundos hatemployed these hapless campe-sinos.82 Gonzalo Izquierdo traces the evolution of the Sociedad Nacional deAgricultura rom n organizationpraisingthevirtuesof agrarian ife to a forceformodernizingthe agricultural ectorthroughthe introduction f new tech-nology.83As Silvia Hernandez notes, these efforts roduced positive resultsafter1850, largelybecause of the expansion of Chile's European markets, heintroduction f the railroad, the development of internalmarkets, nd the ef-forts fenlightenedminers nd entrepreneurs urnedhacendado. The importa-tionof new farmmachinery endedto be somewhat imited ecause few Chileanscould repairthis equipment.84The National SocietyofAgriculture ventuallybecame not onlya forceformodernizationbut also a pressuregroup operatingin the political system to protect the interestsof the large landowner.85Twoworthwhile eprintshave also appeared: the classic two-volumestudyof Clau-dio Gay,and Donoso's monographon Chile's southernprovinces.86Arnold Bauer has attemptedto write a definitive tudyof Chilean ruralsocietyfrom heSpanish Conquest to the twentieth entury.His research,how-ever, tends to be based upon the experienceof two departamentos-Talca ndCaupolican-and for more limited imeperiod (1840-90). While Chile's agri-culturalsector was initially ompetitive, ts participationn the world marketfailedbecause of the nation's geographical position,because its rivals mecha-nized morerapidly, nd because theterratenientesacked the foresight r desireto improve theirfundos, apparently because they were under no economicpressure to change. The landowners,who monopolized thecredit xtendedbytheCaja de CreditoHipotecario,evidently efusedto invest these funds n theirhaciendas but instead wasted them n extravagant iving.Bauer's work s quiteprovocative,but itsconclusions,because they rebased upon a limitedrangeofsources,are tentative.87Mario Ballesteros ndicates thatChilean agriculture id increase its pro-ductivityn theearlytwentieth entury lthough tbegan todeclineafter 930;88by the 1950s ithad become one of the nation's leastproductive ectors. Chile'sproblem was twofold: tcontained too little rable land and what did exist wasconcentratedn thehands ofan absurdly mall elite.Earlier ttempts oprovidethe inquilinos with land in the newly opened southern frontiers ad failed,8970


18/35

CHILEAN HISTORIOGRAPHY, 1965-1976and the alitreras rovided ne ofthefew lternativeso tenant arming. fterWorldWar , however, he salitreraseased to employ argenumbers f men,who then riftedack othefarmn search fwork.The desirefor eform egan as early s 1911when nquilinos rotestedtheirworkingonditions. lthoughhe bafiez egime rovided hat tsLaborCodeprotectgrarian orkers,he erratenientesreventedts mplementationthrough arliamentary aneuvering. s BrianLoveman's plendid tudy n-dicates,hepolitical ower f he andownersnd theirbilityobuyoff heLeft,by supportinghe atter's rograms or ndustrializationnd subsidizedfoodprices or heurbanworker,tymiedandreform. y he1960s, hehacendado'sprestige nd powerhad waned. Unableto produce nough o feed henationand considered regressive orce n a society hat sought o modernize tseconomy, he terratenientesost support.Agrarian eform,ong a dream, e-came a reality s Alessandri, rei, nd especiallyAllende radicated he argelanded estates.As Lovemannotes,however, olitical nd ideological ssuescomplicatedhe andreformrocess.90Scholars re also studying he formationnd growth f the ndustrialproletariat;nfortunately,ost fthematerialn the abormovementends obe doctrinaire.orge arria's tudies regeneral, lthough ishistoryfCUT isuseful or racingheformationfthe union nd itsvarious onferences.lanAngell'svolumeprovides historicalackgroundo the abormovement,uttends o stress nionorganizationnd internecinetrife ithin arious yndi-cates.He notes hatAlessandri'sabor odedidnot erve heworkinglasswellbycreatingeparate nions or he brerondempleado;ynot llowing nions obe organized n an industry-wideasis; and by regulatingoo strictlyheirfinances.MichaelMonteon's issertationnd thework f EnriqueReyesfocuson theplight f the nitrateworker.Monteon,who does a verygood job ofdescribingonditionsnthe alitreras,aults ecabarrenor ailingodevelopmoredynamic nionmovement. eyes rgues hat he nhumanworkingon-ditions useddisparateworkersnto class-consciousroletariatnd hence henitratexperience as essential o thedevelopmentftheChilean abormove-ment.91

Chile adopted the same social institutions s otherLatinAmerican colo-nies,atleast nitially. orexample,theencomienda as institutionalized, lthoughMarioG6ngoranotes that twas nota feudal nstrumentecause the andowners,while enjoying ndian service,were still ubjectto royal authority. hile's enco-miendas thushave been described s "quasi-seigneurial"because they ackedaninherentpoliticalforce and derived their uthority rom heKing.92However,this did not stop the encomenderosromdominating Santiago's cabildo andthrough t,the urbaneconomy,to fit heir wn needs.93Maria Gonzales Pomesargues that the encomienda functioned n a benign fashion in Chile, in partbecause ofthe nterventionf the civil uthorities;when itwas abolished,in1791,most of the laborersremained on the land as tenants.94 till,the relationshipbetween andlord and tenantwas obviouslyunequal: the atterwas subordinatedto theneeds ofhis masterand rarely eceivedspecie forhis labor.95Those who

71


19/35

LatinAmerican esearch eviewcould ind owork-vagabonds,migratoryorkers,hieves-oftenongregatedon the outhern rontierr nCuyo,where heywere oinedbyother isorderlyelements ho had no chance o mprovehemselvesociallyndwhohadbeendisplaced romhe abormarkety ower-classlacks nd ndians. hemigratoryand landlessunemployed oseda constanthreatosocietyndwereconsid-ereda force or mmorality.onsequently,hegovernmentought o curtailtheir ctivity,ftenyemployinghem npublicworks rojects.96The Chilean ristocracyasnot shomogeneouss has beenbelieved orwas itclosed o outsiders.97lassdependedupona varietyfcomponentsndthepossession f nencomiendawas not lways heprerequisiteor ntryntothe upper class. Increasingly,ace became a condition or ocialacceptance,whileone'sprofession, rovidingtwas not"unoficioil,"became essimpor-tant.98nly n themore raditional iningenters idtheencomiendaeemtobe essential;n Santiago nd Concepcion, lites mergedwhose controlwasbased upon power ndwealth, ot ndian abor.Thesenew elements egantooccupy mportantosts n the olonial ureaucracy;owever,his ocialmobilitydid not ome asynorwas thenewcomer raciouslyccepted y he ldguard.99Althoughhenineteenth-centurylites ontinuedopermitewelementso ointheir anks, hey emanded hat hey dopt heirdeals ndgoals. 00Preoccupation ith heoligarchy as tended o make cholarsgnore helowerclass, butsome work on Chile's racialcomposition nd demographicmovements as appeared.10'mmigrationistorynd thecontributionfvari-ousethnic roupshasalso become popular opic.CarlSolbergwasoneof hefirst o undertakeuchresearch,omparinghe mmigrationatternsnd gov-ernmentolicies fArgentinand Chilefrom880 o 1914.Marcello egalhaswritten highlydeological ork ttemptingodescribeheroleoftheChinesein Chile; nd Victor alhl studied heYugoslavs,who nitiallyettled ither nMagallanes rAntofagasta,ndbecame n mportantlementnChile, speciallyafterhey egan omigrateoSantiago.02Perhaps hemost ignificanttudy as beenthat fJean ierre lancpain,whohaswritten massive pus describingheGermanmmigrantxperiencefrom 816 o theconclusion f WorldWar I. Thiswork s epic n its cope andoutlines he social, economic, nd cultural mpact f the Germans n Chile.George Young has also studiedtheTeutonicnfluence, roviding s with abiography f Bernardo hillipi, uthor f the firstolonization roject, nd astudy f heGermanommunityrom 846 o1914.103In localstudies, cholarshave described arious ities n Chile's northand south s well s theSantiago egion.04 A fewworks ocus n more pecificprojects: ernanRodriguez nd Fernando ampotrace heevolutionfcertainsections f and in Santiago nd Maulerespectively; rmando e Ramonde-scribes very ien aizn Santiago, s well as tracingtsownershipndvalue,from 650 o1700.105Others avemade regionaltudies fMagallanes, hiloe,andthe outhernrovinces.106hese are excellentesearch rojects fregionaldevelopmentnChile, nd any nterestedcholarhouldnotonly onsult hembut lso the omprehensiveibliographyfLeonardoMazzei.107

72


20/35

CHILEAN HISTORIOGRAPHY, 1965-1976Scholarshave expended disproportionatemount f their ffortse-scribing hile'sdiplomatic istory,ut not always with thedesiredresults.Manyoftheseworkshavetended odecry he oss of Chilean erritoryo itsneighbors, articularlyrgentina. erhaps he most efficient,fnot verbose,practitionersf thisschool are OscarEspinosa and EzequielGonzalez,whohave each written hree olumes rguing hat he Monedabetrayed hile bycedingPatagonia nd other erritorieso Buenos Aires.108 hisschoolof his-toriographyas many evotees,most fwhom hare his essimisticheology.09There resome more pecific orks n Argentine-Chileanelations: eoffreySmith tudies herole ofBalmacedankeepingArgentina eutral uring heWarof thePacific; rregoVicuniaaments hatwithBalmaceda'sdeath,Chileceased to follow naggressivendnationalisticoreign olicy is-a-vis he orte-

nios.10Avariationf his rrendentistovements a group hatwrites hat hilefoolishly ermitted olivia oregainwhat t had lost n the War fthe Pacific.Espinosa, n an openlyracist ccount, rguesthatBolivianeverpossessedaseacoast ndthat tspresentttemptsogain noutlet othePacificrewithoutmerit. ortunately,here remorebalanced studiesof Chilean-Bolivianela-tions, ornstance, hat fXimena ojas,who has writtenn excellentiographyofAdolfobafiez, hilean oreign inisterriorothe1879 onflict.111Because of so manypressing order roblems,t s notsurprisinghatfewhavestudied hile'srelations ithnoncontiguousountries:orgedwardswrites n Franco-Chileanelationsnthe arly ineteenthentury; arioBarrosdescribes heEastmanmissionoQuito.112There ssomesolidresearchelatingBritishttemptso resolve hile'sboundary isputeswithArgentinauringheMontt nd Riescogovernments.'13ome historiansocus n Chile'srelationswith heUnited tates: ugenioPereira alas does a splendid obrelatingowAmericanraders nd sailors irstmadecontact ith olonial hile nd howtheUnitedStatesrevolutionnfluenced hile'sstruggle or ndependence;MarySquellastudied he 1829-41period, oncludinghat heUnited tateswas toopro-Confederationuring he1835-38war; ndVladimirmolenski, Russianhistorian,ries o blame the Warofthe Pacific n Americanntervention,utfails o convince he reader.A more atisfyingfforts that f Patricio stellewho showsthat herealcause of theBaltimorencidentwas nottherowdybehavior f some drunkenAmerican ailorsbut the ill-fatedupport f theUnited tatesfor heBalmaceda egime.114 hile'sdiplomats gainbecame n-volvedwith he Yankeeswhenthey cted as one ofthethree atinAmericanmediators uring heMexicanRevolution.115aterpolicy, articularlyhat ftheHooveradministration,howsthatthe United States had become moresensitiveo Chilean eelings,116lthough uringheSecondWorldWar,Ameri-cans did nothesitate o use pressure o force heChileans o breakwith heAxis.17

Chile'srelations ithtsformerolonialmaster ave also beenthe ubjectof somerecent esearch. ne author rgues hat panishmiscalculationsre-cipitatedheir 860war withChile nd that nterventionf this ypehad never

73


21/35

LatinAmerican esearch eviewbeenMadrid'sntent.18Chiledidnotparticipaten that truggle ith painoutof omecommitmento Americanism.f uch beliefxisted,twas confinedoa small roupwho favored hepolitical nion fLatinAmerica utwho believedthatChile's ndependence ependedupon the territorialntegrityf tsneigh-bors. 19During he past decade, two particularlyaluablediplomatic istorieshave appeared.Thefirsts thework fMarioBarros, member f he tafff heMinisterioe Relaciones xteriores, ho haswrittenn overviewfhisnation'sdiplomaticelations rom he olonial eriod o thePopular ront. lthoughhebibliography ayhavemissed few tems, arros oesan excellentobcover-ing periods,particularlyn the twentiethentury, hichhave often een ne-glected,fnot gnored.20 Robert urr's rize-winningyReason rForces moreanalyticalnd clearly emonstrateshat arlyn tshistory hilehadadoptedforeign-policyoal of ssertingtshegemonyverLatinAmerica's acific oast.Burr hows hat hile ccomplishedhis ydeveloping series f llianceswithother ations lthoughtdid,onoccasion, lsoemploymilitaryower oobtainitsobjectives.'21ByReason rForce as notonly urvived ecent riticism,thasbeenexpanded ponby heEnglish iplomaticistorian ichaelVarley.22

Becauseof the recent oup, the Chilean military as again become afashionableopicfor tudy. erhaps he foremostuthoritys Frederick unn,who has written variety f articles s well as twobooksdealingwiththeChilean rmy. he firstmonographoncentratesncivil-militaryelationsntheearlywentiethentury.unn rgues hat desire orestructurehilean ociety,combinedwith hewishforprofessionaleforms,atapultedhemilitaryntopoliticsn 1924. Once theAltamiranountabegantosupport heRight, ow-ever, he unior fficers-Blanche,baniez,nd Grove-turnedon their om-manders ndrestored lessandriothepresidency.he atterefused o toleratemilitary eddlingngovernmentndresignedn1925.His successor, milianoFigueroa,was a weak eader nd the ncreasinglyggressivebfiez forced imtoresignwhenheand theother ivilians eemed ncapable fresolving hile'sproblems.banfiezuleduntil heGreatDepression orced im o quitpower n1931. While clearly uthoritarian,banfieztill ccomplished greatdeal andinstitutedumerous eforms;ut although fficient,is regimeackedpoliticalsupportnd hencecouldnot sustaintselfwhentheAmericanoansdriedupandthe conomy altered.Nunn's secondbook, emphasizing ivil-militaryelationsn the nine-teenth entury,eems trongest hen racingmilitarynvolvementnpost-1930politics. ollowingheoverthrowf heSocialist epublic,hemilitaryeturnedto itsprofessionalasks lthough ccasionally ome officersid seektoinjectthemselvesntopolitics. hemilitaryid notreturn o thepoliticalrenauntilthe1970s, verthrowingllende n 1973.Nunn rgues hat his eizure fpowerwas partiallyhe result f Allende'sownpolicies:he had invited hegeneralsand admiralsntohis government. aking heofficerorps hare esponsibilityfor overnmentolicy idnotwed them otheUnidadPopular. n the ontrary,themilitaryaw themselves atedby their wn socialclass while hey ecame74


22/35

CHILEAN HISTORIOGRAPHY, 1965-1976disenchanted,irst yAllende'spolicies nd thenby thethreatso thesanctityof themilitaryierarchy.ohesionwithin he ranks f theregulars eemedtogrowwhile ivilian oliticiansickeredmong hemselves. ware hat hey adbecome, y default, hemostpowerfullementn Chile, nddispleased ytheAllendegovernment,heyturned n their ommander-in-chief.'23ike theparable f heArab ndthe amel, heguesthad evicted hehost.Not all scholars hare Nunn's conclusions. iisa North rguesthatacampaign f subversionaunched y the U.S. and the ChileanRight, oupledwith hefailure fAllende opurge he rmy fconservatives,ncouragedhemilitaryo rebel.Jorge ef, n theother and, laims hat hemilitaryad neverrenounced ntervention;ndeed,the officersonsistently eddled n politicsafter 932,particularlyf they onsideredhe civilian overnmentoo liberal.Unfortunately,llende did not realize this.By invitinghemilitaryo holdministerialortfolios,e gave theofficerspowerbase withinhegovernment.The armed orces uicklyecame hemasters ot heguests ecause heAllendegovernmentouldneither eutralizehemnorforce hem o obey ivilianead-ers. AlainJoxe, French ociologist,adearlierndicated hat ucha coupwasnot unexpected:he argelymiddle-classfficerorpsrelieduponthe govern-ment orts ubsistencend hencedid notfear hegrowth f nactivisttate; nthecontrary,heofficers ight eizepower oprotect heir wn nterests,ar-ticularlyf ncouragedyforeignapital.24Those who wish tostudy he ess theoreticalnd instead oncentratenstrictly ilitary istory,hould consult he excellenthree-volumeorkpub-lished ytheEstadoMayor el Ejercito,ndthegood two-volumetlasbyToroDavila. The navy, o long neglected y scholars,s studiedbyCarlos L6pezwhosework,while xtremelyationalistic,rovides first-rateverview fthefleet's ctivities.'25

Chile's ducationalystem as been analyzed romhecolonial eriod othe twentiethentury,'26ut of particularmerit s a series of interpretativeessaysbyJulio esarJobet, ho argues hat he ducational ystem as used tobuttresshe statusquo and that t preventedhe disseminationfa valuessystem eededto survivenan increasinglyechnicalociety.'27ther cholarsdisagree, oting hat ducators id modernizehepedagogicalystem.ndeed,to accomplish hisgoal,textbooksnd other eachingmaterials ere usednotonly o introduce ew Liberal deologiesn the nineteenthenturyut also tostressconomic ationalismnd reformn the wentiethswell.'28Peter ehlingerrovides short iographyfValentinetelier, leadingintellectualnd politician,s wellas an excellentnnotated ibliographyfhisworks.'30 Various historians oncentrate n JoseVictorinoLastarria.131 lbertoVaronahas done an excellentob dealingwiththe deas of Francisco ilbao,explainingotonlyhis activitiesnChilebuthissuibsequentntellectualevel-opment. olomonLippalso studiesBilbao, etelier,ndthetwentieth-centuryeducator-philosopher,nriqueMolina.Molina'smemoirs ealingwith Ale-jandroVenegas, uthor fthe famous inceridad:hilentimo910, ppearedrecently.'32

75


23/35

LatinAmerican esearch eviewIntellectualistorians avealso devoted ubstantialffortso amassingbibliographies.yfar he best guideto publishedmaterials Guillermo eiul

Cruz'sHistoriae asfuentese abibliografiahilena. he initial omedealswiththe nfluence f historicaltudies n Chile and analyzes he effortsf Spanishand Creolecolonialhistorians. olume wocritiques hile'spre-eminentis-torians: oseToribioMedina,Ram6nBricefio, enjamin icufiaMackenna,ndDiegoBarros rana.Theremainingooksdescribehe ffortsfother istoriansand bibliographers.espitethe somewhat nusualformat-the uthors is-cussedareorganized ydecade ofbirth ather han heir peciality-thiss anessentialworkfor nyhistorian.'33 nothermportanttudys that f Ram6nBricefno,hosecomprehensivehree-volumeffortries o cite very ookandfolletoublishedn Chile from 812 o 1876.134dditional ibliographies,ftenannotated, aveappeareddealingwith conomics,lericalssues, he eft-wingpress, ravelerccounts, nd topics uchas themovementor ndependence,thePatria ieja,regionaltudies,nd thehistoricalovel.35The works fspecific istoriansave also beenanalyzed.Feliuhaswrit-ten on the Frenchnaturalist-historianlaudioGay as well as editingGay'sinterviews ith various ndependence-periodigures.GertrudeMatoyoka'sdissertationrovides n interestingtudy fthe workofChile's pre-eminentnineteenth-centuryistorian,iego BarrosArana.Perhaps hemost ontrover-sial work s RicardoDonoso's two-volume iatribegainstFrancisco ncina.Donoso, an intellectualconoclastwho seemshappiestwhenflaying xaltedpersonalities,rovesthatEncinaborrowediberallyrom thers, articularlyBarrosArana,withoutiting issources. eliu, ntheother and,has writtenmorepositive ccount, escribingncina's nvolvementn politics,which,heargues,edhim owrite is famous uestranferioridadcon6micand La educaci6necon6micael Liceo. eliu claims hatPalacios ndVenegas nfluencedncina'shistorical evelopment ore hanBarrosArana.The Feliui iographylsocon-tains n excellentibliographyfall ofEncina'sworks s well as hishistorio-graphicaltudies.Jobet as alsowritten seriesof essayson Chileanhistori-ography. heSocialist istorianends obe slightlydeologicalnhisapproach,although e does not aud all left-wingooks.Notwithout eason,Jobetlsolabels Encina racist nd a reactionaryhile approving eartilyf Donoso'sexpose.As AllenWoll's issertationemonstrates,owever, ineteenth-centuryChileanhistoriographyas been characterizedy ntense conomic, eligious,andideologicaltruggles,nd eventhosewho sought opurge tof uchpreju-dices ftenhemselvesell ictimotheirnfluence.136If he ntellectas flourisheduring hepastdecade, piritualssueshavebeen largelygnored. omematerial as appearedpraising heChurch s adefender f theIndian and describingolonialclerics nd theirproperty.'37FidelAraneda's reve istoriae a glesia nChile, rue o ts itle,s short utnotverylluminating.he work f heSociety fJesusn colonial nd modern hileis analyzedby Walter anisch, .J.138learly, heChurch's owerdiminishedas thenineteenthenturyrogressed. joint eminar aperdemonstrateshatthe tate eased to supportmissionaryctivitymong he ndians.39Reducedgovernmentupport id notsmooth heroadto tolerance, owever,ndearly76


24/35

CHILEAN HISTORIOGRAPHY, 1965-1976attempts ydissidents o obtain eligious reedomncounterederiousresis-tance.'40 ventually,owever, hehierarchyccepted hange nd beganto ad-vocatefirst aternalisticeformsnd later,withthegrowth f the ChristianDemocraticarty, ewwaysofrestructuringhilean ociety.41

Despite heaccomplishmentsf thepast elevenyears,muchremains obedone. twouldbe refreshingor ineteenth-centurypecialists ostudy ometopicbesidesBalmaceda.The period1833-91deservesmore ttentionndthepresidentialegimes fMontt, erez, nd theiruccessors re sorelynneed ofadditionalnvestigationrrevision. n theother and, hedispute verBalma-ceda willnever e resolved ntil omeone arefullynalyzeshisadministration,tracinghe ortuousvents hat recipitatedhe1891 ivilwar.Butfor heHeisebook, thevariousparliamentaryovernmentsave been the objectof muchscorn ndlittle esearch. he1891-1924 eriodmay ndeedhave beenbereft fcompetent overnmentut no onehas studied ystematicallyparliamentarypresidency.incepreliminaryesearchndicates hat hesegovernments erenotas blaseas originallyelieved,we shouldturn urattentiono this riticalera. The post-Alessandri eriod s extremelymportantnd yet t,too, isalmost ntouched. ut for fewdissertations,e know ittle boutthe 1920sand1930s ndvirtuallyothing bout hepost-1940 ecades.Thoseworkingnthis eriodwouldbe able tobenefit romnterviewsith hevarious articipantsandpolicymakers.he same ack fdirectionharacterizesconomic istory. estilldo nothave a collection fbasic economicdata-although apparentlyMarkosMamalakis s editing uch a study-let alone comprehensive orksdescribingasic industries uchas copperor the variouscomponentsftheindustrialector.Ina nationwhoseoligarchysthe ubject f ubstantialbuse,we still onotknowwhocomposed heChilean lite rwhat tpossessed.Collectinguchinformationouldbe an arduous askyet t sessential ounderstandinghile'spolitical,ocial, ndeconomic evelopment. s therecenttudy fRobert p-penheimerndicates,he results f such workcan destroy omeofourmostcherishedmisconceptionsboutChile.Despite hese missions, hepastyearshave yielded nvaluablematerial.The Blakemoretudyon Balmaceda, hepioneering ffortf Heise, and anincreasingmphasis n the 1920s nd 1930shave widenedourknowledge fChile'spolitical evelopment.nthe rea ofeconomics nddiplomacy,cholarslikeCarmagnani, amalakis, obet,nd Burr avesought obring ewperspec-tives ndtoformulateeneral heories. ach area ofhistoricaltudyhas bene-fited rom hework fnewscholarswho haveprovidednsightndadditionalknowledge. hese ntellectualffortsave set newstandardsndopenednewhorizons o thoseofus who havededicated ur effortsounderstandinghileand tspast.

77


25/35

LatinAmerican esearch eviewNOTESThe followingbbreviationsesignate ften-citedournals nd books.Unlessotherwisenoted, llbooks ited republishedn Santiago, hileAHR -AmericanHistorical eview IAEA-Inter-Americanconomic ffairsBACH-Boletin de a Academia hilena e a JIAS-Journalof Inter-AmericantudiesandHistoria World ffairsC-Caravelle JLAS JournalfLatinAmericantudiesCAL-Cahiers desAmeriquesatines M-MapochoEHIPS -Estudiosde Historia e as RCHD-Revista Chilena e Historia delInstitucionesoliticas Sociales DerechoH-Historia RCHG-Revista Chilena e HistoriaHAHR -Hispanic American istorical eview GeografiaHGFC-Homenaje a GuillermoeliuCruz TA-The Americas(Santiago, 973)1. SergioVillalobost l.,HistoriaeChile1974-76).2. JaimeEyzaguirre,Historia e Chile,2d ed. (1973). See also Historia e las institucionespoliticas sociales e Chile 1970), a textbook o be used in conjunctionwithFisonomiahist6ricae Chile.3. Luis Vitale, nterpretaci6narxista e la historia e Chile,3 vols. (1967-71). ForanotherMarxistnterpretation,eealso Julio esarJobet'sSignificadoela revoluci6nelaIndependencia,"n hisTemasist6ricoshilenos1973), p. 153-98.Ranquil's apitulosde ahistoriae Chile 1973) s a one-volumetudy, esigned expresamenteara aclasetrabajadora,"hich s highly oliticalnd more aluable s a propaganda iecethan n historicalork.4. Jay insbruner,hile: nHistoricalnterpretationNewYork,973). or theryntheticworkssee: FranciscoMoreno's Legitimacynd Stabilityn LatinAmerica. Study fChi-lean oliticalultureNewYork, 969);GuillermoeliuCruz, Patria Chilenidad,"5:1(1966)157-75. ichardGrayand Frederick irwin, PresidentialuccessionnChile: 817-1977,"JIAS1(1969):144-59ompare hilean nd Americanresidents.5. HernanGodoy,Estructuraocialde Chile 1971).6. Lia Cortesand Jordi uentes,Diccionarioolitico e Chile 1967) and SalvatoreBizzaroHistorical ictionaryfChile Metuchen,N.J.,1972).7. FernandoilvaVargas,Esquemadela HaciendaRealenChile ndianoSiglosXVIyXVII),"RCHD4(1965):208-50ndhis "Unavisita la RealHaciendade Chileen elsigloXVI,"BACH77(1967):190-205;ella M. Flusche, CityCouncilmennd theChurchin Seventeenth-Century hile,"Records fAmerican atholicHistorical ociety

ofPhiladelphia 1:3(1970):176-90, and "The Cabildo and Public Health inSeventeenth-Centuryhile," A29(1972):173-90;ernando liagaR.,S.S. "La rela-ci6ndiocesanade visita Ad Limita' e 1609del Obispode Santiagode Chile,"H5(1966):105-65;and Eugene Korth,S.J.,Spanish olicyn ColonialChile:TheStruggleorSocialJustice,535-1700 (Stanford,Calif.,1968).8. Fernando ilvaVargas, La ContaduriaMayorde Cuentasdel Reinode Chile,"EHIPS 2(1967):103-81;PeruyChile,notas obre usvinculacionesdministrativasfiscales," 7(1968):147-203;nd "La visita e ArechenChiley a subdelegaci6nelRegente lvarey eAcevedo," 6 (1967):153-91;arlosUgarte,El Cabildode San-tiagoy el comercio xterior el Reino de Chile durante l sigloXVIII,"EHIPS1(1966):5-43;JacquesA. Barbier, Elite and Cadres in BourbonChile,"HAHR52(1972):416-36nd"Imperial eformnd Colonial olitics: Secret istoryfLateBourbon hile," h.D. dissertation,niversityfConnecticut,973.9. GonzaloVial, La formaci6ne as nacionalidadesispanoamericanasomo ausadela independencia,"ACH 75(1966):110-45nd "Historiografiae la IndependenciadeChile," evistaeHistoriaeAmerica9(1965):256-80; alter. Hanisch, .J., Losjesuitas y la independenciade Americay especialmentede Chile," BACH

78


26/35

CHILEAN HISTORIOGRAPHY, 1965-197682(1969):13-77; estorMeza Villalobos, La permanencia e la monarquia omoproblema olitico el reinode Chile desde la constituci6ne la primera unta eGobierno n 18 de septiembree 1810,hasta a disoluci6n el primer ongresoNa-cional, n15de noviembree1811," nuarioeEstudiosmericanos9(1972):637-63.10. Simon Collier, deas nd Politics fChilean ndependence,808-1833 Cambridge, 1967).11. Mary . Felstiner,Kinship oliticsn theChilean ndependence ovement," AHR56(1976):58-80 and Roger Haigh, The Formation f the Chilean Oligarchy: 810-1821(Salt Lake City, tah,1972).ManuelReynoGutierrez,La Patria ieja no seperdi6en Rancagua,"RCHG 143(1975):153-71ownplays he themeof rivalry etweenO'Higgins nd Carrera.12. Rauil ilva Castro,Asistentesl CabildoAbierto e setiembree1810 1968).13. Manuel alvatM.,"Eldelito e nfidelidadla Patria. puntesn tornol casode osdesterradoshilenos nJuan ernandez, 810-1817," 8(1969):463-88.14. Jaime yzaguirre,La conducta olitica el grupo irigentehileno uranteaguerrade a ndependencia,"HIPS 2(1967):227-71.

15. Ricardo rebs, La independencia e Chile n el pensamientoe Manuelde Salas,"BACH75(1966):145-55ndManuel alvatM., "El delito e infidelidadla Patria. ncasochileno," ACH 7(1973):17-39.16. Julio etamal ., "El CabildoEclesiastico e Santiago n los proleg6menose la In-dependenciaeChile," 6(1967):285-317.17. HoracioAranguiz, La aplicaci6n e la Constituci6ne 1818," HIPS 1(1966):121-49;Guillermoonoso V., Acotacionesn torno la Declaraci6n e la IndependenciaeChile,"HGFC, pp. 199-256;Zen6nUrrutia,Un deceniodel Cabildopenquista(1818-1828)," GFC,pp. 973-1038; abrielGuarda, Reprecusi6nnChilede la In-dependencia elPeru," ACH85(1971):121-29;avier onzalez, Notas obre areg-ulaci6nuridica e la Expedici6n ibertadora e 1820," ACH85(1971):105-19;ndAlamiro de Avila Martel, "Presencia de Bolivar en Chile en 1819," BACH85(1971):39-77.18. Juan duardoVargas ., "Elpensamientooliticoelgrupo stanquero,826-1829,"H 9(1970):7-37.19. Javier onzalez, Un estudio e influenciasoctrinariasn a Independencia:lcon-cepto ediputado representanteopular," 6(1967):127-53.20. Collier, deas nd Politics, . 317.21. SergioMartinez .,"Elfederalismon Chile," CHG138(1970):104-33.22. JayKinsbruner, iego Portales. nterpretativessayson theMan and Times The Hague,1967) nd Errol . Jones,TheWeightftheNight: olitical, conomic,nd SocialTransformationfChile, 810-1830,"h.D. dissertation,exasChristianniversity,1971.23. Luis Vitale,Las guerras iviles e 1851y 1859 en Chile Concepci6n, 1971).

24. Ruth turriagaJ., a comuna el sitio e a Serena n 1851 1973). GuillermoDonoso, "Larevoluci6n e 1851 nTalca,"RCHG 141(1973):88-115;42(1974):54-94;43(1975):5-46.See also Patricio ogers,La revoluci6ne los constituyentes'e 1858-1859,"21(1970):243-64.25. Patricio stelle, El Club de la Reforma e 1868-1871. otaspara el estudio e unacombinaci6nolitican elsigloXIX," 9(1970):111-35.26. Cristian egersA., "Historia olitica el gobierno e Anibal into," 6(1967):7-127.See also ThomasBader, A Willingnesso War:A PortraitftheRepublic f ChileduringheYears recedingheWar fthePacific,"h.D. dissertation,niversityfCalifornia,osAngeles, 967.27. William . Sater, Chile during heFirstMonths ftheWar fthePacific,"LAS(1973):133-58and hisHeroic mage n Chile:Arturo rdt, ecular aint Berkeley, alif.,1973).Forotherworks n theWarofthePacific, ditorial ransico e Aguirre fBuenosAireshasrepublishedhefollowingooks:Arturo enavides ., Seis fios evacaciones1967) and Historia ompendiadae la GuerradelPacifico 1972); Alberto delSolar,Diario decampafia1967); Theodorus B. M. Mason, Guerra nel Pacifico elSur,trans. Carlos L6pez (1971) and M. Le Le6n,Recuerdose una misi6n nelejercitohileno

79


27/35

LatinAmerican esearch eview(1969).Otherworks re: Daniel Riquelme, a expedicionLima 1967);JuanAgustinRodriguez, atricioynch, ice lmiranteGeneralnJefe1967);ManuelEscalaE., ElGeneralrasmo scala 1971). naddition, umerousrticles avepublishedhe orre-spondence fmanyparticipantsn thewar from overnment inisterso enlistedmen.28. Julio esar Jobet, nsayoriticoeldesarrollocon6micoocial e Chile 1955);HernanRamirez ecochea, a guerraivil e1891 1958); nd Cris6stomoizarro, a revoluci6nde1891 1971).29. HaroldBlakemore,The ChileanRevolutionf1891 nd tsHistoriography,"AHR45(1965):393-422nd British itratesnd Chilean olitics886-1896: almacedandNorthLondon, 974).30. JulioHeise G., Historia e Chile.El Periodo arlamentario,861-1925 1974). Her-m6genesPerez de Arce, La politica con6mica el gobierno el presidente al-maceda,"nVisi6n verdadobre almaceda1972), p. 111-40, lsoargues hat twasnothis economic olicy hatprecipitatedhe rebellion. ergioOnofreJ.'s"Bal-maceda, lpolitico," hich ppears n the amebook s thePerez ssay, p. 95-110,stresses hatBalnaceda subordinatedverythingo politics.XimenaVergarandLuisBarros, La GuerraCivildel 91y la instauraci6nelparlamentarismo,"evistaLatinoamericanae Ciencias ociales (1972):71-94, lso denythe mportancefeco-nomic ssues n the 891 evolution. o substantialuestions ivided he anded ris-tocracynd the mergingourgeoisie;ndeed, heLiberal emocrats ursued oalssimilar o those fother olitical arties. he rebellion ccurred,he uthors laim,because heoligarchy ished o share owerwith hepresident,speciallyince hestate had become wealthyfromnitrates.Garcia de la Huerta's "Juntasre-volucionariase losafios 890y 1891," CHG143 1975):73-107,tudies he ctivitiesof he nti-Balmacedaorces uringhe ivilwar, oncludinghat herebels eemedtoenjoy hemost uccessnthe antiago-Valparaisoegion.

31. RaulSilvaCastro, almaceda1969). or therworks nBalmacedaee:Fe1ixMirandaS., Balmaceda,l hombre1973);MarioCorrea aavedra, Personalidadntima e Bal-maceda,"Vision verdad1972),pp. 9-61,which s a biographicaltudy. ernandoSilva Vargas,Pensamientoe Balmaceda1974). Numerousworkscontaining hememoirs f thosewhoparticipatedntheCivilWarhave also been published: nafamilia ajo a dictaduraBuenosAires, 972) s well as I. ValdWs .'s La revolucione1891 BuenosAires, 970). naddition, umerous ccounts fparticipantsaveap-pearednperiodicals.32. JulioHeise G., "El caciquismo olitico n el PeriodoParlamentario1891-1925),HGFC,pp. 537-77.33. Juan duardoVargas, Notas obre l pensamientoolitico e PedroMontt,"HIPS2(1967):271-99,nd "Dos mentalidadesohticas comienzo e sigloXX: os partidostradicionales a tendencia acionalista,"evistaeCienciasociales 1975):193-214.34. AugustoOrrego uco, "La cuesti6n ocialen Chile,"was reprintedn Anales e aUniversidadeChile 19(1961):43-55.he articleirstppearednLa PatriaValparaiso)in 1884.35. Fernando ilva Vargas, Notas sobre l pensamientoocial at6lico fines el sigloXIX," 4(1965):237-64nd Pedro fiiguez.,Notas obreldesarrolloel ensamientoo-cial nChile, 901-19061968);JamesMorris, lites,ntellectuals,ndConsensusIthaca,N.Y., 1966).Jobet lso deals with histopic n his "Apuntes elacionados on losorigenes e a cuesti6n ocial' nChile,"nhisTemas, p.198-242.36. Horacio Aranguiz,R. Coydyoudmjiansic] and JuanVargas, La vida politicachilena, 915-1916,"H (1968):15-89.37. Fernando into ., Cr6nicaoliticael igloXX 1972) nd Jorge arria, hile nel igloXX:un nsayoe nterpretaci6nist6rica1967).38. Heise,Historia,p. 295, 99, 01, 19, 57-59.39. Enrique eyes, l desarrolloe a concienciaroletarianChilen.d.).40. Rene MillarC., "Significado antecedentes el movimiento ilitar e 1924,"H11(1972-73):7-103nd Frederick unn, Chilean olitics, 920-1931: heHonorable

80


28/35

CHILEAN HISTORIOGRAPHY, 1965-1976Missionf heArmedorcesAlbuquerque, .M., 1970).41. Rail Aldunate .,Revolucione os enientes1970-71). ee alsoHeise,Historia.42. George trawbridge,MilitaryndNationalismnChile, 920-1932,"h.D. disserta-tion,Universityf Pennsylvania,968 and his "Ibafiez nd Alessandri: he Au-thoritarianight nd Democraticeft n Twentieth-Centuryhile,"mimeographed(Buffalo, .Y.,1971).43. HughBicheno, Anti-Parliamentaryhemes n ChileanHistory," overnmentndOpposition(1972):351-89nd Carlos Charlin, el avi6n ojo la Republicaocialista(1972).44. PaulDrake, ThePolitical esponses f heChileanUpperClass to theGreat epres-sion ndtheThreat fSocialism,931-33,"nTheWell-Bornnd he owerful,d.Fre-derick ople JaherUrbana, ll.,1973),pp. 304-37 nd "SocialismndPopulismnChile:TheOrigins f heLeftward ovementf heChilean lectorate,931-1933,"Ph.D.dissertation,tanfordniversity,971.45. Luis PalmaZ., Historia elPartidoadical 1967) nd Peter now,RadicalismohilenoBuenosAires, 972);GeorgeGrayson, l PartidoemocrdtaristianohilenoBuenosAires, 965);PaulDrake, TheChilean ocialist artynd Coalition olitics,932-1946,"HAHR 53(1973):616-44.avid Corkill's The Chilean ocialist artyndthePopular ront 933-41/" he ournalfContemporaryistory1 1976):261-73 escribestheparty's articipationn the ll-fatedopular ront. ack homas, The Evolutionofa Chilean ocialist:Marmaduke rove," AHR47(1967):22-38nd "MarmadukeGroveand the ChileanNationalElection f 1932,"The Historian9(1966):22-33.MiriamHochwald, Imageryn Politics:A Studyof theIdeology fthe ChileanSocialist arty,"h.D. dissertation,niversityfCalifornia,osAngeles, 971.JulioCesarJobet,lPartidoocialistaeChile, vols. 2d ed., 1971), ndAlejandro helenR.,Trayectoriael ocialismoBuenosAires, 967). ernando asanuevaV. nd ManuelFernandez ., El Partidoocialista a ucha e lasesnChile 1973).

46. Michael otashnik,Nacismo:National ocialismnChile, 932-1938,"h.D. disser-tation, niversityfCalifornia,osAngeles, 974.47. HernanRamirezNecochea,Origen formaci6nelPartido omunistae Chile 1965).Theprojects nderway re: S. Pierce, TheCommunistndSocialist artiesnChi-leanNational olitics," . Litt.UniversityfGlasgow;A. G. Barnard,The ChileanCommunistarty, 927-1947, ithParticulareferenceothePopular ront," C,UniversityfLondon;D. P Skidmore,TheRadical arty fChilewith pecialRe-ferenceothePeriod 938-1970,"SE, UniversityfLondon, h.D.48. BenBurnett,olitical roupsn ChileAustin, exas, 970).FedericoGil,The oliticalSystemfChileBoston,Mass.,1966).WestonAgor,TheChileanenate:nternalis-tributionf nfluenceAustin, exas, 971).49. GermanUrzuiaValenzuela ndAnamariaGarcia,Diagn6sticoe a burocraciahilena(1818-1968)1971). ee also:Peter . Cleves,BureaucraticoliticsndAdministrationnChileBerkeley,alif., 975).50. German rzua, ospartidosoliticoshilenos.asfuerzasoliticas.nsayose nsurgenciapoliticanChile1968).51. ArturoAlessandri, ecuerdosegobierno, vols. (1967); GabrielGonzalez Videla,Memorias,vols. 1975); eonardoGuzman,Unepisodiolvidadoe a historiaacional(1966);MarcosChamudes, hile na dvertenciamericanan.d.).Jorge arria ., ChilesigloXX. Ensayo ist6ricoocial 1973);Hugo Zemelman, El Movimientoopularchileno el sistema e alianzas n la decadade 1930,"nGenesis ist6ricaelprocesopoliticohileno,d. EnzoFaletto, duardoRuiz, ndHugoZemelman1971), p.33-117;Martanfante ., Testigosel reintaocho 1972);Richard .Super, The ChileanPopular ront residencyfPedroAguirre:939-1941,"h.D. dissertation,rizonaStateUniversity,975. ee also:D. Corkill,From ictatorshipoPopular ront: ar-ties nd Coalition oliticsnChile, 931-1941,"h.D. dissertation,niversityfEs-sex,1974.52. Arturo lararria ., Chile ntre osAlessandri-4 (1965) ndChile ajo a democraciacristiana,vols. 1966-69). ome of thefewworks n themost ecent eriods re:

81


29/35

LatinAmerican esearch eviewErnst alperin, ationalismndCommunismnChile Cambridge, ass., 1965);JamesPetras, oliticsnd ocial orcesnChilean evelopmentBerkeley,alif., 970); homasL. Edwards, EconomicDevelopmentnd Reformn Chile.Progress nderFrei,1964-1970," imeographedEastLansing,Mich., 972);Mario aniartu,.J. ndJohnJ.Kennedy, ds.,TheOverall evelopmentfChileNotre ame, nd., 1970);MichaelFrancis, heAllende ictory;nAnalysisf he 970 residentiallectionTucson, riz.,1973); nd Norbertechner,a democracianChile BuenosAires, 970).53. MarcelloCarmagnani, La producci6n gropecuaria hilena 1680-1830)," HL3(1969):3-21nd LesMecanismese a vie conomiqueansune ocieteoloniale:e Chili,1680-1830Paris, 973).54. Demetrio amos,Trigohileno,avieroselCallao hacendadosimefnosntreacrisisg-ricolael iglo VIIy a comerciale a primera itadelXVIIIMadrid, 967).55. CarlosUgarte, El Cabildode Santiagoy el comercioxteriorel Reinode ChiledurantelsigloXVIII," HIPS 1 1966):5-43.56. Carlos empatA., "Chiley Tucumann el sigloXVI.Una correspondenciae mer-caderes," 9(1970):65-111.57. SergioVillalobos, omerciocontrabandonel Rio de a Platay Chile BuenosAires,1965) nd Jaime yzaguirre,El alcancepolitico el decreto e libertad e comerciode 1811," ACH 5(1966):155-61.58. Fernando ilvaVargas,PerdyChile.Notas obre usvinculacionesdministrativasyfiscales1785-1800)," 7(1968):147-203nd "La visita e Arechen Chiley a sub-delegaci6n e Alvarez e Acevado," 6(1967):153-219.ee also SergioVillalobos,lcomercioa crisis olonial. nmito e a ndependencia1968);DavidH. Edwards,Eco-nomic ffectsf he ntendencyystemnChile:CaptainGeneralAmbrosio 'Hig-gins s Reformer,"h.D.dissertation,niversityfVirginia,973.59. HernanRamirez ecochea,Antecedentescon6micose a IndependenciaeChile1959);AndreGunder rank, apitalismnd UnderdevelopmentnLatinAmericaNewYork,1967);Jacintoaello, structurae aeconomiaolonial1970). ee alsoStephan eVyl-der, rom olonialismoDependence:n ntroductionoChile's conomicistoryStoc-kholm,974); nd Anibal into t l.,Chile oy Mexico, 970). or Marxistverviewtheres alsoJose ademartori,aeconomiahilena1970).60. MarcelloCarmagnani, viluppondustrialesottosviluppoconomico.I caso cileno(1860-1920)Turino,971).61. CharlesPregger oman, DependentDevelopmentnNineteenth-Centuryhile,"Ph.D. dissertation,utgers niversity,971;RogerJ.Burbach,TheChileanndus-trial ourgeoisiendForeign apital, 920-1970," h.D. dissertation,ndianaUni-versity,975.For otherworksdealingwith he formationf theChilean apitalistclass see also: GenaroArriagada, a oligarquiaatronalhilena1970) and RicardoLagos, aconcentracionel odercon6mico1965).

62. S. F. Edwards, "Chilean EconomicPolicyGoals, 1811-1829:A Studyof LateEighteenth-CenturyocialMercantilismnd EarlyNineteenth-CenturyconomicReality,"h.D. dissertation,ulaneUniversity,971 ndJohn ector,Merchants,Trade,and ommercialolicynChile:1810-1840,"h.D. dissertation,ndianaUni-versity,976. ee alsoRecto

a survey of recent chilean historiography

Documents