A2 Physical Education Sport Psychology

Revision GuideMr Leighton

PERSONALITY

Personality TIPS! Make sure you learn the specific

definition of personality! Have awareness of the links between

personality and sports performance. It is important to understand the NATURE

(trait) V NURTURE (social learning) and interactionist perspectives of behaviour.

Learn the strengths and weaknesses of each perspective.

Be aware of the problems associated with the use of personality profiling in sport.

Personality

“The sum total of an individuals characteristics which make him

unique” (Hollander).

“Personality is the more or less stable and enduring organisation of a persons

character, temperament, intellect and physique which determines the unique

adjustment to the environment” (Eysenck).

Personality Types

INTROVERTShy, timid,

reserved, aloof, self sufficient

EXTROVERTAdventurous,

confident,Sociable,

Group dependent, enthusiastic

TYPE ‘A’Highly competitive,

Strong desire to succeed,Works fast, likes to control,

Prone to suffer stress

TYPE ‘B’Non-competitive,

Unambitious,Works more slowly,

Does not enjoy controlLess prone to stress

TRAITS NARROW BAND APPROACH, GIRDANO, 1990

Personality Theories

Trait Theory“People are born with

established personality characteristics”

Inherited at birth. Stable Enduring consistent in all situations.

BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF PERSONALITY

+ve = Can be easily measured through questionnaires

-ve = Does not take into account environmental influences. It is not a true indicator of behaviour.

CATTELL (1965) identified 16 personality traitsINTROVERT & EXTROVERT

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

“All behaviour is learned through interaction with the environment”

BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF ENVIRONMENT

-ve = Does not consider inherited behaviour (traits)

NATURE

V’s

NURTURE

Interactionist Theory“Behaviour occurs from the

interaction between inherited traits and learned experiences”

BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF PERSONALITY × ENVIRNOMENT

Personality TheoriesConcentric Ring Theory (Hollander 1967)

The boundary line of each layer gets wider as you get closer to the centre of the model which shows that each layer is harder to enter. As you move closer to the centre, your ‘real’ personality begins to surface

Role Related Behaviour – Surface of personality

Typical Response – Your usual response in most situations

The Psychological Core – The ‘real you’

Personality TheoriesPsychodynamic Theory (Freud, 1933)

ID Basic Instinct(no conscious

control)

EGO Conscious

link with reality

SUPER EGOMoral Arm

(social conscience)

ID, EGO & SUPER EGO interact to

produce individual patterns of

behaviour in sport.

****THINK OF AGGRESSION AS AN

EXAMPLE!****

Personality is formed from the conflict of SEEKING,

RELEASING and INHIBITING behaviour.

Personality TheoriesEysenck’s Personality Types

INTROVERT

NEUROTIC

(UNSTABLE)

EXTROVERT

STABLE

Personality traits run across 2 continuums:

INTROVERT: unsociable, shy & nervous

EXTROVERT: sociable, outgoing & lively

STABLE: calm, even-tempered, controlled 7 logical

UNSTABLE: anxious, moody, unpredictable & illogical

Personality TestingMethods of Testing1) Observation2) Psychometric methods: self report questionnaires (16

personality factor questionnaire designed by CATTELL)

Problems1) Questionnaires, observations and self-reports are not

reliable as people can fix answers.2) SCEPTICAL APPROACH: Evidence is too general –

personality alone can not predict behaviour.3) CREDULOUS APPROACH: Although there is a link

between personality research and performance in sport, there is lack of evidence to support this.

Attitudes TIPS! Make sure you understand how

attitudes are formed and influenced.

You need to be able to explain how attitudes can be changed.

Try to understand the links between attitude and behaviour in sport.

ATTITUDE OBJECTS

The people, subject or situation towards which an

attitude is directed.

What is an ATTITUDE?

ATTITUDES – A learned behavioural predisposition. (linked with

personality)

UNSTABLECAN BE

CHANGED/ CONTROLLED

ENDURING EMOTIONAL & BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSE

LEARNED

DIRECTED TOWARDSATTITUDE OBJECTS

Formation of Attitudes

ATTITUDESPARENTS

FRIENDS/ PEERS

COACHES/ TEACHERS

MEDIA

PAST EXPERIENCES

PREDUJICE

Attitudes are mainly formed through experiences.Socialisation: The process of mixing and relating to other

people.

Triadic Model of Attitudes

COGNI TI VEknow ledge and beliefs

exam ple : fitness trainingkeeps m e fit

AFFECTI VEfeelings and em otions

exam ple : I enjoy training

BEHAVI OURALintended behaviour

exam ple : I attend trainingsessions regularly

ATTI TUD Eto regular exercise

This is known as the information component

This concerns how a person

intends to behave towards

an attitude object

This is known as the emotional

component

Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger)

If a person hold two ideas that oppose and conflict with each other an element of discomfort arises. Emotional conflict is called DISSONANCE.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger)

To reduce this feeling of dissonance, the impact of one of the conflicting ideas could be lessened and therefore an attitude would change.

Updating knowledge or providing a person with new information can change the cognitive component.

Providing a person with new and positive experiences can modify the affective component.

If a skill is simplified or if some form of guidance is used to make execution easier, the behavioural component of attitude can be changed.

Remember METHODS OF GUIDANCE from AS SKILL

Persuasive Communication Theory

You need to be aware of most effective way of persuading someone to change their attitude.

Would these people persuade you or would they just cause you stress?

Persuasive Communication Theory

PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATIONthe person must

- pay attention - understand

- accept- retainthe message being given

the coach must- be expert- be trustworthy

the message must- be clear- be unambiguous- be balanced between pros and cons

1. The PersuaderSignificant otherwith high status

2. The MessagePositive to initiate

the change

3. The recipientsEasy to changed an attitude if the recipient really wishes to be

changed

4. The situationThe presence ofother persuaders

TASK…………

You are a GCSE PE pupil. How could persuasive

communication change your negative attitude

towards cross country?

ANSWER…………

1. A significant other, e.g. teacher/captain persuades you that cross country has excellent fitness benefits for a GCSE PE pupil. The teacher explains that they can chose cross country as one of their 4 sports.

2. The teacher tells you it will improve your practical grade if you opt for cross country.

3. You understand that this could improve your overall practical grade so you begin to realise the benefits of taking part.

4. Other pupils in your GCSE class share positive experiences of cross country with you and actively encourage you to take part.

TASK…………

How could a physical education teacher change the negative attitude that a pupil may have towards swimming?

ANSWER…..• Educate the pupil about the benefits of swimming

• Use cognitive dissonance theory

• Persuasive communication from a significant other, e.g. teacher

• Set achievable goals to ensure pupil achieves success and experiences enjoyment.

• Offer rewards, e.g. praise, trophies.

• Familiarise with role models from within the sport of swimming.

• Use floats to make execution of some strokes easier.

• Attribution retraining.

To conclude……….

• Attitudes are generally poor predictors of behaviour.

• Social and situational factors influence actual behaviour very strongly.

• “Behavioural intention is the strongest predictor of behaviour (Fishbein, 1974).”

Achievement Motivation TIPS!

You need to understand the meaning of the term ‘achievement motivation’.

Make sure you know the characteristics of the different personality types – TAS and TAF.

You need to be aware of the links between personality and the motive to achieve.

It is important to make links between TAS and TAF and ‘attributions’ for success and failure.

Achievement Motivation

Achievement Motivation is a concept developed by sports psychologists to link

PERSONALITY and COMPETITIVENESS.

The major issue centres on the extent to which an INDIVIDUAL IS MOTIVATED TO

ATTAIN SUCCESS.

Success in sport is measured against some type of COMPETITIVE GOAL.

Types of GoalsAccording to BIDDLE, there are several types of goal

against which success can be judged:

• MASTERY or TASK GOALS: Associated with self-improvement, e.g. trying to achieve a PB in athletics (the same as PROCESS GOALS).

• EGO or ABILITY GOALS: Involve a comparison against ones rivals, e.g. beating everyone else to win the club tennis tournament (the same as OUTCOME GOALS)

• SOCIALLY APPROVED GOALS: Involves seeking social reinforcement as a measure of success, e.g. winning to earn approval from parents or coaches.

THINK BACK TO GOALS FROM AS SKILL!

Atkinson & McClelland (1976) – Interactionist View

Competitive orientation is generated through personality and situational

factors

In any challenging situation, everyone will have both a ‘need to achieve’ and a

‘need to avoid failure’. Whichever feeling is stronger will determine whether the

task is accepted or declined.

Personality Factors

A = TASsomeone with a high need to achieve will probably have a low need to avoid failure and will choose difficult or demanding tasks which are more risky, e.g.the hard route up a rock face

B = TAFsomeone with a high need to avoid

failure will probably have a low need to achieve and will choose tasks which are less risky and more easily achieved, e.g. the easy route up the rock face

TAS = Tendency to APPROACH success

TAF = Tendency to AVOID failure

Situational Factors

A =If the probability of success low (competing against the world champion) you will strive very

hard to win (incentive high). You will be highly chuffed if you win.

B =If the probability of success high (competing in local club match) you don’t need to try as hard to win (incentive low and expect to win easily). It is not so pleasing if

you win.

What can the coach do?

IMPROVE NEED AND MOTIVE TO ACHIEVE (Nach)

• Increase positive reinforcement hence increasing pride and satisfaction• Ensure that goals are achievable• Ensure that at least some situations guarantee successand subsequently gradually increase task difficulty in line with progress• Ensure that tasks are challenging• Ensure that the probability of success is good• Ensure that the incentive value of the success is high (is the race worth winning?)

REDUCE TENDENCY AND MOTIVE TO AVOID FAILURE (NaF)

• Reduce punishment hence lowering the chance of performer worrying about failure• Focus negative feedback on effort rather than ability. This avoids the performer tending to believe that causes of failure are internal (due to lack of ability for example) and reduces the risk of learned helplessness.• Avoid situations where defeat / failure is inevitable (such as performing against a much superior opponent)if this is not possible alter the criteria for success (you will have succeeded if you only lose by 2 goals).

What can the coach do?

Group Dynamics TIPS!

Be able to define the terms ‘group’ and ‘team’. You need to understand Steiner’s model of group

performance. Be able to explain the Ringlemann effect and

social loafing and how they damage the cohesiveness of a team.

Learn the factors affecting the cohesiveness of a group and how any breakdowns can be prevented.

Learn the characteristics of an effective leader. Describe emergent and prescribed leaders. You need to be able to understand the different

perspectives on and theories of leadership.

Groups“Groups are those social aggregates that

involve mutual awareness and the potential for interaction” (McGrath)

GROUPS

(Carron)

A collective identity

A sense of shared purposeA clear structure for communication

Group Cohesion“The extent to which a group sticks

together in pursuit of a common goal.”

TASK COHESIONThe way team members

work together tosuccessfully complete

a task, e.g. a football team setsOut to win by adopting attackingTactics at home & away matches

Vital in INTERACTIVE Sports, e.g. hockey

SOCIAL COHESIONThe personal relationships within a group which relies

on individuals enjoyingsocial interaction, e.g. strong

Bond developed whilst on tour.

Vital in CO-ACTIVE sports, e.g. track and field

Group Dynamics“The social processes operating within the

group between individual members.”

SUB GROUPSSmall groups

contained within the whole group

GROUP DYNAMIC SOCIOGRAM

The best way ofillustrating the

group dynamics ofa team.

TO ACHIEVE COHESION• Break down cliques

and sub groups • Separate pairs

• Integrate isolates

Team sports rely onunits within the team

Working closelytogether

Steiner’s ModelACTUAL= POTENTIAL - LOSSES DUE TO

PRODUCTIVITY PRODUCTIVITY FAULTY PROCESSES

(AP) (PP) (FP)

The team performance at any given time (due to successful

interaction)

The maximum

capability of the group

when cohesiveness is strongest

Factors that go wrong in team performance

which impede/ prevent group

cohesion e.g. co-ordination losses & motivational losses

GROUP COHESION IS THE FORCE THAT BINDS A GROUP TOGETHER, HELPING TO PREVENT FAULTY PROCESSES.

Faulty ProcessesCo-ordination Losseso These occur when the ‘operational effectiveness’ of the group cannot be sustained for the whole match.

o Planned strategies/tactics may go wrong due to positional error or bad timing, e.g. Line out in rugby.A co-ordination loss that leads to a

breakdown in team work is called

the RINGLEMANN EFFECT. Problems with team co-ordination are more likely to increase as the

number of team members increase.

Motivation Losseso This may occur if the task is too difficult.

o Also an individual might suffer loss of motivation causing them to withdraw effort and coast through that part of the game.

A motivation loss that leads to a reduction in effort is called SOCIAL LOAFING. This is called when an individuals efforts go unnoticed or when someone feels like the others on their team are not trying hard enough. People with low SC tend to be loafers.

Group Locomotion

“ The process that explains the reasons why the group has formed. It

symbolises the activity of the team.”

For locomotion to be efficient there must

be a LEADER to ensure the co-

ordination of the team.

****Don’t always assume that good players make good leaders! Make sure

you know the characteristics of a

good leader****

Leadership

What makes a goodLeader?

Good communication

skillsHighly

developed perception

skills

Good at making decisions

Empathy with team members

Understand the needs of

others

Experience Vision

Ambition

Determination

Think of Woody from Toy Story!

Selection of a Leader

EMERGENT LEADERS: Already belongs to the group & selection is

made formally, e.g. by vote or interview.

PRECRIBED LEADERS: Selected from outside of the group and is

known as an external appointment.

Leadership Theories

o TRAIT APPROACH: Leaders are born with the skills necessary to take charge……however, although certain traits may be helpful in leadership, they are not essential, so this theory is NOT A GOOD PREDICTOR OF BEHAVIOUR.

o SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: The skills of leadership can be acquired by copying others and then developed through experiences. Copying successful role models is called ‘vicarious reinforcement.’ This DOES NOT TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE TRAIT PERSPECTIVE.

o INTERACTIONIST THEORY: Leaders emerge because of inherited abilities (traits) and learned skills. Interactionist theory gives a MORE REALISTIC EXPLANATION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOURS IN SPORT.

IS A LEADER BORN OR MADE?

Styles of LeadershipAutocratic Leaders (task orientated):

• Tend to make all decisions

• Motivated to complete a task as quickly and effectively as possible

• Authoritarian style – they do not take into account the groups

opinions

• Does not share responsibility

• Effective when quick decisions need to be

made

Democratic Leaders

(social/personal orientated):

• Shares decisions and responsibilities

with group

• Interested in developing inter-

personal relationships within

the team

• Effective in co-active sports

Laisser-faire Leaders:

• Leader stands aside and allows

the group to make their own decisions

• Members of this type of group tend to be aggressive

towards one another when

mistakes occurred and they gave up

easily.

Fiedler’s Contingency Model

According to Fiedler, the correct style of leadership to adopt depends on the ‘favourableness’ of the situation.

Highly favourable situation Highly unfavourable situation

Leaders position is strong Leaders position is weak

Task is simple with clear structure

Task is complex with vague structure

Warm group and leader relations

Hostile group and leader relations

AUTOCRATIC LEADERS are more effective in both the MOST FAVOURABLE and the LEAST FVOURABLE situations.

DEMOCRATIC LEADERS are more effective in MODERATELY FAVOURABLE situations.

Multidimensional Model of Sports Leadership

REQUI REDBEHAVI OUR

w hat is expected by teamm anagem ent of the coach

ACTUAL LEADERBEHAVI OUR

the w ay in w hich the coachnorm ally goes about his job

PR EFER R ED LEADERBEHAVI OUR

the w ay in w h ich m em bers prefertheir coach to relate to them

SI TUATI ONCHARACTERI STI CS

MEMBER 'sCHARACTERI STI CS

LEADERCHARACTERI STI CS

perform ance /satisfaction

Multidimensional Model of Sports Leadership

CHELLANDURAI believed that the effectiveness of the group could be judged on:

1. The degree of success accomplished during a task

2. The extent to which the group experienced satisfaction while being led to the goal.

SITUATIONAL, LEADER AND GROUP MEMBER CHARACTERISCS interact to determine the behaviour adopted by the leader (these are ANTECEDENTS)

REQUIRED, ACTUAL AND PREFERRED BEHAVIOUR are 3 types of leader behaviour that would be guided by these antecedents.

If all three of the leader behaviours are CONGRUENT (coincide exactly) then members will be highly satisfied and produce high group performance.

Effective leadership has taken place if the ACTUAL BEHAVIOUR HAS SURPASSED THE SITUATIONAL DEMANDS AND THE STYLE HAS MET WITH THE APPROVAL OF

THE GROUP.

Mental Preparation TIPS! You need to understand the meaning

and links between commitment, self-confidence, concentration and control of emotion.

Be able to explain each term in the context of mental preparation for sport performance.

You must be able to identify and explain the relevant theories associated with each term.

Mental Preparation

COMMI TMENT

SELF-CONFI DENCE

CONCENTRATI ON

EMOTI ONALCONTROL

4

C’ s

Concentration“A state of mind in which attention is directed towards a specific

aim or activity.”

“Mistakes in top level sport happen not because technique is suspect, but because of attentional errors” (MARTENS)

LINKED WITH

AROUSAL!

When AROUSAL IS LOW the PERCEPTUAL FIELD WIDENS and an excessive number of environmental cues enter into the information

processing system.

SELECTIVE ATTENTION IS NOT in operation and CONCENTRATION ON RELEVANT INFORMATION IS DIFFICULT.

**********INFORMATION OVERLOAD OCCURS **********

LOW AROUSAL PERCEPTUAL FIELD WIDENS LIMITED SELECTIVE ATTENTION = LACK OF CONCENTRATION

Cue Utilisation Theory

This theory predicts ‘THE SELECTION OF THE MOST RELEVANT ENVIRONMENTAL DATA AT THE OPTIMAL AROUSAL LEVEL’.

As arousal increases the perceptual field will adjust to the ideal width enabling the performer to focus on the most relevant

cues/information. Selective attention is fully operational and the

potential to concentrate is maximised.

Beyond this optimal threshold (over aroused), the perceptual focus narrows excessively and the relevant cues may be missed. The athlete appears highly agitated and panics. This condition is known as HYPER-VIGILANCE or PANIC.

HIGH AROUSAL PERCEPTUAL FIELD NARROWS RELEVANT CUES MISSED = HYPER-VIGILANCE & PANIC

OPTIMAL AROUSAL PERCEPTUAL FIELD AT IDEAL WIDTH SELECTIVE ATTENTIONS IN OPERATION =

CONCENTRATION IS MAXIMISED!

NIDEFFER’S ATTENTIONAL

STYLESNIDEFFER’S ATTENTIONAL

STYLESBROAD

- a player concentrates on the whole game

- all players’ positions and movements- open skills

NARROW- the player concentrates on one

aspect of the game- the goalkeeper

- closed skillsINTERNAL

- the player decides to concentrate on his own technique

EXTERNAL-the player focuses on the position

of his opposite number

EXTERNAL

INTERNAL

BROAD NARROW

All players have a preferred attentional style. To improve

performance it is necessary to operate successfully in all styles.

Think of the difference

between a C & GA in Netball

Emotional ControlAROUSAL, ANXIETY, STRESS and ACTIVATION all relate to

MOTIVATION. Arousal will improve performance up to an optimal point, however this optimal threshold changes or ‘shifts’ for every

individual and different situation.

Personality

-Extroverts perform best when

arousal is high (seek stimulation

of RAS)

- Introverts perform best at

low arousal (sensitive RAS

system)

Task Type

- Simple/ Gross skills are

performed better in high arousal,

e.g. shot put

- Complex/ fine skills are

performed better in low arousal, e.g.

spin bowling in cricket

Stage of Learning

-Autonomous stage perform better in high

arousal

- Cognitive/ associative phase perform better in

low arousal

Experience

- Experienced performer is best in high

arousal

- Novice performer is best in low arousal

Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning (Hanin)

Athlete A(low ZOF)

Athlete B(moderate ZOF)

Athlete C(high ZOF)

In zone(best performance)

Out of zone

Out of zone In zone(best performance)

Out of zone

Out of zone In zone(best performance)

Increasing Arousal

An athlete will enter the zone when arousal is at an optimum level and the situation matches the athlete’s strongest attentional style.

Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning (Hanin)

Personality

Task Type Stage of Learning

Experience

Low Zone of

Functioning

(low arousal)

INTROVERTSIMPLE/ GROSS SKILLS, E.G. SHOT PUT

COGNITIVE/ ASSOCIATIVE PHASE

NOVICE PERFORMERS

High Zone of

Functioning

(high arousal)

EXTROVERTCOMPLEX/ FINE SKILLS, E.G. SPIN BOWLING

AUTONOMOUS EXPERIENCED PERFORMER

Different people perform better under different (arousal) conditions:

Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning (Hanin)………

Teachers and coaches should guide the performer towards their personal ‘optimal threshold’ or ‘individual zone of optimal

functioning’.

IN THEZONE!

EFFORTLESS PERFORMANCETHE

ATHLETE FEELS IN

FULL CONTROL

ATTENTION AND CONCENTRATION

OF THE PERFORMER IS

FOCUSED

EXECUTION OF THE SKILL BRINGS

ENJOYMENT AND SATISFACTION

AnxietyTRAIT ANXIETY: Genetically inherited. These people appear to be

anxious at all times. This tends to be permanent and relatively stable.

STATE ANXIETY: This fluctuates in response to a given situation and is associated with arousal. It is a learned behavioural response, but can be

controlled and manipulated to facilitate optimal performance.

(SPIELBERGER)

SOMATIC (physical) RESPONSE: Follows the inverted U hypothesis and refers to physiological changes. Somatic responses include excesses muscular tension,

heart and respiration rates, resulting in impaired movement. This condition will not allow the performer to enter a ‘peak flow’ state.

COGNITIVE (psychological) RESPONSE: Reflects increasing worry about performance. They could become increasingly apprehensive and develop doubts and negative thoughts. Attentional changes occur which negatively impact on the information processing system. If the athlete experiences worry, he or she will not

attain a ‘peak flow’ state.

Anxiety‘Anxiety occurs when there is a substantial imbalance between the

individual’s perception of their ability and their perception of the demands and importance of the situation.’ (MARTENS)

Perception of the situational Demands.

e.g. I must win my leg of the relay if myteam is to have the chance of winning.

Perception of ability to cope.e.g. I am not as good as my

opponent

Perception of the importance of the situation.e.g. The result of this competition hinges

on this relay race.

ANXIETY

Anxiety Management

IMAGERY

THOUGHT STOPPING

POSITIVE TALK

RATIONAL THINKING

PROGRESSIVE MUSCULAR

RELAXTATION

BIOFEEDBACK

COGNITIVE METHODS

SOMATIC METHODS

PEAK FLOWPEAK FLOW: Optimal experience that facilitates best performance and

is intrinsically valuable. (Csikzentmimalyi)

Excitement,happiness

Relaxation, Drowsiness

Anxiety,anger

Boredomfatigue

High somatic arousal

Low somatic arousal

High cognitive

Arousal

anxiety

Low cognitiv

e

Arousal

anxiety

Peak flow occurs when somatic anxiety has reached an appropriate threshold and cognitive anxiety is

low.

flow state is attained when the performer has a balanced

perception of the demands of the situation and his/her ability to cope.

a high incentive value is to be gained from a challenge that is both realistic and attainable.

The focus of attention and concentration is maximised.

there is a self-confident belief that nothing could go wrong.

the situation suits the athlete’s strongest attentional style.

During these rare moments in sport, the athlete assumes control over all internal and

environmental variables and a time of greatest happiness and self-fulfilment is experienced.

Competitive Effects on Sport Performance TIPS!

You need to be able to recognise the difference between aggression, assertion and channelled aggression.

You need to understand the main theories of aggression. Be able to describe how aggressive tendencies can be

limited. Understand the difference between social facilitation and

social inhibition. Describe the major theories of social facilitation and be

able to link them to arousal. Try to understand the homefield advantage phenomenon. Be able to suggest strategies to combat social inhibition.

Aggression“Any behaviour that is intended to harm another individual by physical

or verbal means.” (BULL)

“Any form of behaviour directed toward the goal of harming or injuring another human being who is motivated to avoid such treatment.” (BARON)

HOSTILE (OR REACTIVE) AGGRESSION

Main aim is to harm and inflict injury.

Aggressive actions are outside the rules of the

game‘Hostile destructiveness’

(PARENS)Hostile aggression involves

anger.This type of aggression

needs to be eliminated from sport!

INSTRUMENTAL (OR CHANNELLED) AGGRESSION

Actions within the rules of the game.

Although PRIME motive is the successful

execution of the skill, there is still the intention

to harm.Anger is not evident.

Present in many sporting situations.

ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOURNo intention to harm.

Strictly within the rules and spirit of the game.Robust, but functional

play.Primarily focused on completing the skill

successfully.‘Non-hostile self-

protective mastery behaviour’ (PARENS,

1987)

Antecedents of Aggression

AGGRESSION

NATURE OF THE GAME

WIDE DIVISION BETWEEN SCORES

PREVIOUSLY DEVELOPED GRUDGES OR SCORES TO SETTLE

HOSTILE CROWDS

VENUE…AWAY TEAM

FRUSTRATION CAUSED BY POOR PERFORMANCE, OPPOSITION OR

REFS DECISIONS.

HIGH AROUSAL LEVELS

EXTRINSIC REWARDS

Theories of AggressionINSTINCT THEORY (TRAIT PERSPECTIVE)

- Proposed by FRUED but developed but LORENZ in 1966.

- ‘Aggression is genetically inheritedand that trait of violence lies within everyone

due to a basic instinct to dominate.’- ‘Death instinct’ (FREUD)

- ‘Aggressive energy is constantly buildingup and needs to be released’ (LORENZ)

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY- Proposed by BANDURA, 1966 but

developed by LEAKEY.- Aggression is not biologically based

but is nurtured through environmental forces.- Learned by watching and copying

role models and it becomes an excepted mode of behaviour if reinforced.

FRUSTRATION AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS – INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE

- Proposed by DOLLARD.- ‘Frustration develops when goal-directed

behaviour or NACH is blocked.’-It is instinctive to fulfil the need

to release frustration.- Instinct theory – aggression is the goal.

- Aggression = successful = catharsis- Aggression = unsuccessful = more frustration

AGGRESSION CUE HYPOTHESIS (BERKOWITZ, 1969)

– INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE- Builds upon DOLLARD’S work.

-Frustration leads to an increase in arousal which,in some situations will result in aggression.

-Cues = baseball bats, violent acts being witnessed,nature of the game will trigger aggression if

arousal is high. -Best players have the ability/temperament

to control frustration and arousal.

Methods to eliminate aggression

Punish aggressive play. Withdraw violent players from the situation. Stress performance rather than the outcome. Emphasise non-aggressive role models. Make use of cognitive strategies to prevent

aggressive play. Positively reinforce non-aggressive behaviour

and negatively reinforce aggressive behaviour. Change athletes perceptions of the situation. Implement stress management techniques. Lower arousal levels

Social Facilitation/InhibitionSOCIAL FACILITATION: The presence of an audience positively

increases arousal levels and performance is enhanced.

SOCIAL INHIBITION: A negative effect on performance is experienced due to the attendance of an audience.

TRIPLETT (1898) –

1st Sport Psych Experiment:

The presence of others…

-Arouses competitive drive

- Releases energy

- Increases the speed of performance

ZAJONC

- The ‘mere’ presence of others is sufficient to increase

the arousal level of the performer.

-This uses ‘drive theory’ to predict the effect of others on

performance.

- As arousal increases (as would happen when

spectators are present), there is a greater likelihood of the

dominant response occurring.

COTTRELL’S EVALUATION

APPREHENSION

- In some circumstances the

audience can have a calming effect.

- Increases in arousal were only present

when the performer perceived that the

audience was assessing

performance.

Social Facilitation/Inhibition

Homefield Advantage:

-Large supportive home crowds

have a positive effect on

performance.

- Most evident in indoor sports

such as basketball.

- Crowd gets close to the

action, increasing audience

influence. This is called the

‘proximity effect.’

Distraction/ Conflict Theory (Barron, 1986)

-Individuals can only attend to a limited

amount of environmental cues.

- Spectators demand the same attention as

other players, resulting in more competition for

attentional space.

- Complex actions would therefore be impaired in front of

large crowds.

Strategies to Combat Social Inhibition:

- Practice selective attention.

- Use imagery, mental rehearsal to block out audience effects.

- Ensure essential skills are over-learned and grooved.

- introduce evaluative others into practice.

- Raise athletes’ awareness of the zone of optimal functioning.

- Incorporate stress management into training.

- Appropriate use of attribution

Attribution Theory TIPS!

You should be able to identify the reasons for success and failure in sport.

You need to understand ‘Weiner’s Attribution Model’ and be able to relate it to specific sporting situations.

Learn the definitions of ‘mastery orientation’ and ‘learned helplessness’.

Attribution Theory

ability'w e w ere m ore

skilful'

eff ort'w e tried hard'

task diffi culty'the opposition arew orld cham pions'

luck'the court w as

slippy'

I NTER NAL EXTER NAL

LOCUS OF CAUSALI TY

STABLE

UNSTABLE

STABI LI TY

Attribution theory looks at the common reasons coaches and players give for their success or failure in sport.

Weiner’s Attribution Model

LOCUS OF CAUSALITYis the performance outcome caused

by- INTERNAL factors

under the control of the performerability / effort

- EXTERNAL factorsbeyond the control of the performer

task difficulty / luck

STABILITYis the performance outcome caused

by- STABLE factors

fixed factors which don’t change with time

ability / task difficulty- UNSTABLE factors

factors which can vary with timeeffort / luck

Attribution TheoryHIGH ACHIEVERS

attribute success to internal factorsand attribute failure to external

factors

LOW ACHIEVERSattribute success to external factors

and attribute failure to internal factors

HIGH ACHIEVER LOW ACHIEVER

motivation? high motive to achieve success low motive to achieve success low motive to avoid failure high motive to avoid failure

focuses on pride on success focuses on shame and worry about failure

attributions ascribes success to stable ascribes success to unstableinternal and controllable factors external uncontrollable factors

ascribes failure to unstable ascribes failure to stableexternal uncontrollable factors internal controllable factors

goals adopted adopts task oriented goals adopts outcome oriented goals

task choice seeks challenging tasks and avoids challenge, seeks very difficult competitive situations or very easy tasks / competition

performance performs well in front of performs badly in front of evaluative audiences evaluative audiences

Attribution Retraining

The coach changes the usual external attributions for failure into internal, unstable controllable factors.

The athlete has little control over ability, luck or task difficulty but has complete control over EFFORT. Effort is

internal and unstable and can be changed by the performer.

Attributing a lack of success to internal and unstable factors will help to prevent learned helplessness.

LEARNED HELPLESSNESSA belief acquired over time that one has no control over events

and that failure is inevitable. A feeling of ‘hopelessness.’