ae/me wind engineering module 1.2 lakshmi sankar [email protected]
TRANSCRIPT
OVERVIEW
• In the previous module 1.1, you leaned about the course objectives, topics to be covered, and the deliverables (assignments)
• In this module, we will first review the history of the wind turbines
• We will also learn some basic terminology associated with wind turbines
• We will also discuss what factors go into choosing sites where you may build/deploy your own wind turbines or farms.– We will conduct this discussion through case studies.
History of Wind Turbineshttp://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/wind_history.html
• Technology is old, in some respects!– Wind was used to propel sail boats as early as 5000
BC in Egypt.– Chinese used wind energy to pump water by as early
as 200 BC– Persians used wind energy about the same time to
grid grain
• By the 11th century, people in the middle east were using wind mills for food production
• Traders and crusaders carried the ideas to Europe.
History of Wind Turbines (Continued..)
• Dutch were looking for ways of draining lakes and marshes.– Wind turbines became very popular.
• The technology spread to US when settler brought these ideas to America.
• Industrialization (use of coal to generate steam) brought a decline in the use of wind energy.
• Steam engines replaced wind mills for pumping water and producing electricity.
• Rural electrification began in the 1930s.• Wind turbines had to make their case economically!
– Their popularity rose and fell with the availability and cost of alternative forms of energy production.
– Oil crisis in the 1970s and energy crisis during the past decade has brought wind energy’s potential as a clean, renewable, sustainable, energy source,
Wind Power's Beginnings (1000 B.C. - 1300 A.D.)
• Persians used the drag of the blades (i.e. aerodynamic force along the direction of the wind) to generate rotation of the blades.
• Struts connected the sails to central shaft.– Grinding stone was
attached to the central shaft.
• Only one half of the turbine was useful at any instance in time.
Lift vs Drag
• The aerodynamic force along the direction of the wind is called drag– Early wind turbines used drag to generate the torque.
• The aerodynamic force normal to the wind direction is called lift.– For a properly designed blade (or airfoil) lfit to drag
ratio may be 100 to 1!• Dutch began using lift force rather than drag to
turn the rotor.• Over the past 500 years, the design has evolved
through analysis and experimentation.
Use of Drag to Produce Torque
Wind Drag Force
Pelton Wheel uses this concept
Use of Lift forces for Torque ProductionUse of Lift forces for Torque Production
L
D
Vwind - Vinduced
LsinDcos
r
Propulsive force = Lsin - Dcos
DΩr
VVL inducedwind
Wind Turbine History in the US• During the 19th century wind mills were
used to pump water.– Rotor diameter reached 20 meters.– Water was used to operate steam
engines,• Eray designs used wood as the
material and had a paddle like shapes.– Drag force was used.
• Later designs used steal blades which could be shaped to produce lift forces.
– The blades spun fast, requiring gears to reduce the angular velocity.
– Mechanisms were developed for folding blades in case of high winds.
• In 1888, electricity was produced using the wind turbine shown on the lower right by Charles F. Brush.
• By 1910s, coal and oil fired steam plants became popular, and the use of wind turbines became less common.
Installed Wind Power Generation (in MW)http://www.windenergyinstitute.com/installed.html
Rank County 2005 2006 2007
1 Germany 18,415 20,622 22,247
2 United States 9,149 11,603 16,818
3 Spain 10,028 11,615 15,145
4 India 4,430 6,270 8,000
5 China 1,260 2,604 6,050
6 Denmark (& Faeroe Islands) 3,136 3,140 3,129
7 Italy 1,718 2,123 2,726
8 France 757 1,567 2,454
9 United Kingdom 1,332 1,963 2,389
10 Portugal 1,022 1,716 2,150
11 Canada 683 1,459 1,856
12 Netherlands 1,219 1,560 1,747
Basic Terminology
• Vertical Axis (or Darrieus) Wind Turbines vs. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines– We will study HAWTs
in this course.
Terminology (Continued)http://www.energybible.com/wind_energy/glossary.html
• Availability Factor– The percentage of time that a wind turbine is able to
operate and is not out commission due to maintenance or repairs.
• Capacity Factor– A measure of the productivity of a wind turbine,
calculated by the amount of power that a wind turbine produces over a set period of time, divided by the amount of power that would have been produced if the turbine had been running at full capacity during that same time interval.
Terminology (Continued)• Rotor
– Comprises the spinning parts of a wind turbine, including the turbine blades and the hub.
• Hub– The central part of the wind turbine, which supports the turbine blades
on the outside and connects to the low-speed rotor shaft inside the nacelle.
• Root Cutout – The percentage of the rotor blade radius that is cut out in the middle of
the rotor disk to make room for the hub and the arms that attach the blades to the shaft.
• Nacelle– The structure at the top of the wind turbine tower just behind (or in some
cases, in front of) the wind turbine blades that houses the key components of the wind turbine, including the rotor shaft, gearbox, and generator.
Parts of a Wind Turbine
• Turbine controller is connected to the rotor.
• Converter controller, connected to converters and main circuit breaker, is needed to control the output voltage and power
Wind Power Classificationhttp://www.awea.org/faq/basicwr.html
Wind Power ClassPower density W/m^2 at 0 m height
Wind Speed m/sec (mph)
Power density W/m^2 at 50 m height
Wind Speed m/sec (mph)
1 <100 <4.4 (9.8) <200 <5.6 (12.5)
2 100 - 150 4.4 (9.8)/5.1 (11.5) 200 - 300 5.6 (12.5)/6.4 (14.3)
3 150 - 200 5.1 (11.5)/5.6 (12.5) 300 - 400 6.4 (14.3)/7.0 (15.7)
4 200 - 250 5.6 (12.5)/6.0 (13.4) 400 - 500 7.0 (15.7)/7.5 (16.8)
5 250 - 300 6.0 (13.4)/6.4 (14.3) 500 - 600 7.5 (16.8)/8.0 (17.9)
6 300 - 400 6.4 (14.3)/7.0 (15.7) 600 - 800 8.0 (17.9)/8.8 (19.7)
7 >400 >7.0 (15.7) >800 >8.8 (19.7)
The following slides are from a Presentation in 2002 byAmerican Wind Energy
Association
Wind Power is Ready
Clean Energy Technology for
Our Economy and Environment
American Wind Energy Association, 2002
Image courtesy of NEG Micon
Wind Power Market Overview
Ancient Resource Meets 21st Century Technology
Wind Turbines:Power for a House or City
Ready to Become a Significant Power Source
Wind could generate 6% of nation’s electricity by 2020.
Wind currently produces less than 1% of the nation’s power. Source: Energy Information Agency
Wind is Growing Worldwide
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
Rest of World
Europe
United States
Source: AWEA’s Global Market Report
1. Germany: 8754 MW
2. U.S.: 4260 MW
3. Spain: 3195 MW
4. Denmark: 2492 MW
5. India: 1507 MW
Wind Taking Off in the U.S.
• U.S. installed nearly 1,700 MW in 2001
• Wind power capacity grew by 66%
• Over 4,265 MW now installed
• Expecting over 2,500 of new capacity in 2002-2003 combined
Source: AWEA’s U.S. Projects Database
United States Wind Power Capacity (MW)
4,270 MW as of 07/31/02
Alaska0.9
California1,715.9
Colorado61.2
Hawaii1.6
Iowa324.3
Kansas113.7
Maine0.1
New Hampshire0.1
Massachusetts1.0
Michigan2.4
Minnesota322.7
Montana0.1
Nebraska3.5
New Mexico1.3
New York48.2
North Dakota
1.3Oregon156.9
Pennsylvania34.5
Tennessee2.0
Texas1,095.5
Utah0.2
Vermont6.0
Wisconsin53.0
Wyoming140.6
Washington180.2
South Dakota
2.9
Source: AWEA’s U.S. Projects Database
1,697 MW added in 2001
Kansas112
Wisconsin30
Pennsylvania24
New York30Oregon
132
Washington180
Iowa82
Minnesota218
Texas915
Main Areas of Growth in 2001
Source: AWEA’s U.S. Projects Database
U.S. Wind Power Capacity Growth
*Source: AWEA’s U.S. Projects Database
Wind Power Economics
$0.00
$0.10
$0.20
$0.30
$0.40
1980 1984 1988 1991 1995 2000 2005
38 cents/kWh
Cost Nosedive Driving Wind’s Success
2.5-3.5 cents/kWh
Levelized cost at excellent wind sites in nominal dollars, not including tax credit
Wind Power Cost of Energy Components
Cost (¢/kWh) = (Capital Recovery Cost + O&M) / kWh/year
– Capital Recovery = Debt and Equity Cost– O&M Cost = Turbine design, operating
environment– kWh/year = Wind Resource
Capital Costs
• Revenue Streams– Commodity Power Sale: $30-$45/MWh– Production Tax Credit: $18/MWh– “Green Credit”: New Market, Values Vary
• Debt/equity ratios close to 50%/50% – Increased debt/equity ratios can significantly
increase return
Long-Term Debt
• Better loan terms with longer-term power purchase agreement (PPA)
• Loan terms up to 22 years, determined largely by PPA
Equity Considerations
• Return requirements vary with risk– Perceived risk of wind projects may be larger than
real risk
• Returns evaluated after tax credit– Wind energy projects can expect return in low
teens (10% to 15%)
Turbine Technology Constantly Improving
• Larger turbines• Specialized blade design• Power electronics• Computer modeling produces more efficient
design• Manufacturing improvements
59.6
80
How big is a 2.0 MW wind
turbine?
This picture shows a Vestas V-80 2.0-MW wind turbine superimposed on a Boeing 747 JUMBO JET
Construction Cost Elements
Turbines, FOB USA49%
Construction22%
Towers (tubular steel)
10%
Interest During Construction
4%
Interconnect/Subsation
4%
Land Transportation
2%Development
Activity4%
Design & Engineering
2%
Financing & Legal Fees3%
Technology Improvements Leads to Better Reliability
• Drastic improvements since mid-80’s
• Manufacturers report availability data of over 95%
1981 '83 '85 '90 '98
% A
vail
able
Year0
20
40
60
80
100
Improved Capacity Factor
• Capacity Factors Above 35% at Good Wind Sites– Performance
Improvements due to: – Better siting– Larger turbines/energy
capture– Technology Advances– Higher reliability
Examples: Project Performance (Year 2000)
Big Spring, Texas •37% CF in first 9 months
Springview, Nebraska•36% CF in first 9 months
Bottom Line 20 Years of Wind Technology Development
1981 1985 1990 1996 1999 2000
Rotor (Meter) 10 17 27 40 50 71
KW 25 100 225 550 750 1650
Total Cost $65 $165 $300 $580 $730 $1300
Cost/kw $2,600 $1,650 $1,333 $1,050 $950 $790
Capacity Factor
21% 25% 28% 31% 33% 39%
MWh produced over 15 years
675 3300 8250 22,200 33,000 84,000
Amortized cost of turbine per unit of energy
9.6 5 3.6 2.6 2.2 1.5
Economy of scale reduces price per kw of capacity
Technology improvements yield more energy bang for the buck
Combined, they dramatically reduce turbine price per unit of energy produced
Benefits of Wind Power
Advantages of Wind Power
• Environmental
• Resource Diversity & Conservation
• Cost Stability
• Economic Development
Benefits of Wind PowerEnvironmental
• No air pollution
• No greenhouse gasses
• Does not pollute water with mercury
• No water needed for operations
Electricity Production is Primary Source of Industrial Air Pollution
Source: Northwest Foundation, 12/97
23%
28%
33%
34%
70%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80%
Toxic Heavy Metals
Particulate Matter
Nitrous Oxides
Carbon Dioxide
Sulfur Dioxide
Percentage of U.S. Emissions
Benefits of Wind PowerEconomic Development
• Expanding Wind Power development brings jobs to rural communities
• Increased tax revenue • Purchase of goods &
services
Benefits of Wind PowerEconomic Development
Case Study: Lake Benton, MN
$2,000 per 750-kW turbine in revenue to farmers
Up to 150 construction, 28 ongoing O&M jobs
Added $700,000 to local tax base
Benefits of Wind PowerFuel Diversity
• Domestic energy source
• Inexhaustible supply• Small, dispersed
design reduces supply risk
Benefits of Wind PowerCost Stability
• Flat-rate pricing can offer hedge against fuel price volatility risk
• Electricity is inflation-proof
Wind Project Siting
Siting a Wind Farm• Winds
– Minimum class 4 desired for utility-scale wind farm (>7 m/s at hub height)
• Transmission– Distance, voltage excess capacity
• Permit approval– Land-use compatibility– Public acceptance– Visual, noise, and bird impacts are biggest concern
• Land area– Economies of scale in construction– Number of landowners
Power in the Wind (W/m2)
Density = P/(RxT) P - pressure (Pa) R - specific gas constant (287 J/kgK) T - air temperature (K)
= 1/2 x air density x swept rotor area x (wind speed)3
A V3
Area = r2 Instantaneous Speed(not mean speed)
kg/m3 m2 m/s
Perceived Market Barriers
• Siting– Avian– Noise– Aesthetics
• Intermittent Fuel Source
Actual Market Barriers
• Transmission constraints
• Financing
• Operational characteristics different from conventional fuel sources
Wind Characteristics Relevant to Transmission System
• Intermittent output • Generally remote location • Small project size• Short/flexible development time• Low capacity factor
Wind Development IssuesTransmission Grid Operating Rules
• What wind wants:– Liquid, transparent spot market for imbalance settlements– Near real time, flexible scheduling protocols– Robust secondary markets in transmission rights (“flexible firm”)– Postage stamp pricing allocated to load (or volumetric pricing)– Statistical determination of conformance to load shape to set value
• What wind gets:– System designed exclusively to transport firm, fixed blocks/commodity strips– Rigid advance scheduling protocols/onerous imbalance charges– License plate pricing allocated to incremental generation– Grid balkanization/rate pancaking
Wind Development IssuesTransmission Expansion
• What wind wants:– Pro-active regional planning with political buy-in.– Programmatic expansion focused on shared goals.– Public infrastructure financing repaid through user fees.
• What wind gets:– Reactive, piecemeal gridlock decoupled from political process.– Project specific expansion focused on immediate needs of existing
players.– Uncertain capacity rights as sole rate recovery mechanism.
Consequences of Wind Characteristics
• Remote location and low capacity factor = higher transmission investment per unit output
• Small project size and quick development time = planning mismatch with transmission investment
• Intermittent output can = higher system operating costs if systems/protocols not designed properly
Federal and State Policies to Promote Wind Power
Production Tax Credit
• Lowers price of electricity to make it more accessible to customers
• Currently provides credit of 1.8¢ per kWh
• Industry needs long-term extension to encourage investment
Renewable Portfolio Standard
• Requirement that U.S. suppliers get 10% of supply from renewable sources by 2020
• Texas example shows how RPS can enable green power markets to flourish by creating a supply of reasonably-priced renewable energy
• Can create incentives to solve transmission issues
Standard Market Design & Interconnection
• Wind is “square peg in a round hole”– Intermittent– Site-specific, often rural– Small, with short construction lead time
• SMD & Interconnection NOPRs designed to make markets more efficient, which could make a big difference in cost and availability of wind power
Clean Air Act
• Expect to see amendment to the Clean Air Act before 2004 elections
• Without set-asides or direct allocation for renewables, would strip wind projects of ability to claim emissions reductions
• Output based compliance that includes NOx, SO2 and CO2 could add revenue stream of 0.4 - 0.5 cents per kWh
Small Turbine Incentives
• 30% Investment Tax Credit
• Net metering
State Incentives
• State renewable portfolio standards
• Public Benefits Funds
• Electricity source disclosure
• Government procurement
Green Power Market
Green Power Market
• Places a monetary value on environmental benefits
• Raises visibility of renewable power & promotes customer awareness
• Usually small scale, short-term contracts
Premium prices
Different Ways to Buy
• Green Pricing– Regulated utility offers customers choice to support wind
power construction
• Green Marketing– In competitive market, customers empowered to choose
service providers that contract to purchase renewables
• Green Tags– environmental attributes divorced from energy
Competitive Green Market
• Has encouraged about 25 MW in CA & PA to date
• Will encourage more than 75 MW in PA in next two years
Green Pricing
• Has encouraged over 15 new wind projects to serve green pricing market
• Smaller projects
• Spread throughout the U.S. – raises visibility of wind power
Small Wind Turbine Market Development
Programs for small wind development
• Buy-down programs
• Exemptions from sales, property tax
• Standardized zoning requirements
Buy-down programs
• CA renewables fund refunds 50% of the cost of a renewable system– CA sales account for over half of the small wind
turbine market
• MA buy-down program refunds 10% capped at $100 – does not appreciably affect the market
Property / Sales Tax
• Property or sales tax exemption offered in several states
• Programs to affect initial purchase price work best
• Net metering programs (equalizing kWh costs paid and received by residential generators) do not seem to drive purchasing decisions
Future Trends in Wind Power
Expectiations for Future Growth
• 2,500 MW new added by end of 2003
• 20,000 total installed by 2010
• 6% of electricity supply by 2020
= 100,000 MW of wind power installed by 2020
Wind Energy“U.S. Proven & Probable Reserves”
Nameplate MW
Region On-Line In Development
Developable in Reserve
@$2 natural gas @$4 natural gas
West 2,254 2,750 35,000 200,000
Midwest 900 500 400 350,000
East 90 330 500 7,000
Texas 1,016 300 --- 40,000
South 2 20 100 600
Total 4,262 4,000 36,000 600,000
Future Cost Reductions
• Financing Strategies
• Manufacturing Economy of Scale
• Better Sites and “Tuning” Turbines for Site Conditions
• Technology Improvements
Future Technology Developments
• Application Specific Turbines
– Offshore
– Limited land/resource areas
– Transportation or construction limitations
– Low wind resource
– Cold climates ®Middelgruden.dk
www.AWEA.org
American Wind Energy Association
122 C St, NW, Suite 380
Washington, DC 20001