about narrative space in archives

8/19/2019 About Narrative space in Archives

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/about-narrative-space-in-archives 1/11

Archival Science 1: 1 31-141 , 2001.

9 2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

131

T a c it N a r r a t i v e s : T h e M e a n i n g s o f A r c h i v e s

E R I C K E T E L A A R

University of Leiden and University of Amsterdam; The Netherlands ~siting Professor

2000-2001, University of Michigan School of lnformation); Oude Turfmarkt 141, 1012 GC

Amsterdam, The Netherlands. E-mail: ketelaar@hum. uva.nl

Abstract. Archivists and historians usu ally consider a rchives as repositories o f historical

sources and the archivist as a neutral custodian. Sociologists and anthropologists see "the

archive" also as a system of collecting, categorizing, and exploiting memories. Archivists

are hesitantly acknowledging their role in shaping memories. I advocate that archival fonds,

archival documents, archival institutions, and archival systems contain tacit narratives which

m ust be deconstructed in order to understand the meanings of archives.

Keywords: archival science, mediation, narratives, postmodernism, social mem ory

N e w P o ss ib i li t ie s

A c r i t ic a l a p p r o a c h i s a t t h e h e a r t o f a r c h iv a l e n d e a v o r . I t s e v e n p o s t m o d e r n :

d i d n o t t h e f a t h er o f p o s t m o d e r n i s m , L y o t a r d , e q u a t e p o s t m o d e r n i s m w i t h

i n c r ed u l i ty i n m e t a - n a r r a t iv e s , i n g r a n d s c h e m e s ? W e c o u l d a l so s a y w i t h

A n t h o n y G i d d e n s : t ra d i ti o n n o l o n g e r w o r k s a n d c a n n o t b e c i t ed a s th e

r a t i o n a l e f o r o u r ac t i o n s . G i d d e n s ' p o s t - t r a d i t io n a l s o c i a l o r d e r i s n o t o n e i n

w h i c h t r a d i ti o n s d i s a p p e a r - f a r f r o m it. T r a d i t i o n s b e c o m e o p e n t o i n t e r r o g a -

t i o n a n d d i s c o u r s e . S u c h a p o s t - t r a d i t io n a l s o c i e t y i s a g l o b a l s o c i et y , w h e r e

t r a d i ti o n s a r e b r o u g h t i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h o n e a n o t h e r a n d f o r c e d t o ' d e c l a r e

t h e m s e l v e s ' . 1

T h i s c r i t ic a l q u e s t i o n i n g o f t ra d i t io n o p e n s u p a w o r l d o f p o s s i b il i ti e s .

A s P a t O d d y f r o m t h e B r i ti sh L i b r a r y re m a r k e d " T h e p o s t m o d e r n l ib r a ry

i s a l i b ra r y w h e r e s e c u ri t i e s h a v e b e e n l o st , b u t w h e r e f r e e d o m s h a v e b e e n

* Revision of a pap er presented, on the invitation o f the M aster's Programm e in

Archival Studies, Department of History, University o f Manitoba, in the History Department

Colloquium series of the University o f Manitoba, Winnipeg, 20 F ebruary, 2001. So me o f the

arguments w ere used earlier in two papers I presented in the seminar "A rchives, Docum enta-

tion and the Institutions of Social Mem ory", organized by the Bentley Historical Library and

the International Institute o f the U niversity of M ichigan, Ann Arbor, 14 February, 2001.

1 Anthony Giddens,

Beyond Left and Right. The Future of Radical Politics

(Stanford:

Stanford University Press, 1994).



13 2 ERIC KETELAAR

g a in e d . '2 T h e s a m e a p p l ie s t o t h e p o s t m o d e r n a r ch iv e . W e m i g ht , h o w e v e r ,

a l r e a d y s p e a k o f p o s t - m o d e r n i s m i n t h e p a s t s e n s e - f o r s o m e t h a t m a y c o m e

a s a r e li ef . B u t a n y w a y p o s t m o d e r n i s m h a s n o t s o m u c h b e e n t h e r e la t iv i z in g

o f t ru t h ( t o t h e p o i n t e v en o f mak i n g i t i rr e lev an t ) b u t r a t h e r t h e m u l t i p li c a t i o n

o f p e rs p e c ti ve , a s on e o f m y A m s t e r d a m c o l le a g u e s N i e k va n S a s r e m a r k e d )

A r ch i v a l r e s ea r ch e r s an d a r ch i v is t s a r e ex p l o r in g a m u l t i p li c a t i o n o f

p e r s p ec t i v e s . Th ey a r e l e a r n i n g ( o r r e l ea r n in g ) f r o m an t h r o p o l o g i s ts , s o c i o l o -

g i st s , p h i l o s o p h e r s , cu l t u ra l an d l i t e ra r y t h eo r is t s : t o l o o k u p f r o m t h e r eco r d

an d t h r o u g h t h e reco r d , l o o k i n g b e y o n d - an d q u es t i o n i n g - i ts b o u n d a r i e s , i n

n e w p e r s p e c t iv e s s e e in g w i t h t h e a rc h i v e ( to u s e T o m N e s m i t h ' s m a g n i f ic e n t

ex p r e s s i o n 4 ) , t r y in g t o r ead i t s ta c i t n a rr a t iv e s o f p o w er an d k n o w l ed g e . 5

rch iv i za t io n a nd rch iv a l i za t io n

B u t w h e r e t o lo o k ? A c c o r d i n g t o Ja c q u e s D e r r i d a ' s e a r l i e r r e a d i n g o f F r e u d ,

t h e p h y s i ca l a r ch i v e o u t s i d e i s m er e l y an i m p r es s i o n o f t h e in v i s i b le p r i v a t e

p s y ch e . 6 B o t h a r e t r ace s , o n e i n te r n a l, t h e o t h e r ex t e r n a l. B u t m o r e r ecen t l y

D er r i d a h a s a r g u ed t h a t archiv iza t ion ( t he Eng l i sh t r ans l a t i on o f archiva-

tion i s co n s i g n i n g , i n s c r i b i n g a t r ace i n s o me ex t e r n a l l o ca t i o n , s o me s p ace

o u t s id e : I t b e l o n g s t o t h e co n c ep t o f t h e a r ch i v e th a t it b e p u b l i c , p r ec i s e l y

b ec au s e i t i s l o ca t ed . Y o u can n o t k eep an a r ch i v e i n s i d e y o u r s e l f - t h is i s n o t

archive. 7

Th e a r ch i v e h as d i f f e r en t p h as e s . Arc h iv ing i n t h e c u s t o m a r y s e n s e

( W eb s t e r ' s : t o fi le o r co l l ec t a s r eco r d s o r d o c u m en t s i n o r a s i f i n a r ch i v e ) i s

m o s t l y u n d e r s t o o d t o b e t h e a c t iv i ty t ha t f o l low s u p o n t h e c r e a ti o n o f a d o c u -

men t . A r ch i v a l t h eo ry , h o w ev e r , c a r r ie s a r ch i v i n g o n e p h as e f o r w ar d : a t t h e

f r o n t e n d o f a r e c o r d k e e p i n g s y s t e m d o c u m e n t s a r e

captured,

t h a t is a ccep t ed

2 Pat Oddy, Who dares, wins: libraries and catalogues for a postmodern world , Library

R e v i e w 16 (1997) 309.

3 Niek van Sas, Towards a New National History: Lieux de m6moire and Other Theaters

of Memory , in: Joep Leerssen and Ann Rigney (eds.), Historians and Social Values

(Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2000) 172.

4 Tom Nesmith, See ing wi th Arch ives : The Chang ing In t e l l ec tua l Place o f Arch ives Paper

presented at the annual meeting of the Association of Canadian Archivists, Ottawa, 6 June,

1997.

5 Terry Cook, Archival science and postmodernism: new formulations for old concepts ,

Arch iva l Sc i ence 1 (2001) 3-24.

6 Brien Brothman, [Review of] Jacques Derrida, Archive Fever ,

Arch ivar ia

43 (1996)

191-192.

7 Forthcoming in: Ref iguring the Archive (Cape Town: David Philip Publishers, 2001). I

thank the editors for having shared with me the impressive papers presented at a seminar

organized by the University of the Witwatersrand (1998), to be published in this volume.



TACIT NARRATIVES 13 3

b y t h e s y s t e m . A r c h i v i z a t i o n 8 e x t e n d s b e y o n d c a p t u re , i t i n c l u d e s t h e c r e a t i v e

p h a s e b e f o r e c a p t u r e . B e f o r e

a r c h i v i z a t i o n ,

h o w e v e r , is a n o t h e r ' m o m e n t

o f t r u t h ' . 9 I t is

a r c h i v a l i z a t i o n ,

a n e o l o g i s m w h i c h I i n v e n t e d , m e a n i n g

t h e

c o n s c i o u s o r u n c o n s c i o u s c h o i c e ( d e t e r m i n e d b y s o ci a l a n d c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s )

t o c o n s i d e r s o m e t h i n g w o r t h a r c h iv in g .1 0

A r c h i v a l i z a t i o n p r e c e d e s a r c h i v i n g .

T h e s e a r c h l i g h t o f a r ch i v a l iz a t i o n h a s to s w e e p t h e w o r l d f o r s o m e t h i n g t o

l i g h t u p i n t h e a r c h i v a l s e n s e , b e f o r e w e p r o c e e d t o r e g i s t e r , t o r e c o r d , t o

i n s c r i b e it , i n sh o r t b e f o r e w e a r c h i v e it. W h a t th e s e a r c h l i g h t m a k e s v i s i b le ,

K a r l P o p p e r w r o t e

w i l l d e p e n d u p o n i ts p o s i ti o n , u p o n o u r w a y o f d i re c t i n g it , a n d u p o n i t s

i n t e n s it y , c o l o u r , e t c .; a l t h o u g h i t w i l l , o f c o u r s e , a l s o d e p e n d v e r y l a r g e l y

u p o n t h e t h i n g s i l l u m i n a t e d b y i t. t l

B y d i f f e r e n t ia t i n g a r c h i v a l i z a ti o n f r o m t h e s u b s e q u e n t i n s c r ip t i o n o r a r c h i-

v i z a t io n , w h i c h is t h e n f o l l o w e d b y c a p t u r e a n d a r c h iv i n g , w e g a i n a b e t te r

c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f t h e t a c it n a rr a ti v e s o f t h e a r c h i v e.

o n s t i t u t in g t h e E v e n t

T h e a r c h i v e r e fl e c ts re a l it ie s a s p e r c e i v e d b y t h e ' a r c h i v e r s ' . A s J a m e s S c o t t

a r g u e s i n S e e i n g L i k e a S t a t e - i n f a c t s u m m a r i z i n g h i s b o o k

b u i l d e rs o f t h e m o d e m n a t i o n - s ta t e d o n o t m e r e l y d e s c r i b e , o b s e r v e , a n d

m a p ; t h e y s t r iv e to s h a p e a p e o p l e a n d l a n d s c a p e t h a t w i l l f it t h e i r t e c h -

n i q u e s o f o b s e r v a t i o n . . . t h e r e a r e v i r tu a l l y n o o t h e r f a c ts f o r t h e s t a te t h a n

t h o s e t h a t a r e c o n t a i n e d i n d o c u m e n t s . 12

8 The te rm

archivation

was first used in the nineties by the French philosopher Bernard

Stiegler: Marie-Anne Chabin, Je pense donc j a rch ive (Pa ris and M ontrral: L'Harmattan,

1999) 66. French archivists, however, used the term as equivalent to archivrconomie or

archivage: Brun o De lmas, Arch ival science facing the inform ation society ,

Archival Science

1 (20 01) 28. A s Paul Ricoeur uses the term archivation, i t is w riting dow n the oral testimony

and then setting a side, assembling, and collecting these trac es: Paul Ricoeur, La mgmoire,

l histoire, l oubli (Paris: l~ditions du Seuil , 200 0) 20 9, 211.

9 Steve Stuckey, Record creating events: comm entary ,

Arch ives and Museum ln format ics

11 (1997) 270.

10 Eric Ketelaar, Arch ivalization and Archiving , Archives and Manuscripts 27 (1999)

54-61; Eric Ketelaar, Arch ivistics Resea rch Saving the Profession ,

Am er ican Arch iv is t

63

(2000) 328-329.

11 Karl R. Popper,

The Open Society and i ts Enemies,

2 (Princeton University Press,

Princeton 19715) 260.

12 James C. Scott,

Seeing Like a State . How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human

Condition Have Failed (Yale University Press, New Haven and London 1998) 82-83.



13 4 ERIC KETELAAR

T h i s s o c i a l r e i fi c a t i o n 13 i s n o t t h e m o n o p o l y o f th e s ta t e. I t i s a c o n s e q u e n c e

o f the panop tic sort t h e n a m e g i v e n b y O s c a r G a n d y t o th e s y s t e m o f di sc ip -

l i n a ry s u r v e i l la n c e b y g o v e r n m e n t a n d i n th e p r iv a t e s e ct o r, u s in g a c o m p l e x

o f te c h n o l o g i e s i n v o l v i n g t h e c o l l e c ti o n , p r o c e s s i n g , a n d s h a r in g o f i n f o r m -

a t io n a b o u t c it iz e n s , e m p l o y e e s , a n d c o n s u m e r s - i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h i s u s e d

t o c o o r d i n a t e a n d c o n t r o l t h e i r a c c e s s t o t h e g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s i n d a i l y

l if e . 14 C o l l e c t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e s i n d i v i d u a l s , M a r k P o s t e r w r i te s ,

r e i n f o r c i n g M i c h e l F o u c a u l t ' s a r g u m e n t o n t h e ' p o w e r o f w r i t in g ' . 15 S u c h

r e i fi c a t io n c a n b e l i n k e d t o D e r r i d a ' s a r g u m e n t t h a t a r c h i v e s n o t m e r e l y s e r v e

t o p r e s e r v e a n a r c h i v a b l e c o n t e n t o f th e p a s t . N o , l i f e i t s e l f a n d i t s r e l a t i o n t o

t h e f u t u r e a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e t e c h n i q u e o f a r c h iv i n g . T h e a r c h iv i z a t io n

p r o d u c e s a s m u c h a s i t r e c o r d s t h e e v e n t . '1 6

A p h o t o g r a p h i s n o t j u s t a r e c o r d i n g : i t c o n s t i t u t e s t h e e v e n t . T h i n k o f th e

p h o t o g r a p h s o f t h e f la g r a is i n g a t I w o J i m a ( b y J o e R o s e n t h a l , 2 3 F e b r u a r y

1 9 4 5 ) a n d o n t h e B e r l i n R e i c h s t a g ( b y Y e v g e n i K h a l d e i , 2 M a y 1 9 4 5 ). 17 B u t

t h i n k a l s o o f t h e p h o t o y o u t a k e o f y o u r f a m i l y : i t m a k e s a r e c o r d o f th a t l it tl e

g r o u p , b u t it a ls o o c c a s i o n s i t . T h e r e a l i ty w e r e c o r d a n d t h e w a y i n w h i c h w e

r e c o r d , a r e i n d u c e d b y s o c i o - c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s . E a c h i n f l u e n c e s t h e o t h e r .

Techn ology Ch anges the rchivable

D e r r i d a is r i g h t i n a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e m u t a t i o n in t e c h n o l o g y c h a n g e s n o t

s i m p l y t h e a r c h i v i n g p r o c e s s , b u t w h a t i s a r c h i v a b l e - t h a t i s , t h e c o n t e n t o f

13 Alain Desrosibres, Ho w to make things which hold together: social science, statistics

and the state , in: R W agner, B. W ittrock and R. W hitley (e ds.), Discourses on Society:

Th e Shaping o f the So cial Sciences Disciplines,

Sociology of Sciences Yearbook

15 (Kluwer,

Dordrecht 19 90) 208.

4 Oscar H. Gandy,

The Panoptic Sort. A Political Economy of Personal Information

(West-

view Press, Boulder, San Francisco and Oxford 1993) 1, 15. See also Oscar H. Gandy,

Com ing to terms w ith the Panop tic Sort , in: David Lyon and E lia Zureik (eds.),Computers

Surveillance and Privacy

(University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis and London 1996)

132-155.

15 Mark Poster,

The Mode of Information: Poststructuralism and Social Context

(Chicago:

University of C hicago Pre ss, 19 90) 96; M ichel Foucault ,

Discipline and Punish. The Birth

of the Prison (N ew York: Pantheon, 19 77) 189-190. S ee also Mark Poster, Databases as

Discou rse, or Electronic Interpellations , in: Lyon and Z ureik,

Computers Surveillance and

Privacy

(as endn ote 14) 185.

16 Jacq ues Derrida,

Archive Fever

(University of Chicago Press, Chicago and L ondon 1996)

17.

7 Jam es Bradley and R on Pow ers, Flags of OurFathers (New Y ork: Bantam Books, 2000);

Mark S ensen, Flag on the Q aldei-photo , http:/ /ww w.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/su%5E vctry.

html#photo (consulted 4 June, 2001).



TACIT NARRATIVES 135

w h a t h a s t o b e a r ch i v ed i s ch an g ed b y t h e te ch n o l o g y . '1 8 Th e d i s cu r s i v e s t y l e

o f an em a i l i s q u i te d i f f e r en t f r o m t h a t o f a p en - w r i t ten le tte r. B u t t h e co n t en t

i s d i f f e r en t t o o , if o n l y b ec au s e t h e ti me l ag b e t w ee n s en d e r an d r ece i v e r h a s

b e e n r e d u c e d t o s e c o n d s , i n s te a d o f t h e d a y s , w e e k s , o r e v e n m o n t h s i n th e

p as t . x9 Th a t r ed u c t i o n i s a f o r m o f w h a t A n t h o n y G i d d en s ca l ls

dis tanc ia t ion

( o f t i m e and s p a c e ) in v o l v in g m o d e s o f p o w e r a n d c o n tr o l: t h e k n o w l e d g e t h a t

an ema i l m ay i m m ed i a t e l y i n f l u en ce a s it u a t io n i n f l u en ces t h e p o w er r e la t i o n s

i n d ec i s i o n - m ak i n g an d acco u n t ab i li t y , d i ff e r i n g w i d e l y f r o m t h e w a y it u s e d

t o b e w h e n t h e s e n d e r - i n B a t a v i a f o r e x a m p l e - k n e w t h at a n a n s w e r f r o m

Th e N e t h e r l an d s co u l d t ak e s ev e r a l mo n t h s . 2 ~

T h e t e c h n o l o g i e s o f r e c o r d s c r e a ti o n , m a i n t e n a n c e a n d u s e c o l o r th e

co n t en t s o f th e r eco r d , a n d a l s o a f f ec t i ts f o r m an d s t ru c t u r e . Th i s i s t r u e

ev en f o r t h e s eem i n g l y i n n o cen t t e ch n o l o g i e s o f f il in g an d s t o r ag e , a s R i ch a r d

B r o w n a n d T o m N e s m i th , a m o n g o t he r s, h a v e m a d e c le a r. 21 R e c o r d k e e p e r s

a r e, a cco r d i n g t o B r i an B r o t h man , c r ea t i n g v a l u e , th a t i s , an o r d e r o f v a l u e ,

b y p u t t in g t h in g s i n t h e i r p r o p e r p l ace , b y m ak i n g p l ace ( s ) f o r t h em. '2 2

N u m er o u s t a c i t n a r r a ti v e s a r e h i d d en i n ca t eg o r i za t io n , co d i f i ca t i o n an d

l ab e l in g . 23 I n t h e co l o n i a l a r ch i v es o f t h e N e t h e r l an d s I n d i e s t h e an t h r o p o l o -

g i s t A n n S t o l e r f o u n d i n f o r ma t i o n ab o u t ch i l d r en i n r ep o r t s - c l a s s i f ied s ec r e t

a b o u t t h e pol i t i ca l s i t u a t i o n i n t h e N e t h e r l an d s I n d i e s , b ecau s e t h ey w er e

f r a m e d i n a s o c ia l v i s io n a b o u t th e d a n g e r o f c o n t a c t b e t w e e n w h i te c h i l d r en

an d ayas B i ll R u s s e l l g a v e a n o t h e r e x a m p l e i n h is s t u d y o f th e r e c o r d k e e p i n g

i n t h e C an ad i an D ep a r t me n t o f I n d i an A f f a i r s. 24 B o t h t h e r eco r d s c r ea t i n g

18 Derrida, Ref igur ing the Arch ive (as endnote 7); Derrida, A r c h i v e F e v e r (as endnote 16)

17.

19 Richard R. John, Recasting the Information Infrastructure for the Industrial Age , in:

Alfred D. Chandler and James W. Cortada (eds.), A N at ion Trans formed by In format ion . H ow

In format ion Has Shaped the Un i t ed S ta tes f rom Colon ia l T imes to the Presen t

(Oxford and

New York: Oxford University Press, 2000) 55-105; Anthony Giddens,

The Na t ion S ta t e and

Violence. Volume Tw o of A Con tempora ry C ri t ique o f Histo rical Ma terial ism (Cambridge:

Polity Press, 1985) 174-178.

20 On 'distanciat ion' whereby society is stretched over a shorter span of time and space:

Anthony Giddens, A Con temporary Cr i t ique o f Hi s tor i ca l Mater ia li sm. Second edition

(Houndmills and London: Macmillan Press, 1995) 90o108.

21 Ann L. Stoler, Colon ial Cul tures and the Arch ival Turn. Paper presented at a conference

on archives and social memory, St. Petersburg, 27-29 May 1998. See also Richard Brown,

Records acquisition strategy and its theoretical foundation: the case for a concept of archival

hermeneutics , Arch ivar ia 33 (1991/1992) 50; Nesmith, See ing w i th arch ives (as endnote 4).

22 BrienBrothman, Orders ofValues: Probing the Theoretical Terms of Archival Practice ,

Arch ivar ia

32 (1991) 82.

23 Geoffrey C. Bowker and Susan Leigh Star, Sort ing Things Out . Classi f icat ion and I ts

Consequences (Cambridge and London: MIT Press, 1999).

24 Bill Russell, The White Man's paper burden: aspects of records keeping in the

Department of Indian Affairs, 1860-1914 ,

Arch ivar ia

19 (1984/1985) 72.



1 36 ERIC KETELAAR

ci v i l s e r v an t s an d th e s u b s eq u en t co l o n i a l r eco r d s ma n ag e r s o r a r ch i v is t s w e r e

s h ap i n g co n t en t s a n d co n t ex t s o f t h e reco r d .

R e m e mb e r in g a n d F o r g et tin g

A r ch i v i n g a l s o en ta i ls s e l ec t i n g w h a t s h o u l d an d w h a t s h o u l d n o t b e k ep t . Th e

m e m o r y o f m a n a n d o f s o c i e t y c a n n o t r e ta i n a ll: t h e y b o t h c a n o n l y r e m e m b e r

s o m e t h in g s , b y f o r g e t ti n g a lo t . A s ma l l s l i v e r o f a ll r e co r d s b ec o m es

a r ch i ve s , T h e y a r e b r o u g h t i n t o w h a t t h e A u s t ra l ia n r e c o r d s c o n t i n u u m m o d e l

ca l l s t h e d i men s i o n o f p l u r a l i z in g : t h e r eco r d s a r e c r o s s i n g t h e f u n c t io n a l

b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e o r g an i za t io n an d o f t h e s e l f, i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e co l l ec t i v e

me m o r y . 25 Th e b o u n d a r y k ee p e r i s t h e a r chi v is t . H e o r s h e d e c i d es w h a t i s to

c r o s s th e b o u n d a r y a n d w h a t n o t. B y p u t t in g s o m e re c o r d s , a s T o m N e s m i t h

h as r em ar k ed , 26 o n a p ed es t a l , w e a l t e r t h e i r co n t ex t an d m ean i n g , w e i n f u s e

n ew m ean i n g i n to t h e reco r d , t o w h a t i s l e f t o f t h e s e r i e s an d t h e f o n d s , w e

ad d n e w n a r r a t i v e s t o t h e a r ch i v e an d i ts co n s t i t u en t p a r t s.

ultural and Soc ial ontexts

A r c h i v i n g i s a r e g i m e o f p r a c t i c e s w h i c h v a ri e s in a n y g i v e n t im e a n d in a n y

g i v en p l ace . 27 P e o p l e c r ea t e , p r o c es s , ap p r a i s e an d u s e a r ch i v es , i n f l u en ced

c o n s c i o u s l y o r u n c o n s c i o u s l y b y c u lt u ra l a n d s o c i a l fa c t o rs . W h a t a p p l ie s t o

r eco r d k eep i n g i n o rg an i za t io n s , ap p l i e s t o th e a r ch i v es a s a s o c i a l i n s t it u t io n

o f a n a t i o n

t o o . 2 8

S o c i a l , cu l t u r a l , p o l i t i c a l , e co n o mi c an d r e l i g i o u s co n t ex t s

2 5 S u e M c K e m m i s h , Y e s te r d ay , t o d a y a n d to m o r r o w : a c o n t i n u u m o f r e s p o n s i b i l it y , i n :

Proceedings o f the Records Management Association of Australia 14th National Convention

1 5 - 1 7 S e p t . 1 9 9 7 ( P e r th : R M A A , 1 9 9 7 ), r e p r i n t e d i n : P e t e r J. H o r s m a n - F r e d e r i c k C . J.

K e t e l a a r - T h e o H . E M . T h o m a s s e n ( e d .) , Naar een nieuw paradigma in de archivistiek. Jaar-

boek 1999 Stichting Archiefpublicaties ( ' s - G r a v e n h a g e : S t i c h t i n g A r c h i e f p u b l i c a t i e s, 1 9 9 9)

2 0 3 , a v ai l ab l e o n w w w ' s i m s ' m ~ 1 7 6 1 7 6 1 7 6

2 6 T o m N e s m i t h , What is a Postmodern Archivist? P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t th e a n n u a l m e e t i n g o f

t h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f C a n a d i a n A r c h i v i st s , H a l i fa x , M a y 1 99 8.

2 7 P r a c t ic e s b e i n g u n d e r s t o o d h e re a s p la c e s w h e r e w h a t i s sa i d a n d w h a t is d o n e , r u l e s

i m p o s e d a n d r e a s o n s g i v e n , th e p l a n n e d a n d t h e t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d m e e t a n d i n t e r c o n n e c t ,

a c c o r d i n g t o M i c h e l F o u c a u l t , G o v e r n m e n t R a t i o n a l i t y : A n I n t r o d u c t i o n [ o r i g in a l F r e n c h

v e r s i o n p u b l i s h e d i n Esprit 3 7 1 ( M a y 1 9 6 8) 8 5 0 - 8 7 4 ] , i n : G r a h a m B u r c h e l l , C o l i n G o r d o n

a n d P e t e r M i l l e r , The FoucauIt Effect. Studies in Governmentality ( C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f

Ch icago P res s , 1991) 75 .

2 8 E r i c K e t e la a r , T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e s t p o s t p o n e d ? C u l t u r e s a n d c o m p a r a t i v e a r c h i v al

s c i e n c e ,

Archivaria

4 4 ( 1 9 9 7 ) 1 4 2 - 1 4 8 , r e p r i n t e d in : P e t e r J . H o r s m a n - F r e d e r i c k C . J.

K e t e l a a r - T h e o H . E M . T h o m a s s e n (e d .) , Naar een nieuw paradigma in de archivistiek.

Jaarboek 1999 Stichting Archiefpublicaties ( ' s - G r a v e n h a g e : S t i c h t i n g A r c h i e f p u b l i c a t i e s ,




d e t e r m i n e t h e t a c i t n a r r a t i v e s o f a n a rc h i v e . O n e s h o u l d m a k e t h e s e c o n t e x t s

t r a n s p a re n t , m a y b e e v e n v i s i b l e , a s o n e t r i e s in a m u s e u m t o r e - e n a c t t h e

c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e a r t i f a c t w a s m a d e . 29

Semantic enealogy

C o n t ex t s n o t o n l y o f r eco r d s c r ea t i o n . R ec o n t ex t u a l i s a t i o n ( th e te r m i s u s e d

b y M i c h a e l A m e s a n d o t h e r m u s e o l o g i s t s a n d a n t h r o p o lo g i s ts 3 ~ t a k e s p la c e

a t e v e r y s t a g e o f a r e c o r d s l if e a n d i n e v e r y d i m e n s i o n o f t h e r e c o r d s

co n t i n u u m , 31 ad d i n g v a l u es t o ( o r s u b s t r ac t in g v a l u es f r o m ) t h e r ec o r d a s

a s e m i o p h o r e , t o u s e K r z y s z t o f P o m i a n s t e r m f o r m u s e u m a r te f a ct s. 32 L i k e

t h e o b j ec t s i n a mu s eu m, r eco r d s d e r i v e t h e i r s i g n i f i can ce f r o m t h e d i f f e r en t

i n v is i b le s t h e y c o n s t ru c t a n d f r o m t h e w a y s in w h i c h t h e y m e d i a t e t h e s e t o

t h e s p ec t a t o r s o r u s e rs .

Ev e r y i n te r ac t io n , i n te r v en t io n , i n t e rr o g a t io n , an d in t e r p r e t a ti o n b y

crea to r , u ser , and a rch iv i s t i s an ac t i v i t a t i on o f t he r ecord . T he a rch ive i s an

i n fi n it e ac t i v a t io n o f t h e r eco r d . Ea ch ac t i v a ti o n l eav es f i n g e r p r in t s w h i ch a r e

a t tr i b u te s t o t h e a r ch i v e s i n f i n it e mean i n g . A s D av i d B ea r m an w r i t e s

W h e n w e a c c e s s i o n , t r a n s f e r , a r r a n g e , w e e d , d o c u m e n t a n d i n v e n t o r y

a r ch i v a l ma t e r i a l s , w e ch an g e t h e i r ch a r ac t e r a s w e l l a s en h an ce t h e i r

ev i d en t i a l an d i n f o r ma t i o n a l v a l u e . Th e f ac t s o f p r o ces s i n g , e x h i b i ti n g ,

1999) 21 -27 , ava i l ab le on w ww, hum .uva .n l foa i /home/eke te l aa r /d i ff e r ence .doc ; Er i c Ke te l aa r ,

De cu l tu r e l e con tex t van a r ch ieven , in : Pe t e r J . Hor sman - F r ed er i ck C .J . Ke te l aa r -

Theo H.P .M. Thomassen ( eds . ) ,

Context. lnterpretatiekaders in de archivistiek. Jaarboek

2000 Stichting Archiefpublicaties ( ' s -Gravenhag e : S t i ch t ing Arch ie fpub l i ca t i e s , 2000) 83 -

91 ( a F rench ve r s ion , pend ing p ub l i ca t ion in La Gazette des Archives i s ava i l ab le on

www.hum.uva .n l /ba i /home/eke te l aa r /L 'E thno log iea r ch iv i s t ique .doc) .

29 F rede r i ck C . J . Ke te l aa r ,

Archivalisering en archivering

( S a m s o m , A l p h e n a a n d e n R i j n

1998) 14 ) , f o l lowing Hugh Tay lo r , 'H er i t ag e r ev i s i t ed ' : docum ent s a s a r t if ac t s i n the con tex t

o f museu ms and mate r i a l cu l tu r e ,

Archivaria

40 (1995) 8-20.

3 0 M i c h a e l M . A m e s ,

Cannibal Tours and Glass Boxes. The Anthropology of Museums

(Vancouver : U nive rsi ty of Br i t i sh Colum bia Press , 1992) 46, 1 41-143 .

31 Ketelaar , Archivalisering en archivering ( as endno te 29 ) 14 ; Theresa Rowat , The r eco rd

and r epos i to ry as a cu l tu r a l f o rm o f express ion , Archivaria 36 (1993) 198-204 . On the

c o m p a r a b l e r e c o n te x t u a l is a t io n o f m u s e u m o b j e c ts s e e A m e s ,

Cannibal Tours

(as endnote 30)

46 , 14 1-143 ; Jan van de r Dussen ,

De musealisering van onze cultuur. De tijd in perspectief

(Ven lo : L imburgs Museum , 1995) 21 ; Jan Vaessen , Ov er con tex t , Jaarboek 1996 Neder-

lands Openluchtmuseum ( N i j m e g e n a n d A r n h e m : S U N / N e d e r l a n d s O p e n lu c h t m u s e u m , 1 99 6)

20.

32 Krzy sz to f Pom ian ,

Collectors and curiosities. Paris and Venice 1500-1800

(Cambr idge :

Pol i ty Press , 1990).



13 8 ERIC KETELAAR

ci t i n g , p u b l i s h i n g an d o t h e r w i s e man ag i n g r eco r d s b eco mes s i g n i f i can t

f o r t h e ir m ean i n g a s r eco r d s , w h i ch i s n o t t ru e o f l i b r a ry ma t e r ia l s . 33

N o l o n g e r c a n w e r e g a r d t h e r e c o r d a s a n a r te f a c t w i t h f ix e d b o u n d a r i e s

o f co n t en t s an d co n t ex t s . In a p o s t t r ad it i o n a l v i ew - r e i n f o r ce d b y t h e

ch a l l en g es o f t h e e l ec t r o n i c reco r d s - t h e r eco r d is a m ed i a t e d an d ev e r -

c h a n g i n g c o n s tr u c ti o n , a s T e r r y C o o k wri tes . 34 I t i s o p en y e t en c l o s ed , i t

i s ' m e m b r a n i c ' , t h e m e m b r a n e a l lo w i n g t h e i n fu s i n g a n d e x h a li n g o f v a l u e s

w h i c h a r e e m b e d d e d i n e a c h a n d e v e r y a c ti v at io n .

D e r r i d a w r i t e s t h a t ev e r y in t e r p r e t a ti o n o f t h e a r ch i v e i s an en r i ch men t , an

ex t en s i o n o f t h e a r ch i v e. T h a t i s w h y t h e a r ch i v e i s n ev e r c l o s ed . I t o p en s

ou t o f t he fu tu re . 35 Th e a rch ive , i n De r r ida ' s t h ink ing , i s no t j u s t a she l -

t e r i ng o f t he pas t : i t i s an an t i c ipa t i on o f t he fut ure. 36 Ev er y ac t i v i t a t i o n o f

t h e a r ch i v e n o t o n l y ad d s a b r an ch t o w h a t I p r o p o s e t o ca l l t h e s eman t i c

g en ea l o g y o f t h e r eco r d an d t h e a r ch iv e . E v e r y ac t i v a t io n a l s o ch an g e s t h e

s i g n i fi can ce o f ea r li e r a c t iv a t io n s . I t i s an ap p l i ca t i o n o f F r eu d ' s r e t r o s p ec t i v e

c a u s a l i t y . L e t m e g i v e a n e x a m p l e . T h e r e c o r d s c r e a t e d a n d u s e d b y G e r m a n

a n d D u t c h a g e n c i e s d u r i ng t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r to a c c o u n t f o r th e l o o ti n g o f

j e w i s h a s s e ts , w e r e c o n t i n u e d t o b e u se d , a f t e r th e w a r , b y G e r m a n a n d D u t c h

a g e n c i e s i n t he p r o c e s s e s o f r e s ti tu t io n a n d r e p a ra t io n . T h e s a m e r e c o r d w a s

ac t i v a t ed ag a i n an d ag a i n f o r d i f f e r en t p u r p o s es , a s i t i s t o d a y ac t i v a t ed i n t h e

s ea r ch f o r l o o t ed an d l o s t w o r k s o f a r t an d o t h e r H o l o ca u s t a s s e t s . 37 C u r r en t

u s e o f t h e s e r eco r d s a f f ec t s r e t r o s p ec t i v e l y a ll e a rl ie r m ean i n g s , o r t o p u t i t

d i f f e r e n t l y : w e c a n n o l o n g e r r e a d t h e r e c o r d a s o u r p r e d e c e s s o r s h a v e r e a d

tha t r eco rd .

Th e a r ch i v a l d o cu men t i s n o t a s i mp l e a r t i f ac t , a z i p - f i l e t h a t o p en s w i t h

o n e s t r o k e o n th e k e y b o a r d . T h e d o c u m e n t d o e s n o t o p e n i t se l f n o r s p e a k s f o r

i ts e l f, b u t o n l y b y i n f e r en ce f r o m i ts s em an t i c g en ea l o g y . 38 I t d o e s n o t s p ea k

f o r it s e lf n e i th e r b e c a u s e i t m e r e l y e c h o e s w h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r w h i s p e rs , i t

33 David Bearman, Documenting Documentation ,

Archivaria

34 (Summer 1992) 41,

reprinted in: David Bearman, Electronic Evidence. Strategies for Managing Records in

Contemporary Organizations (Pittsburgh: Archives & Museum Informatics, 1994) 237.

34 Cook, Archival science and postmodernism (as endnote 5) 10.

35 Derrida, Archive Fever (as endnote 16) 68.

36 Derrida, Archive Fever (as endnote 16) 18.

37 Eric Ketelaar, UnderstandingArchives of the People, by the People, and for the People ,

in: James D. Bindenagel (ed.), Washington Conference on Holocaust Era Assets Proceed

ings (Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1999) 757-761; Henny van Schie,

Joodse tegoeden en archieven. Context in de praktijk , in: Horsman - Ketelaar - Thomassen,

Context (as endnote 28) 257-273.

38 Verne Harris, Claiming less, delivering more: a critique of positivist formulations on

archives in South Africa , Archivaria 44 (1997) 136; Verne Harris, Exploring Archives: an



TACIT NARRATIVES 139

o n l y te l ls w h a t th e r e s ea r ch e r w an t s t h e d o cu m en t t o t e ll h i m o r h er . S ch o l a r s

( inc lud ing a rch iv i s t s ) a re no t , can never be , ex t e r io r t o t h e i r ob jec ts . 39

Reading the rch ive

T h e s e m a n t i c g e n e a l o g y o f t h e m e m b r a n i c a r c h iv e w i ll b e s e e n b y s o m e a s

a t h rea t t o t r ad i t i ona l va lues as au then t i c i t y , o r ig ina l i t y , and un iqueness . Bu t

s h o u l d n ' t w e s t r e s s mo r e t h e a r ch i v e ' s p o w er : t h e a r ch i v e a s ' r ep o s i t o r y o f

m ean i n g s ' , t h e mu l t il ay e r ed , m u l t i f ace t ed mean i n g s h i d d en i n a r ch i v a l iza t i o n

an d a r ch i v in g , w h i ch can b e d eco n s t r u c t ed an d reco n s t r u c t ed , t h en in t e r p r e t ed

an d u s ed b y s ch o l a r s , o v e r an d o v e r ag a i n . W e r ead t o d ay o t h e r t h i n g s i n t h e

a r ch i v e , th an t h e n e x t g en e r a t i o n w i l l r e ad , an d s o o n

ad i n fi n it um

T h e s e m a n t i c g e n e a l o g y p r o v i d e s t h e o p p o r tu n i t y f o r a n y c o n s tr u c t io n o r

d eco n s t r u c t i o n o f w h a t a l l t h e p eo p l e i n v o l v ed i n th e a r ch i v es ' c r ea t i o n an d

u s e may h av e mean t i n a r ch i v a l i za t i o n an d a r ch i v i n g . Th a t r e - an d d eco n -

s t r u c ti o n i s n o t t h e en d o f t h e a r ch iv e , i t is o n l y p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h s ee i n g w i t h

t h e a r c h iv e , a ~ T h e m u s e o l o g i s t E i le a n H o o p e r - G r e e n h i l l w r o t e

M e a n i n g s a r e n o t c o n st a n t, a n d t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n o f m e a n i n g c a n a l w a y s

b e u n d e r t ak en ag a i n , in n ew co n t ex t s an d w i t h n ew f u n c t i o n s . Th e r ad i ca l

p o t e n ti a l o f m u s e u m s l i e s i n p r e c i s e l y th is . A s l o n g a s m u s e u m s a n d

g a l l e r ie s r em a i n t h e r ep o s i t o r i e s o f a r te f ac t s an d s p ec i me n s , n e w r e l a t io n -

s h i p s c a n a l w a y s b e b u i l t , n e w m e a n i n g s c a n a l w a y s b e d i s c o v e r e d , n e w

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s w i t h n e w r e l e v a n c e s c a n b e f o u n d , n e w c o d e s a n d n e w

ru les can be wr i t t en . 4a

T h e a n a l o g o u s c o n c l u s i o n f o r r e c o r d s i s r e a c h e d b y C a r o l y n H e a l d w h o

a s s e r t s

Th e r eco r d s d o ex i s t in f act ; t h ey j u s t n e ed t o b e d eco n s t r u c t ed / r ead ,

n o t t h r o u g h o b j ec t i v e l en s e s , b u t t h r o u g h s u b j ec t i v e o n es . . . P h y s i ca l

e v i d e n c e c a n t e l l a s m u c h o r m o r e a b o u t a d o c u m e n t a n d i t s c o n t e x t a s

the i n fo rmat ion~d co n ten t i t se lf . 42

In troduct ion to Arc hival Ideas and Pra ct ice in South Africa secon d edi t ion (P re to r i a : N a t iona l

Arch ives o f So u th Af r i ca , 2000) 20 .

39 Harr is , Exp lor ing Arch ives (as endno te 38) 96.

40 Nesmi th , See ing w i th Arch ives (as endno te 4) .

41 Ei l ean Hoo per -Green h i l l , Mus eums and the Shap ing o f Knowledge ( L o n d o n a n d N e w

York: Routledge, 1992) 215.

42 Caro lyn Hea ld , I s t he r e room fo r a rch ives in the pos tmo dern wor ld? , A m e r i c a n A r c h -

iv is t 59 (1996) 101. See a l so Ar jun Appad ura i , I n t roduc t ion : Com mo di t i e s and the Po l i t i c s



14 0 ERIC KETELAAR

t o r y t e l l i n g

A r c h i v a l i n t e r v e n t i o n h a s t o d o w i t h s t o r y t e l li n g , a s t h e S o u t h - A f r i c a n a r c h i v -

i s ti c s s c h o l a r V e r n e H a r r i s c o m p e l l i n g l y a r g u e s . 43 A t e v e r y s t a g e o f t h e

r e c o r d ' s t r a j e c t o r y s o m e ' a r c h i v e r ' , w h i l e a c t i v a t i n g t h e r e c o r d , t e l l s a s t o r y .

W e h a v e t o d o c u m e n t t h e s e s to r ie s . 44 I n t h e f i rs t p l a c e t o e n h a n c e t h e a c c o u n t -

a b i l it y o f a l l ' a r c h i v e r s ' f o r t h e i r d e c i s i o n s , a s t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o n

A r c h i v e s ' C o d e o f E t h i c s p r e s c r i b e s . 45 B e t h K a p l a n r i g h t l y c r it i c iz e s t h e l a c k

o f s ta n d a r d s r e q u i r i n g a r c h i v i s ts t o d o c u m e n t t h e i r d e c i s io n s , r e v e a l t h e i r

m e t h o d s o r e x p l a i n t h e i r a s s u m p t i o n s . 46 B u t a l s o to r e b u i l d t h e p a t h r e c o r d s

f o l l o w f r o m c r e a t o r t o a r c h i v e s a n d , a s L a u r a M i l l a r p l e a d s , t o r e s t o r e t h e

c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e r e a l i ty o f r e c o r d s i n t h e h a n d s o f t h e i r c r e a t o r s a n d

t h o s e s a m e r e c o r d s i n a n a r c h i v a l in s t it u ti o n . ''4 7 B y w h o m , w h e n , w h y , h o w

w a s t h e a r c h i v e c r e a t e d ? W h e r e w a s t h e a r c h i v e k e p t , i n t h e s a f e o r i n t h e

b e d r o o m ? W h o u s e d t h e a r c h i v e in th e f ir st , s e c o n d a n d n t h p la c e w h e n , w h y ,

h o w ? W h o d i d t h e a p p r a is a l , w h e n , w h y , h o w ? E t ce t e ra . A l l t h e s e s t o ri e s

c o n s t i t ut e t h e g e n e a l o g y o f th e r e c o rd , m o r e d y n a m i c a n d m o r e e f f e c ti v e

t h a n t h e t r a d i ti o n a l p r o v e n a n c i a l a n d c u s t o d i a l h i s to r y . T h e new c o n c e p t o f

p r o v e n a n c e , a s r e c e n t ly p r o p o s e d b y T o m N e s m i t h , c o n s i s ts o f t h e so c i al

a n d t e c h n i c a l p r o c e s s e s o f t h e r e c o r d s ' i n s c r ip t i o n , t r a n s m i s s i o n , c o n t e x t u -

of Value, in: Arjun Appadurai (ed.), The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural

Perspective (Cambridge: Cam bridge U niversity Press, 1988) 5.

43 HalTiS

Exploring Archives (as endnote 38) 86-88.

44 Ames (as endnote 30), Cannibal Tours 141-144; Cook, Archival science and postmod-

ernism (as endnote 5) 24.

45 Available on ww w.ica.org. Paragraph 5: Archivists should record, and be able to justify,

their actions on archival m ate rial Th e comm entary to the code includes Archivists should

keep a permanent record docum enting accessions, conservation and all archival work done.

46 Elisabeth Kaplan, Practicing Archives with a Postmodern Perspective Paper presented

in the seminar Archives, Docum entation and the Institutions of Social M em ory , organized

by the B entley H istorical Library and the International Institute o f the University o f M ichigan,

24 January 2 001 , 11. See also Thom as J. Ruller, ' Dissimilar appraisal documentation as an

impediment to sharting appraisal da ta .. . , Archival Issues 17 (1992) 65-73. Most discussions

on appraisal are happening behind closed doors: Anne Picot, Ethical Meltdown: Account-

ability and the Australian Recordkeeping Profession , Archives and Manuscripts 28 (2000)

128.

47 Laura Millar, Creating a National Information System in a Federal Environment: Some

Thoughts on the Canadian Archival Information Network Paper presented in the seminar

Archives, Docum entation and the Institutions o f Social Mem ory , organized by the Bentley

Historical Library and the International Institute of the University of Michigan, 24 January

2001, 15.




a l iza t io n , an d i n t e rp r e t a t io n w h i ch acco u n t f o r it [t h e reco r d ' s ] ex i s t en ce ,

charac t e r i s t ics , and con t inu ing h i s to ry . '48

Th e s t o r i e s r e s o u n d , i n V e r n e H ar r i s ' w o r d s , t h e v o i ce s o f t h e au t h o r s

o f t h e d o cu m en t s , t h e b u r eau c r a t s , t h e a r ch iv i s ts , an d t h e r e s ea r ch e r s w h o

a l l u s e d a n d m a n a g e d t h e f i l e s 4 9 T h o s e v o i c e s h a v e t o b e r e c o r d e d a n d

r eco v e r ed . Th e p ee l i n g b ack o f l ay e r s o f i n te r v en t i o n an d i n t e r p re t a t io n ,

H ar r i s w r i te s , i s ab o u t context I ag r ee : o n c e w e n o l o n g e r a s s u m e t h a t t h e r e is

o n l y o n e r ea l i t y o r m ean i n g o r tr u th , b u t man y , n o o n e b e t t e r th an t h e o t h e r, w e

can t r y to fi n d t h e s e m u l t i p l e mea n i n g s b y i n t e r r o g a ti n g n o t o n l y t h e ad mi n -

i s t r a t i ve con tex t , bu t a l so t he soc i a l , cu l tu ra l , po l i t i ca l , r e l i g ious con tex t s o f

r eco r d c r ea t io n , m a i n t en an ce , an d u s e - i n o t h e r w o r d s , b y i n t e rr o g a t i n g t h e

a r ch i v e ' s s eman t i c g en ea l o g y .

48 Tom Nesm ith, Still Fuzzy, But M ore Accu rate: So m e Thoughts on the 'Gh osts' of

Archival Theo ry ,

Archivaria

47 (Spring 1999) 146.

49 Har r i s

Claiming less (as endnote 38) 136.

about narrative space in archives

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