african journal of education and developmental studies . vol 5., no 1, july, 2008 ejournal

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AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES

(AJEDS)

AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR MULTI-DISCIPLINARY STUDIES

JULY, 2008

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF PROF. B.S. OKEKE

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF

PORT HARCOURT

http://www.ajeds.com/�

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AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION AND

DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES (AJEDS)

VOL. 5, NO.1 JULY, 2008

ISSN: 07945-760


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AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT STUDIES (AJEDS)

EDITORIAL BOARD

• Professor B.S. Okeke - Editor-in-Chief

University of Port Harcourt

• Dr. Nath. M. Abraham - Editor University of Port Harcourt

• Dr. (Mrs.) Maureen N. Koko - Associate Editor Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Nkpolu, Port Harcourt

• Dr. Musa O. Anavberokhai Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma - Associate Editor

• Dr. David Aboho Benue State University, Makurdi - Associate Editor

• Dr. (Mrs.) Grace K. Etuk University of Uyo - Associate Editor

• Dr. (Mrs.) Jessica Ezekiel-Hart Rivers State College of Education, Port Harcourt. - Associate Editor


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CONSULTING EDITORS Professor S.P.T. Gbamanja - Njala University, New England, Freetown, Sierra Leone. Professor (Mrs.) C.C. Nwagwu - Institute of Education, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria. Ms. Boakye Cecilia - Institute of Education, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana. Professor Kayode Ajayi - Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria. Dr. Martin Fabunmi - Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. Professor Wey Amaewhule - Rivers State University of Science

And Technology, Nkpolu, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

William Mhuri Masocha - Applied Scholastic, Zimbabwe. Professor Abimbola Olakanmi - University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.

African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies . Vol 5., No 1, July, 2008


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EDITORIAL/NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS

African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies (AJEDS) is making steady progress in its avowed responsibility of publishing and disseminating scholarly research reports. This is Volume 5, Number 1 of the journal, and it contains 14 articles. Being a multi-disciplinary outlet, the journal invites scholarly articles on current issues of educational concern and those from other disciplines. • The Article should not be more than 15 A-4 pages, references and

appendices inclusive. • Each article must be typed with double line spacing on one side of

paper only, using font 14. • Article must have an abstract of not more than 200 words. • Three (3) copies of article should be submitted for peer review with

non-refundable assessment fee as shall be decided by the Board. • Citations and references must conform to current American

Psychological Association (APA) style. • Each submission should be accompanied with one (1) self addressed

and stamped Large (bag) envelope as well as an official self addressed/stamped envelope of return of assessed paper(s), and acceptance letter respectively.

• Cover page of each article should have name(s) of author(s), title of article, institutional affiliation, e-mail address as well as telephone numbers of contributors.

All correspondence should be directed to:

Dr. Nath. M. Abraham – Editor African Journal of Education and Development studies (AJEDS), C/o Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, Nigeria



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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Asuka, Tuemi T. (Ph.D.) - Faculty of Education, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Amassoma, Bayelsa State.

Paulley, F.G. - Faculty of Education, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Amassoma, Bayelsa State.

Robert-Okah, I. - Rivers State College of Education, Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt.

Abakwuru, Chikwe (Ph.D.) - Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance and Counselling, University of

Port Harcourt.

Ekechukwu, R. (Mrs.) - Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance and Counselling, University of

Port Harcourt.

Ikenyiri, Emmanuel (Ph.D.) - Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku, Rivers State.

Mrs. Agabi, C.O. (Ph.D.) - Rivers State College of Education Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt.

Mrs. Onyeike, V.C. (Ph.D.) - Department of Educational Management, University of Port Harcourt.



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Mrs. Iruloh, Betty-Ruth N. (Ph.D.) - Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance and Counselling, University of Port Harcourt.

Ernest-Ehibudu, Regina I. (Mrs.) - Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance and Counselling, University of Port Harcourt.

Amalaha, Okezie O. - Federal Science and Technical College, Ohoada, Rivers State.

Diorgu, Faith (Mrs.) - Department of Nursing, Faculty of Clinical Sciences University of Port Harcourt

Osaat, S.D. (Ph.D.) - Institute of Education, Union of Port Harcourt

Nbina, Jacobson B. (Ph.D.) - Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology, University of Port Harcourt.

Paul C.E. Iro (Ph.D.) - Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education, University of Port Harcourt.



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Ifeanyichukwu Christian Elendu - Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education University of

Port Harcourt, Rivers State. Ifeanyichukwu Joy Chigbata - Department of Primary

Education Studies, Nwafor Orizu College of Education Nsugbe, Anambra State.



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TABLE OF CONTENTS Editorial i Editorial Board ii Consulting Editors iii List of Contributors iv Table of Contents v

Universal basic education (UBE) programme and the realization of MDGS in Bayelsa State of Nigeria TUEMI T. ASUKA & FIBAINMINE G. PAULLEY -1 Application of quality circle management techniques and approaches in the administration of secondary schools in rivers state NWOGU, U.J. & MADUAGWU, S. N. -22 Sharing the burden for the provision of basic education in Nigeria: The household and community juxtaposition. ROBERT-OKAH, I. I 32

Effective community participation-a must for the success of the universal basic education programme. CHIKWE AGBAKWURU, & R. EKECHUKWU 50

Teachers’ perception of values that promote and hinder academic achievement of secondary school students IKENYIRI EMMANUEL 60

Globalization, literacy and unemployment in the 21st century AGABI, C.O. & ONYEIKE, V.C. 78

Gender factors as constraints to women’s participation in governance: implications for counselling BETTY-RUTH NGOZI IRULOH & IJEOMA REGINA ERNEST-EHIBUDU 90



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Human resource utilization in tertiary institutions in Nigeria AMALAHA, OKEZIE O 105

Influence of parental disciplinary practices on children’s moral development: GOODNESS W. ORLUWENE & IJEOMA REGINA ERNEST–EHIBUDU 119 Attitude of female undergraduate students towards breast self-examination DIORGU, FAITH 133 Is habit in control of action? SUNDAY DANIEL OSAAT 143

An evaluation of integrated science programme and its implementation in the south-south states-owned colleges of education JACOBSON BARINEKA NBINA, 160 Physiological evaluation of rapid weight loss practices among combat athletes; PAUL C. E. IRO, 168

Attitude towards weight-control methods among athletes in University of Nigeria, Nsukka., IFEANYICHUKWU JOY CHIGBATA & IFEANYICHUKWU CHRISTIAN ELENDU 179



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UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION (UBE) PROGRAMME AND THE REALIZATION OF MDGs IN BAYELSA STATE

OF NIGERIA

By TUEMI T. ASUKA (Ph.D.) & FIBAINMINE G. PAULLEY

Abstract The UBE scheme launched in 1999 is reasoned to be one major means through which the United Nations MDGs could be achieved in Nigeria. The implementation of the UBE for the attainment of the set goals (in this context Education for All and Elimination of Gender Disparity among others) is the responsibility of the various state governments. Accordingly, Bayelsa State being one of the states in the country has proposed certain strategies with set target dates to actualize the noble goals for the development of the state. The task of the paper therefore is to ascertain how prepared the state is in the attainment of the above goals against the backdrop of what is on ground with particular reference to Education For All and elimination of gender disparity in the state. From the discussions it was discovered that the state is lagging behind on what is required for the attainment of the above goals. Based on this, a few suggestions are made for the way forward, among which were that school environments should be made conducive to attract learners; and also, to intensify mobilization and public enlightenment. Introduction The Universal Basic Education (UBE) scheme was launched in Nigeria by the former Nigerian President, Chief Olusegun Obasanjo, on the 30th of September 1999 in the city of Sokoto. It was reasoned by the Federal Government (ThisDay: June: 24, 2005: 7) to be one major means through which the United Nations eight points Millennium Development Goals (UNMDGs), particularly


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“Education For All” (EFA) could be achieved in the country between 2000-2015, since Nigeria is a signatory to these goals. The UBE through which the MDGs could be achieved according to FGN (2006:5) is to be implemented by the various state governments’ Universal Basic Education Boards (SUBEB) in the country in conformity with the provisions of the 1999 constitution and the relevant sections of the 2004 UBE Act. The Federal Government’s role in its implementation is that of ensuring quality control and maintenance of uniform standards as well as general co-ordination of the programme implementation. The problem before us, therefore, is how prepared is the Bayelsa State Government in the task of implementing the UBE programme for the realization of the MDGs in the state within the set target dates having fulfilled the first task of setting up its own State Universal Basic Education Board (SUBEB) in 2006. The paper starts by the identification of the MDGs, followed by the aims/goals of the UBE. An attempt is made to see the position of Bayelsa State in terms of educational development at its inception, what are its policy thrusts and targets in line with the on-going UBE for the realization of the MDGs in the state. Based on the analysis, a few suggestions shall be made aimed at re-positioning the state so that the MDGs might be achieved using the UBE reforms. The United Nations Millennium Development Goals (UNMDGs) The year 2000 marked a milestone for the development of the human community. This is so because, it was the year the United Nations set up a list of goals targeted between 2000 and 2020. These goals are known as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The goals according to UNICEF (2004) focus on a more “human rights based multi-sectoral approach towards development”. They include:



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i. Eradication of Extreme Poverty and Hunger:- Half between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than one US dollar a day and those who suffer from hunger.

ii. Achieve Universal Primary Education:- By ensuring that all boys and girls complete a full course of primary school by 2015.

iii. Promotion of Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women:- Elimination of gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005 and at all levels by 2015.

iv. Reduction of Child Mortality:- Reduce by two thirds the mortality rate among children under five.

v. Improve Maternal Health:- Reduce by three quarters the ratio of women dying in child birth.

vi. Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other Diseases:- Halt and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS and the incidence of malaria and other major diseases.

vii. Ensure Environmental Sustainability:- Integrate the principles of sustainable development into the country’s policies and programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resources. Reduce by half the proportion of people without access to safe-drinking water by 2015; achieve by 2020 a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers; and

viii. Develop a Global Partnership for Development: - Develop further an open trading and financial system that

include a commitment to good governance, development and poverty reduction nationally and internationally.

- Address the special needs of the least developed countries and land locked small island developing states such as free access for exports, enhanced debt relief etc.

- Deal comprehensively with the debt problem of developing countries.

Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme and the realization of MDGs in Bayelsa State of Nigeria ASUKA & PAULLEY


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- Develop and implement strategies for decent and productive work for youth.

- In co-operation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to affordable essential drugs in developing countries.

- In co-operation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies especially information and communication’s technologies.

One way of achieving these goals is through the development of the human skills which in the thinking of our leaders comes in the form of making basic education accessible to all, which in the Nigerian context came as a reform in the sector as Universal Basic Education. What then is the Universal Basic Education and how will it help in the realization of the MDGs in Bayelsa State? The Universal Basic Education: Its Meaning, Scope and Objectives The Implementation Guidelines for the UBE (FGN: 2000: 3) quoting the Jomtien Declaration and Frame work of Action on Education For All (EFA) Conference in Thailand 1990 states that:

Basic Education is not defined in terms of years of schooling. Neither is it limited to formal schooling. It (rather) sees education in its broader sense as of a close articulation of the formal, the non-formal and informal approaches to and mechanism for the awakening and all-round development of the human potentials. The broad aim is to lay the foundation for life-long learning through the inculcation of appropriate learning-to-learn, self awareness and citizenship and life-skills.

In keeping with the above definition of basic education, the Implementation Guidelines (FGN: 2000:3) states that, in the



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Nigerian context, the concept of Basic Education in its conclusive sense encompasses the following: i. Programmes and initiatives for early childhood care and

socialization. ii. Education programmes for the acquisition of functional

literacy, numeracy and life-skills especially for adults (persons aged 15 years and above).

iii. Special programmes for nomadic population (these include both the nomadic Fulanis and migrant fishermen).

iv. Out of school non-formal programmes for up-dating the knowledge and skills of persons who left school before acquiring the basics needed for life-long learning (drop out to drop in).

v. Non-formal skills and apprenticeship training for adolescents and youth who have not had the benefits of formal education; and

vi. The formal school system from the beginning of primary education to the end of the junior secondary school.

Aims/Objectives of the UBE in Nigeria From the above scope, the Implementation Guidelines (FRN: 2000:2) listed the following as the aims/objectives of the UBE: i. Reducing drastically the incidence of drop-out from the formal

school system (through improved relevance, quality and efficiency).

ii. Catering for the learning needs of young persons who for one reason or another have had to interrupt their schooling through appropriate forms of complementary approaches to the provision and promotion of basic education.

iii. Ensuring the acquisition of appropriate levels of literacy, numeracy, manipulative, communicative and life skills as well as the ethical, moral and civic values needed for laying a solid foundation for life-long learning; and



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iv. The provision of free universal basic education for every Nigerian child of school going age.

The synergy between the MDGs and the UBE as presented above is that the successful implementation of the UBE aims in the country by the states will definitely facilitate the realization of MDGs. Scope of the Study In spite of the relationship, the scope of this paper is limited to the implementation of the UBE in the realization of two MDGs in Bayelsa State. The two MDGs for analysis are: i. Achievement of Universal Primary Education:- that is by

ensuring that all boys and girls complete a full course of primary school by 2015; and

ii. Promotion of gender equality and empowerment of women; through the elimination of gender disparity in primary and secondary education preferably by 2005 and at all levels by 2015.

The choice of the above two MDGs is informed by the fact that the others can only be effectively accessed using the UBE with a review of the current curriculum. The new UBE curriculum worked out by the NERDC to meet such areas as Computer Education HIV/AIDS; Sexuality, Education, Arts and Craft, Industrial skills/ethos among others according to Tahir (2001:8) and Gabriel (2007:143) is yet to be released for the effective implementation of the UBE nine years after its launch in 1999. This also accounts for the delay in the publication of new books relevant to these areas in the UBE scheme. Bayelsa State and Education at Inception Bayelsa State was created on 1st of October 1996. At its creation, the state had only 9 pre primary schools (the Early Childhood Care Development Education- ECCDE of the current UBE), 278 primary schools with 47,078 pupils and 2832 teachers most of whom were holders of the Teachers Grade Two Certificate. This was far below



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the prescribed minimum standard by the National Policy on Education (FGN, 2004:39) for teaching in Nigerian schools. There were 98 post primary schools with an enrolment figure of 27, 203 and 730 teachers, one technical college with 84 students and 8 teachers, 4 crafts centers and 3 schools for migrant fishermen (BYSG: Undated: 21). There were no tertiary institutions. These educational institutions were considered far inadequate to meet the developmental needs of a state with a population of 1,121,693 people made up of 584, 117 (58.2%) males, and 537,576 (41.7%) females by the 1991 census. This figure, of course is believed to be an underestimation. Government in realization of the key role education plays in national development through the equipping of the individual with requisite skills had to address the problem head on at the inception of democratic rule on May 29th 1999. Accordingly, by 2004, the state had 536 primary schools with 474, 290 pupils, 148 post-primary schools with a total enrolment of 48,357 and 2480 teachers, one College of Arts and Science and the Niger Delta University with an initial students population of 4,645 made up of 3,030 males and 1,615 females. The reason for the establishment of the College of Arts and Science in Bayelsa State was the same reason for its establishment in other states of the federation. This according to Kosemani and Okorosaye-Orubite (2002:211–212) was to assist states designated as educationally disadvantaged of which Bayelsa state is one. The essence is to improve their secondary education base through a remedial education and to create an alternative but accelerated avenue for manpower development. The college operates two programmes namely remedial and pre-degree. The remedial section is geared towards the improvement of the school certificates of students. It thus focuses attention on the General Certificate of Education and the Senior School Certificate Examinations. The essence is to compensate for the weak secondary education base and



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thus enhance students chances of gaining admission into institutions of higher learning as envisaged in the 3rd Development Plan. The second tier is the pre-degree programme which prepares school certificate holders for direct entry into universities. Problems/Constraints of the Bayelsa State Education Sector In spite of the expansion in the educational facilities and increased enrolment, the Bayelsa State education sector is currently being beset with the following problems and constraints: i. Inadequate funding at all levels of education. ii. Inadequate and/dilapidated school buildings, classrooms,

workshops, laboratories, libraries, furniture and equipment at all levels of education.

iii. Inadequate teachers as well as lopsided distribution of the few available one due to refusal of serving teachers postage to rural terrain and the desire of most teachers to live and teach in Yenagoa the state capital and its environs. Accordingly, there is high student-teachers ratio and increased workload for teachers in the rural areas where most students reside.

iv. Inadequate facilities for adult and non-formal education for people who have exceeded the age limit for formal education but would like to enrich their lives by some forms of education. It is sad to observe here that this aspect of education, which is one sure way of providing education for all, is being catered for by private individuals even though there is a unit in the state Ministry of Education to handle it due to non funding.

v. Low staff/students morale due to lack of incentives and motivation leading to high labour turnover on the part of the staff to other areas, and school drop-out, high rate of failure and wastages on the part of the learners.

vi. poor delivery of the curriculum content by teachers who are mostly Teachers Grade II holders, as they are not abreast of the new trends in the sector due to lack of retraining.



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vii. High level of indiscipline among students and school administrators. This seems to manifest itself in the areas of alcoholism, examination malpractices due to poor reading culture among students probably prompted by the influence of home-videos. This could again be a possible reason for the raising incidence of cultism/gangsterism, pre-marital sex resulting in high rate of school drop-out due to early pregnancies among teenagers in the state. While the rate of drop-out is on the increase, there is no adequate provision for drop-in due to lack of improved relevance, quality and efficiency in the system. On the part of the teachers/administrators, there are cases of extortion, corruption and bribery.

viii. Perennial interferences of the economic activities of parents (e.g. fishing which is the business of entire family) into the progress of the school system. Accordingly, many children had to leave school to participate in such economic activities in the communities with parents or in the neighbourhood at certain seasons in the year. A new dimension has been added to the existing problem which is that youth militancy due to the activities of the multi-national companies in the state. This has led to the youth resorting to hostage taking as means of making quick money instead of going to school.

All these have impacted negatively on the achievement of the Universal Basic Education For All and the promotion of gender equality and empowerment of women at all levels by 2015 in the state. Bayelsa State Education Policy Thrust within the Context of the UBE and MDGs The educational policy thrust of the state government is to improve relevance and access to education and enhance its contribution to the individual and state development. The state (BYSG: Undated: 25-28)



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accordingly set specific goals and target dates for herself within the context of the UBE so as to achieve the MDGs in the state. Among the many specific goals and target dates the following are relevant to us for our analysis: 1. Increase the percentage of graduates of primary schools who

acquire functional literacy and numeracy by 80% by 2007. 2. Ensure that by 2015 every boy and girl will be able to

complete a full in primary school. This is to ensure the elimination of illiteracy in the state.

3. Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education by 2007 and at all levels of education by 2015.

4. Ensure that 80% of teachers, the major implementing agent in any educational programme, at all levels are professionals by 2007.

5. Ensure that 50% of such professional teachers at all level are trained in computer skills by 2007 (in 2007, the target date, the state had just began the training of a handful of civil servants in the ministries not teachers in schools in computer education).

6. Reduce by 30% the number of cases of examination malpractices in all educational institutions by 2007 (it is on the increase now).

Bayelsa State Proposed Implementation Strategies and their Assessment To achieve the above target dates, the state government proposed the following implementation strategies: i. The renovation of dilapidated schools buildings, classrooms,

workshops, laboratories and libraries as well as providing them with adequate infrastructural facilities to facilitate teaching and learning. In fact, it was specifically proposed by the state that 60% of all educational institutions at all levels in the state will be provided with a conducive teaching and learning environment in 2007.



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This was made in 2004. The essence is to make these places attractive to the potential learners so as to achieve the goal of ensuring that “all boys and girls complete a full course of primary school” thereby eradicating illiteracy in the state by 2015.

This is a mere wish as the reality on ground in the state in 2008 shows that most schools in the state capital of Yenagoa not to talk of schools outside the state capital have no roof and are equally lacking infrastructures for both teachers and students. The situation is so pathetic that teachers have to evolve a system of sitting in turns (shifting cultivation) in seating arrangements in schools due to scarcity of these enablers of the teaching and learning process. There is scarcity of chalk, notebooks to prepare lesson plans and chalkboards among other enablers of the teaching and learning environment. The situation is so bad in the rural areas as most schools have no school buildings fit for habitation for learning, not to talk of other enablers of the teaching and learning process. Most school children and their teachers are made to have classes under sheds of trees or make-shift structures. The implication of this on the MDGs “Education for All” by 2015 is that learners are not attracted to the learning environment due to their unconducive nature to both learners and teachers. Government intention through the Implementation Guidelines (FGN: 2000:10) that the planning process of the UBE will involve the mobilization of the local communities for the provision of some of these enablers is fast fading away. This is due to the initial position of government that “the UBE is going to be free”. This has, therefore, reduced the willingness of the local communities and individuals to partner with government. ii. To achieve the objective of ensuring that “by 2015 every boy

and girl in the state complete a full course in primary school”, the state proposed to mount state wide intensified sensitization



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and mobilization campaigns of all stakeholders in the education sector. These stakeholders include parents, local communities, private sector, NGOs and vocational organizations for active participation.

The practicability of this dream again is fast fading away as we roll gradually towards the magic year of 2015 which is just seven years away. Considering the level of commitment of the state political leadership in the sector over the past years, who ordinarily ought to show the way, one is tempted to say that, we should not expect any miracle between now (2008) and 2015. Accordingly, instead of the percentage of graduates of primary schools who acquire functional literacy and numeracy appreciating to 80% by 2007 as proposed by the state, it is rather decreasing as so many children who attended primary education dropped out half way and are either idling away in various towns, villages and fishing ports or being engaged in one form of economic activity or the other, instead of continuing with their educational pursuit. One reason for this downward enrolment in the state is due to the various illegal fees charged by teachers which are beyond the reach of the parents. For instance pupils/students in almost all government schools in the state capital are still made to pay such illegal fees as desk, examination, caution, development levy, admission fees just to mention but a few. This is not just limited to schools in the state capital as the trend is a common practice in the state. Luckily the sledge harmer of the government fell on the principals of two basic secondary schools who are currently facing disciplinary actions instituted against them by the Teachers Disciplinary Committee of the NUT. This is aside eight headmasters who were demoted in 2005 on account of the above unwholesome acts. The other reason is the inadequate public enlightenment campaign of the UBE scheme in the state by the government. Even among the few who are aware of its existence, their level of partnership with government in the state is lukewarm particularly among the individuals and the local communities. This is



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partly due to the initial impression that the scheme was going to be totally free and partly because they do not see any visible benefit such involvement will afford them as individuals in view of the high rate of unemployment in the country. iii That the state will eliminate gender disparity in both primary

and secondary by 2007 and at all levels by 2015 is far from being actualized.

This is so because even now (2008), the girl child education is relegated to the background by most parents in the rural areas. The general belief among most parents is that it is a waste of resources to train a girl as she will end up being a blessing to her husband. This again is being reinforced by premarital sex resulting in early pregnancies which again increases the rate of drop-outs in schools. The girl child is in most cases made to fend for the educational needs of her male counterparts by helping in the family trade/occupation to get money for his up-keep in school. Some times, they are given out in marriage to ensure the continuity of the boy child education. Accordingly, instead of eliminating the disparity, it is on the increase in the state. While this erroneous belief is being held by most uninformed people of the state, particularly at the rural areas, thereby preventing the state from achieving the goals MDGs of gender equality, the effort of the state government in addressing this problem is very minimal except the activities of NGOs in advocacy campaigns. Indeed the education of the girl child is one sure way of dealing with the root causes of the ravaging poverty and underdevelopment in the land which is one of the MDGs to be tackled. This is so because the educated girl according to Jekayinfa (2006: 118) ensures decrease mortality rate, enhances children’s probability of getting good education and most importantly becoming generators of wealth which increases the economic power base of the family.



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Accordingly, there should be a change of heart towards the girl child education in the state. This can only be effected through vigorous public enlightenment exercises in the state, with the government taking the lead. iv The state being aware of the vital role of the teacher in any

educative programme equally proposed that more trained teachers will be recruited and that the issue of retraining existing teachers will be given a priority. Again it was proposed that by 2007 about 50% of teachers at all levels will be trained in computer skills.

This again is a mere dream as the state is plagued with problem of acute shortage of professional teachers not to talk of retraining. In fact the Bayelsa State Government (BYSG, Undated:25) equally observed double loyalty of teachers as one major problem facing the teaching profession in the state. This means that most teachers are engaged in other jobs to the detriment of their teaching tasks. Not only are the teachers in short supply, most of them in the state primary school levels as at 2007 were not qualify to teach at that level since they are the holders of the Teachers Grade II Certificate which is far below the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004:39) minimum prescribed qualification of Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE). To solve the problem of acute shortage in the state, the Federal Government through its intervention scheme to salvage the UBE sought to recruit 4000 NCE teachers to service the UBE schools in the state. This was met with a shock as the state could not provide the needed number for recruitment. Accordingly, the number was sourced from outside the state. Teachers according to Mkpa (2002:108) are the heart and soul of any educational enterprise, including the UBE scheme. No educational scheme can succeed no



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matter how well it is planned without highly equipped, sophisticated, dedicated and professionally oriented teachers. In spite of the above strategic role teachers play, the implementation of the UBE in the state for the attainment of the MDGs’ Education for All and the Elimination of Gender Disparity is being hampered due to shortage of teachers. The shortage is as a result of many reasons including the contempt with which the teaching profession is being treated by the public, discouraging remuneration and poor working condition. As a result more people go for teaching as a last resort. For instance in the state House of Assembly there are more than eight professional graduate teachers as members who have never gone to the class one day to practice what they are professionally trained to do like their counterparts in the medical, engineering and accounting professions just to mention but a few. Such graduate teachers are even much more in the ministries due to the above reasons. Maybe, it was this in mind that made the state propose that it will pay rural posting allowance to motivate teachers accept rural posting since the problem is much more in the rural areas. Again the state equally promised to construct staff quarters for all teachers in all schools, construct low cost houses equipped with social amenities around educational institutions to ease the accommodation problems of teachers among others (BYSG: Undated: 27). The above strategies proposed in 2004 are yet to see the light of day, four years after. Accordingly, almost all schools on the state are operating on non residential basis thereby subjecting teachers to untold hardship. The effect of this on the effective delivery of lesson is that, such teachers will always be away from school with the excuse of sourcing for accommodation most especially in the urban centers. It is a known fact that no teacher can be effective if he/she is not properly taken care of. Due to the above problem, the proposed reduction to 30% of the number of cases of examination malpractices by the state government in 2004 (BYSG, Undated: 28) have not been



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implemented. Examination malpractices have rather increased in recent time. This is partly due to the low morale of teachers as explained above and partly as a result of the general poor attendance and reading culture among students. Accordingly, most students prefer staying away from school and engaging themselves in one form or other economic activities to make money with which they could bribe teachers and other examination official to pass examination. The effect of it all is that, students have excellent results without corresponding output. Another effect of this is the increase in the menace of cultism in the state school system, thereby making nonsense of the state proposed stand of reducing cultism by 80% in 2007. There are cases where students had flogged teachers for punishing their girlfriends or for not coming to school. Accordingly, teachers for the love of their lives and dependents have to retire to their shells as it were, abdicating their role in the discipline of students, including examination malpractices. The case of cultism is even made worst by the activities of politicians who instead of encouraging these children to go to school would prefer using them as thugs after buying them dangerous weapons to intimidate their opponents. v Above all, the state proposed increased funding to oil the

wheel of the implementing agent is yet to be appreciated as a state annual the budgetary allocation to the education sector is far below the prescribed UNESCO 26% of the state budget.

Dibie (2000:108) had observed that how much fund the education sector gets at any point in time in any state is a function of the political will of its leaders and the way it conceives education to be a priority. Bayelsa state education budget over the years had been



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within the range of 5 to 15% even though the state is rich due to its oil producing nature. Granted that the entire funding of the UBE as provided in the UBE Act 2004 (Part 111: Sec 1-3) cannot come from a single source, the seriousness being exhibited by the state in implementing the scheme through generous funding will motivate the much talked about counterpart fund to come. For now, except the contribution from the World Bank, the envisaged “contributions from the variety of sources” as proposed in the Implementation Guidelines/Act are yet to be appreciated visibly especially those from the local communities and individuals due to poor public enlightenment and mobilization of the people by the government. Obanya (2002:58) had warned that:

for the (state) government (the implementing agent) to even yet the willing support of the much talked about development partners (both internal and external) in the funding of the UBE, the government needs to reach out to all stakeholders, intensify consultations with all of them and above all, its ability to demonstrate commitment to the UBE in concrete terms by going beyond rhetoric to positive action.

He went further to advise that: (The state) government has to put its house in order if it is going to mobilize even the Nigeria’s internal resources (PTA, the Organized Private Sector, etc) for funding of the UBE (adding that) as long as the UBE programme is seen as a source of patronage for party faithfuls, as long as most of the concrete activities are in the form of supplies



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and as long as “ contractocracy” continues to take prominence over the promotion of the goals of Education for All EFA), non governmental financial resources will continue to elude the UBE programme.

The above in fairness to the state UBE programme is the case in Bayelsa. This is because the State UBE Board (SUBEB) which was established in 2005 following the passage of the State UBE Law is a means to massage the political nerves of political faithfuls by the politicians in the state. This being the case, what is the way forward so that the state in particular and the Nigerian state in general will achieve the MDGs of Education for All and Elimination of Gender Disparity by 2015? Way Forward

i. The school environment should be made conducive to attract the learner.

ii. There should be a intensified social mobilization and enlightenment of the public, particularly those in the rural areas to make them have a change of heart towards girl child education. This could done by pointing out the benefits of educating the girl child.

iii. Teachers’ welfare should be taken a little more serious. This should come in form of improved salary, provision of accommodation, better working environment and tools among others. These will motivate them to put in their best for the achievement of MDGs in the state. The rural posting allowance proposed should be implemented without further delay to encourage teachers accept rural posting.

iv. Funding of the entire education sector should be accorded priority as it is the key to prosperity of the nation’s development march. Through adequate funding, the



19


achievement of the other MDGs will naturally follow. Accordingly, the UNESCO prescribed 26% that has the blessing of Nigeria’s Vision 2010 and Estu Nupe Panel Report (Newswatch, September 13, 1999:24) should be implemented.

Conclusion Bayelsa State as an educationally less developed state cannot afford to play with issues bothering on education, for it is the only way out of underdevelopment. Luckly the MDGs have provided us with targets. For us to get there we need to take the on-going UBE scheme little more serious. It is only through that way that, we will be bold to invite historians to come and see by 2015 our genuine gains in the UBE investment. Otherwise, by 2015 when others according to Obanya (2002: 45) will be counting the gains of their genuine investments and commitments on Education For All (EFA), here in Bayelsa, historians will say there was once a UBE. References Bayelsa State Government (BYSG) (Undated), Bayelsa State

Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (BY-SEEDS) Yenagoa: Ministry of Budget and Economic Planning.

Dibie, E: (2000). Understanding Public Policy in Nigeria: A Twenty

First Century Approach Lagos: Mbeye & Associates MP Ltd. Federal Government of Nigeria (2000). The UBE Implementation

Guidelines. Abuja: Federal Ministry of Education. Federal Government of Nigeria (2004). Compulsory Free Universal

Basic Education Act. Lagos: Federal Government Press.



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Federal Government of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education: Lagos. NERDC Press.

Federal Government of Nigeria (2006). 40 Frequently Asked

Questions (FAQs) on Universal Basic Education (UBE) Programme. Abuja: Universal Basic Education Commission.

Gabriel, A. O. (2007) “Assessing the Universal Basic Education For

All Implementation in Nigeria, 1999-2005”. African Journal of Historical Sciences in Education. 3 (1) pp. 142 - 152

Jekayinfa, A. A. (2006). The Role of the United Nations Children’s

Fund (UNICEF) in Revatilizing Girls’ Education in Nigeria” African Journal of Historical Sciences in Education.. 2 (1) pp. 115 – 122.

Kosemani, J.M & Okorosaye-Orubite, A. K (2002). History of

Nigeria Education: A Contemporary Analysis. Port Harcourt: Uniport Press.

Mkpa, M. A (2002). “The Teacher Preparation for a Successful

Universal Basic Education (UBE) in Nigeria” in Searchlight on Secondary School Education in Nigeria: A Handbook of 21 Year Education Research Papers from ANCOPASS: Ado Ekiti; Bamabayer Co Publication Nigeria Limited

Newswatch September 13 1999 “1st 100 Days: Education/Health, So

Far, So Silent”. 30 (10) pp. 22 – 24. Obanya, PAI (2002). Revitalizing Education in Africa. Ibadan:

Stirling Horden Pub. Nigeria.



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Tahir, G. (2001). “Federal Government Intervention in Universal Basic Education” in UBE Forum: A Journal of Basic Education in Nigeria. 1 (1) pp. 1 – 12.

Thisday Newspaper. (June 24, 2005) “UBE Implementation

Problematic -FG”. Lagos: Leader & Company Ltd. No 3595. p. 7.

UNICEF (2004). Gender Parity Needs a Multi-Sectoral Approach”.

UNICEF State of the World Report: http: //www. The dailystar net/magazine/2003/1/03/human. html.



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APPLICATION OF QUALITY CIRCLE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES AND APPROACHES IN THE

ADMINISTRATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN RIVERS STATE

BY

DR U.J. NWOGU & DR S. N. MADUAGWU

Abstract This study was carried out to analyze the application of Quality Circle Management techniques and approaches in the administration of Secondary schools in Rivers State. A sample of 1500 teachers in private and public secondary schools participated as study participants. Three research hypotheses were postulated and tested. Data collected were analyzed using mean scores, standard deviations and the t-test while the results were compared at 0.05 level of significance. The findings revealed that: There is no significant difference in the approaches applied by male and female Quality Circle Management technique members in secondary schools in Rivers State. There is a significant difference in the techniques applied by private and public quality circle members. It was recommended that training on the application of Quality circle management technique should be made compulsory for all quality circle groups. Background Quality circle (QC) Management technique is a management technique employed to achieve quality, increase workers participation in decision making , increase workers’ motivation etc. Essentially, it refers to a small group of employees usually 5-12 who meet regularly to identify, analyze and solve work related problems.

After the problems have been identified, analyzed and solved, the solutions are recommended to the school management for


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implementation. This is why it is imperative that the management should be involved in the formation of Quality circle groups in any school. However, as a modernized form of participative management, it allows workers to have a say in the decision making of the school. This participation increases the commitment of the teachers because they believe that their contributions form part of the management’s decisions. The application of QC management in our present situation in Nigeria is being appreciated the more as a result of the gradual shift from traditional management to Total Quality Management (TQM). TQM is a comprehensive approach towards improving competitiveness, effectiveness and flexibility through planning , organizing and understanding each activity and also involving each individual employee at each level. Oakland and Porter (1999:269) contend that “one of the management teams employed by organizations implementing Total Quality Management is Quality Circle”. This assertion is true because Quality circle stands to bridge the gap between traditional management and Quality management by achieving the following: 1. Enabling the organization of tackle problems which are beyond

the capacity of a single administrator through pooling of expertise and resources.

2. Exposing problems to a greater diversity of knowledge, skills and experience.

3. Bringing satisfaction to the workers through their participation in problem-solving and decision making

4. Identification and solving of problems which cut across departmental or functional boundaries.

5. The recommendations of the team is seen as the group-will instead of an individual suggestion. In view of these established advantages, Chase (1983) reported that by 1983, over 4000 organization who recognized these advantages were involved in the application of and implementation of Quality Circles.



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Quality Circle Techniques Chase (1983) identified eight techniques applied by any quality circle management group in the course of its work. These techniques are: Brainstorming, voting to achieve group consensus, cause –and-effect analysis, data collection, decision analysis , generation of solution, presentation of solution to management and evaluation. These techniques are carried out systematically so that all avenues towards the identification and solution of the problem are exhausted. The essence of the brainstorming session is to generate several ideas with the hope that the greater the number of ideas, the greater the chances of a solution. Nwogu, (2005) states that the essence of brainstorming is to enable the quality circle participants to breakout off their normal conceptual limits to other possibilities which they could normally not have considered. Voting enables members to reach a consensus on a particular idea and hence bring out the democratic ideal which is inherent in every man.

Furthermore, these ideas are processed through a cause and –effect analysis. During this process data are manipulated to determine the true cause of a particular problem. Sharp and Smith (1999) posit that the process begins with a solution statement in which the enquirer explores possible ways of accomplishing the action at each stage by asking why?, using a convergent process to narrow the list of alternative before the next divergent step is taken. Based on these, data about the identified problem are collated, decisions are taken, solutions generated and presented to management for solution. Finally, the solution are evaluated and reviewed where applicable. Approaches applied in Problem –Solving by Quality Circle Groups. A problem could be defined as any question which is waiting for an answer. Mali (1981:797) says a problem is “a difficult question, uncertain of solution, which demands an answer”.

Application of Quality Circle management techniques and approaches in the Administration of secondary schools in Rivers State. NWOGU MADUAGWU


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Generally, problems in administration arise when unexpected result is forth-coming. Hauser (1981) therefore contends that problems are generally divided into two namely: (a) Formal problems (b) Informal problems Formal problems could be seen as those problems in which the group can restrict their thinking to a specific set of given information and courses of action and in which goals can be precisely stated. Non-formal problems are those problems which have no restrictions. Both formal and informal problems could be new or old. In dealing with old problems the Quality Circle group can make reference to literature for solution or consultation with experts. However, Hauser (1981) advised that where there is difficulty in locating the record of the previous problems , the Quality Circle group should treat it as a new one. New problems in a school organization can be influenced by a number of factors and some of them may become so difficult to solve except though a combination of people (team) such as in quality circle. As a consequence, Wickelgren (1974) as cited by Hauser (1981) proposed an eight-process approach to solving a problem at the disposal of the Quality circle group. These processes include: inference, Trial and Error, Hill Climbing, sub goals, contradiction, Working backwards, similarity, contrasts, and invention. Inference: This is the process whereby deductions are made from available information about a problem. The QC group may draw inference from the perceived deduction in order to arrive at a solution. But where the solutions are not in sight it should be abandoned. Trial and Error: The QC group may try this method especially where there is no straight forward solution. Hill Climbing: This is a new method of measuring improvement. As the school measures the improvements towards realization of school goals, successive steps are taken to make more improvements.



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Sub Goals: Here, the problems can be broken down into parts, for examples, the school problem can be grouped under Arts, Science, Vocational, etc thereby bringing the problem into specifics. Contradiction: Some problems may differ in solution. When their insolvability have been determined, they have been contradicted and hence alternative solutions are to be sought outside the problem statement . Working Backwards: This is applied to those problems which have tightly defined statement . It is a kind of flash back which usually results in an exclamation, Ah!. Similarity: This is applied when the group compares the information at hand with details of previously solved ones. The knowledge for the solution may come from information based on previous experience, information from the group who solved the problem previously or the information acquired from reading or hearing as reported by the observer. In view of the rigors involved in problem-solving , Wilson (1999) notes that team-based problem-solving as is relevant in Quality circle is a natural choice to many organizations. Team based problem-solving inherent in Quality Circle enables the teachers to achieve the three higher needs of Maslow’s (1954) motivation theory namely: belonginess and love, Esteem needs and self-actualization. When the teachers who are members of quality circle belong to these teams , love is shared. When their suggestions are accepted, they have a sense of self-worth and feel actualized because their input is part of management . Statement of the Problem The application of management techniques in secondary school administration is a pre-requisite for effective school administration. However, there appears to be an existing gap between theory and practice hence quality management has become a matter of great concern. Subsequently, many educational administrators have shown genuine interest in their desire to shift from traditional concept of



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management to a more modern and result –oriented method of management. Although, these administrators indicate that they are applying Total quality Management (TQM) techniques, it appears that they have failed to incorporate management teams such as Quality Circle (QC), a component of TQM. Furthermore, inspite of the advantages accruing from the application of quality circle, it is possible that the techniques and approaches utilized during the QC sessions may be misapplied or even not applied. These therefore call for a study to establish whether the techniques and approaches are actually being applied where necessary and applicable.

Purpose of the Study This study aimed at determining the application of quality circle management techniques and approaches to problem-solving in secondary schools in Rivers State Hypotheses Two null hypotheses were tested, namely: Ho1: There is no significant difference between the perception of private and public school teachers on the techniques applied by quality circle members in secondary schools in Rivers State Ho2: There is no significant difference between the perception of male and female secondary school teachers on the approaches applied by quality circle members in secondary schools in Rivers State

Method This study is a descriptive survey research. The population consisted of the 7000 teachers in the 394 public and private secondary schools in Rivers State. A sample of 1500 respondents were used as study participants. A self-designed questionnaire tagged Application of Quality Circle Management Techniques and Approaches



28


Questionnaire (AQCMTAQ) containing 14 items was used for data collection. The Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient method of reliability was applied. The reliability index was 0.74. The mean, standard deviation and the t-test were computed using the statistical package for social sciences and science students (SPSS) at 0.05 level of significance . Results Table 1: Private and Public school Respondents’ Perceptions on the Techniques Applied by Quality Circle Members in Secondary schools.

Variable N x SD DF Cal.t

Value Critical t-

value Decision

Private 760 28.29 2.51 1498 12.50 1.96 Ho Rejected Public 740 26.44 3.16

The result on table 1 shows that the calculated t-value of 12.50 is greater than the critical t.value of 1.96. The decision therefore is that the null hypothesis is rejected. The implication is that the technique applied by quality circle members differ.



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Table 2 Male and Female school respondents’ Perception on the approaches applied by Quality Circle members in Secondary Schools.

Variable N x

SD DF Cal.t Value Critical t-value

Decision

Private 940 20.75 .48 1498 .987 1.96 Ho upheld Public 560 20.70 .46

The result of table 2 above shows that the calculated t-value of 0.987 is lesser than the critical t-value of 1.96 at 0.05 significant level. Therefore, the null hypothesis is upheld implying that the approaches applied do not differ. Discussion The results obtained revealed that the private school respondents had a mean score of 29.29 and a standard deviation of s.51 while the public school respondents had a mean score of 26.44, and standard deviation of 3.16. The techniques tested were brainstorming, voting to achieve consensus, cause-an-effect analysis, data collection, decision analysis, presentation of solution to management and evaluation. Chase (1983), Lily (1993), and Sharp and Smith (1999), confirm that these techniques are employed in Quality Circle processes. Furthermore, a study carried out by Fountain (1993) reveal that Quality circle techniques were applied in the Nova University towards the solving of English and Mathematics problems. Volunteer Quality circle members used brainstorming to develop a list of goals for the centre, rank ordered those goals by priority on a decision grid, and drew cause-and-Effect diagrams to determine why those goals are not met. This study further established that quality circle members at First international academy Port Harcourt applied these techniques in solving the problem of students discipline.



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The approaches tested in this study included trial and error, hill climbing, breaking problems into parts, contradiction, flash back and comparing of information obtained. The obtained result indicated no significant difference with mean and standard deviations of 20.75 and .48 for male respondents and 20.70 and .46 for females respectively. Mali (1981) and Hauser (1981) also confirmed the use of these approached in solving problems. Conclusion The techniques applied by members of Quality circle differ in private and public secondary schools in Rivers state. The approaches applied by quality circle members in secondary schools do not differ. Many school administrators and teachers are not properly trained on the various techniques and approaches of Quality circle management techniques. Recommendation The following recommendations were made: 1. The management of both private and public secondary schools

should provide training for teachers on Quality circle management.

2. Government, through the ministry of Education should sponsor seminars and workshops on quality circle for both private and public secondary schools.

3. Further research is needed on the application of quality circle techniques and approaches.

4. The techniques applied by quality circle management technique groups in private and public secondary schools should be harmonized through training and workshops.



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References Chase, L, (1983). Quality Circle. Illinois: North West Educational

Cooperative. Hauser, R. I. (1981). “Problem Solving” In p Mali (Ed) (1981).

Management Handbook, Operating Guidelines- and Techniques. New York: John Willy & Sons

Fountain, R.L. (1993). Development of a study skills packet to improve grades in Ninth and Tenth Grade students Eric Digest, 8.

Lily, E.R. (1993). Quality Circle and Organizational change in Educational Administration Eric Digest, 9

Mali, P. (Ed). (1981). Management Handbook: Operating Guidelines and Techniques. New York: John Willy & Sons.

Nwogu, U.J. (2005). Application of Quality Circle Management Technique in the Administration of secondary schools in Rivers State. An unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Port Harcourt

Oakland, J.S. & Porter, L.J (1999). Total Quality Management Text with cases, Oxford: Martins Printers

Sharp, S. & Smith, P.K. (Eds) (1999). Tackling bullying in your school: A practical Handbook for Teachers. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.



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SHARING THE BURDEN FOR THE PROVISION OF BASIC EDUCATION IN NIGERIA:

THE HOUSEHOLD AND COMMUNITY JUXTAPOSITION. BY

ROBERT-OKAH .I Abstract This paper addresses the need for community and parental participation for improved delivery of the Universal Basic Education in Nigeria. It identifies some strong and positive points in sharing in the UBE project. It analyses the various means through which stakeholders like parents and communities can meaningfully co-operate with the government to bring about the successful implementation of UBE in Nigeria, citing examples of countries where it has worked. The paper demonstrates that while parents may serve as monitors, curriculum designers, para-professional aids and as prime educators, the community initiates and executives specific projects, provides logistic support and enabling environment and ensures safety and maintenance of infrastructure. The paper recommends introduction of strong and viable parent Teachers’ Associations, and adequate provision of infrastructure, equipment and other support services by communities as veritable ways parents and communities can share in the burden of Basic Education implementation in Nigeria. Introduction The National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS) as a reform agenda provides for the full involvement of the private sector and other development agencies in all aspects of social service delivery. The UBE Act (2004) also categorically emphasizes active partnerships and collaborations between all stakeholders for efficient Basic Education delivery. This places an obligation and mandates the UBEC (Universal Basic Education Commission) to develop both inter-sectoral linkages as


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well as collaborations with the private sector, Development Partners, Donor Agencies, Civil Societies, Non-Government Organizations and other stakeholders. The organized private sector and other stakeholders in social service delivery have constantly played vital roles in the socio-economic advancement of many third world countries and their interventions have always contributed immensely to the educational advancement of many African countries. Policy makers, educators and others involved in implementation of the Universal Basic Education (UBE) are seeking ways to utilize limited resources efficiently and effectively in order to identify and solve problems in the education sector and to provide quality ‘education for all’ children (which is “the responsibility of all”), according to the UBEC (2004) sub-slogan. These efforts have contributed in realizing the significance and benefits of combined participation of parents, community and government as an important strategy to improve educational access and quality. Highlighting the need for these collaborative efforts is not for lack of evidence that they existed before now. It is due to the fact that these efforts have not yielded the desired result in the face of the new challenges that confront Basic Education delivery in Nigeria. In March 1990, the World Conference on Education For All was held in Jomtein, Thailand, by over 2000 specialists from 150 countries (Shekarau, 2006). The Conference which was organized by the WorldBank, UNDP, UNICEF and UNESCO came out with a document titled “World Declaration in Education For All”. It was in this conference that “Basic Education For All” was advocated. King and Singh (1991) describe Basic Education as the activities of Primary and Junior Secondary School and Programmes of out-of-school levels both for children and adults. It covers 8 or 9 years of schooling. In Nigeria, it is planned to include three years of Junior Secondary School. The content extends beyond literacy. It embraces all kinds of basic knowledge and skills necessary for an individual to live a successful and contented life.



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UBE was initiated in reaction to the United Nations Millennium Goals to provide every child at least primary education by 2015. Basic Education needs to be priority as a catalyst for the growth and development of the country. Basic cognitive skills learned in primary schools are the ‘building blocks’ to success in other sectors and level of learning. Primary Education, according to Psacharapollous (1981) has been found to achieve returns up to 23% in developing countries, compared to 16% from secondary schooling and 13% from higher education. Quality Basic Education may bring greater economic benefit than expanded access to poor quality education. Economic and social returns to primary schooling according to Colclough (1985) are better than other investments in other levels of education. The introduction of UBE in Nigeria is therefore a welcome development. The achievement of educational goals depends on adequate financial support. Government realizes this, and therefore provides funds to all levels of institutions to meet their capital and recurrent expenditures. State governments fund secondary and tertiary institutions in their areas of jurisdiction. Presently, the Universal Basic Education Board (UBEB) is responsible for the management and funding of Basic Education at the State and Local Government levels. Despite the several efforts of the different governments in the federation to provide fund for education and or huge amount of money expended, educational institutions in Nigeria still lack funds to implement various programmes. It is obvious that inadequate financial resources will certainly have a limiting effect on the educational development policy of basic education. This fact has been acknowledged by Aderounmu and Ehiametalor (1985) who stated that inadequacy in financial resources will certainly have the effect of limiting the educational development policy of both the State and its local government. Schools do not exist in isolation. They are a part of a wider community within the neighbourhood and nationality. They are also part of a professional community of those schools which contribute

Sharing the Burden for the provision of Basic Education in Nigeria: The Household and Community Juxtaposition. OKAH


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students to them and of the Colleges and other institutions, which students may go. So, there is the need for schools to make relationship not only with parents, the Parent Teachers’ Association but also with employers and neighbourhood communities. Therefore, the needs of all the second clients such as parents, stakeholders, families, industries, private enterprises, governmental and non-governmental organizations must be considered by the school. In the opinion of Dean (1993), any school that does not succeed in carrying along all her clients with her, will dwindle in number and consequently in resources leading to failure. Many of our primary schools today are an eye-sore. To say that they are dilapidated is to say the least, an understatement. There could be a good number of reasons for this one of which could be lack of adequate and meaningful public participation in the educational process. Parents, the community, private enterprises and other stakeholders appear to have been antagonized and sidelined by our administrative policies, making them less an aid to education to mere criticism organs only. But a good number of researches (Hargreaves 1984; Austin & Reynolds, 1990) reveal that for a meaningful required change in education to occur and for education to be effective, particularly at the basic level (primary and junior secondary levels), the involvement of parents (households), communities, private enterprises and other outside support, whether this be consultative assistance or mere direct provision of advice and assistance, cannot be overemphasized. Parents Participation in Basic Education Researches have shown that the closer the parent (household) is to education of their children, the greater the impact on child development and educational achievement (Epsteur & Dauber 1988; Edwards & Jo Warm 1999). The co-operation of well meaning people in educational development cannot be underestimated. It has become imperative that community beneficiaries of UBE come together to provide sequential and



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cumulative education that will promote all sectors of the Nigerian economy in which basic education will lay a solid foundation. The roles and responsibilities of the individual in the blueprint is in effect the same as that of parents. It shall be to: (i) Provide and or mobilize infrastructural and material resources for successful implementation of the scheme. (ii) initiate, design and execute specific projects for the attainment of the objectives of the UBE scheme (iii) encourage and support increased enrolment, retention and completion by target groups in the programmes of the scheme. The role of parents in the successful implementation of UBE scheme is therefore by no means a child’s play. Parents’ participation in instructional and non-instructional areas of the school could lead to effective school climate. As pre-school educators, education of children for the first five years of their life is largely in the hands of parents. They have been instrumental in helping their children learn all things they can learn before they set foot in a school. In the case of mother tongue, this is no mean achievement given that the child has a spoken language achievement of precisely zero. It is important parents as educators utilize their skills in the development of reading in school in partnership with teachers in apprenticeship approach. Thus, the role of parents for the first five years should rather be augmented and amplified by the schools instead of been substituted or taken over. Co-operation between home and school is therefore essential. Parents as Para-professional Aids Here again, researches reveal that children could improve their performances when parents form part of the education team (Epstein & Dauber 1988, Fantimi 1980). Where parents are made to assist in classroom instruction, a lot of progress and improvements have been recorded. The practice of involving parents in the teaching of reading in developed countries has led to the improvement of reading skills among children. Students / pupils



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also develop better attitudes towards their works when their parents are involved with the school instructional programme. The study on the effects of parental involvement conducted in US and Canada concluded that parents’ involvement in instructionally related activities at home and/or in school benefits children (UNICEF, 1992). A World Bank Study (1997) which analysed primary education in India, discovered that families that were aware of importance of education contributed immensely to their children’s learning achievements, even in disadvantaged districts. It also showed that students from families that encouraged schooling by allocating time at home for study, encouraged reading and supported their children’s educational aspirations, scored significantly higher on tests of learning achievements. The families (households) who are involved in school activities not only have better understanding about education but also become more willing to cooperate with schools in attempts to improve children’s learning. Parents in addition, can help their children with homework, making sure that children are physically ready to study at school. From their extensive literature, Heneveld and Craig (1996) argued that the household is a determining factor in school effectiveness since they prepare children’s readiness to go to school and their cognitive development in ensuring their well-balanced nutrition and health. The issue here, however, is the fact that not all parents show interest in their children’s school work and unfortunately, not all teachers and schools themselves seek active parental involvement. Educators should always create avenues to involve willing and capable parents in classroom instruction. Where schools are perceived as authoritarian institutions, parents (households) and community members do not feel welcomed to participate in their children’s education. They may not be interested in school issues and may perceive education as the responsibility of core professionals. Most minority groups in developing countries develop this kind of negative attitudes towards education when they are not treated with



38


respect by teachers. This creates unfavourable educational environment to parents and teachers and therefore, contributes to low participatory, poor academic performance and high drop-out rates among students. Involving the household in school management is a way of demonstrating democracy through identifying and addressing inequities embedded in the institutions and society as a whole. It is equally a strategy that creates comfortable environment for parents’ participation in school activities. Moreover, parental involvement in education is considered a right or an outright democratic value in some countries. According to OECD Study (1997), in Denmark, England and Wales, parents have the right to be represented on the governing bodies of schools. In France, they have a right to representation on a wide range of policy-making bodies; the parents’ charter gives English and Welsh parents a number of rights including the right to censor information from the school; in Spain, the institution recognizes the rights of teachers, parents and students to participate in defining the scope and nature of the education service’ and some legislation in Ireland places parents at the centre of the education process, giving them a wide range of statutory rights in relation to education. Parents as Prime Educators Parents are Prime Educators in most cases until children attain the age of five. When children move to school, control changes hand. It becomes the responsibility of the particular school. Even at that, parents still have certain roles and responsibilities towards their children’s education. In developed countries like U.K and US, some parents still prefer to retain control and remain the prime educators of their children. They take up the responsibility to educate their children at home as provided by law thereby, encouraging the growth of a mutual aid and support group in U.K called “Education otherwise” set up in 1976 and “Growing Without Schooling” in the United States, set up in 1964 (UNICEF, 1997).



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This may not be possible in Nigeria for obvious reasons, but parents can still be involved in the education of their children through home-based education which provides child-care and education based on the socio-cultural conditions of the families and communities programmes. The implementation will involve the use of existing human, physical and material resources from the environment. Parents as Monitors For proper implementation of the UBE, parents should be given free hands to create governing boards for primary and secondary schools in which parents will dominate, thereby effectively monitoring the activities of the school and staff. Parental involvement in school governance is a means of making school more accountable to the society that funds them. This is the case in such places as England and Wales, Canada and United States. The notion of parental involvement for accountability derives from a more market-oriented concept in which school-family partnerships are viewed rather like business partnership, through which two parties receive mutual and complementary benefits that enable them to operate more effectively (OECD, 1997). The extensive examination of six case studies on the Philippines, Kenya, Bangledash, Pakistan, Columbia and Bolivia led Rugh and Bossert (1998) to the conclusion that teachers and other school staff will only be accountable to community clients when the community holds some power over them, when they come from the same village and societies, if their continued employment and salaries depend on community satisfaction, or sometimes, when community education committees exist to manage schools and members are empowered to exert their influence. Accountability could also develop through routine parents’ meetings and reporting systems of student progress. When parents contribute their time, labour, materials, land and funds, they tend to be more involved in school activities, including participating in meetings with teachers



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and monitoring teachers’ performance. Teachers and staff in turn, feel obliged to deliver better education for the students in order to respond to the needs of parents and communities. Participation can greatly develop accountability which contributes to improving education delivery. Therefore, the State Universal Basic Education Boards (SUBEB) should be expanded to include more grassroot parents. Caution should however be taken to make sure that a small minority of parents do not dominate and dictate their preferences to both school and other parents. Parents as Obstacles Some teachers perceive the roles of parents in school activities as very dangerous to school development. They feel that too much involvement may affect the progress of the school. Teachers see enlightened parents as ‘interferers’ or ‘meddlesome’. As a result, must parents are reluctant to attend to school matters because of the feelings that they are not actually wanted. Gaynor (1998) in her analysis of the complex relationship between teachers and parents in a study on teacher management with a focus on decentralization of education, argues that many parents in most countries would like to be more involved in selecting and monitoring teachers. Analysis of impacts of the El Salvador’s EDUCO project in which parents are responsible for school management and monitoring of teachers however, reveals that teachers feel threatened by parental involvement, believing that it will diminish public regard for their professional status. One reason why the role of parents is confusing according to Fullman (1991) is that parents’ involvement is not specifically defined nor linked to a particular outcome. Areas of parents’ involvement may include: (i) Parents’ involvement at school as volunteers and assistants. (ii) Parents’ involvement in learning activities at home as home tutors. (iii) Parents’ involvement in home/community school relations (iv) Parents’ involvement in governance as members of PTA, advisory committees. There are



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however, some teachers who feel that they can be effective only when there is parental assistance on learning activities at home. Parents as Curriculum Designers The UBE programme blueprint (2004) has suggested a school-based curriculum that will make schools less alien to parents and the community. As mentioned earlier, sometimes there is the feeling that parents, particularly those in the rural areas and who are illiterates or not well-educated, cannot make useful contributions to curriculum development. But Educators in some developing countries who tried to involve parents have found their involvement very rewarding (Kann, 1989). This has been experimented in Botswana and Tanzania where community members, teachers and students were actively involved in curriculum development activities. Current concerns of the villagers were integrated into the school curriculum which formed the basis of some lessons and projects that involved the students. Community Participation Inspite of the popularity of the concept of community participation, commonly acceptable definition is yet to be agreed upon. Today, development literature is replete with a variety of definitions and interpretations which are necessarily exclusive and contradictory. No matter the perspective from which this concept is viewed, it is generally agreed that at the core of the community participation debate is the idea that intended beneficiary population of a development programme and project should be involved in the decision-making process at every stage of the programme circle including the identification of problems, planning, implementation and evaluation. Participation approach to development presupposes that the beneficiary population should be masters of their own development in terms of identifying their own problems and providing solutions acceptable and feasible by them. Thus, the



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emphasis of community participation is on the people as actors rather than mere tools to be used by the ‘experts’. When we talk of the school and community relations, what easily comes to the minds of some educators is the Parents Teachers Association (PTA). But the education community refers to any and all elements of the society (neighbourhood, district, town and city) involved in the school for any purpose. The community could also be defined as a group of people who share social, economic and cultural interests. Its members recognize social obligations to each other, hold at least some common values and identify themselves with each other as “We”. This is the scope with which community is referred to in this paper. Education cannot be discussed or operated in a vacuum but in relation to the community and life of the people, hence our education needs to be constantly recast and progressly harmonized at all levels. In an extensive study, Maduewesi cited in Oyebamiji (2000) discovered that teaching and learning environment is differentiated on the basis of the community values, human and material resources. Learning outcome in his opinion reflected the same bias for the community. Horwich (1993) established that if empowerment is to occur, community participation should provide for early and on-going participation at all stages i.e. identification, planning, implementation and evaluation. Allowing for a wide range of local interests and incorporating the community education goals within the process are the basis of community participation. It is to this end that Summons (1994) sees community participation not only as the ability to control and manage resources in a sustainable way, but in a manner that meets their social, cultural and economic needs. Community participation is therefore an educative process, a way of preparing citizens for their own development. It helps to lay the foundation for self-directed and self-sustaining process of development. It needs not be over-emphasized that for empowerment of the people to occur, community participation for



43


effective Universal Basic Education delivery should take the following forms: (i) making provision for early and on-going participation at all stages, (ii) making allowance for the involvement of a wide range of local interests, and (iii) the incorporation of the community and parental input into successful implementation of the UBE process. In fact, the African Charter (ECA, 1990) believes that people’s participation is a fundamental right of the people. The school is a microcosm of the macro community since the input into the school in a sense are from the community. All members of the community are affected by what happens in the larger society and schools cannot be isolated from such influence. Parents and the general public expect the pupils of the school to develop certain attributes that are necessary for improvements of their lives and the society. Hence the need for community involvement in taking positive decisions, working towards implementing such decisions, monitoring and evaluating the success or otherwise of their input in promoting educational development at the community level for their benefit. The BluePrint on UBE (2004) recognizes the role and responsibilities of communities, both local and international to make the UBE programme a success. The roles and responsibilities are specifically to: (i) initiate and execute specific projects and activities within the framework of the scheme within their localities. (ii) provide logistic support and enabling environment for the execution of the scheme in their localities. (iii) provide relevant human and material resources for the successful implementation of the scheme. (iv) ensure safety and maintenance of the scheme’s infrastructure and UBE implementation resources and materials in their localities. (v) organize and ensure the support and effective participation of the entire community in the scheme. International communities are not left out of UBE. The roles and responsibilities of the International Community and Donor Agencies as stipulated in the UBE BluePrint (2004) are as follows:



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(i) collaborate with the Federal, State and Local Governments in the designing and execution of specific projects for the success of the scheme; (ii) assist in capacity building to enhance efficiency and effectiveness in the implementation of the scheme; (iii) provide advisory and consultancy services to Federal, State and Local Governments to facilitate the aforementioned objectives of the scheme; (iv) support and facilitate research, monitoring and evaluation of the UBE scheme. The major benefits that can accrue from adopting a participatory approach to the Universal Basic Education delivery according to Oyebamiyi (2000) include; (a) Acceptability: Community participation will ensure acceptability of UBE initiative by government. Where social acceptability is not achieved, UBE may not begin, participation level may be very low where it begins and services may not be adequately utilized; (b) Improved design: Community participation may lead to improvement in the design of UBE delivery since advantage will be taken of local technology and knowledge of climatological and topographical conditions at the early stage of primary education delivery; (c) Mobilization of resources: Participation will ensure resource mobilization. For instance, participants will be willing to pay user charges and provide labour in the process of implementation. Where land is needed to build additional classrooms or a new school is entirely needed, the community will not hesitate to release land for such purpose; (d) Equitable distribution of benefits: If the UBE is not co-opted by the powerful community members, it ensures that politically or economically weak groups may have access to UBE project services; (e) Sustainability: Community participation will help in sustaining the UBE delivery after the UBE project cycle. The moment the government’s hands are off from the UBE project, it will be left in the hands of the community. Oyebamiji (2000) advances the reasons for involving people in programmes that affect them as ethical, functional and administrative. Participation is relevant to the educational needs of



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the community because: (i) It plays a part in the definition of basic education needs; i.e., it helps to determine priorities, standard of service and allocation of materials; (ii) It enhances the generation of resources to meet basic educational needs; i.e. by being associated with decisions, people become more willing to provide labour, skills, financial resources of theirs individually and collectively; (iii) Participation helps to satisfy the psychological desires of people who are given the opportunity to take decisions that affect their lives. There are unlimited resources that can be made available for Universal Basic Education use. These resources need to be organized and utilized to facilitate UBE for community improvement. Due to economic down-turn in Nigeria, the use of community resources has become imperative. The locally available resources that are untapped can be of immense benefit to the schools, government, communities and individual beneficiaries. Examples of resources that can be used for effective UBE delivery according to Oyebamiji (2000) include (i) Human resources: Opinion leaders may be invited to supply information on local cultures. Other human resources include professionals, parents and retired teachers in the communities, women group and others who may be invited to serve as auxiliary personnel some as teachers aids or school aids. Old students and Philanthropic Organizations can also serve as volunteer workers for improved UBE delivery; (ii) Financial resources: Community participation can also be in form of financial support as grant-in-aid or donations for physical development of community primary schools. Well-to-do individuals, some donor agencies, the Board of Governors, Old students Association can contribute in cash or kind for successful UBE delivery. As Adelabu (1997) cited in Oyebamiji (2000) rightly observed, increased community funding can improve linkages between schools and the general public; (iii) Physical and Natural resources: For improved UBE delivery, the community must be seen as learning laboratories or industries. Assisting primary school pupils to use their immediate environment as facilities or aid will make learning easy. Some educational



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resources such as Mountains, Rivers, Valleys, Market places, Agricultural Farms, Water Works, Police Station, Health Centres, etc. can serve as resource centres that will facilitate pupils educational process. Conclusion The actualization of a lofty programme such as UBE is not an individual’s task. The need for participation of parents and community therefore, cannot be overemphasized. Government in realization of this had already appealed for the cooperation of all and sundry. In this article, the need for community and household participation for improved UBE delivery has been properly articulated. It has demonstrated that community and parental participation has a good number of advantages if properly planned and implemented. Recommendations The following recommendations are considered germane: 1) A parent centre, stocked with resources to help parents,

should be set up in each school. 2) Heads of schools should regularly tap from the vast parents’

pool, inviting them to talk to students or even teach a class. The business community can be contacted regularly.

3) In Nigeria, every school should operate a Parents Teachers Association (PTA). Such customized body of men and women out of enlightened self-interest contribute to successful running of school programmes.

4) Communities should be regularly requested to share infrastructure, equipment and supporting services for a successful UBE delivery.

5) Educational services like libraries and medical services can through judicious approach and request be provided and maintained by volunteers, Philanthropists, professional bodies and retirees.



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6) Regular workshops and seminars should be organized for headteachers, teachers with the participation of traditional rulers, church leaders and community leaders to intimate them with UBE programme and remind them of their statutory contributions to make the programme succeed.

References Aderounmu, W. O. & Ehiametalor, E. T. (1985). Administration of

Schools in Nigeria. Ibadan: Evans Brothers Limited. Colclough, C. (1985). Donor Agency Support for Primary

Education: Strategies Reconsidered. International Journal of Education Development. Vol. 5, No. 4. Pp. 16 –28.

Dean, J. (1993). Management in Secondary School. New York:

Routledge. E. C. A. (1990). African Charter for Popular Participation in

Development. Arusha. Fantimi, M. (1980). Community Participation: Alternative Patterns

and Their Consequences on Education Achievements. Paper Presented at American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). Implementation Guideline for

the Universal Basic Education. Abuja: Federal Ministry of Education.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). Implementation Guidelines for

the Universal Basic Education (UBE) Programme. Abuja: Federal Ministry of Education.



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Fullman, M. G. (1991). The New Meaning of Educational Change. London: Cassell Educational Limited.

Gaynor, C. (1998). Decentralization of Education. Teacher

Management. Washington D. C.: World Bank. Hargreaves, D. (1984). Improving Secondary School (Report of the

Committee on the Curriculum and Organization of Secondary Schools). London: ILEA.

Heneveld, W. & Craig, H. (1996). Schools Count: World Bank

Project Designs and the Equality of Primary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington D. C.: The World Bank.

Horwich, R. (1993). Ecotourism and Community Development: A

View From Belize. In K. Lindberge (ed). Hawkings Ecotourism: A Guide for Planners and Managers. USA: The Ecotourism Society Publications.

Kann, U. (1989). Who Defines What Quality Community

Involvement in the Quality of Basic Education. Paper Presented for Professional Consultative Meeting on Improving the Quality of Basic Education. London: Commonwealth Secretariat.

King, K. & Singh (1991). Improving the Quality of Basic

Education. Commissioned Paper for the Eleventh Conference of Commonwealth Education Ministers. London.

OECD (Organization For Economic Co-operation and Development)

(1997). Parents Partners in Schooling. Paris: OECD, Centre for Educational Research and Innovation.



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Oyebamiji, M. A. (2000). Community Participation for Improved Delivery of Primary Health Care Services (PHC) in Osun State, Nigeria (1990 – 1998). Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan.

Psacharopoulos, G. (1981). Rates of Returns to Investment in

Education Around the World” in Comparative Education Review. 16 (1) 32 – 48.

Rugh, A. & Bossert, H. (1998). Involving Communities:

Participation in the Delivery of Education Programmes. Submitted to Advancing Basic Education and Literacy Project. Washington D. C., Creative Association Int’l Inc.

Shekarau, I. (2006). Community Participation in Education in a

Dwindling Economy. A Paper delivered at the 4th African Convention of Principals Conferences held Between 14th – 18th August, International Conference Centre, Abuja.

Simmons, D. G. (1994). Community Participation in Tourism

Planning Tourism Management. 15 (2), 98 – 108. UNICEF (1992). Strategies to Provide Girl’s Education: Policies

and Programmes that Work. New York: UNICEF. World Bank (1997). Primary Education in India. Development in

Practice Series. Washington D. C.: World Bank.



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EFFECTIVE COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION- A MUST FOR THE SUCCESS OF THE UIVERSAL BASIC

EDUCATION PROGRAMME

BY

CHIKWE AGBAKWURU, Ph.D. & MRS R. EKECHUKWU

Abstract The community is a major stakeholder in education. As such, its contributions to the successful implementation of any educational programme cannot be over-emphasized. This paper drew pointers to eight specific contributions which communities are expected to make towards ensuring the successful implementation of the Universal Basic Education programme. Some of these contributions include mobilization provision of infrastructural facilities. The paper was rounded up with a section which highlighted the role of guidance and counselling in the accomplishment of the task of mass mobilization and other responsibilities identified for the communities. Introduction The school is a creation of the society. It is an institution which modern societies establish to carry out the responsibility of educating their citizens. This statement does not over rule the role of other institutions such as the home, the church/mosques, the peer group, the mass media, etc. in the education of the individual. However, in this paper, education is viewed in the formal context. Viewed in this formal sense, the role of the school cannot be over-emphasized. The establishment of schools by societies is based on their awareness of the enormous power of the school in the transmission of culture and the socialization of the individuals into the kind of human beings that the society desires. This fact informs the


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enormous amounts of resources which modern societies invest in schools. Nigeria is not left out in this practice of huge investment in education. In fact, successive federal annual budgets in Nigeria have continued to allocate to the education sub-sector one of the highest votes. In most states’ annual budgets also, the education sub-sector is placed on the priority list of the government. These huge investments in education have been used to expand the country’s educational facilities. The most recent of these efforts at expanding educational facilities in Nigeria is the launching of the Universal Basic Education (U.B.E) scheme by former President Olusegun Obasanjo on 30th September, 1999. This scheme is an educational innovation which is aimed at liberalizing education and raising the country’s literacy level which is as low as 65.70 percent (National Bureau of Statistics, 2006). The scheme covers the first nine years of formal education (six years of primary school and three years of junior secondary), adult education and nomadic education programmes. According to the Implementation BluePrint of this scheme, the objectives of the Universal Basic Education (U.B.E) scheme are to:- 1. Develop in the entire citizenry a strong consciousness for education and a strong commitment to its vigorous promotion. 2. Provide free, compulsory, Universal Basic Education for every Nigerian child of school-age. 3. Reduce drastically, drop-out rates from the formal school system through improved relevance and efficiency. 4. Cater for drop outs and out-of-school children/adolescents through various forms of complementary approaches to the provision and promotion of basic education. 5. Ensure the acquisition of the appropriate levels of literacy, numeracy, manipulative and life skills (as well as the ethical, moral and civic values) needed for laying the foundation for lifelong learning.



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The setting of these objectives are timely because reliable statistics (Federal Government of Nigeria and UNICEF, 1997-2001) shows that primary school completion rate in Nigeria is only 61 percent while about 16 percent of primary school-age children are not in school. Furthermore, UNICEF sponsored survey of 1996 as cited by Nwangwu (1999) shows that school drop-out rates in some states has reached an “epidemic” state. For instance, in Anambra state, the drop-out rate was 61 percent in 1994, 65 percent in 1995, and 71 percent in 1996. Enugu state closely followed with 66 percent in 1994, 65 percent in 1995, and 69 percent in 1996. According to the same source, the situation is not significantly different in Abia, Ebonyi, and Imo states where on the average 58 percent of boy’s drop-out of school each year. The Universal Basic Education (U.B.E) scheme was designed to redress these unhealthy situations in the nation’s educational system. However, the degree of success that it will achieve in this regard will greatly depend on how effectively all the stakeholders in the scheme play the roles expected of each of them. The community is a major stakeholder in education. This paper seeks to highlight the roles which communities are expected to play to ensure that the U.B.E. scheme succeeds. The discussions of these roles are considered as a wake-up call and necessary guide for effective community participation in the implementation of the U.B.E. scheme. This is especially important now that most political office holders in the country after sending their children/wards to expensive private schools exhibit high degree of indifference, and nonchalant attitude towards the effective functioning of pubic schools. Since the vast majority of Nigerians attend these public schools, it therefore becomes necessary to direct the attention of communities on some of the things they can do to ensure that the Universal Basic Education scheme does not fail like its predecessor-The Universal Primary Education Programme.

Effective Community Participation-A must for the success of the Universal Basic Education Programme AGBAKWURU & EKECHUKWU


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Roles of the community in the realization of the objectives of the U.B.E. Scheme As a major stakeholder in the education industry, the community can contribute significantly to the successful implementation of any educational programme. The Universal Basic Education scheme is no exception to this fact. The various communities in Nigeria can facilitate the realization of the objectives of this educational scheme by carrying out the following responsibilities tasks:- A. Awareness creation/mass mobilization:-The first objective of the Universal Basic Education scheme is to develop in the entire citizenry a strong consciousness for education and a strong commitment to its vigorous promotion. To realize this objective, every Nigerian citizen must be sufficiently enlightened on the benefits of education and the need for its vigorous pursuit. This is especially important in view of the prevalence of a number of debilitating socio-cultural and religious practices which do not encourage the consciousness and pursuit of education among many Nigerians.

The communities through their various agencies such as the churches/mosques, village meetings, town development unions, etc. can create awareness among their populace on the benefits of education and the need for all to avail themselves of the opportunity offered by the Universal Basic Education scheme to acquire it. The use of the village town crier to mobilize the people to go to school can be employed as experiences have shown that the method has proved very effective in mobilizing the people during the1999 registration of voters in Nigeria. It is also hoped that this system of mass mobilization will equally produce the same results when it is applied to arouse the interest of the people in educational pursuit. B. Provision of instructional materials: Timely provision of adequate and suitable instructional materials is pre-requisite to effective teaching and learning. This is so because instructional materials facilitate teaching and learning processes (Achunine,



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1997). Unfortunately, there is dearth of instructional materials inmost Nigerian schools. This assertion is buttressed by personal experiences which were gathered by one of the researchers and research (Federal Government of Nigeria and UNICEF, 1997-2001) which show that Nigerian schools lack even the most basic materials for teaching and learning. In fact, in some of these schools, pupils and teachers lack desks and tables/chairs. The effect of this on the pupils is that they seat on the bare floor and write. No wonder one can hardly read the handwriting of most of the pupils in our primary and secondary schools these days.

Besides this, the situation equally affects adversely their physical and mental health thus, making them ineffective learners. On the part of the teachers, lack of suitable instructional materials make their lessons dull, uninteresting, and theoretical. The effect of this is that pupils’ interests in learning are hardly aroused and sustained. Furthermore, the lack of tables and chairs for teachers makes it difficult, if not impossible for them to give pupils assignments and mark them. In addition, the prolonged hours of standing by the teachers lead to physical exhaustion which makes them ineffective in teaching the pupils. The communities can rise to this challenge by complementing government efforts in providing such facilities and instructional materials as tables, chairs, desks, charts, sports equipment, chalk, etc. to schools located in their areas. Such acts will go a long way in enhancing the realization of the objectives of the Universal Basic Education scheme. C. Provision/ maintenance of infrastructural facilities Perhaps, two main features of most Nigerian primary and secondary schools are the lack of adequate number of classrooms and the dilapidated nature of the few available ones. The result of these is that teaching/learning in these schools take place under tree shades. In this type of situation, teaching and learning only take place at the mercy of rainfall. In the words of Agbakwuru (2003a), in a situation like this, the greater part of the rainy season is spent



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without any meaningful teaching and learning in these schools. Again, the situation poses a great risk to the lives of teachers and pupils. The sad event of 2001 in a certain local government education authority in Nigeria where a loose block from a dilapidated school building fell on a child and crushed him to death on the spot is still fresh in memory. Communities can prevent this type of untimely death by providing schools in their areas with adequate and suitable number of classrooms/offices. The dilapidated buildings should be rehabilitated. Certainly, these measures will positively impact on the quality of teaching and learning in these schools. D. Safeguarding school property:-Schools do not exist in a vacuum. Rather, they operate in a complex social context. An important element in the social system is the community (Peretomode & Nakpodia, 1997). The Local community provides the school with the much needed ‘raw materials’ pupils and land. In some parts of the country particularly the South-East states where the spirit of community efforts is very high, most schools are not only built by the local communities, these communities also play very significant roles in providing the much needed facilities in these schools. A situation like this makes schools an integral part and property of their host communities.

This ownership of schools by local communities also demands concerted efforts by them in safeguarding the property of these schools. This call is very important now following the rising cases of burglary and vandalization of school property in the country. Local communities can accomplish this task by setting up vigilante groups to safeguard school property in their communities. They can also fence, build and install burglary proof on the doors and windows of school buildings in their areas. These measures will considerably reduce the vandalization and stealing of the few facilities in schools.



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E. Modification/abrogation of negative cultural practices:-

To ensure that all children of school age are in school and to reduce drop-out rate from the formal school system, communities must discourage unhealthy socio-cultural practices and value systems that encourage low school enrolment and high drop-out rates among children of school-age. Such factors include early marriage of girls, poor attitude of most families towards the education of the girl-child, confinement of women in purdah, and the belief that the position of a woman is in the home, etc. (Agbakwuru, 2003b). In addition to these, communities must also stop worshiping money and materialism. This is important because research (Agbakwuru, 1999) has shown that the worship of money and materialism in Nigeria and the craze for its acquisition force many Nigerian youths to drop out of school even when they have not acquired the appropriate level of literacy that will enable them to be useful to themselves and the society they belong to. F. Enforcement of compulsory school attendance by children:-

The Universal Basic Education scheme seeks to make attendance to basic education not only free but also compulsory for all children of school-age. If this objective must be realized, then the communities where the pupils come from must play very prominent role in the enforcement of compulsory school attendance by all children of school-age. The town and development unions, village meetings, etc. can do this by imposing appropriate sanctions on parents/guardians who prevent their children/wards from attending schools. Furthermore, they can also prohibit all forms of hawking and other forms of child labour by children of school-age during school hours. These measures will ensure that all children of school-age will be in school.



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G. Supply of resource personnel:- Communities can also enhance the successful

implementation of the Universal Basic Education scheme by supplying schools in their areas with resource persons who will teach the subjects that the schools lack specialist teachers. These resource persons can be easily found in many educated communities in Nigeria. However, where the needed resource persons are not available in the community, such community can source the need of its school in other communities and hire same for its school. H. Assisting in tidying up school compounds:-

A tidy school compound is essential in the promotion of physical and metal health- a core factor in effective learning. Unfortunately, most primary schools in Nigeria particularly those in the rural areas are often over- grown by weeds. These over- grown weeds hide snakes and other dangerous reptiles that endanger the lives of pupils and teachers. Regrettably, the present crops of pupils in the nation’s primary schools are too small and immature that they are incapable of cutting grasses and tidying their school compounds properly. Since both the schools and the pupils are owned by communities, it therefore becomes imperative for these communities to assist in cutting grasses and tidying up their school compounds. Youths in the communities can carry out this responsibility.

This suggestion seems to be the best alternative since the government is not living up to its responsibility of paying the salaries of its teaching staff regularly not to talk of recruiting other workers that will do this work. The role of guidance and counselling in the accomplishment of the above tasks Guidance and counseling can make significant contributions towards the successful accomplishment of the tasks identified for the community in this paper. The contributions of guidance and counselling should come in the following ways:-



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(1) Mass mobilization/enlightenment of the community for the support of schools and Universal Basic Education (U.B.E) scheme. (2) Counselling with Parents-Teachers-Association (P.T.A) and other relevant bodies in the community on the need as well as the various ways they can support the school. (3) Advising the administration and teachers on strategies for building healthy school-community relationship. This type of relationship will help schools to attract necessary support from the community.

References Achunine, R.N. (1997). Further issues in school administration. Owerri: M. Cajec Publishers. Agbakwuru, C. (1999). Attitude of Nigerian youths towards the pursuit of money and materialism: implications for counselling. The Counsellor. 17 (2), 17-12. Agbakwuru, C. (2003a). Obstacles to classroom effectiveness of

primary school teachers in Nigeria. Universal Basic Education (U.B.E) Journal 3 (1), 22-48.

Agbakwuru, C. (2003b). Gender disparity in access to education in Nigeria: Challenges to guidance counsellors and teachers. Education for today. 3 (1), 149-156. Federal Government of Nigeria and UNICEF (1997-2001). Master Plan of Operations Country programme of Cooperation Part 2.



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Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999). Implementation Blueprint for the U.B.E scheme. Abuja: Ministry of Education.

National Bureau of Statistics (2006). Nigeria in figures. Nwangwu, R. (1999). Boys drop-out. Proceedings of the education mini summit held on 29th November at Abuja, 90-93. Peretomede, V.F. & Nakpodia, E.D. (1997). Improving the school and community relations in primary schools. In C.E. Okonkwo; R.N. Achunine; & I.L. Anukam (Eds) Primary education in Nigeria: issues and administration. Owerri: International Universities Press.



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TEACHERS’ PERCEPTION OF VALUES THAT PROMOTE AND

HINDER ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

BY

IKENYIRI EMMANUEL. (PhD)

Abstract This study investigated the perception of teachers of values that promote and hinder academic achievement of secondary school students. The population of the study was 320 secondary school teachers in government-owned secondary schools in. Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni Local Government Area of Rivers State. From this a sample of 120 teachers was randomly selected from 12 of the schools. To collect data for the study, a Teachers' Perception of Values that Promote and Hinder Academic Achievement questionnaire (TPVPHAASQ) was developed and administered to the teachers pattern after the modified four-point Likert scale. Two research questions and four hypotheses were postulated for the study. From the response of the teachers, it was observed that regular attendance to school, punctuality, respect, hard work, self-control and cooperation were perceived values that promote academic achievement while lateness to school, truancy, laziness, cultism, and examination malpractice were perceived values that hinder academic achievement of students. Result of hypothesis 1indicates that there is no significant difference between male and female teachers of values that promote academic achievement. Result of hypothesis 2, shows that there is significant difference between urban and rural teachers on their perception of values that promote academic achievement. On the other hand, result of hypothesis 3 shows that there is a significant difference between male and female teachers in their perception of values that hinder


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academic achievement, whereas result of hypothesis 4 shows that there is no significant difference between urban and rural teachers in their perception of values that hinder academic achievement. Introduction Acquisition and practice of good values is very necessary for the academic and moral development of adolescents in secondary schools. Most of the behaviour problems of adolescents plaguing secondary schools today are hinged on the inability of the home and the school to inculcate good values to the children. Values are beliefs about what is right and wrong and what is important in life (lsiakpere, 2005), To Raths, Hermin and Simon (1966) and Rokech (1973), values are standards which guide one's behaviour towards the attainment of one's desired goals. Fetzer (2001) defines values as standards by which people judge what is important, worthwhile and good. On his own, Olowoirejuaro (2005: 12) states that "value is anything held to be worthwhile, desirable or good by an individual or a society. This may refer to possessions, achievements, personality and character traits and states of being happy or having peaceful mind". Essen (1977) believes that values are what an individual and group or community hold to be right, true, desirable and that such values normally affect behaviour, attitudes, choice and goals. To Denga (1983), values represent reason, belief, convinction or virtues that guide people's actions. More precisely, Akinpelu (1983:36) enumerates the following as values in Nigerian Society: "honesty, integrity, chastity, vivacity, modesty, tolerance, truthfulness, self-discipline and brotherliness. Others are honour, humility, patience, hardwork self-control and many more from the bag of virtues". Values as we have seen above differ from needs opinions, interests, beliefs, feelings and attitudes especially in that these unlike values do not always find their way into action (Okon, 1984). Today in our



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secondary schools, negative values such as examination malpractices, absenteeism, truancy, disobedience, cultism and laziness abound and hinder academic achievement of students. To address these issues, there should be value reorientation of the students. Therefore the teachers should inculcate good values to the students. This is based on the realization that values according to Olowonirejuaro (2005:14), are not innate but acquired or learned through experience and interaction with others. Values and education are two inseparable concepts. It is in view of this that Anameze (1998), states that to be educated is to developed and be propelled by certain values which would enable an individual function effectively in himself and his society. Specifically, Okobia (1988), pointed out that secondary education is about the most important foundation for further academic pursuits or professional development. "It does require that the school population should be properly oriented to the societal values and functionalities that would ensure the students' proper growth, adjustment and delight. orientation towards others, groups, family, and the wider community at large" (Olowonirejuaro, 2005: 12). The acquisition of positive values will enable the individual to determine how reasonable, right or wrong, true or appropriate, his actions, attitudes as well as relationship with others are positive values that promote academic achievement of students. The school should as a matter of necessity transmit worthwhile values to the students. This paper will therefore examine the perception of teachers of values that promote and hinder academic achievement of secondary school students. Purpose of the Study The main purpose of this study was find out the perception of teachers of values that promote and values that hinder academic achievement of students. Research Questions The following research questions were answered in this study:

Teachers’ Perception of values that Promote and Hinder Academic Achievement of Secondary School Students. EMMANUEL


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1. How do teachers perceive values that promote academic achievement of secondary school students?

2. How do teachers perceive values that hinder academic achievement of secondary school students?

Hypotheses The following hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance: 1. There is no significant difference between male and female

teachers' perception of values that promote academic achievement of secondary school students.

2. There is no significant difference between male and female teachers in their perception of values that hinder academic achievement of secondary school students.

3. There is no significant difference between urban and rural teachers in their perception of values that promote academic achievement of secondary school students.

4. There is no significant between urban and rural teachers in their perception of values that hinder academic achievement of secondary school students.

Population of the Study The population of this study consists of 320 secondary school teachers in 15 government-owned secondary schools in Ogba/Egbemai Ndoni Local Government Area of Rivers State. Sample A sample of 120 teachers, 10 each from 12 schools was randomly selected. The selection was made by the use of stratified random sampling technique taking into consideration variables such as sex (male and female) and location (urban and rural). Out of the 120 teachers, 72 were males while 48 were females. Also 86 were from urban while 34 were from rural schools.



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Instrumentation The instrument used to collect data for the study was ‘Teachers Perception of Values that Promote and Hinder Academic Achievement of Students Questionnaire’ (TPVPHAASQ) developed by the researcher. The instrument consists of three sections. Section A was designed to elicit personal information on sex and school location of teachers. Sections B and C contains 20 items. The items were structured on the modified 4-point Likert scale of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D), and Strongly Disagree (SD). Items 1 -12 in section B were designed to find out the perception of teachers of values that promote academic achievement of students while items 13 - 20 in section C were designed to find out the perception of teachers values that hinder academic achievement of students in secondary schools. Validity and Reliability of the Instrument To ascertain the validity of the instrument, the instrument was given to two lest and Measurement experts in Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku Rivers State who made corrections and suggestions on the instrument. The corrected ones were therefore used. For the reliability of the instrument, the test-retest method was used. The reliability co-efficient was 0.78. Data Analysis For the research questions simple percentage was used to state the number and percentage of responses to each item of the questionnaire. The t-test analysis method was used to analyze the hypotheses. Results and Discussion Research Question 1: How do teachers perceive values that promote academic achievement of student.



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Table 1a: Perception of 72 . Male Teachers of Values that Promote Academic Achievement of Secondary School Students

S/N Value Items SA % A % D % SD %

1 Punctuality to school leads to good academic achievement 65 90 7 10 - - - -

2 Regular attendance to school leads to success in school work 52 72 20 28 - - - -

3 Hardwork in school activities promotes academic achievement 54 75 14 20 4 5 - -

4 Cooperation with other students improves learning 48 67 19 27 5 6 - -

5 Obedience to school rules improves student's academic achievement 51 71 11 15 10 14 - -

6 Humility is a necessary factor in academic achievement 53 73 6 8 13 19 - -

7 Honesty is a good value, which promotes learning in school 59 82 6 8 7 10 - -

8 Love for one another assists students in academic goals 58 80 12 17 2 3 - -

9 Friendliness assists students in meeting academic goals 67 93 5 7 - - - -

10 Dignity of labour promotes academic achievements of student 52 72 12 12 8 11 - -

11 Tolerance brings respect to individual students and leads to Qood academic performance 60 83 9 13 3 4 - -

12 Devotion to class work leads to good academic achievement 66 92 6 80 - - - -

Table 1a shows that a very high percentage of the male teachers strongly agreed that the above values promote academic achievement of secondary school students.



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Table 1 b: Perception of 48 Female Teachers of Values that Promote Academic Achievement of Secondary School Students.

Table 1b shows that a very high percentage of the female teachers strongly agreed that the above values promote academic achievement of secondary school students.

S/N Value Items SA % A % D % SD %



3 Hardwork in school activities promotes academic achievement 44 92 3 6 - 2 - -

4 Cooperation with other students improves learning 46 96 2 4 - - - -


6 Humility is a necessary factor in academic achievement 43 90 5 10 - - - -

7 Honesty is a good value, which promotes learning in school 46 96 2 4 - - - -

8 Love for one another assists students in academic goals 40 83 6 13 2 4 - - 9 Friendliness assists students in meeting academic goals 40 83 5 12 3 6 - -


11 Tolerance brings respect to individual students and leads to good academic performance 40 83 8 17 - - - -




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Table 1c: Perception of 86 Urban Teachers of Values that Promote Academic Achievement of Secondary School Students S/N Value Items SA % A % D % SD %


2 Regular attendance to school leads to success in school work 75 87 7 8 4 5 - -

3 Hardwork in school activities promotes academic achievement 70 81 16 19 - - - -





8 Love for one another assists students in academic goals 72 83 10 12 4 5 - -

9 Friendliness assists students in meeting academic goals 78 91 8 9 - - - -


11 Tolerance brings respect to individual students and leads to good academic performance 75 87 8 9 3 4 - -


Table 1 c above indicates that a very high percentage of the urban teachers strongly agreed that the above values promote academic achievement of secondary school students.



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Table 1 d: Perception of Rural Teachers of Values that Promote Academic Achievement of Secondary School Stud

S/N Value Items SA % A· % D % SD %



3 Hardwork in school activities promotes academic achievement 23 68 10 29 1 3 - -





8 Love for one another assists students in academic goals 26 76 8 24 - - - -

9 Friendliness assists students in meeting academic goals 29 85 2 6 3 9 - -


11 Tolerance brings respect to individual students and leads to good academic performance

25 74 9 26 - - - -


Table 1d above indicates that very high percentage of rural teachers strongly agreed that the values indicated above promotes academic achievement of secondary school teachers. Research Question 2: How do teachers perceive values that hinder

academic achievement?



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Table 2a: Perception of Male Teachers of Values that Hinder

Academic Achievement of Table 2a above shows that a very high percentage of male teachers strongly agreed that above values hinder academic achievement of secondary school students.

Table 2b: Perception of Female Teachers of Values that Hinder Academic Achievement of Secondary School Teachers.

S/N Value Items SA % A % D % SD % 13 Truancy leads to poor academic achievement 70 97 2 3 - - - - 14 Absenteeism breeds poor academic performance 72 100 - - - - - - 15 Laziness in school work hinders academic

f 65 90 7 10 - - - -

16 Disobedience to school rules leads to poor performance in school

50 69 15 21 - - - -

17 Dishonesty contributes to poor performance i h l

45 63 21 29 6 8 - -

18 Examination malpractices are indications of poor academic achievement 65 90 7 10 - - - -

19 Cultism breeds poor academic achievement 72 100 - - - - - -

20 Protest and riots contributes to poor academic achievement 60 83 7 10 5 7 - -

S/N Value Items SA % A % D % SD % 13 Truancy leads to poor academic achievement. 33 97 1 3 - - - - 14 Absenteeism breeds poor academic performance. 32 94 2 6 - - - -

15 Laziness in school work hinders academic performance. 32 94 2 6 - - - -

16 Disobedience to school rules leads to poor performance in school. 19 56 11 32 4 12 - -

17 Dishonesty contributes to poor performance in School. 29 85 3 9 2 6 - -

18 Examination malpractices are indications of poor academic achievement. 30 88 4 12 - - - -

19 Cultism breeds Door academic achievement 30 88 4 12 - - - -

20 Protest and riots contribute to poor academic achievement. 24 70 4 12 6 18 - -



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Table 2b above shows that a very high percentage of the female teachers strongly agreed that above values hinders academic achievement of secondary school students.

Table 2c: Perception of Urban Teachers of Values that Hinder Academic Achievement of Secondary School Students.

S/N Value Items SA % A % D % SD % 13 Truancy leads to poor academic achievement 82 95 4 5 - - - - 14 Absenteeism breeds poor academic performance 86 100 - - - - - - 15 Laziness in school work hinders academic performance 81 94 5 6 - - - -

16 Disobedience to school rules leads to poor performance in school 73 85 8 9 5 6 - -

17 Dishonesty contributes to poor performance in school 56 65 24 28 6 7 - -


19 Cultism breeds poor academic achievement 83 97 3 3 - - - -

20 Protest and riots contributes to poor academic achievement 79 92 7 8 - - - -

Table 2c above shows that very high percentage of urban teachers strongly agreed that values above hinder academic achievement of secondary school students.

Table 2d: Perception of Rural Teachers of Values that Hinder Academic Achievement of Secondary School Students S/N Value Items SA % A % D % SD % 13 Truancy leads to poor academic achievement 33 97 1 3 - - - - 14 Absenteeism breeds poor academic performance 32 94 2 6 - - - - 15 Laziness in school work hinders academic performance 32 94 2 6 - - - -

16 Disobedience to school rules leads to poor performance in school. 19 56 11 32 4 12 - -

17 Dishonesty contributes to poor performance in school 29 85 3 9 2 6 - -


19 Cultism breeds poor academic achievement 30 88 4 12 - - - -

20 Protest and riots contributes to poor academic achievement. 24 70 4 12 6 18 - -



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Table 2d above shows that a very high percentage of rural teachers strongly agreed that the values listed above hinder academic achievement of secondary school students. Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference between male and female teachers' perception of values that promote academic achievement of secondary school students. Table 3: t-test analysis of the perception of male and female teachers of values that promote academic achievement of secondary school students.

Sex N 0 SD DF t-cal. t-crit. P

Male 72 12.10 3.72 118 0.58 1.960 0.05

Female 48 11.70 3.69

The result in table 3 shows that the calculated t-value is less than the critical t-value at 0.05 level of significant. The hypothesis is therefore upheld. hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference between urban and rural teachers perception of values that promote academic achievement of secondary school students. Table 4: t-test analysis of the perception of urban and rural teacher values that hinder academic achievement of secondary school students.

Location N 0 SD DF t-cal. t-crit. P

Urban 86 14.46 3.63 118 3.14 1.960 0.05 Rural 34 12.72 2.20



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The result in table 4 shows that the calculated t-value is higher than the critical t- value at 0.05 level of significance. The hypothesis is therefore rejected. Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference between male and female teachers’ perception of values that hinder academic achievement of students. Table 5: t-test analysis of perception of male and female teachers of values that hinder academic achievement of students.

Sex N 0 SD DF t-cal. t-crit. P

Male 72 10.32 3.82 118 5.17 1.960 0.05 Female 48 7.58 1.80

The result in table 5 shows that the calculated t-value is higher than the critical t-value of 0.05 level of significant. The hypothesis is therefore rejected. Hypothesis 4: There is no significant difference between urban and rural teachet.1' perception of values that hinder academic achievement of secondary school students. Table 6: t-test analysis of the perception of urban and rural teachers of values that hinder academic achievement of secondary school students.

Location N 0

SD DF t-cal. t.-crit. p

Urban 86 7.25 1.30 118 1.30 1.960 0.05 Rural 34 6.91 1.25



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The result in table 6 indicates that the calculated t-value is less than the critical t-value at 0.05 level of significance. The hypothesis is therefore accepted. Discussion of Findings This study sought to find out the perception of teachers of values that promote and A. values that hinder academic achievement of secondary school students. Two research questions were asked and four hypotheses were postulated. From research question 1, which Sought to find out the values that promote academic achievement, it was seen that a high number of the teachers male, female as well as those in urban and rural schools agreed that values such as punctuality to school, regular attendance, hard work at school, respect for teachers, tolerance among other are good values which promote academic achievement of students. This is in line with the views of Anameze (2002), which states that values of respect, friendship, inter-personal relationship, dignity of labour should be imbibed by students for the achievement of educational goals. Response of research question 2 also shows that a high number of teachers perceive lateness to school, laziness, truancy, absenteeism, examination malpractices and cultism as inimical to academic success of students. This corroborates the opinion of Nnachi (2003), which states that absenteeism disobedience and truancy can lead to examination failure and consequent withdrawal from school. Moreover; the findings of Arumal (2005), reveals that negative attitudes lead to poor academic achievement and expulsion from school. On the other hand, result of hypothesis 1 shows that there is no significant difference between male and female teachers’ perception of values that promote academic achievement of secondary school



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students. This does not come as a surprise since the issue of the role of values to academic success is a very cogent one. Teachers, both male and female, who are very knowledgeable should therefore have similar perception of values that promote and hinder academic achievement of students. This is in agreement with Olowonirejuaro (2005), which indicates that there is no gender difference in the perception of youths about values. In the second hypothesis, the result indicates that significant difference exist between urban and rural teachers on their perception of values that promote academic achievement of students. This was not expected by the researcher who thought that both urban and rural teacher would have same perception. However values differ from one environment to the other. It may be because urban teachers are more exposed to what happens daily in our society than rural teachers who may not have access to current issues on the consequence of negative values. The result of hypothesis 3 also shows that there is significant difference in the perception of male and female teachers of values that hinder academic achievement of secondary school students. This result indicates that male and female teachers perceive negative values differently especially as it concerns their effect on academic achievement. This result corroborates the findings of Okabiah (1988) which indicated a significant difference between male and female perception of values. However, the result of hypothesis 4 shows that there is no significant difference between urban and rural teachers in their perception of values that hinder academic achievement of secondary school students. This result disagrees with that of Olowonirejuaro (2005), which found that those in urban areas perceive negative values differently from those in rural areas. To the researcher, the result was expected since teachers in both urban and rural areas are supposed



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that are abreast with negative values that are tantamount to academic success. It is in agreement with this that Anameze (2002), calls for the teaching of values in schools. The teaching of values will go a long way in inculcating good values to students which will promote high academic achievement in schools. Conclusion Inculcation of good values is very significant in the academic achievement of secondary school students. Values such as honesty, respect, hardwork, regular attendance to school, cooperation, tolerance, honesty, humility and love for one another should be inculcated to the students. These values are not only necessary for academic success; they are also very significant for good moral upbringing of the students. On the other hand, negative values such as examination malpractices, disobedience, cultism, truancy, laziness and such vices should be abhorred by the students. The teachers must deal severely with such tendencies. More especially, teachers should show examples rather than percept in issue of values. References Akinpelu, J.A. (1983). Values in Nigeria society. In A.N. Otinti, &

E.O. Iheoma. {Eds.). New perspectives in moral education. Ibadan: Evans brothers (Nigeria publishers) Ltd.

Anameze, L.N. (1998). The place of values in educational thought. Umunze Journal of Education and Technology 1 (1 ), 26-35.

Anameze, L.N. (2002). Remedying value conflict in young Nigeria

students via value development education. In N.N Okoye (Ed). The Nigeria society for educational psychologists (NISEP), 1(1), 92-100.



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Arumala, A. O. (2005). Value re-orientation. A need among

adolescent secondary school students in Ughelli North Local Area of Delta State. The counsellor. Journal of Counselling Association of Nigeria (CASSON) 21, 1-11.

Denga, D.I. (1983). The school counsellor in a developing nation:

Problems and prospect. Jos: Savannah Publishers. Essen, J.A. (1977). Towards an indigenous philosophy for guidance

in Nigeria. Ibadan: Evans Publishers Ltd. Fetzer, S. (2001). Moral education. Chicago: World book encyclopedia.13; 799-800. Isiakpere, D.O. (2005). The values of Nigeria politician. A need for

re-orientation. In B.O. Ker (Ed.). Conference processing for the 28th annual conference of Counselling Association of Nigeria (CASSON),148 - 151.

Nnachi, R.O. (2003). Causes, Consequences and control of

behaviour problems among Nigeria children. In R.O. Nnachi & P.S.E. (eds). The behaviour problems of the Nigeria Child. A publication of Nigeria society for educational psychologists (NIPES). Awka: Erudition Publishers 36-46.

Okobia, O.O (1988). Students’ value conception and teachers’

perception of students' values: Implication for guidance and counselling in Nigeria schools. The counsellor. 8(1), 19 -28.

Okon, S.E. (1984). Guidance for the 6-3-3-4 system of education.

Zaria: Institute of Education, Ahmed Bello University.



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Olowonirejuaro, O.A. (2005). Nigerian youths’ perception of values: Implication of guidance and counselling in schools. The counsellor, 21;12 -19.

Raths, L., Hermin, M. & Simon, S. (1966). Values and teaching. Ohio: Charles E.

Mercill. Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values. New York: Free Press.



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GLOBALIZATION, LITERACY AND UNEMPLOYMENT IN THE 21ST CENTURY

BY AGABI, C.O. (Ph.D.) & ONYEIKE, V.C. (Ph.D.)

Abstract In the contemporary society, the type and measure of education a person receives has a direct effect on the type of employment he gets. Globalization and the rapid technological changes associated with it have resulted in the rapid expansion of educational curricular world-over. This curricular expansion also necessitates changes in pedagogical procedures and the acquisition of state-of-the-art instructional facilities. This paper examines the impact of globalization on literacy and employment in the present trend of world technological development. It concludes that graduate unemployment will rise in third world countries if the current global trend in computerization is not matched with relevant teacher training and facility support. It therefore recommends among others, regular retraining of all serving teachers starting from the primary school, and adequate equipment of primary and secondary schools with computers as part of their instructional facilities. Introduction Literacy, unemployment and population are unavoidable concepts in the treatment of economic issues in any country. Economic planners and administrators are at one time or the other engaged in developing solutions to problems of too many uneducated persons (illiterates) in the economy, or too many educated persons in the economy (graduate unemployment) or too many dependent people in the economy (over population) or too few people in the economy (under-population). The achievement of equilibrium between reality and economic requirement of the human society can best be described as an eternal mirage that seems so close and yet so far


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away. This situation is compounded by the current trend in globalization. The rapid technological growth associated with the 21st century makes a ‘Siamese twins’ of illiteracy and unemployment. Prior to the adoption of the United Nations’ policy of ‘education for all’, it was relatively easy to gain regular employment in virtually any sector of the economy. All that was required was the possession of relevant skills which may or may not include any formal education, although the chance of securing regular employment in the formal sector of any economy (whether developed or developing) gets slimmer with every additional year as new technologies evolve and previous ones become obsolete. This paper examines the impact of globalization on literacy and employment prospects in the present trend of world technological development. The Concept of Globalization Globalization as used in this paper refers to the high level of interconnectivity that now exists between the various parts of the world. It includes the alarming speed at which all kinds of information are passed from one part of the world to the other, and from one individual to another, irrespective of distance between people and places. The Concept of Literacy Literacy can be simply defined as the ability of a person to read and write (Fox, Manning, Murphy et al, 2000). Owolabi and Akinwumiju (1992), identify a literate person as that person who is able to read and write with understanding. Their definition includes those who acquire the skills through formal learning and those who acquire them through informal learning. Literacy is often used to mean the same as education. Hence the words ‘literate’ and ‘educated’ are often used interchangeably by many. If literacy simply means the ability to read, write and communicate effectively, then it cannot mean the same as education.



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This is because education involves total personality development in addition to reading, writing and communication skills. In any case, literacy can also refer to the systematic acquisition of communication skills as well as functional sociological, psychological and economic skills aimed at the development of the human person in his environment. This type of literacy, usually acquired through formal learning in a systematically organized setting, produces an individual who can be correctly referred to as ‘educated’. This type of literacy is referred to as functional literacy because it equips the individual with skills that will enable him or her to participate and contribute positively to the socio-economic development of his environment. Literacy Re-defined The definitions of literacy already given in this treatise still applies to human resource development in varying degrees. The global definition of literacy has however been expanded in this 21st century to include the ability to understand and use the computer in its various forms. So much so that a person who had been hitherto referred to as highly educated or ‘well read’ is rapidly being rendered illiterate by his or her inability to use the computer. The adjectival phrase, ‘well read’ has therefore been replaced in the 21st century by the phrase ‘computer literate’ in reference to the educated man. In like manner, personal typewriters in the studies/ libraries of the educated have been replaced by personal computers. The literate person in the 21st century is therefore that person who, in addition to formal education, is also able to effectively live a productive and functional life in any computer controlled environment. This definition clearly agrees with the opinion of Majasan (1997) that a literate person must be able to make some positive impact to the economic development of the society in which he or she finds himself/herself, having passed through disciplined and purposeful education.

Globalization, Literacy and Unemployment in the 21st century, AGABI & ONYEIKE


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Efforts at Functional Literacy It is in view of the benefits of education that nations both strong and weak have at various times in their respective development plans adopted mass literacy programmes as the means to national development. Education has been free for the citizens of Germany since 1763; in Great Britain since 1870 and at about the same time in America. Although Japan was a bit late in the scramble for formal education by developed countries, it became her official system of education in1872. By 1879 there were 26,000 public and private schools effectively managed, with about 2.5 million pupils in Japan. Education development in Japan was so rapid and effective that by 1938, she became the most literate nation with about 26,000 elementary schools with an enrolment of 12 million pupils. There are 22,000 secondary schools and special higher education schools with a total of about 3.5 million students (Browne, 1994). Though desirable of functional literacy, most third world countries have not been fortunate. This is partly due to political instability and mostly due to economic disability. Most third world countries that have adopted mass literacy programmes in recent times have done so more for political than economic reasons. As a result, such education programmes have met with serious developmental obstacles. India, like Nigeria is a heterogeneous country with diverse religious and language groups in addition to her caste system. India however enjoys a relatively stable political environment. Her educational development has been badly handicapped by a poor economy. As a result, her schools lacked proper infrastructural and learning facilities; teachers were not well trained and were poorly paid (Majasan, 1997). Faced with this situation, mass literacy programme could not be initiated until 1992 when the economic condition was considered comfortable enough for such programme. The District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) was initiated in 1992 with the aim of achieving Universal Elementary Education (UEE) and hence Universal literacy by the year 2000.



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In Tanzania, education was used as an instrument of national development geared toward the elimination of poverty, ignorance and disease. The creation of a literate environment was considered so important that article 28 of TANU Biannual Conference 1973 makes primary education and adult education, the responsibility of village heads and ward leaders. They were empowered to take legal actions against negligent parents (UNESCO, 1979). This is because like Nigeria, Tanzania’s political independence left her with very little by way of a functional labour force and a toddling economy. A self-reliant manpower was a major necessity if the civil service positions vacated by the colonial masters were to be effectively filled by Tanzanians. By 1974, the education of workers emphasized efficiency and self-reliance in industry. Education became a part of the work process. The UPE which began in 1977 in Tanzania, suffered set backs from inadequate facilities and the decentralization of the Tanzanian government. This made the provision of education the responsibility of the region. The citizens, eager for more education taxed themselves heavily to ensure the provision of school facilities (Konan-Daure 1979). In Ivory Coast, the situation was not different. In addition to inadequacy in the available number of teachers who were also not properly trained, the education provided prior to 1971 did not make room for the integration of the Ivorian youth into his socio-cultural environment. Drop-out rate was very high (about 30%) at the primary school level. The 1971-75 development plan was therefore geared towards the provision of functional literacy programmes needed for national development. In this plan, the Ivorian government specified that economic and social development should be sustained by a policy, which aimed at the promotion and training of human resources. A mass literacy programme involving the use of the television and other electronic media was adopted and is still being implemented up to this day. In Nigeria, as at 1922, there were about 3,500,000 Nigerian youths, of this number only 100,000 were in any kind of school. Mass literacy programme became a vital



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necessity five years to Nigeria’s political independence when it was realized that about 75% of the labour force had very little or no education and will not be suitable in filling the civil service positions that will be created by independence. The provision of education for the general citizenry became a major issue in the country starting from 1955 (at regional levels) through 1976 (at the national level) with the introduction of the UPE which was free and compulsory (Fafunwa, 1974; Taiwo, 1980). In all these cases, teachers were hurriedly put together to meet the estimated enrolment projection and teacher requirement. The result of this hasty planning and implementation was the production of individuals who had gone through school but did not acquire functional literacy, as their schooling was not directed at specific skills development. Today in Nigeria, free and compulsory education has been expanded in curricular content and duration to a 9-year programme which includes 6 years of primary education and 3 years of junior secondary education, known as ‘Universal Basic Education Programme’. This is to ensure that products of the basic levels of education in Nigeria will not only be employable, but can also create employment for themselves. The UBE has a definite statement on the compulsion of attendance by school-age children and also prescribes punishments for parents and guardians who negate the policy of compulsory attendance. Parents who deprive their children and wards the opportunity to acquire this basic education on grounds other than ill-health are liable to punishment which includes varying periods of imprisonment with or without options of fine, depending on the gravity of the offence (FRN, 2004). The Global Challenges of Education Countries in Africa, Asia and North America by the turn of the 21st century were still struggling to address issues of mass illiteracy, gender disparity in education and imbalance in educational opportunities between regions. Existing with these problems are issues of inflation, civil crises, corrupt leadership, economic



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mismanagement and unemployment. The developing state of the third world economy in general is such that most of these countries rely heavily on foreign aids to sustain developmental activities and sometimes to provide basic social support for their citizens. The desire to use education as a major tool of development by third world countries has resulted in the expansion of their educational curricular to include and emphasize skills in science and technology. In Nigeria, for instance, the objectives of primary education, provided in the 4th edition of the National Policy on Education in Nigeria include: 1. The laying of a sound basis for scientific and reflective

thinking. 2. Developing in the child the ability to adapt to his / her

changing environment. Primary school curriculum is also expanded to include computer education while junior secondary school curriculum is expanded to include computer education, integrated science and introductory technology (FRN, 2004). These modifications in the content of formal basic education in Nigeria were made in the desire to flow with global technological trend. The desire to be part of the global trend in technological advancement has however been challenged by many competing issues in national economic development.

The Major Challenges in Nigeria Inadequacy is an economic term which indicates material insufficiency as part of man’s existence which enables him to develop the skill of prudence in resource management. Poverty or the state of inadequacy arises as a result of the inability to apply the principle of prudence in the management of available resources. Nigeria and other countries in the same category understand that education especially in science and technology will bridge the gap between developed and developing countries. To achieve this, it is important to arrange priorities of educational development in the



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proper order. The lower the placement of teaching manpower development on the priority list of any new education project, the less likely it is for that education project to achieve its goal. Ideally, teacher development should precede massive instructional resource acquisition for any new project in education, the constant neglect of this ideal in the planning and implementation of education programmes especially at the basic level is responsible for the following situations in Nigeria: a) Wastage of hi-tech instructional equipment for junior and

senior secondary education reported by Osokoya (1987), and Aiyepeku (1989).

b) The inability of teachers to teach science and technology in public primary and secondary schools as reported by Agabi (2006).

c) Low supply of teachers in core subjects. d) High level of computer illiteracy among teachers at the basic

education level. This has serious adverse effect on the teaching of computer appreciation at this level of education.

e) The production of graduates who lose opportunities for corporate and international appointments on account of computer illiteracy.

Although, inadequate funding has been identified by many researchers in education as one of the impediments in the development of education, it is important to state here that poor organization of priorities in addition to inadequate funding spell doom for any developmental project. Proper arrangement of priorities, given the same level of funding could result in visible and remarkable progress. Education and Employment Opportunity Unemployment is the inability of available manpower to secure a paid job. A person is described as unemployed if such person has attained the statutory age of labour, is not in school and has consciously but unsuccessfully offered himself/ herself for paid



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employment in a position for which he / she is deemed to be qualified. Causes of unemployment may include irrelevant education and training, very high wage expectations, wrong career choice in a field that is not available in the economy; and most recently, computer illiteracy in the current wave of computerization of virtually all the facilities in most corporate establishments. The possession of computer skills enhances the employment prospects of job seekers, while the lack of it reduces the chance of being employed in such establishments irrespective of the level of education. Unemployment is not a problem that is commonly associated with the products of primary education. But in the long run, it becomes a problem if the provision of education at the primary level does not match the economic realities of the world in which the learner is developing. Unemployment becomes inevitable when relevant curriculum is implemented with poor facility support and dearth of appropriately trained teachers. Benefits of Globalization in Education The inability of most third world countries to meet the rapid trend of technological advancement that has engulfed the world in this 21st century makes it seem as if the term ‘globalization’ spells doom and disaster for growing nations. On the contrary, globalization has brought much benefit, especially in the field of education, through advanced information communication technologies. Some of these benefits include: a) Easy transmission of knowledge across countries and across

cities. Through the internet, learners can be exposed to educational games and activities in other countries which are also relevant to their own levels of learning. Intellectual development is thus enhanced.

b) Research made easy: Students no longer need to spend long hours and days in the library going through books and journals



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when one day at a cyber café could give them all the information they need. Teachers can also take advantage of international information explosion to update their professional skills.

c) Time effectiveness in Education: Information dissemination can reach a wide range of audience in a very short space of time. This is an added advantage in office management, school records keeping and correspondence education.

d) Convenience: The computerization of education makes it possible for any one to acquire any type of education from the internet. Unfortunately, this generalization of audience in information dissemination is one of the criticisms against the use of the internet as a medium of information transmission. In this situation, it is the role of teachers to guide learners especially at the primary levels with regards to what information to look for and how to go about it.

Conclusion and Recommendations Globalization has had tremendous effect on the trend of development in science and technology all over the world. Some third world countries in Africa, Asia and North America have not experienced rapid global trend in science and technology due to high inflationary rates and competing national development projects. In conclusion, graduate unemployment may persist in third world countries like Nigeria if the current global trend in computerization is not matched with relevant teacher training and facility suppo rt as major priorities in the achievement of the contemporary goals of education. The following recommendations are therefore considered very important in the achievement of these goals: a) Development priorities in education should be organized in

such way that teacher training precedes massive acquisition and distribution of hi-tech instructional facilities to schools. This ensures that professionally trained teachers are on ground



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to use these facilities when they eventually arrive in schools. In the long run, the many mistakes of past education development activities would have been averted.

b) All serving primary and secondary school teachers should be mandated by policy to acquire computer training as part of their professional development programme.

c) The establishment of computer laboratories in all primary and secondary schools should be considered. This will provide good foundation in the teaching of information technology.

d) Regular workshops and seminars should be organized for serving school teachers, to constantly equip them with efficient and effective pedagogical trends in the contemporary world. This ensures that graduates from a lower level of education are fully prepared for educational activities at subsequent education levels.

References Agabi, C.O. (2006). “Equity and Quality Control in the Nigerian

Public School System. Journal of Education in Developing Areas.15, 153-162.

Aiyepeku, T.F. (1989). 6334 System of Education in Nigeria. Ibadan: NPS Educational Publishers Ltd.

Brown, I. (1994). “Contemporary Japanese Education” “Education Today. 44, (1).

Fafunwa, B.A. (1974). History of Education in Nigeria. London: Allen and Unwin.

Federal Ministry of Education (1998). UBE Blue Print. Lagos: Federal Government Press.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004).Official Gazette No. 66, Vol. 91, 4th August. Lagos: Federal Government Press.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC Press.



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Konan-Daure, A. N. (1979). “Educational Reform and Technological Innovation: Ivory Coast Experiment”. Educational Reforms: Experience and Prospects. Belgium: UNESCO.

Fox, C.; Manning, E.; Murphy, M.; Urbom, R.; Marwick, K.C. and O’shea, S. (eds.) (2000). Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. England: Pearson Education Limited.

Majasan, J.A. (1997). Providing Quality Education in Nigeria Schools. Ibadan: Spectrum Books.

Owolabi, J. & Akinwumiju, A. (1992). Introduction to Educational Planning. Ibadan: University of Ibadan.

Osokoya, I.O. (1987). 6334 Education in Nigeria. History, Strategies, Issues and Problems. Lagos: Bisinaike Edu’l Publishers and Printers.

Onuigbo, A.U. (2005). “The Myths and Realities of Globalization and Deregulation of the Education Sector in Nigeria” In A.O. Enoh (Ed). Deregulation of Education in Nigeria: Philosophical Perspective. Annual Book of Readings, Philosophy of Education Association of Nigeria. Pp.136-143.

Taiwo, C.O. (1980). The Nigerian Education System-Past, Present and Future. Lagos: Nelson Pitman Ltd.



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GENDER FACTORS AS CONSTRAINTS TO WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION IN GOVERNANCE: IMPLICATIONS FOR

COUNSELLING BY

DR (MRS) BETTY-RUTH NGOZI IRULOH &

MRS IJEOMA REGINA ERNEST-EHIBUDU

Abstract This paper is a theoretical effort to establish the fact that women would have participated fully and more effectively in governance but for prevailing constraints. It explores the various areas of powerlessness which have caused their predicament viz: Economic, Social, Psychological, Political and Cultural powerlessness. The paper achieves its purpose by examining the origin of women’s problems and the stages women have gone through in the struggle to participate fully in governance. It equally argues that the numerical strength of women is not actually the crux of the issue, let alone the fact that women are their own greatest enemies. Rather, the paper suggests that the Economic, Social, Psychological, Political and Cultural empowerment should be done to upgrade the political standing of the womenfolk for effective participation in governance. The counselling implications have equally been highlighted to enlighten women on how to gain vantage positioning in governance such as learning process being oriented towards participation, counselling based intervention focusing on problematic areas, counselling that .will assist women break the yoke of social powerlessness etc. Background There is an ongoing argument nationwide that the level of women’s participation in governance is influenced by their numerical strength. This argument has lingered through the ages because of the general understanding that women are few in number; coupled with the


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belief that democracy is a game of numbers. Indeed, democracy is a game of number, going by its definition but the big question is; are Nigerian women really few in numbers compared to their male counterparts. National census (2006) attests that women account for more than half of the nation’s population. Yet, they are victims of serious political powerlessness, which begets other forms of deprivation. Enene (2006) observes that the representation of women in government and other leadership positions in the private sector is very insignificant in terms of influence.

According to Azeez (2007), Governance is the legitimate exercise of authority, control, management and power by those of public duties on behalf of others in all spheres of life, be it economics, politics or others. The term governance has become a fashionable subject in modern times. He further defined governance as a social contract between government and citizens whereby the former provides to the later democracy dividends which include not only the material goods but also a sense of belonging, respect for cultural identity and national citizenship. Governance enhances meaningful interaction between the state and the civil society (Azeez, 2004). The participation of women in politics is as old as history, yet studies have proved that the women of the past irrespective of their handicaps made tremendous political achievements, which those of our generation have so far failed to rival. Highlighting the level of gender insensitivity in politics, Acholonu (2003) listed the gender positions in Nigerian politics during the 4th republic as follows;

Position Men Women Percentage for women

LGA chairpersons 765 09 Approx 1.2%

Councillors 8,667 143 Approx 1.6%

State Assemblies 978 12 Approx 1.3%

Governors 36 0 Approx 0%

House of Reps 348 12 Approx 3.3%



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Senators 106 03 Approx 2.8

Presidency 1 0 Approx 0%

Source: Gender Rights Initiative, 2003

Acholonu puts it succinctly that the gender factor in Nigerian politics gives a dismal picture of women wallowing in the abyss of a political limbo that perpetuates their powerlessness. She categorically states that it is unfortunate that as Nwaorgu (1998) and others have pointedly observed that despite the appreciably high educational level attained in Nigeria, coupled with the near parity of the population of men and women and also considering the more than 50 years of the UN’s gender empowerment programme which has triggered off many national programmes and policies to enlighten the world, gender inequality in Nigerian politics has persisted. The issue at stake is not that women are few in number, neither is it that women are absent in the political terrain, rather the problem is that despite the redoubled energy and relentless zeal in mobilizing women over the past decades, women in reality still find themselves on the fringes of the political affairs of the nation.

Defining the gender factor, Acholonu (2001) pointed out that men and women differ in two distinct ways; in terms of their sex or biological make-up and in terms of their gender or socio-cultural identities. She specifically defined gender as a socio-cultural construct which conditions people’s general views and conceptions of a woman’s or man’s place, status, role and value in a given society. According to her, the nature and significance of gender is made clearer on the realization that while the male (the assumed stronger sex) is accorded a superior status, role, privileges and opportunities to develop his innate potential and capabilities, the female on the other hand is subjected to a subordinate status that is inferior to that of the male.

Acholonu (2003) emphasized that the tragedy of the political powerlessness of the Nigerian women, lies essentially in the fact that

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despite their numerical strength, the women have continued to make very insignificant progress in politics, which is to say that they are yet to put to good use their numerical strength and their latent socio-cultural force as builders of home and custodians of future generations. Analysing the trend, Mba (1992) blames women’s backwardness in leadership and management attainment on the issue of sex segregation. She observes that in the pre-colonial era, women assumed sub-ordinate positions that were complimentary to men’s position in government. One cannot but wonder how many more decades it may take to produce the first female President, Governor or Senate president, when it was only by chance that the Anambra State government recorded the first female acting Governor, who attained the position as a result of crises. Enene (2006) laments that the case of the Nigerian women today is very pathetic seeing that the ratio of the total number of female Ambassadors to that of male Ambassadors, who have represented Nigeria’s interest abroad/oversees would approach a misery of 1:70 (Oruwari, 1996). Enene’s disappointment is further felt when she notes that the highest electable office to which a women has the opportunity to contest for, in the whole of Nigeria’s political history, is that of the vice presidency.

Genesis of the problem There is no doubt that women in the past decades suffered

undue discrimination, marginalization and exploitation from men. That men think that women are irrational, full of emotions which make them to be limited intellectually and very poor in analytical endowment is a global propaganda. Dele (1992) admits that this ugly generalization about women has resulted to women being denied the necessary assistance and encouragement to fully develop their strengths and potentials for higher national assignments since they are considered less capable of withstanding challenges that some offices demand. In agreement, Otoja (1975) sees this notion as a general view since all men regardless of race or origin reason in the

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same manner and are likely to form the same opinion. The genesis of women’s problems is closely linked with age long adage that women ought to be seen and not heard. Such slogans emanate from men who delight in ensuring that a woman’s place remains in the kitchen. Closely linked to the slogan is the understanding that it is a taboo for a woman to sit in the midst of men. All these inuendos bother on segregation/discrimination. While the debate lingers on where to place the women Herzer (2004) sees women’s participation in issues of governance as critically important in order to obtain better outcomes for development, peace and security. There is the urgent need for the leadership participation of women in governance if the world is to meet the challenges of the 21st century. She maintains that the issues affecting women are not only womens’ issues but issues they have profound implication for all of humanity, yet everywhere women continue to be under-represented.

According to Iruloh (2001), the constraints to the effectiveness of realising the dreams of the present day women and how to combat them are some of the instances that seem to give rise to the prevailing problem. This is crucial as there cannot be true economic and social transformation in any society without the active participation or involvement of women who constitute approximately half the population of mankind.

There are problems that inhibit the active participation of women in governance just as there may equally be prospects. From independence till date, men have dominated the seat of governance. Worthy of mention here is the fact that women may have been given rights and opportunities in theory to participate in the democratization process, permit the writers to say that unless certain constraints are removed, the legislative guarantees will be more honoured in words than in practice. Women participation in governance may present the look of a friction presently, but does the present look deprive it from being a



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fact in the future? The constraints to the effectiveness of realizing women’s power to participate in governance and actively too, is what this paper bothers on.

Problems as Constraints Several problems have posed as constraints to women’s participation in governance. These include; social powerlessness, psychological powerlessness, political powerlessness, cultural powerlessness and economic powerlessness.

Economic Powerlessness Most women in Nigeria are at the lowest economic level, hence they have little prestige. According to Ogundipe (2003) women in general lack power, prestige and property. This is because their male counterparts are culturally given the superiority which entitles them to a greater share of the resources. The sad reality of this impoverished state of the Nigerian woman bothers on a National tragedy. Acholonu (2003) admits that feminization of poverty has become a reality; as poverty wears a woman’s face in our society with result that women constitute the majority of the wretchedly poor. She further admits that their denial of access to economic sources and resources, coupled with their traditional denial of inheritance rights to land, property and cash revenues only compound their economic predicament. Moreso, the acculturation process which instils in the woman a sense of conservatism does not encourage the amassing of quick and ill-gotten wealth evident among the present day politicians; hence economic powerlessness has constituted the greatest constraint to women’s participation in governance.

It is worthy of note, that some women’s morally sound and ethical nature and stance will not condole the culture of bribery and corruption prevalent in a highly corrupt political system. Why would a woman pay off her nose “in a bid to purchase a gubernatorial aspirant’s intent form when her specific objective is to sanitize the



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society? Surprisingly many women augument the expenditures for family upkeep in this era of hardship, and their enormous contributions in other to sustain a large family subjects them to an assetless class. From the ongoing, one can see that the economic powerlessness of the Nigerian women have been predestined by the following;

- Lack of access to land ownership - Lack of access to property ownership

- Lack of access to children ownership - Lack of spouse support/credit facility - Lack of access to surplus wealth which determines

chances and choices in Nigeria.

Social Powerlessness Women contribute enormously to the development of any Nation but in many cases, their activities are not given due acknowledgement. According to Ogundipe (2003), socialization practices condition women into accepting their future roles as cooks, beasts of burden, hewers of wood and fetchers of water; in short second class citizens, as they are raised ironically by women to accept their inferior roles and not to aspire to areas of male preserve in education or careers. Obasanjo and Mabogunje (1991) blame women for the consequences of the roles they play; observing that even in the urban centres, stereo-type gender roles make women accept that they are the weaker sex. The women therefore overplay their feminity thereby viewing the ambition of their fellow women as ominous and regarding exceptional achievement of women as an untoward competition with men. The implications of women’s acts, actions, and activities are legion and go a long way to support the ideological framework of male chauvinism and female naivety which gives husbands and members of their kindred the impetus to deride the very idea of participation in governance. Thus, persons



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irrationally advertise and defend the view that women involvement in politics is an unwarranted aberration. The understanding that women are not achievement oriented and the notion of a lack of aggressive drive among women negate the recognition of women’s contribution. Thanks be to God that in recognition of the important contributions of women; the Abacha-led administration upgraded the Women Commission to the status of Ministry of Women Affairs. Further encouragement is still needed to better the lot of the Nigerian women although on the part of the women they equally need freedom from fear and want, freedom of speech and belief, the right to freedom of thought, conscience, religion and belief which will guarantee them full socialization that will encourage them to participate actively in governance. On the other hand, women’s inferiority have been celebrated in varying degrees either through polygamy or at the death of their husbands by making them go through humiliating and dangerous rites. The women are socially powerless in the sense that they lack access to bail. They also do not value each other rather they destroy other women who are in the forefront with their gossip or slander, hence, men capitalise on this and use women to pull down their fellow women. Similarly, Oladipo (1999) reports that women have been their own greatest enemies. One can derive from the analyses that women are socially powerless having:

- lost the due appreciation of their efforts - acquired derogatory names from men - lack access to bail - propagated as lacking aggressive drive to actualise their

aspiration to the seat of governance.

Psychological Powerlessness Prestige confers status and honour on a woman. Ogundipe (2003) describes prestige as a purely relational sociological concept which depends on the respect others are willing to show. Since

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women lack access to those objects signifying success and high status quo, they are forced to develop certain behaviours and attitudes to the issue of power. Such maltreatments arising from male preference, enormously crediting the sex of a female child to the women, female circumcision, early marriages constitute and even create psychological problems that render the Nigerian woman powerless. Subjecting women to multiple births have some psychological implications. The emotional abuse associated with childlessness, bearing only a particular sex of child especially females; and moreso going through spouse battery can give women a low sense of worth and self esteem, lack of self-confidence, low ambition and motivation. Thus, women are rendered psychologically powerless as these feelings are bound to induce a loss of interest in aspiring to the positions of governance.

Political Powerlessness Acholonu (2003) enumerates lack of sound political education, adequate awareness and sensitivity as constraints to women’s participation in governance. She maintains that the nation lacks adequate and encouraging successful women leaders and politicians who serve as role models to other women; young and old. Acholonu further observes that the evil of political violence has degenerated to a bestial level where gruesome political killings have become a common spectacle. In as much as some mortals may opt for political martyrdom, she contends, for many more especially the average woman, the added insecurity is most uncalled for. Political violence breeds vandalization and crimes which are not suitable for custodians of life and property which women ought to be. Seeking the transformation of African political systems themselves is mystifying (O’ Barr, 1991). Women organizations could be more oriented towards gaining political power for women than just to support their male counterparts as voters. Evocation of the supernatural modes which women may often resort to may not be an effective mode in the area of politics. Performing rituals, using



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magic, witchcraft or sorcery is a most inclusive way of welding political powers (Ogundipe, 2003). He however reports that during election, people run around traditional practitioners for supernatural assistance, for protections, failure of their opponents, success for themselves. Moreso, they campaign, spend money, make promises and they advertise with rallies and parades. Women are seen to resort to these indirect modes of political power available to them because they lack power that comes with authority.

The current trend of political militancy, kidnapping and assassination spells serious danger for our nascent democracy and is bound to scare many worthy political aspirants. As vessels and nurturers of life, many would- have-been women politicians are bound to be seriously discouraged by the current wave of vile political killings. Considering the power structure in Nigeria, it is evident that women can only take their rightful place in the seat of governance if these impediments are removed.

Cultural Powerlessness Women as a whole cannot be seen as culturally powerful because inherent in the culture of most Nigerian societies are cultural norms, attitudes, values which continue to render women powerless. The Nigerian culture has groomed women in such a way that they cannot act without the consent of their husbands. This by implication is that once their husband is in opposition, they have no choice than to forget their political ambition. Every aspect of the Nigerian culture emphasizes that women are of a lower status in relationship to men. Many still believe that governance is not for women but for men. Moreso, there is that general understanding that politics is too risky for women to engage in.

Anyanwu (2003) observes that among the Igbo for instance, there was the additional thought that when both husband and wife are interested in active politics; without objective consideration of competence and other related qualities, the opinion would be in



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favour of the wife dropping her ambition or interest to promote and support her husband. If she insisted on the contrary, she would suffer a negative image which would impair her involvement in politics, as both men and women who are culturally fixed would pronounce her guilty. More importantly, such cultural ideologies supporting a husband’s right to beat his wife or wives emphasizes cultural powerlessness.

Prospects A thorough review of past events reveals that not much has been done in concrete terms to improve the political lot of women. In principle, the government has accepted but the actualization of the equal participation in governance raises doubts about its commitment. What women need is a level ground for participation in the real issues of governance. Granted too, that the participation of women in governance under the present dispensation is a little bit better than it had been in the past, Udombana (2003) expresses that it is not yet time for women to celebrate it. She maintains that the percentage of women to men is still ridiculously low compared to the expected. Ideally, women have had to fight every step of the way for each little progress they have made in the political arena. In support of these claims, Udombana contends that the only way out is for women to keep struggling until they acquire the political power to obtain special privileges from men by sentimental appeals. Essentially, women may need to understand the rules of the game; coupled with the language of politics while still attending to their duties as mothers and wives.

Evaluating the framework and policy on women’s participation in governance, a one-time Minister of Women Affairs and Social Development, Ambassador Judith Atah made a case for a review of the open ballot system in order to avoid such exposure of women to the intimidation of their husbands. The open ballot system she argued prohibits women’s active participation in election as it



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does not give them room for independent choice of candidates. What has INEC done about this? It is therefore worthwhile to accept the truth that the involvement of women like Mrs Margaret Ekpo, Mrs Kuti, Mrs B. Kerr, Mrs Wura Esam, Prof. Dora Akinyili, Dr Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, Dr Ndy Okoreke Onyiuke, Nne Kurubo, to the political life of Nigeria, have been enriching to the society.

Implications for Counselling Counselling is a learning process oriented towards participation. It is equally a helping relationship which involves two or more persons in a direct contact to resolve issues that affect individuals. Therefore, the counselling tenets of participation are to be incorporated into governance activities (Azeez, 2007).

Ideally, women’s participation in designing and implementing policies can improve the quality of government action. This is essentially why women need to be enlightened towards getting rid of those constraints to women participation. Since governance is a goal as well as a process, it can serve as a tool usable in finding solutions to societal problems such as poverty, inequality, powerlessness and insecurity. Women’s participation is the crux of any government; while participation itself is a right on its own. Therefore, the rights of the women in governance should not be a debatable issue.

A counselling based intervention should be made available which should focus on problematic areas which have been diagnosed as constraints to women’s participation to governance. That women still suffer from economic powerlessness implies that they have not been enlightened and motivated enough in the area of economic/financial counselling which would enable them amass and save sufficiently for such ventures. In as much as they may not have access to land and property, they have every access to shares and bonds which could be source, of income to them. Through counselling women will be well positioned economically. There will



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be financial empowerment which will enable them to enhance their potentials in governance.

Through counselling, women will be assisted to break the yoke of social powerlessness. They will be assisted to gain insight to actualise their aspiration that will place them on a higher pedestal. By the use of counselling, the shackles of psychological powerlessness will be destroyed and women will be elevated in governance. They will gain high self concept and be properly motivated to pursue their political goals. Counselling will help women to realise and have sense of worth and gain self confidence which will enhance their opportunities in governance. Through counselling, women will be encouraged to overcome political powerlessness. They will be assisted to aspire for dignified political positions. They will be encouraged to aspire for positions hitherto assumed as male positions. Finally, counselling will assist women to be liberated from cultural powerlessness. Through clarity in counselling, cultural norms which were hindrances to women assuming their rightful positions in governance will be meaningless to them.

References Acholonu, R. (2001). Gender and Development in Nigeria: Issues &

Challenges. In D.C Njoku,. (ed.). Readings in Citizenship Education. Enugu: John Jacobs Classic Publishers.

Acholonu, R. (2003). Gender Factor in Nigeria Politics. In C. Ojiaka, Gender Issues & Political Development in Nigeria. Lagos: Gender Rights Initiative.




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Anyanwu, U.D. (1992). Women in Igbo Society. In U.D. Anyanwu (ed.). Ogele: Introduction to Igbo Life and Culture. Enugu: Alena Publishers.

Azeez, R.O. (2004). Corruption: Bane of Good Governance in Nigeria. Journal of Arts and Social Sciences, Tai Solarin College of Education, Ijebu-Ode.

Azeez, R.O. (2007). Gender, Age and location correlates of Citizens; Participation in Governance. The Counsellor 23,133-139.

Dele, U. (1992). Climbing the corporate ladder - Some views from Nigerian women in management. Management in Nigeria. 27(6).

Enene, J.O. (2006). Women Involvement in Management: The Way Forward in Nigeria. The Journal of International Gender Studies. 3, 20-27.

Iruloh, B.N. (2001). Socio-Psychological factors that influence the educational aspirations of married women: Implications for counselling. An unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, University of Port Harcourt.

Mba, N.E. (1992). Nigeria women mobilised women political activities in Southern Nigeria. 1900-1965. Research Series (48). University of California: Institute of International Studies.

Nwaorgu, O.C. (1998). The Role of Women in Nigerian Politics. In J. Wika, & I. Martin, (eds.). Women in Development: The Evidence from Nigeria. Ikot Ekpene: Belpot Nig.) Co.



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O’Barr, J. (1991). African Women in Politics and Policy. In M.J. Hay, & S. Stichter, (eds.). African Women South of the Sahara. London:. Longman .

Obasanjo O. & Mabogunje, A. (1991). Elements of Development African Leadership Forum. Abeokuta.

Ogundipe, A. (2003). Power in Gender Discourse. In C. Ukhun, (2003). Critical Gender Discourse in Africa. Ibadan: Hope Publications.

Ojiaka, C. (2003). Gender Issues and Political Development in Nigeria. Gender Rights Initiatives. Lagos, Nigeria.

Oladipe, D. (1999). Rights of Women. Newswatch Magazine 30(18).

Otoya, M.O. (1975). Women participation in politics in Benue State: A case study of Oju Local Government Area. An unpublished NCE project, C.O.E Katsina-Ala.

Oruwari, Y. (1996). Women Development and the Nigerian Environment Ibadan: Vantage Publishers (Int.) Ltd.

Udombana, N.J. (2003). Participation of Women in Politics: Problems and Prospect. In C. Ojiaka (2003). Gender Issues & Political Development in Nigeria. Nigeria (Lagos): Gender Rights Initiative.



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HUMAN RESOURCE UTILIZATION IN TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS

IN NIGERIA

BY DR. AMALAHA, OKEZIE O

Abstract Human resource utilization in tertiary institutions is a major concern to all administrators of tertiary institutions in Nigeria. It is a responsibility which aims at achieving efficiency and justice within the workforce. Therefore, this study focused on the problems associated with employee welfare, compensation, administration, poor condition of service amongst others. Two research questions and two hypotheses were postulated and addressed. Findings of this work revealed that: There are significant differences in the motivational variables between male and female tertiary institution workers. There are no significant differences in the personal need dispositions of Senior and Junior staff of tertiary institutions in Nigeria. Introduction Human resource is easily recognized as the most important of the resources required for the production of goods and services, hence it is the key to rapid socio-economic development and efficient service delivery. Without adequate, skilled and well-motivated workforce, efficiency in service delivery and goal attainment will not be possible in organizations. Any organization that under-rates the critical role and underplays the importance of people in goal achievement can neither be effective nor efficient. According to Williams (1993), and Hallak (1990), human resource utilization system in Nigeria prior to the 1988 Civil Service Reforms was essentially that which developed in the period of transition to


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Ministerial Rule (1984-60), which was later modified and elaborated upon in the post-independence years. It is a known practice that people are recruited to meet the human resource needs of the organization. Getting them would not be enough. Conditions have to be created which would make them stay on the job and cope with the demands of the job. The official definition of the Institute of Peronnel Utilization, London (1963:1813) for H. R. utilization is a responsibility of those who manage people as well as a description of the work of those who are employed as specialist. It is part of management which is concerned with people at work and with the relationships within an enterprise. It applies not only to industries and commerce, but also to all fields of employment (tertiary institutions inclusive). Human resource utilization aims at achieving both efficiency and justice, neither of which can be pursued successfully without the other. It seeks to bring together and develop into effective organization, the men and women who make up an enterprise, enabling each to make his own best contributions to its success both as an individual and as member of the working group. And also, provide fair terms and conditions of employment and satisfying work for those employed. This work shall therefore build upon the original thrust of theorists who recognized human resource utilization as being the result of personal interactions within the occupational environment. In any work organization such as tertiary institutions, one of the most complex and least understood variables is the individual workers, and this poses some problems for administrators. Therefore, in the study of individual behaviour, there is probably no concept more important than motivation. Hoy and Miskel (1987:176) defined motivation as the “Complex forces, drives, needs, tension states or other mechanisms that start and maintain activity toward the achievement of personal goals.” Human resource utilization means getting the organization right, providing effective motivation and leadership, obtaining and developing the right



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people, paying and treating them fairly and getting them involved in working productivity. Statement of the Problem Tertiary institutions’ administrators experience a lot of administrative difficulties occasioned by individual differences, poor economy, societal ills, socio-political instability, peculiar funding, lack of facilities, peculiar structure and climate of the institutions, training and development, recruitment of staff, planning, motivation, cult activities and other incentives. Research findings conducted by Flippo (1983), Senyal (1995) and Otamiri (1996) confirmed the above mentioned difficulties. As a result, this study focused on improving current practices to eliminate the problems associated with: (i) Employee welfare; (ii) Compensation Administration (iii) Poor service conditions and (iv) accomplishment of organizational goals. Purpose of the Study Based on the problem, the purpose was therefore to identify whether human resource of tertiary institutions were effectively utilized and motivated. It also sought solutions to the problems identified and thereby recommended solution. Research Questions The following research questions guided the study:

1. What are the motivational variables available to staff of tertiary institutions.

2. What are the personal need dispositions of staff of tertiary institutions?

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Research Hypotheses Ho1: There is no significant difference between the motivational variables of male and female staffs of tertiary institutions in Nigeria as determined by their means scores. Ho2: There is no significant difference between the need disposition variables of Junior and Senior Staff of tertiary institutions in Nigeria as determined by their mean scores. Literature Review The Concept of Human Resource Utilization Human resource utilization (H.R.U) is an approach to the management of people based on four fundamental principles. First, human resource is the most important asset an organization has and their effective management is the key to its success. Secondly, this success is most likely to be achieved if the personnel policies and procedures are closely linked with and make a major contribution to the achievement of corporate objectives and strategic plans. Thirdly, the corporate culture and the values, organizational climate and managerial behaviour that emanate from that culture will exert a major influence on the achievement of excellence. Finally, human resource utilization is concerned with integration, getting all the members of the organization involved and working together with a sense of common purpose. Williams (1985) advises in these words:

Trust people and treat them like adults, Enthuse them by likely and imaginative, Leadership, develop and demonstrate an obsession for quality, make them feel they own the business and your workforce will respond with total commitment.

Basically, to Enaohwo (1990), Scott (2000), IIEP-UNESCO(2002): Dearlove (1995) and Chapman (1994), human utilization is the creation of conditions such that the members of the



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organization can achieve their own goals best by directing their efforts towards the success of the enterprise. Human resource utilization involves obtaining, developing, rewarding, motivating and managing the members of the organization. Effective Human Resource Utilization:

The term ‘effectiveness’ is a term that is prone to so many definitions depending on what dimension from which the author views it. The Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (1978) defined it as the ability to bring about the intended results. Amalaha (1999) views effectiveness as the ratio of energetic output to energetic input. To him, effectiveness thus indicates how much of the input of an organization emerges as products and how much is absorbed by the system.

Ukeje, Okorie and Nwagbara (1992) view effectiveness of and educational institution as the extent to which students are achieving, the teacher/lecturers are satisfied, the staff morale is high, the students’ dropout rate is low etc. In public utilities, it is the extent to which services are rendered promptly and satisfactorily: and for business organizations, it is the extent to which profit is maximized. It thus follows that if a teacher’s effectiveness can be determined by the performance of the group he leads, it is logical that a leader should understand the group and factors that contribute to its productivity. The most commonly used measure of leader effectiveness is the degree to which the group or organization performs its task successfully and accomplishes its goals.

House (1977) in proposing his path-goal theory of leadership, evaluates effectiveness in terms of the extent to which the leaders’ behaviour improves subordinate job-satisfaction, enhances the acceptance of the leader and increases subordinate motivation. Okorie (1987: 56) reports that:

When all these assertions are related to educational organizations, the explanation of



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Miskel et al (1987:100) becomes more apt. they hold that effectiveness is the degree to which a school can preserve its interactions among its parts by producing outcomes in exchange for resources and continual survival.

A sound human resource utilization is a sine qua non for any organization aiming at achieving its goals. If anyone wants to think about human resource utilization therefore, the only meaningful question is: ‘how can I behave in such a way that this particular individual or group or pair or combination of people be able to express individual or jointly, their potential creative powers towards the mutual satisfaction of their own goals and goals of all others in the same undertaking.’ Effective human resource utilization should emphasize the need for administrators to be able to determine personnel needs, satisfy personnel needs, maintain and improve personnel services. The needs include: regular promotions, salary increments, allowances, loans, enabling working environments, recognition for work done, availability of working materials, free medical care, annual and sick leaves and getting retirement benefits as and when due. Research Question 1: (1) What are the motivational variables available to staff of

tertiary institutions? To answer this question, respondents’ (staff of tertiary institutions) opinions were weighted on a four- point scale namely: Regularly (4), occasionally (3), Rarely (2), Not at all (1).



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Table1: Weighted Mean ( )x and Standard Deviation (SD) of respondents’ assessment of motivational variables available to Staff.

S/n Motivational

variables State

Universities Federal

Universities

Colleges of Education

Summary

( )x SD ( )x SD ( )x SD ( )x SD

1 Financial benefits

2.37 .41 2.41 .26 2.30 .32 2.36 0.06

2 Non-financial benefits

1.70 .46 1.79 .30 1.73 .29 1.74 0.05

3 Availability of teaching and office materials

1.84 .45 1.84 .40 1.74 .44 1.81 0.06

4 Free medical care

1.72 .21 1.94 .26 1.86 .25 1.84 0.11

5 Leave of absence

2.70 .33 2.83 .25 2.72 .22 2.75 0.07

6 Getting retirement benefits when due

1.00 .00 1.73 .48 1.64 .48 1.46 0.40

7 Research grants

2.58 .67 1.79 .47 1.66 .48 2.01 0.50

8 Motor vehicle loans

1.66 .54 1.58 .50 1.79 .41 1.68 0.11

9 Furniture loans 1.56 .50 1.63 .49 1.73 .45 1.64 0.09 10 Bonus pay from

your boss 1.48 .55 1.63 .49 173 .45 1.64 0.09

11 Promotion when due and its arrears

1.51 .50 1.70 .49 1.69 .47 1.62 0.19

12 Respect from student

1.52 .59 1.65 .51 1.66 .48 1.61 0.08

13 Authority positions in government and society

1.52 .59 1.65 .51 1.66 .39 1.67 0.15



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14 Equitable salaries and wages

1.34 .58 1.60 .49 1.70 .46 1.55 0.19

15 Participation in decision making

1.41 .49 1.56 .50 1.68 .47 1.55 0.14

16 Fovourable conditions of service

1.08 .27 1.59 .50 1.63 .49 1.43 0.31

17 Job satisfaction and self-actualization

1.07 .25 1.66 .50 1.64 .51 1.46 0.34

MEAN OF MEANS

1.65 0.43 1.80 0.43 1.80 0.42 1.75 0.15

Results show the mean scores of the groups of tertiary institutions namely, Federal Universities, State Universities and Colleges of Education were 1.65, 1.80 and 1.80 respectively. It is pertinent to mention that out of seventeen (17) items that addressed this question, only “LEAVE OF ABSENCE’ had the highest weighted mean scores of 2.70, 2.83 and 2.72 respectively. Indeed, most of these motivational variables exist only on paper. Hypothesis 1: Ho1: There is no significant difference between the motivational variables of male and female staffs of tertiary institutions in Nigeria as determined by their means scores. This hypothesis compared three groups of tertiary institutions in terms of motivational variables available to their staff. Analysis of variance was used and the result is presented in table 2.



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Table 2: Analysis of variance on perceived levels of availability of motivational variables.

Institution Group

mean Groups

Sum of square

Df

Mean square

F

2-tailed significance

Remark

State Universities

1.65 Between 1.32

2. .66 0.30

.000

State Universities

< Federal

Universities &


Federal Universities

1.80 Within 5.38 247 2.178E-02


1.80 Total 6.70 249

F. value is significant at .000 The analysis of variance test yielded an F. calculated value of 0.30. This F. value is found to be significant at 0.000. Since the 2. tailed significance of 0.000 is less than 0.05 level at of significance at which the hypothesis was tested, there is significant difference among tertiary institutions in term of the levels of motivational variables available to them. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected. Results of findings revealed that motivational variables such as salary increments, allowances, loans, good working environment, recognition of work done, good relationship with supra/subordinates and colleagues, free medical care for self and family, getting retirement benefits as and when due, research grants, promotion when due and its arrears etc. are rarely made available to staff of tertiary institutions. The most dominant motivational variable available to tertiary institutions’ staff is “LEAVE OF ABSENCE”. The reason for granting staff ‘leave of absence’ on request is that, it does not cause the institutions any financial obligation. Research Question 2: What are the most personal need dispositions of staff of tertiary institutions in terms of motivational variables?



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To answer this question, the respondents were requested to rank the incentive schemes (from 6-1), giving most valued/preferred 6 and least preferred 1 Table 3: Mean ( )X and Standard Deviation (SD) of service conditions most valued.

S/N Incentive schemes State Universities



Summary

( )X

SD ( )X

SD ( )X SD ( )X SD

1 Financial benefits to staff e.g salary increment, allowances and bonus.

6.00

.00

5.86

.38

5.81

.42

5.89

0.27

2 Non-financial benefits e.g. good working, environments and recognitions for work done.

2.78

1.07

2.81

.66

3.15

.68

2.91

0.80


2.46

1.14

2.13

.70

1.90

.70

2.16

0.85

4 Free medical care for you and your family.

3.64

1.02

3.94

.77

3.81

.71

3.80

0.83

5 Leave of absence e.g annual, sick leave e.t.c

1.61

1.06

1.33

.78

1.38

.66

1.44

0.83

6 Getting your retirement benefits when due

4.52

.67

4.85

.76

5.01

.56

4.79

0.66

MEAN OF MEANS 3.50 0.83 3.49 0.68 3.51 0.62 3.50 0.71 From table 3, it can be seen that service conditions that attract financial benefits were most preferred (man score of 6.00), pension scheme came second (5.01), medical care, third (3.84), non-financial



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benefits like good working environment and recognition for work done (3.15), availability of office and teaching materials (2.46), and leave of absence (1.61) ranked fourth, fifth and sixth respectively. Hypothesis 2: Ho2: There is no significant difference between the need disposition variables of Junior and Senior Staff of tertiary institutions in Nigeria as determined by their mean scores. Respondents’ ranking of six incentive schemes (from 6-1) were compared among the three strata of tertiary institutions. The summary of analysis of variance of this comparison, as well as the post-hoc analysis are presented below. Table 4: Respondents’ ranking of incentive schemes in tertiary institutions in Nigeria.

The results from table 4 agreed with that of tables 3 in totality. The most preferred service conditions have to do with the orientation theory, which examines the factors that are instrumental in directing peoples’ choices about work. It argues that while needs start motivational psychology, individual’s value of what is good, desirable and beneficial are what govern their choices, actions and

S/N

Incentive schemes

State Universities


Colleges of education

F 2-tailed Significance

1 Financial benefits 6.00 5.86 5.81 7.80 .001 2 Getting your

retirement benefit when due.

4.52

4.85

5.01

11.83

.000

3 Free medical care for you and your family.

3.64

3.94

3.81

2.54

0.81

4 Non-financial benefits

2.78 2.81 3.15 4.99 .008


2.46

2.13

1.90

8.48

.000

6 Leave of absence 1.61 1.33 1.38 2.74 .067



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emotions. If people get what they value from work, they experience job satisfaction, and job dissatisfaction if they do not get what value. This is in line with findings of Etuk (1993) that benefits most valued by teachers in Akwa Ibom State include paid vacation leaven, paid sick leave, house rent, meal subsidy, transport allowance and overtime allowance, retirement and death benefits and free medical attention for the employee and his family. It is common knowledge that staff of tertiary institutions are not well paid. The remuneration that they receive from work is not sufficient to move their needs above the basic physiological needs level. Since money is the key to acquiring most basic physiological needs level. Since money is the key to acquiring most basic physiological needs, the financial benefits became the foremost valued. Conclusion: The findings revealed that tertiary institutions are facing a lot of problems associated with human resource utilization, and these include: inadequate funds, low skills amongst staff, lack of motivation, lack of adequate facilities to work with, delay in payment of salaries and wages, lack of car/refurbishment loans, lack of research and publication grants, constant power failure, withdrawal of incentives, inequitable salaries and wages, power interference, politics within the institutions etc. The implication is that these inhibiting factors are deeply present in our tertiary institutions. Human resource utilization policies exist prominently in tertiary institutions and properly documented as guidelines and standing framework for the smooth and proper management and administration of human resource. The most valued service conditions by staff of tertiary institutions in descending order of preference include: financial benefits, retirement benefits and medical care.



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Motivation is seen as the only wheel of progress in human resource utilization but is grossly lacking in tertiary institutions. Tertiary institutions are facing inadequacies in all their needs. There is no significant difference among tertiary institutions in terms of the level of motivational variables available to them. Recommendations: From the findings of this study, the following recommendations are proposed towards effective human resources utilization: 1. Since financial benefits, retirement benefits, and medical care

have been identified as most valued by staff, it has become pertinent here to suggest that government should strive to live up to expectation in this direction.

2 Staff should be adequately motivated, as this will highly reduce the rate of turnover and also attract quality personnel to take up appointments in tertiary institutions.

3 Staff salaries and benefits should be paid promptly. This will help reduce the rate of staff turnover.

References: Amalaha, O.O (1999). Administration of Higher Education in

Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D Seminar Paper, university of Port Harcourt.

Chapman, D.W. (1994). Reducing Teacher Absenteeism and Attrition, Causes, Consequences and Responses. Paris: UNESCO-IIEP, July.

Dearlove, J. (1995). Governance, Leadership and change in Universities. Parise: IIEP-UNESCO.

Enahwo, J.O. (1990). Economic of Education and the Planning Challenge. New Delhi: Annmol Publications.

Filppo, E.B. (1983). Personnel Management. (5th edition) New York: McGraw Hill.

Hallak, J. (1990). Investing in the future, Setting Education Priorities in the Developing World. Paris: IIEP-UNESCO.



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House, P.A. (1977). Managerial Effectiveness. London: McGraw Hill Book Company (UK) Ltd.

Hoy W.K & Miskel G.C. (1987). Educational Administration: Theory, Research and Practice. New York: Random House Inc.

IIEP-UNESCO (2002). Higher Education: Problems, Needs and Priorities. Paris: IIEP-UNESCO.

Miskel, C.et-al (1987). Principal’s Attitudes Towards Work and Co-workers Situational Factors, perceived Situational, innovation Efforts. Educational Administration Quarterly. 13,15-70.

Okorie N.C. (1987). Leadership Effectiveness of Secondary School Principals in Imo State. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Port Harcourt.

Otamiri, S.A. (1996). The Relationship between stress and Administrative Effectiveness of Secondary School Principals in Rivers State. Unpublished M.Md Thesis, University of Port Harcourt.

Sanyal, B.C. (1995). The Role of Higher Education Technology. Paris: IIEP-UNESCO. No. 22

Scott, J. & Rochester, A. (2000). Effective Management Skills, Managing, People. London: Sphere Books.

Ukeje B.O., Okorie, N C. & Nwagbara, U.A. (1992). Educational Administration: Theory and Practice. Owerri: Totan Publishing Ltd.

William, A. (1993). Presidential Task Force on the Implementation of the Civil Service Reforms. Main Report and Summary of Recommendations. Lagos: Government Press.

William C. (1985). A Handbook of Human Resource Management. London: Kogan Page Ltd.



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INFLUENCE OF PARENTAL DISCIPLINARY PRACTICES ON CHILDREN’S MORAL DEVELOPMENT

By

DR.(MRS.) GOODNESS W. ORLUWENE

&

MRS. IJEOMA REGINA ERNEST - EHIBUDU

Abstract The influence of parental disciplinary practices on their male and female children’s moral development was investigated in this study. Two research questions and three null hypotheses tested at 0.05 Alpha guided the conduct of the study. The research design adopted was the ex-post facto design. Two thousand, two hundred primary six children aged 11 years drawn using cluster and purposive sampling techniques constituted the sample of the study. A questionnaire named ‘Influence of Parental Disciplinary Pattern/practice on Children’s Moral Development’ (IPDPCM) was used in collecting data for the study. Data analysis was done using mean, standard deviation, two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Scheffe tests. Results obtained after data analyses indicated that parental disciplinary practices and gender have significant influence on children’s moral development. Based on the findings, some recommendations were made among them are that parents should vary their disciplinary practices based on the sexes of their children and their ages. And they should use inductive pattern when the child is up to 6years and above. Introduction The family has long been recognized as the first and great socializing agent in children's lives. It is in the family that the young children acquire many important social and cognitive skills and develop


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morally. Educators have recognized the importance of the home, as the child’s primary agent of socialization world-wide. This recognition is so versatile that when any teacher is asked what the most important influence on children's behavior is the response in all probability will be the home (Dawnson 1987, in Murphey 1992). To support this, Mussen, Conger, Kagan, and Huston (1984 p. 377) stated that when children are intelligent, polite, honest or socially well adjusted their parents are usually given credit, when they are delinquent, neurotic or poor the blame is often placed on parents too. All parents have an implicit or explicit ideal of what their children should be like- what knowledge, moral values and behavioural standards they should acquire as they grow. Parents try many strategies designed to move the child toward that goal. They reinforce and punish the child, explain their beliefs and expectations and try to choose neigbourhoods, peer groups and schools that support their values and goals. The relationship of children to parents and other family members can be thought of as a system or network of interacting parts. The family system exists in a set of larger systems - the neigbourhood, the community and the broader society. (Bronfenbrenner, 1986 p.725). These systems have influence on children directly and indirectly through the parents’ child- rearing practice or disciplinary practice and attitudes. Hence, Herbert and Daniel (1997, p. 133) reported that the issue for todays parents is how to raise decent kids in a complex and morally ambiguous world where traditional tethers to church, school and neighbourhood are badly frayed.

To completely understand child development we must consider how the unique characteristics of a child interact with that child's environment. The environment is viewed as a series of interrelated layers with those closest to the child having the most direct impact and those farther away influencing the child more indirectly. In the ecological model of Bronfenbrenner (1986, p.728), the child is placed at the centre, nearest to the child is the microsystem, which for most children include the family (parents),



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school, the church etc (Vasta, Haith & Miller, 1998, p.59). Hence there is a logic that the moral developments of the child is influenced by the context (family) which the child occurs. Moral development is an aspect of the study of human behaviour which focuses on how standards or principles of good behaviour progressively evolve in individual right from infancy through childhood, to adolescence and adulthood. It focuses on achievement of ability to discern between good and bad as an individual grows in any particular cultural setting. Moral development underscores the ability to learn social virtues such as honesty, respect for oneself and others, respect for truth and feelings of others, tolerance, self-control and so on, in the course of individual's growth and development (Kemjika & Nwankwo, 2002, p.65).Morality is a social variable because we judge whether you are honest, respectful or not, from the way and manner you interact with people in your environment. Moral behaviour is a complex mixture of cognition, emotion and behaviour (Elliot, Kratochwill, Cook & Travers, 2002). Morality requires more specifically the ability to think about such things as justice and fairness and ultimately to act on those thoughts. Wallis (1997, p.153) asserted that morality has always been a concern of educators. The many changes in our family structures in the past 30years make this an important public concern, especially in Rivers State. The bad behaviour and loss of respect exhibited daily in our society and Nigerian public schools indicate a society in deep trouble. Hence Baridam (2008, p. 11) exclaimed:

Moral conduct has been thrown to the winds, while wanton denigration of human life is perpetrated with impunity by armed gangs that freely roam the streets. The academia, the world over,

Influence of Parental disciplinary practices on children’s moral development, ORLUWENE & EARNEST-EHIBUDU


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should be a free community devoid of such monstrous feeling of insecurity.

Thatcher (1997, p.113) stated that the most important problems today ultimately have to do with the moral foundation of society. This suggests that at no time in life should people be more concerned about moral development than during the middle childhood stage (6-11years). This is because moral judgment is dependent on one's level of cognitive development. The higher the level of cognitive abilities, the higher the understanding and judgment of principles of morality. This period of morality of cooperation (8-11years) coincides with the concrete operations stage of cognitive development. It is the stage of moral autonomy characterised by looking into self (no more parents) in consideration of what is right or wrong. At this stage the moral realism of the earlier stage develops into moral relativism as the children interact with not only parents but also teachers, peers and significant others in their environments. Kemjika and Nwankwo (2002, p.67) stated that children at this stage, because of wider horizon of interaction, internalize the golden rule that guides people’s behaviour towards others the way they would want to behave towards them. The level of moral development in individuals grows as they approach adolescence and adulthood. Middle childhood is a period the child begins to have some idea of cause and effect of simple natural laws. At this stage the child strictly looks at his parents and his teacher as models of morality. He will respond to cultural rules and labels of good and bad, right and wrong, as presented to him by the parents and the teacher. More so, he will imitate their own practices of good and bad, right and wrong than listen to their instruction about them (Obiukwu, 1986, p.41). Elliot et al (2000, p.74) asserted that children at this stage are so attuned to adult authority, any adult behaviour that confused them can have a lasting impact. As they grow older they must abide by the rules, respect for



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reasonable rules reasonably administered. They won't always obey of course, when you must reprimand, do so and then as soon as possible offer a warm response to their acceptable behaviour. To this end, Mussen et al (1984, p.323) opined that rules of morality based on principles of justice and concern for others are taught by families, school and religious institutions. To properly investigate morality, interest should be paid to how children acquire an internalized desire to conform to the moral rules of society and in children's motives for obeying rules. This Gleitman (1995, p. 551) believed could be based on the “principle of minimal sufficiency” which states that "a child will internalize a certain way of acting if there is just enough pressure to get him to behave in this new way, but not enough so that he feels he was forced to do so". Murphey (1992) is of the view that the child rearing and disciplinary practices employed by parents such as making and enforcing rules, offering support and encouragement or providing guidance, structure and predictability in the child's life can greatly influence the child's moral development. Two dimensions of parenting appear to be very important for the child's development. One of these is parental warmth (acceptance), which represents the amount of support, affection and encouragement the parents provide as opposed to hostility, shame or rejection. The other is parental control, which is the degree to which the child is monitored, disciplined and regulated, rather than being left largely unsupervised (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). One way in which children learn about moral issues is through discipline for misconduct. Hoffman (1994) is of the view that the effectiveness of discipline in promoting internalization of the parents' values and morals depends on a number of factors, of which parents’ disciplinary practice is one. Three broad categories of parental disciplinary practice have been identified viz power assertion or coercion, inductive and love withdrawal (Vasta et al 1995, p.535). Power assertion (coercion) involves the use of commands, threats and physical force. It can also include physical



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punishment, shouting, depriving the child of privileges and using tangible rewards. In general, such techniques rely on the parent's control over things the child wants or on the parents’ superior physical strength. Inductive technique by contrast includes reasoning, praise and explaining the consequences of the child's actions for other people. This technique often encourages feeling of guilt in the child by pointing out how the misbehaviour may have caused harm or distress to someone else. Thus, this technique relies on the communication between the parent and the child and on the child's ability to internalize and understand the basis for the parents’ demands. Love withdrawal refers to the use of verbal disapproval, ridicule or the withholding of affection from the child. It includes isolation; expressing disappointment and shaming or ignoring the child. It is based on the child's need for the parents; love and approval; they threaten the child with loss of love, at least, temporarily (Vasta et al 1995, p.535). The development of moral reasoning is through Kohlberg's six fairly inflexible stages beginning with a child-like calculation of self-interest and ending with the embodiment of abstract principles of justice (Herbert & Daniel, 1997 p.134). But Walker and Taylor (1991) criticizing Kohlberg's theory stated that parenting practice makes a major difference in a child's moral development. In another dimension, Berk (1997) criticized Kohlberg's theory and stated that years of schooling also seem to make a difference in individual’s moral development. And that individuals in industrialized societies differ in their moral development when compared to those from less developed societies. Scarr (1992) stated that all families are dynamic, not static. Families change and as they do they exercise different effects on a child's development, both significant and non-significant ones. Based on all these, it was necessary to carry out an empirical work to see if families with



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different disciplinary practices have any influence on their children's moral development. This study sought to find out how parental disciplinary practices influence their male and female children's moral development.

The conduct of this study was guided by the following research questions: 1 What influence has the parental disciplinary practices (power

assertive, inductive and love withdrawal) on the moral development of their children?

2 To what extent does the moral development of male and female children differ?

And the following null hypotheses tested at 0.05 alpha level guided the study:-

1 There is no significant influence of parental disciplinary practices (power assertive, inductive and love withdrawal) on the moral development of their children.

2 There is no significant difference between the moral development of the male and female children.

3 There is no significant interaction effect of parental disciplinary practices and gender on children's moral development.

Methods The design of the study was ex-post-facto research. The study was carried out in Rivers State, which had a population of 348 public primary schools with a total of 4,080 primary six pupils. A total of 2,200 primary six pupils who were 11 years were drawn from 22 primary schools using cluster and purposive sampling techniques constituted the sample. Data for the study were collected using instruments developed by the research named ‘Influence of Parental Disciplinary Pattern on



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Children's Moral Development’ (IPDPCMD). It is a non-cognitive assessment instrument made up of two sections. The section A measured the disciplinary pattern of parents, while section B, contains 30 items which assessed the moral development of the children using a five point Likert type scale of Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree and Strongly Disagree as the response options. Face validity of the instrument was established by experts in Educational Psychology and Measurement and Evaluation. The reliability coefficient of the instrument (IPDPCMD) was 0.72 determined using Cronbach-Alpha techniques. The researchers administered the instrument personally and filled copies were collected on the spot. Data analysis was done using mean, standard deviation, two-way ANOVA and Scheffe test.

Results The result of data analyses for research questions 1 and 2 are presented in table 1 below.

Table 1: Mean and Standard Deviation of the Influence of Parental Disciplinary Pattern on Moral Development of Male and Female Children.

Parental Disciplinary Pattern Inductive Love withdrawal Power assertive

Gender N x SD N x SD N x SD

Male 514 101.14 15.38 78 83 11.70 281 80.96 19.67

Female 955 114.37 16.67 71 82.63 11.80 301 81.38 19.90

Total 1469 110.01 17.24 149 82.83 11.71 582 81.18 19.76



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As shown in the table 1, the total mean score of IPDPCMD for the inductive, love withdrawal and power assertive pattern were 110.01, 82.83 and 81.18 respectively on moral development. The mean scores for the male and female children from inductive pattern parents were 101.14 and 114.37 respectively. For the love withdrawal pattern, the mean scores of the male and female children on moral development were 83 and 82.63 respectively. For the power assertive pattern, the mean scores for the male and female children were 80.96 (SD=19.67) and 81.38 (SD-19.90) respectively.

It could be deduced, that the inductive pattern had the greatest influence next is love withdrawal and lastly the power assertive pattern. Also in all the disciplinary patterns the females are favoured than the males. Significance of the influence remained to be verified through the results of two-way (PDP and gender) ANOVA on the moral development which have been presented in table 2.

Table 2: Summary of 2-way ANOVA on the Influence of Parental Disciplinary Practice (PDP) on Male and Female Children Moral Development.

Sources of variation

Sum of squares

df Means of square

F-cal F-crit Alpha level

Result

PDP Column, 149066.73 2 74533.37 258.05 2.99 S

Sex (row) 4252.74 1 4252.74 14.72 3.84 0.05 S

Interaction (PDP

X Sex 8428.17 2 4214.09 14.59 2.99 S

Within cells 633685.87 2194 288.83

Total 795433.51 2199

*S = Significant

Data of table 2 showed that the F-calculated for the parental disciplinary pattern, PDP (Column) Sex, (row) and interaction of



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PDP and sex are 258.05, 14.72 and 14.59 respectively. A critical look shows that they are all greater than their corresponding critical F-values (2.99, 3.84 and 2.99 at 0.05 alpha level, degrees of freedom of 2 and 2194, 1 and 2194 and 2 and 2194 respectively.

Thus the null hypotheses 1, 2 and 3 were all rejected indicating that the influence of parental disciplinary pattern on the moral development of their male and female children was significant. Again the interaction effect of sex and parental disciplinary pattern on moral development of their children was also significant.

Table 3: Determination of Direction of Difference using Scheffe's test.

PDP Group

N

x

Paired x

F-Cal

F-Crit

Result

Inductive 1469 108.14(x1) x1vx2 173.01 S Love with 149 82.83(x2) x2vx3 0.56 2.99 NS Power assertion

582 81.18(x3) x1vx3 600 S

In the table 3 above the calculated F-values for compared group means 1 and 2 (i.e. inductive and love withdrawal) and for compared group means 1 and 3 (inductive and power assertion) are 173.01 and 600 respectively. They are all significant because all of them are greater than the critical F-values of 2.99. Then for calculated F-values for the compared group means 2 and 3 representing love withdrawal and power assertion group 0.56 was not significant because it was less than the critical F-values of 2.99. Hence the results proved that the direction of difference came from inductive and love withdrawal group means and inductive and power assertion group means. Discussion An investigation of the influence of parental disciplinary practice on the moral development of male and female children was carried out in this study. Results derived in relation to this matter indicated that



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there was a significant influence of parental disciplinary practice (PDP) on their children's moral development. In all, it was proved that inductive method of discipline is the best, followed by the love withdrawal method and then power assertion. These findings are in conformity of what Gleitman (1995) stated as the principle of minimal sufficiency. Based on the significant influence of the parental disciplinary practices on children's moral development, a post Hoe multiple comparison test was conducted using Scheffe test. It was found that there was no significant difference between the influence of love withdrawal and power assertive practices on the moral development of the children. But a significant difference was found between inductive and power assertive and also between inductive and love withdrawal practices. This is an indication that the power assertive and love withdrawal practices are not good disciplinary practices to produce a morally sound child while inductive method is an effective disciplinary method. Another finding of the study indicated that there was a significant difference between the moral development of the male and female children. A critical investigation on their mean scores proved that in inductive and power assertive practices the moral development of the females were more than that of the males. Then, in love withdrawal practice, the females had a lower mean score than the males. This indicates that the nature of females needs more affection, love and compassion than the males who are some how hard in nature. The finding can be attributed to the dependent nature of females while the males are independent in nature. Hence, females are softly handled than the males. Finally, the study also found that there was a significant interaction effect of parental disciplinary practices and sex on children's moral development. This means that the combined effort of these variables, sex and PDP play a significant influence on the moral development of children. Hence it means that both



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disciplinary practice by parents and sex of children influence moral development. Implication of the Results The major finding of the study was that there was a significant influence of parental disciplinary practices on the moral development of their male and female children. This implies that children do not need force or ‘iron hand’ to develop morally but mild reprimand when the need arises. The finding also implies that children will not internalize a rule unless they understand its meaning and implication. In a way, this finding implies that children obey any reasonable rule reasonably administered. Another finding indicated that there was a significant difference between the moral development of the males and females. This implies that in disciplining children their sex/gender must be considered to know the type of disciplinary practice that will be productive or influential. Conclusion These conclusions were drawn based on the findings of the study: 1 Parental disciplinary practices influence their children's

moral development significantly. 2 The gender of children also influences their moral development. Recommendations Based on the findings the following recommendations were made: 1 Parents should vary their disciplinary practice based on the

sexes of the their children and their ages 2 Parents should use inductive pattern when the child is up to

6years and above. 3 Parents should adopt to punish and reinforce their children

when need be and this should be mild.



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References Baridam, D. M. (2008, April). An address on the Occasion of the

24th Convocation Ceremony of the University of Port Harcourt held on Saturday, April 19, 2008.

Berk, L. (1997). Child Development. Boston: Allyn & Bacon

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the Family as a Context for Human Development: Research Perspective. Developmental Psychology. 22, 723-742 Elliot, S.N; Kratochwill, T.R, Cook, J.L & Travers, J.F (2000). Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective learning. Boston: Mc Graw-Hill Gleitman, H. (1994). Psychology (4th edition). New York: w.w

Northon & Company. Herbert, W. & Daniel M. (1997). The Moral Child Annual Editions Education 1997/98 U.S.A. Dushkin. McGraw-Hill Kemjika, O.G & Nwankwo, O.C (2002). Psychology of Human

Development in J.M. Kosemeni (Ed) Introduction to Education. Port Harcourt: University of Port Harcourt.

MacCoby, E.E & Martin, J,A (1983). Socialization in the Context of the Family: Parent-child interaction. In E.M. Hetherington (Ed). Handbook of child Psychology vol. 4. Socialization Personality and Social Development. New York: Wiley

Murphey, D.A. (1992). Constructing the Child: Relations between parents beliefs and child outcomes. Development Review. 12,199-380

Mussen, P.H; Conger, P.J; Kagan, J. & Huston, A.C. (1984). Child Development and Personality (6th edition). New York: Harper & Row publishers

Obiukwu, B.S (1986). Middle Childhood. In V.O.C Nwachukwu (Ed). Educational Psychology (Associateship Certificate in Education Series). Nsukka: Heineman Educational books (Nig.) Ltd.



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Scarr, S (1992). Development theories for the 1990’s. Development and individual differences. Child Development, 63 (1) 1-19. Thatcher, M. (1997). Moral Foundations of Society: A contrast between WEST & EAST: Annual Editions Education 1997/1998 U.S.A; Dushkin/McGraw-Hill pp:113-115 Vasta, R. Haith, M.M. & Miller, S.A (1995). Child psychology: The Modern Science (2nd Edition). New York: John Willey and sons. Walker, L.& Taylor, J. (1991). Stage Transition in Moral Reasoning:

A Longitudinal Study of Developmental Processes. Developmental Psychology 27, 330-337

Wallis, S. (1997). Discipline and civility must be restored to America's Public Schools. Annual Editions Education 1997/98 U.S.A Dushkin/MacGraw-Hill pp:153-155



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ATTITUDE OF FEMALE UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS TOWARDS BREAST SELF-

EXAMINATION

BY

DIORGU FAITH (MRS) M.Ed.

Abstract This study investigated the attitude of female undergraduate students towards Breast Self-Examination and the influence of age and marital status on attitude towards Breast Self Examination by female undergraduate students. The study employed analytic descriptive design. 400 female undergraduate students were sampled through proportional stratified random sampling technique. Five research questions and two null hypotheses guided the study. Data were analysed using mean ( ), standard deviation and t-test. The result showed that female undergraduate students generally have negative attitude towards BSE. The result also showed that age and marital status have no significant influence on the attitude towards BSE by female students. Introduction Breast Self Examination is a technique for checking ones own breast for lumps or any abnormalities (Smeltzer & Bare, 2000). Breast Self Examination is a means of discovering breast lump early, plan its removal before it develops into cancer cells. BSE consists of looking and feeling ones own breast for any area of abnormality such as lump that is not painful, because breast cancer starts as a small painless breast lump that is often not discovered early (Semple, 2001). BSE is described as a regular inspection and palpation of the breast in order to check for any changes which might indicate breast disease (Morris, 1996:12) BSE is synonymous with “Breast


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awareness or breast familiarity”, which refers to monitoring the way the breast looks and feels. American Cancer Society (2003) agrees that breast awareness can be achieved through “look and feel” using three positions of: Lying down, standing at the mirror and in your showers paying attention to changes such as development of breast lump, irregular thickening of breast tissues, nipple discharge, skin changes, such as dimpling or retraction of nipples. Regular BSE is one of the important ways to discover cancer of the breast early. However, when a breast lump is not discovered early, the lump changes to cancer, destroys breast tissues, migrates to proximal and distant organs, causing more problems and some times results in amputation of the breast and even causes death of the individual. Removal of the breast tends to put the woman in a very sad state in terms of fear of being disfigured, loss of sexual attractiveness and loss of feminity. In addition to the emotional impact, it also disrupts the routines of their lives, families, children, friends, working relationship and livelihood. No woman would like to loose her feminity, attractiveness and control of her life. Loosing ones breast has serious psychological consequences, such as body image disturbances, low self-esteem and emotional instability, thus no effective functioning and learning can take place in the face of these psychological consequences. To an extent, the illness perception affects their quality of live. However, BSE saves all the problems associated with breast cancer. American Cancer Society (ACS) advises that every woman should do breast self examination and also recommend that BSE should be supplemented with Clinical Breast Examination (CBE) by health professionals every three years until age 40 and after 40 years of age. Smeltzer and Bare (2005) are of the opinion that women should begin practicing BSE in their late teens and early 20’s. American Cancer Society recommends that woman be told at age 20 about the benefits and limitations of BSE. They also contend that the best time to examine your breast is about a week after the start of



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menstrual period. This is when the breast is less likely to be tender or swollen. Smeltzer and Bare (2005) recommend optional timing for women who are still menstruating and once monthly for women who have ceased to menstruate. Multiple interventions are described to increase BSE frequency and proficiency. Independent variables such as age, marital status, education etc might influence the attitude towards BSE. Digman, Michelute and Smith (1999), Katz, Zemencuk and Haffer (2000) found that single women are more likely than married women to use BSE as breast health measure. Smeltzer and Bare (2005) are of the view that age affects the likelihood of using one form of alternative breast health measures, such as BSE, CBE, and Mammography (x-ray of the breast). Also it was reported, women aged 69 and above were most likely to use CBE, while 50 years of age and below use BSE on a regular basis. For women 60 and 70 years, mammography is their most frequently used breast health practices (Maxwell, Katak, Desfam & Parboosungh 1997:28). However, Faulder (1999) suggested that, there is a reasonable public awareness of BSE but the compliance with regular practice is reported by minority of young women. This study therefore was aimed at determining the attitude of female undergraduate students towards BSE and the influence of age and marital status on attitude towards BSE among female undergraduate students in University of Port Harcourt. Research Questions and Hypotheses Five(5) research questions, and two(2) hypotheses were respectively answered and tested for the study. They are: 1) What is the attitude of university female undergraduate

students towards BSE? 2) What attitude do married female undergraduate students have

towards BSE? 3) What attitude do unmarried female undergraduate students

have towards BSE?

Attitude of female undergraduates students towards breast self-examination, DIORGU


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4) What is the attitude of young females (18-25 years) undergraduate students towards BSE?

5) What is the attitude of old (25 and above) female undergraduate students towards BSE?

1) There is no significant difference between the attitude of married and unmarried female students towards BSE as measured by their mean scores.

2) The attitude of female undergraduate students towards BSE does not differ significantly due to age as measured by their mean scores.

Method The design adopted for this work is analytic descriptive design. The population comprised all the female undergraduate students in the Faculties of Education, Sciences, Social Sciences, Arts, and College of Health Sciences, University of Port Harcourt. The sample for the study consisted 400 female students drawn from the five faculties using Proportional Stratified Random Sampling Technique. Data for the study were collected with Breast Self Examination Questionnaire (BSEQ). Experts and specialists in Measurement and Evaluation and Educational Psychology conducted the face and content validation of the BSEQ. Its reliability coefficient was 0.7 as determined with Cronbach alpha technique. The researcher personally administered the instrument to the respondents. Mean, Standard Deviation and t-test analysis were used in analyzing the data collected. Results Analysis of the data in this study were done in accordance with research questions and hypotheses of the study.



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Research Questions Data collected were analysed using Mean and Standard Deviation for research questions, and t-test for the null hypotheses. Respective mean ( ) scores below 140 which is the criteria for positive attitude. Research Question 1: What is the attitude of university female undergraduate students towards BSE? Table 1: Mean response of female undergraduate students

towards BSE S/N Items SD 1. Very much encourage BSE 3.84 0.20 2. BSE is a wasted effort 1.25 0.80 3. BSE saves life 4.25 0.42 4. BSE should be made compulsory 3.16 0.60 5. BSE is a difficult exercise 2.01 1.01 6. BSE cannot be appreciated by most women 3.06 0.87 7. BSE is not important 1.34 0.75 8. I am comfortable with examining my breast 3.81 0.40 9. BSE affords me the sense of control over my health 3.81 0.40 10. BSE is not worthwhile 1.59 0.49 11. I value breast self examination 3.81 0.67 12. BSE techniques are cumbersome 2.09 0.46 13. BSE has a minimal reliance to me 2.14 1.41 14. I dislike the idea of BSE 1.47 0.68 15. BSE reduces the number of death from cancer 3.66 0.73 16. BSE has done more harm than good 1.34 0.96 17. I feel that my practicing BSE regularly I will become

familiar with my breast 3.78 0.51

18. I am sure time spent on BSE is worth it 2.44 1.77 19. I shall like every women from age 20 to practice BSE 3.57 0.71 20. BSE require numerous unpleasant maneuvers 2.33 1.29 21. BSE is a safe practice to me 3.73 0.50 22. BSE is a boring exercise 2.02 1.05 23. I feel BSE is very useful to women 3.84 0.34 24 BSE is an indispensable exercise 3.68 1.28 25. I don’t attempt BSE because I lack confidence in the ability

to do it correctly 3.01 1.77

26. For me, most breast cancers are detected through BSE 2.47 1.72



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27. I don’t advocate BSE 2.11 1.30 28. I am sure BSE is preventively important 3.65 0.62 29. I dislike BSE because of anxiety of finding something

suspicious 1.85 1.18

30. I feel confident when doing BSE 3.38 0.53 31. BSE may give a false sense of security 2.96 1.41 32. I enjoy the exercise of BSE 4.19 5.23 33. BSE is not effective as far as I am concerned 2.93 1.28 34. I can not do without BSE 2.25 1.20 35. It gives me joy when I am encouraged to practice BSE 2.09 1.70 36. I enjoy receiving instructions on BSE 3.32 0.70 37. Without BSE, early detection of breast cancer is not fast 3.33 1.09 38. I appreciate people who remind me to examine my breast 3.50 0.69 39. I feel BSE creates more problems than it can solve 1.28 0.69 40. BSE is out of fashion 1.14 0.49

Grand mean and standard deviation 2.79 0.98 Table 1 showed that university female undergraduate students obtained an attitude grand mean ( ) score of 2.79 with Standard Deviation (SD) of 0.98. Table 2: Mean of attitude of marital status of students towards BSE

Marital Status SD Married 125.30 10.7 Unmarried 124.43 10.62

Table 2 showed that married female undergraduate students obtained mean ( ) score of 125.34 and standard deviation 10.17, while unmarried female students obtained mean ( ) score of 124.43 and SD 10.02. Table 3: Mean influence of Age on students’ attitude

towards BSE. Marital Status SD

Young (18-25 years) 124.79 10.46 Old (25 and above) 124.49 10.55



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Table 3 showed that young (18-25 years) female students obtained attitude mean score of 124.79 and SD 10.46, while old (25 and above) female students obtained attitude mean score of 124.49 and SD 10.55. Null hypotheses were tested with t-test at 0.05 alpha level and are presented in two tables. Table 4: A summary of t-test analysis influence of marital status on students attitude towards BSE

Marital Status

N

SD Df t-cal t-crit Result

Married 120 125.30 10.17 398

0.76

1.96 No

t sig

nifi

cant

Unmarried 280 124.43 10.62 Table 4 showed that the calculated t-value (0.76) is less than the critical t-value (1.96) at df 398 and 0.05 alpha level of significance. The null hypotheses is therefore accepted. Table 5: t-test analysis influence of age on student attitude

towards BSE Marital Status

N

SD Df t-cal t-crit Result

Young (18-25 years)

260 124.79 10.46 398

0.25

1.96

Not s

ignific

ant

Old (25 and above)

140 124.57 10.55

Table 5 showed that the calculated t-value (0.25) is less than the critical t-value (1.96) a df 398 and 0.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis is therefore accepted. Discussion The attitude of university female undergraduate students towards BSE and the influence of age and marital status on attitude of female students towards BSE were investigated in this work.



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Table I shows the analysis of data for answering the first research question which was intended to ascertain the attitude of female students towards BSE. The grand mean ( ) score 2.79 and SD of 0.98 relating to this view is below the acceptable mean ( ) of 3 and above for positive attitude. This showed that university female undergraduate students generally have a negative attitude towards BSE. The results also revealed no significant age and marital status influence on the attitude towards BSE. Hence, married and unmarried students, young and old students studied expressed similar attitude. This result means that both married and unmarried, young and old students have the same attitude towards BSE. That is, all the students studied have negative attitude towards BSE. The result could be an indication that preventive care is foreign to generality of people. Due to lack preventive culture, most women would not like to practice BSE. Most women would not want to self examine their breasts, perhaps for the fear of what they may find. Also, all the women both married and unmarried, young and old share the same socio-cultural behavioural tendencies. The result is in agreement with some past research findings. For example, Jebbin and Adotey (2004) in a study on the attitude to knowledge and practice of BSE in Port Harcourt found that most women in Port Harcourt though aware of BSE and its importance never practice it. Similar result was found in related study by Faulder (1999). However, the study by Ozturk, Enugu, Kiploou and Uyhmazer (2002), Digman et al (1999), Smeltzer and Bare (2005) revealed findings inconsistent with the present one. Digman et al (1999) found that single women are more likely than married women to use BSE as breast health measures. Also reported that age affects the likelihood of using one form of alternative breast health measure. The study reported that women aged 69 and above were most likely to use clinical breast examination, while 50 years and below use BSE on a regular basis. Maxwell, Katak, Desjam and Parboosungh



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(1997) found that mammorgrphy is most frequently used by 60 and 70 years old women. Conclusion and Recommendation The findings of the study indicate that all the students studied have negative attitude towards BSE. Also the finding revealed that there is no significant influence of age and marital status on the attitude towards BSE by female students. The result showed that there was no difference in attitude towards BSE between the married and unmarried, the young and old female students. All the students studied have negative attitude towards BSE. This calls for the need of an intensified enlightenment programme directed at all institutions of higher learning, churches, women organizations etc by the Public Health, a division of Ministry of Health. The sponsorship of such programmes can also be supported by Medical Women Association and Ministry of Women Affairs. References American Cancer Society (2003). Breast Awareness Retrieved July

4, 2005 from htt://www.global family doctor.com/publications/GRD news/brief13.htm.

Breast Cancer Organization 5 Steps of Breast Self Examination (n.d)

Retrieved July 5, 2005 from http://www. Breast Cancer. Org/dia_detec_exam_5steps.html.

Faulder, C. (1999). Breast Cancer: A Guide to its Early Detection

and Treatment London: Pam Books Ltd. Jebbin, J.N. & Adotey, J.M. (2004). Attitude to Knowledge and

Practice of Breast Self Examination in Port Harcourt. Niger Journal Medical 13 (20-166-70) Retrieved July 5, 2005 from



http://www/�

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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nch.gov/entrez/query. Fcgi? CMD = Diplay & DB = pubmed.

Katz, S.D; Zemencuk, D.K. & Haffer, T.O. (2000). Breast Cancer

Screening. American Journal of Public Health 90(5), 199-803.

Morris, A. (1996). Health Promotion: The Case Against Breast Self

Examination: Nursing Times 92,33-41. O’ Malley, M.S. & Fletcher, S.W. (1981). Screening for Breast

Cancer with Breast Self Examination. A Critical Review Journal of American Medical Association 255, 2197-203.

Ozturk, M. Eng, V.S; Kipioolu, A. & Mazer, U. (2000). The Practice

of Breast Self Examination Among Women at Quilistan District of Isparta Eastern Journal of Medicine 4, 54-57.

Semple, C. (2001). Breast Self Examination. Nursing Perspective

Nursing Standard Journals 15(23) 39-42.



http://www.ncbi.nlm.nch.gov/entrez/query�

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IS HABIT IN CONTROL OF ACTION?

BY

REV. DR. SUNDAY DANIEL OSAAT Abstract The place of habit has been examined in human action and found that it has other concepts such as emotion, intention, interest, attitude, freewill, ability or skill, etc. akin to it. The study has maintained that habit is controversial which might have resulted in Dewey’s confusion, as other writers observed it. It has also maintained that habit should be characteristically fixed as a way of identifying the self or the person. It was believed that habit which is person’s power, ability and skill controls actions except when other agents exert certain forces on the person or enforces certain action.

Introduction Perhaps, one of the most controversial and complex issues among philosophers, psychologists and sociologists has been the identification of the engineer of all human action. The pertinent questions have been, what forces or motivates action? What delays or retards or restrains action? Can man freely act? To say the least, different sorts of behaviour produce different types of actions. Two things are likely to be associated with action namely: (1) The person or self acting as an agent guiding his action (PAA

or SAA) and (2) The person or self as an object responding to the forces

exerted by any other agents (PORA or SORA). Schools of thought have different views on the control of

behaviour in action. Some schools of thought believe that behaviour or action is entirely under the control of environmental contingencies, and the others believe that it depends on the actor’s choice that he can do whatever he likes to do. Clinicians on their part


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deal with and are interested in modes of behaviour that often seem resistant to any sort of influence. Is there really any behaviour that can resist completely all sorts of influence? In fact, there are roles, rules and conventions in doing what one intends to do. These actions may be strongly influenced by context - governed behaviour and limited by personal powers and skills. Mixon (1978, 1993) refers to the above described situation as distinction discriminating between context governed behaviour and performance. In this study, habit is examined in relation to other concepts in control of action. Habit: A Controversial Concept Habit refers to the way, or how, something characteristically is done. Websters… dictionary sees habit as “action done often and hence, usually done easily, practice; custom; act that is acquired and has become automatic” and “a tendency to perform a certain action or behave in a certain way…”. Also, when a particular habit is well practiced it becomes a characteristic condition of mind or body. Dewey (1922) claims that “an understanding of habit and of different types of habit is the key to social psychology”. Perhaps, Dewey was referring to the importance of habit to man, psychologists and psychology as a discipline. Allpot (1968:59) in reacting to Dewey’s conception of habit asserts that: Dewey was attempting to claim too many attributes

for the habit unit (fixity and change, neutral impulse and situation, motivation and instrumentality). As a result, the unit seemed vague. Later writers did not follow his lead or attempt to refine the concept for systematic use. The reason, no doubt, is that the concept attitude was already established. For all intends and purposes it filled the need that Dewey felt. According to Allpot, Dewey had claimed too many attributes

for habit which many writers did not attempt to refine for systematic



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use. He reiterated that the attitude of the writers to Dewey’s conception was due to the establishment of the concept of attitude. I would not fail to believe that the claim of too many attributes to habit is problematic, difficult and confusing. It is also perhaps, right to think that that could be due to the controversial nature of the concept. Probably, the controversial concept- ‘habit’ posed a difficult problem confronting Dewey’s style or approach giving rise to further controversy. Allpot on his part, believed that the reason for writers’ rejection of Dewey’s conception was because “the concept attitude was already established”. Was it established by council of psychologists or in a meeting of all the writers? Who are they? From where? One may feel that or be tempted to believe that Mixon’s (1992:67) attempt to differentiate between habit and attitude is another way of resolving the controversy. Mixon succinctly claimed that “in order to show how a habit differs from an attitude it is necessary to show how the ways of behaving which make up a habit are not discretionary, but are limited powers or skills”. It implies that attitude is a discretionary task while habit is referring to ways of behaving showing limited powers or skills. Dewey (1922:42) amongst his claims said: Repetition is in no sense the essence of habit.

Tendency to repeat acts is an incident of many habits but not of all. A man with the habit of giving way to anger may show his habit by a murderous attack upon someone who has offended. His act is nonetheless due to a habit because it occurs only once in his life. The essence of habit is an acquired predisposition to ways or modes of response, not to particular acts except as, under special conditions, these express a way of behaving.

Is Habit in control of action? OSAAT


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The Websters dictionary quoted above agrees in part with Dewey that a habit is an acquired act. This acquired ways or modes of doing thing can affect action. The practice or action may be done regularly or customarily. It is a thing done often and hence, usually done easily. This implies practice for perfection which leads to characteristic disposition. In the Oxford English Dictionary (1958), Habit is a way of: Holding, having, ‘havour’, hence the way in which

one holds or has oneself, ie the mode or condition in which one is, exists, or exhibits oneself, (a) externally; hence demeanour, outward appearance, fashion of body … (b) in mind, character of life, hence, mental constitution, character, disposition, way of acting, computing oneself or dealing with things, habitual or customary way (of acting, etc), personal customs, accustomedness (Tiles, 1992:67)

Simply put, habit is ways of behaving. In habit two things are glaring: (1) External reactions of one’s life; demeanour, appearance,

comportment, deportment, manners, etc. and the social conduct governed by abilities and skills. Every actor on a stage performs to the limit of his ability and skills.

(2) Habit is in mind or it is mental constitution. It means that the “will” is affected when mental activity or the mind is involved.

The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (6th edition) of current English – Hornby (2000) sees habit as “a thing that you do often and almost without thinking, especially something that is hard to stop doing…” This interpretation perhaps refers to when an action is perfected at a stage in which strenous thinking is no larger required. This is also reflecting the controversy. Alexander, F. M. in his writing emphasized psychological unity and

the need to reintegrate behaviour on a conscious level. He taught of a way of changing habit that even serves as a vehicle



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of instruction (Jones, 1976). Dewey also sees habits as similar to skills, which are complexly organized ways of behaving. Very importantly, whichever way one looks at or addresses the issue, we must realize that intention helps in guiding habits to control human actions.

Free Will, Emotion and Habit Free will or freedom may mean absence of force or coercion to action. It implies that the action was not forced neither was the actor compelled to act in a particular way. But, freedom or freewill is characteristically tied to responsibility. The actor principally is allowed to act but be held responsible for consequences of his action. Therefore, freedom itself is limited by creating sense of responsibility. The action must therefore be rational otherwise the actor’s conscience and motive for action will be faulted. Emotional habits may manifest to the disappointment of the actor when the actor proves to be irrational. This is a characteristic of emotion. However, emotions are both positive and negative. The positive emotions include joy, love, pleasure, etc while negative emotions include envy, jealousy, fear, anger, etc. The negative emotions are dangerous and destructive especially the twin emotions of anger and hatred (Osaat, 2001:2). Emotions are the control state of mind. According to Peters (1970) the central feature of states of mind which we call emotions is a type of cognition that can be an appraisal. Dunlop (1984) sees emotion as undeveloped thought and will. It is at this point that one has to be careful on how to express an aspect of freewill called an undeveloped thought and will. For a habit to manifest or produce acceptable actions, emotions must be controlled by: 1. Teaching children to make their appraisal more rational,

discriminating and appropriate. 2. Educating the emotions concerned with control and

canalization passivity (Peters, 1972).



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Sometimes, emotion and motives manifest in the same situation. For instance, in Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe (1998), Okonkwo killed Ikemefuna for fear of being regarded as coward even when the lad called him “father”. Though the council of elders had decided to kill the boy, Okonkwo who adopted the boy would have declined acting directly in the killing. He did it for personal motive and for fear of being seen as coward.

One thing is clear in this case. That is, the fact that Okonkwo had developed the habit of bravery especially in fighting wars and other bravery acts, like wrestling. His emotion – fear equally manifested through this well acquired habit. Because he has been doing the killing, he therefore felt obliged to even kill the child he had adopted. It means that action cannot be done through unacquired ability/skill. It is on this, that habit becomes necessary in philosophy of action.

In all, there is something we cannot avoid doing, that is, action. Somerset in Schick and Vaughn, (1999:133) claims that “there are two good things in life – freedom of thought and freedom of action. Man has been given free will with which to make claims, choices and act in various ways and at different times and places. But, the problem is, as identified above, there are emotions, motives, reasons and causes for every action. Then, how free is our free will? Man is free to think and act, but are these actions really free without reason(s), cause(s) and without after – effect/consequence(s)? That man’s freedom to think and act are situated or punctuated gives meaning to and makes philosophy of action really relevant. As pointed out elsewhere in this study, man cannot stop acting and thinking. Naturally, he is determined to think and act not without bearing all the evil and good consequences of his actions. It is on this, that we can recall the concept of habit.

If our thinking and actions are made manifest by our habits or ways of behaving, then our habits must be trained or prepared for good actions. According to Home in Schick and Vaughn (1999:144),



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“Many shining actions owe their success to chance, though the general or statesman runs away with the applause”. If many shining actions occurred by chance, then the remaining shining actions and evil actions might have occurred based on human nature and conduct. Perhaps, one can think that the free will and freedom of action must pass through a refining medium for shining actions to be produced. It is in this case that habit has to be seen as a refining engine of the “self”. It has to be refined. The self and habit must interact and associate in a special way in order to produce acceptable, necessary and relevant actions. But, then, is it the self or habit that directs? Which is supreme?

The Self and Habit in action In a discussion of habit in action, it becomes imperative to introduce the concept of self to enable us arrive at a logical conclusion. It will of course give direction to the discussion. Dewey attempted the explanation of self to help in throwing more light to the issue of habit. Dewey (1992), in discussing the self, maintained that “man is a creature of habit, not of reason nor yet of instinct”. Two things emerge here, namely, the importance or the necessity of feelings and activities in action; and the self as a connecting, relating and of course a real unity. That is, it unites all elements and all aspects of knowledge into whole. The implication is that it will deal with personal and that of social identity. Therefore, the whole knowledge of the world is a perception (feelings) and habits of association in the mind. This author believes that the mind here is no different from the self having habit functioning to give meaning to the existence of self. Hollis (1992:141) quoted Hume as maintaining that “experience is given, the knowing mind is passive and there are no links in nature”. The view Hume has expressed might not be correct since the mind or self is transcendental. It is beyond what we feel or the action we take here. The relation of cause and effect which is going beyond mere ideas or symbolism and the data of the senses (mental



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and non-mental) are coordinated by the mind or self. The duty or the activity for the self may be enormous to the extent that the related elements and principal elements may be actively involved. It may be right to claim that the mind or self serves as a commander or a leader of action and hence the performer of action. Then, the question is, if self is the leader or commander who does he lead or command? Perhaps, the subjects of self are consciousness, free will, habit, emotion/motive, ideas, etc. The self itself is the person or “person’s nature, special qualities… to be conscious of… one’s nobler nature”, (the Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of current English; 3rd Edition, 1971). The Websters Deluxe Dictionary (2nd Edition, 1979) gives the following meanings: 1. The identity, character, or essential qualities of any person or

thing. 2. The identity, personality, individuality, etc. of a given person,

ones own person as distinct from all others... Also, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of current English (6th edition, 2000) sees it as “the type of person you are, especially the way you normally behave, look or feel…” The self as seen from the dictionaries cited above is the person’s distinct qualities that make him unique (20th century meaning). In the 21st century (from AD 2000), self is seen as the person in his normal behaviour or feeling. This last one agrees with what habit is. Habit as seen elsewhere in this paper, is the thing done often and hence usually done easily, practice or a tendency to behave in a certain way…” It is, therefore, pertinent to say that habit is a manifestation of self or simply self in action. But we should still note that an ability is a habit and its exercise depend on social relations make possible through consciousness, freewill and motive or interest. The Place of Habit in the control of action Frankfurt (1971) argues that “only self conscious beings who are able to reflect on their desires and decide which ones they will act on can truly be free”. The self – consciousness informs every



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action. This self – consciousness directs habit to produce desirable actions. How? The physical and social environment, emotion and cognitive capabilities develop into habits through self – consciousness. Man is not a tree or an animal. What differentiates man from all these is the skill – like capabilities man coordinates through self – consciousness that always manifests through his unique way of behaving. The uniqueness of individual habit is the identity or personality or individuality the various dictionary meanings emphasize. This action itself is two-dimensional; that is, the what and the how. The very action and the way it comes. It may be followed that the action and its consequences at first are just ideas. This mentality is a functional character that has the opportunity of being refined before production. At this level all actions are capable of being refined by a well-trained habit unless untamed emotion is allowed to suddenly and dangerously manifest. For Morris (1992:109) “in this way mentality comes to mean a functional status which an event many take on a complex level of the interaction of the events.” To Dewey such skills become part of the self. They extend their activities and so extend the self. Speaking like Dewey, what is necessary in this case is that habits must be formed more intelligently, more sensitive, informed with foresight or insight (self-consciousness), aware of the situation, direct and sincere, and sometimes flexibly responsive and sometimes not. Perhaps, vagueness may be experienced in the discussion of habits. This may be intentional but purposeful just to address probably comprehensively the issue at hand. The odd thing here is flexibility. Has Dewey been really sounding verbose? It is, perhaps true that self is transcendental or beyond the control of the person but habit may be controllable to an extent and emotions can be tamed or can be positively trained. So, very importantly for the self to be at a better position, habit must be properly guided for a better action through high level of self-consciousness. Dewey (1930) maintains that:



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Concrete habits do all the perceiving, imagining, recalling, judging, conceiving and reasoning… yet habit does not, of itself, know, for it does not of itself stop to think, observe or remember. Neither does impulse of itself engage in reflection or contemplation. It just lets go… without habit there is only irritation and confused hesitation. With conflict of habits and release of impulse there is conscious search. (HNC P.177)

The conscious search which is the product of habits and impulse interaction is entirely different from the sense of self-consciousness often expressed in this work. Most importantly, the fact referred to as shown in the quotation above, is simply that the concrete habits do all the judgeing, imagining, perceiving, recalling, conceiving, reasoning, thinking, etc. This is a fact that portrays the mind as the self which is made manifest through habit. Notably, it is these manifestations that people see as actions. By implication the habit that cultivates constant conscious search of every issue will be yielding intelligent rational actions that would be goal oriented. This is the source of rational man. The habit of high imagining of social issues or high human judgement in terms of feelings of pains will lead to rational social actions or rational moral actions. Conversely, the habit of carelessness in human relations will result in actions that are irrational or immoral or inimical to the concept of freedom or morality. This rational man has a well-defined goals/aims and his actions are always having rational explanation through both inductive and deductive approaches. Hence, this intelligent human being is constantly consciously searching for means and goals. This is a state of becoming one’s self. It is obvious that the conscious search creates the self by harmonizing habits and thought, this projecting social action and constructing a man whom is free and human. It is eventually evident that personal identity is the product



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of habit manifested in actions. Therefore, habit is not only in control of actions but also a manifestation of self – personal identity. The Habit Flexibility, Adjustment and Responsibility

The concept of habit reveals that habit is characteristically fixed, rigid and difficult to be changed. Dewey was of the view that habits naturally tended towards rigidity and fixity. It is believed that habit is as automatic as a conditioned response in every action. It is glaring that the people who behave in a fixed way have limited freedom especially in a matter of choice of action. What is not certain in this case is whether the fixed (habit) ways of behaving would mean limited responsibilities. Perhaps, it is not because the fixed ways of behaving might not be automatically right while freedom of choice may lead to right action. The right actions would have palatable consequences because responsibilities for one’s action absolutely mean responsibility for one’s habits. Perhaps, it was for the above reason that Dewey sorted for how to make habits flexible for increasing choice and broadening the range of conduct which responsibilities solely rest on the actor. Flexibility of habits can lead one out of pervasive and most intractable habits. This could lead to personality adjustment. There are certain contradicting views. First, will flexibility of habit not eventually lead to loss of self – identity, and second will change of habit be possible? And if it is, would habit still maintain its natural meaning? Perhaps, what one needs to talk about is not flexibility but an intelligent adjustment or intelligent control of action. This intelligent control of action is not different from conscious awareness or most appropriately self – consciousness. The self-consciousness will create the conscious awareness of the consequences of action and alternative action can be intelligently introduced to substitute the first action without changing or losing one’s identity. This thesis is not maintaining, like some scientists, that habit flexibility is automatic and, therefore, that habit generally should be tentative.



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The truth is that changing or modifying a well – formed habit is not easily done. Besides, when once habit is tentative and highly flexible its control of action will not be possible. The fixity of habits and the responsibility of actions call for limited freedom and hence guided action. The implication is on moral and social actions. Of a truth habits fixity has a moral responsibility that is quite complex. But does this make it irrelevant? Habits Fixity and Control of Action The flexibility of habit will lead to loss of its meaning and ineffective control of action. In the other hand, habit fixity gives meaning to the concept of habit but runs into the complex issue of moral action. For instance, the habits of anger and hate that always manifest in fighting and killing become habitual when it is continuous and always occur. This habit that manifests in one’s action always becomes the person’s identity but the moral implications are grievious. This does not give room to the issue of habit flexibility but it gives rise to the issue of cultivating right attitude or positive habits. The self-consciousness should be created for an intelligent control of habit and hence of action. If the action of fighting was done once, perhaps when one found himself among mobs or when he is emotionally overwhelmed, this cannot be referred to as habitual, and so, the concept of habit is not even necessary in this case. This does not even need any education or any intelligent control but it is entirely environmental matter. Though this can lead to formation of habit in the distance future, at the time, but of the action it cannot be so regarded. The concept demands that action becomes automatic and perfect according to the intention of the doer or actor. This requires the action to be well – intended by the actor. For instance, the habit of giving – generosity or peaceful disposition can be formed. This perhaps might depend on custom, that is, shared habit. The habit here can be got from education, which is a way of societal



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upbringing or behaviour or socialization or enculturation and acculturation. Very importantly, habit should be taken as mindless routine. The rational habits that manifest through the intelligent actions are necessary. The need to educate “self” or form good habits shall not be to create flexible habits but to resolve conflicts that would have erupted between two or more habits when one has habits that are divided against themselves. When this is done, personality is disrupted. This is another reason why habit flexibility becomes not only impossible but also dangerous. The issue here is that of personal and social identity shown in one’s actions. Habit flexibility may not demonstrate or show this personal and individual social identity. The actions, which become habitual by persistence and continuity, identify the personality of an individual. Again, habit flexibility may not show skill or demonstrate ability. Man as a creature of habits must only be so recognized if and only if all elements akin to habits are not juxtaposed or abandoned. The habits are demanded for a certain kind of activities, which constitute the self. Since the “self” cannot be changed and it remains the same at all times, it implies that the habits, which control actions as the manifestation of self, must be fixed, perhaps, naturally. Concluding Remarks The discussion of Philosophy of Action depends mainly on two theses as said earlier, namely: 1. The person acting as an agent guiding his action, and 2. The person as an object responding to the forces exerted by

any other agents. The first thesis is the one we had dealt with in this study and

the conclusion would equally base on it. In this case, the self or person is superior or supreme to the habit that serves as the instrument used to carry out the action. In fact, there are rules and conventions in doing what one intends to do. The purposeful actions



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may be strongly influenced by context – governed behaviour and limited by personal powers, abilities and skills. The habit that is instrumental to human action is not only controversial but also difficult to understand. This controversy might be due to the different ways habits can feature or due to the veracity of human actions. For instance, the habit that is simply an act acquired and has become automatic or an act of practice that has become a characteristic condition of mind or body, has been variously interpreted by various authors and experts. To Dewey, habit has many attributes such as fixity, change, neutral impulse, situation, motivation and instrumentality. Allport was not comfortable in Dewey’s attempt for comprehensiveness because of it’s verbosity. Allport also claimed that many other writers were not comfortable too. Mixon attempted to resolve the controversy by differentiating habit from attitude. He simply believes that ways of behaving that are habitual depend on human limited powers and skills. This claim is entirely different from what some have claimed. Intention helps habits control human action but this greatly depends on freedom to act. It simply means that the actor is entirely free to act but to bear all the responsibilities of his action(s). Therefore, freedom of action itself is limited and hence the actor is not entirely free to act. This fact calls for the conscious training of emotion (especially negative) that could become habitual and sometimes momentarily manifest in human action. The human intention and freewill give room for reason. So, reasonability or rationality or self-consciousness becomes part of a being otherwise habit will be negative and full of negative emotions. Man’s intention in a particular action, which is free, must be subjected to second thought or be re-examined to rid off the negative consequences of that very action. This level of human self-consciousness is the supreme self. Dewey’s conception of man (self) as a “creature of habit not of reason nor yet of instinct” is probably wrong because man (self) is supreme to habit. It is the sum total of both habit and reason, but the whole is not equal to the sum of the



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parts. The self is more than habit, beyond ideas or the action. It is transcendental. It serves here as the commander or the leader of action, and hence, the performer of every action. However, whenever human action is freely regularized and perfectly practiced in a unique way, it becomes an identity or a way of manifesting the self. Here habit becomes the personality and the know-how (method) in the way of demonstrating or personalization of the self. This cannot be flexible but fixed otherwise the personal identity would be lost. At the point of perfection, habit plays the part of skills or abilities. This is the level of intelligibility and sensitivity with foresight and insight (self-consciousness). Habit is the identity, personalization and human capabilities or skills. It can, therefore control action. It can also be trained or tamed for a perfect control of action. References

Achebe, C. (1998). Things Fall Apart Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books.

Alexander, F.M. (1932). The Use of the Self New York: Dutton.

Allport, G. W. (1939). “Dewey’s individual and social psychology”. In P. A. Schilpp(ed). The Philosophy of John Dewey. New York: Tudor.

Allport G.W (1968). The Historical Background to Modern Social

Psychology. In G. Lindsey & E. Aronson (Eds). The Handbook of social Psychology. Vol.1. Reading Mass: Addition Wesley.

Dewey, J. (1922). Human Nature and Conduct Part II. New York:

Henry Holt.



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Dunlop, F. (1984). The Education of Feeling and Emotion. London: George Allen and Unwin

English, H. B. & English, A.C. (1958). A Comprehensive Dictionary

of Psychological and Psycho analytical Terms. London: Longman.

Frankfurt, H. G. (1971). “Freedom of Will and the Concept of a

Person”, Journal of Philosophy. 68, 5 – 20. Hollis, M. (1992). “The Self in Action.” In J. E. Tiles (Ed.) Human

Nature and Human Nurture (volume I). New York: Routledge.

Home, H. (1999). “Indeterminism” In Doing Philosophy: An

Introduction through Thought Experiment. Theodore Schick and Lewis Vaughn (eds), New York: Mc Graw – Hill.

Hornby, A. S. Gatenby, E.V. & Wakefield, H. (1971). The

Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of current English. Oxford: University Press.

Hornby, A. S. (2000). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of

Current English. (Sixth Edition). Oxford: University Press. Jones, F. P. (1976). Body Awareness in Action: A Study of the

Alexander Technique. New York: Schocken. Mixon, D. (1992). “The Place of Habit in the control of Action”. In

J. E. Tiles (Ed.). Human Nature and Human Nurture. (Volume I). London: Routledge.



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Morris, C. W. (1992). “Mind as Function”. In J.E.Tiles Human Nature and Human Nurture. (volume I). New York: Routledge.

Osaat, S. D. (2001). “Pacificism and Emotional Problems: The Place

of Moral Education”. A Paper Presented at 1st Niger Delta Peace Conference held in Port Harcourt, Rivers State (14 – 16, March).

Peters, R. S. & Hirst, P.H. (1970). The Logic of Education. London:

Routledge and Kegan Paul. Peters, R. S. (1972). “The Education of the Emotions”. In R. F.

Dearden, P.H. Hirst & R. S. Peters (eds). Education and the development of reason. (Part 3). London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Somerset, M. (1999). “Free Will and Determinism” In Doing

Philosophy: An Introduction through Thought Experiments, Theodore Schick and Lewis Vaughn (eds), New York: Mc Graw – Hill.

Webster, N. & Mckechnie, J.L. (Eds.) (1979). Webster’s Deluxe

Unabridged Dictionary (2nd Edition). New York: Simon and Schister.



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AN EVALUATION OF INTEGRATED SCIENCE PROGRAMME AND ITS IMPLEMENTATION IN THE

SOUTH-SOUTH STATES-OWNED COLLEGES OF EDUCATION

BY

JACOBSON BARINEKA NBINA, Ph.D.

Abstract The study aimed at evaluating the integrated science programme and the status of implementation in the state owned colleges of education in south-south, Nigeria, in terms of admission criteria, availability of facilities, academic staff, support staff teaching equipment and teaching methods with the NCCE minimum standards as the bases. Five research questions guided the study. Data obtained from the teachers and students of integrated science in the colleges, using a questionnaire and a checklist/observation schedule were descriptively analyzed. Results show that while the colleges have made some improvements in admission criteria, availability of laboratory and classroom space, much is yet to done with respect to provision of relevant science teaching equipment, qualified staff and teachers’ adoption of the recommended teaching methods. Based on the Findings, it was recommended among others that teachers of integrated science should up date their knowledge and method of teaching with the NCCE Minimum standard by attending seminars, workshops, symposia and conferences. Introduction Integrated science is known to have been hurriedly introduced in the Nigerian junior secondary schools (JSS) (Olarewaju, 1984). Reports abound on the several problems associated with its introduction (Bajah, 1981; Maduabum; 1978; Yoloye 1990; Ezeh, 1992). Conspicuous among these include the belated, haphazard, and


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uncoordinated embarkment by few colleges of education, on training specialist teachers in the discipline (Mani, 1978; Yoloye, 1985), particularly by some state-owned colleges known generally (Okeke, 1995) to be less equipped than their Federal-owned counterparts. Expectedly, the poor quality of the Integrated science programme became glaringly manifest in the production of incompetent and ineffective Integrated Science Teachers.

In 1989, the Federal Government then intervened by establishing the National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE) with the responsibility to harmonise teacher education programmes in various subject disciplines, including Integrated Science in all the colleges education in the country. They were accordingly expected to ensure that all the colleges operate on a common standard. Guidelines were then specified as minimum standards for production of NCE teachers in Integrated Science, among other subjects.

Despite the intervention, of the NCCE in the harmonization of teacher education programmes in the colleges of education, experience and documented evidence (Oloruntegbe, 1996), indicate not only the paucity of Integrated Science teachers in the JSS but, also their deteriorating quality. Could it then be that the quality of the Integrated Science teacher education programmes in the colleges has not improved as to enhance the quality and quantity of their products, particularly in the reportedly less advantaged state-owned Colleges? Purpose of the study The purpose of the study is to assess the implementation of the Integrated Science programmes in state-owned colleges of education against the NCCE minimum standard with respect to admission criteria, physical facilities, science teaching equipment, academic staff, support staff and teaching methods. To achieve the above purpose, the following research questions guided the study:



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1. What is the predominate criterion adopted by the colleges for admission of entrants into the NCE programme in Integrated Science?

2. What is the Integrated science class size and the recommended proportion of the various physical facilities available for teaching Integrated Science in the colleges of education?

3. What proportion of the recommended Integrated Science teaching equipment are available in the colleges of education?

4. What proportion of the recommended number of academic and support staff for Integrated Science teaching are available in the colleges of education?

5. What is the extent of use of various Integrated Science teaching methods in the colleges of education?

Method The study, which was purely evaluative was carried in the South-South geo-political zone of Nigeria. The population considered all the 2nd and 3rd year Integrated Science NCE teacher trainees and their trainers in the 5 state-owned colleges of education in the zone. The sample, was 4 out of the 5 colleges, yielding 244 students and 4 integrated science teachers who were heads of department. The 4 teachers provided data used on various aspects of their Integrated Science programme while the students generated information on the extent of the teachers use of various teaching methods.

Two instruments were used for data collection. These were (i) a researcher-developed and validated questionnaire with the Likert response format which was used in obtaining data on the extent of the Integrated Science Teachers use of seven teaching methods; (ii) a checklist/observation schedule used in collecting data from the heads of department through one or a combination school records, observation and interviews in relevant aspects of their

An Evaluation of Integrated science programme and its Implementation in the South-South States-Owned Colleges of Education, NBINA


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Integrated Science programme. Data were descriptively analyzed using means, standard deviation and percentages. Results Table 1: Admission of NCE Integrated Science Teacher Trainees by Admission criteria

JME Pre-NCE Remedial Total College code

Students %

Enrolment

Students Enrolment

% Enrolment

Students Enrolmen

t

% Enrolment

A 16 21.62 58 78.38 74 100 B 9 21.95 32 78.5 41 100 C 14 18.42 62 81.58 76 100 D 13 24.53 40 75.47 53 100 Overall 52 21.31 182 78.69 244 100

Table 1 shows that two admission criteria, the joint matriculation (JME.) and pre-NCE remedial are employed in admitting Integrated Science teacher trainees into the state colleges of education. The pre-NCE remedial criterion, through which 78.69% of the entrants were admitted, is thus more predominantly used than the JME through which only 21.31% of the entrants were admitted. Table 2a: Available Integrated Science Physical Facilities 7 Class size Classroom space (in sq

meter) Laboratory space (in sq meter) Staff offices Library books

Colleges code

30 <0 >30 < 80-108

80-108

< 80-108

< 144-160

144-160

> 144-160

A

NA

A

NA

A - - 1 - 1 - - 1 - - 1 1 B - 1 - - 1 -

- - - 1 1

C - 1 - - 1 - - 1 - - 1 1 D - 1 - - 1 - - 1 - - 1 1 Overall - 2(0

%) 2(50%)

- 4(100 %)

1(25%)

3(75%)

- - - 4(10%

- 4(100%)

Note: A = Adequate NA = Adequate



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Table 2b: Proportion of Types of Recommended Science Equipment Available

College code No of types Recommended

No of types Available

% type Available

A 201 25 12.43 B 201 19 9.45 C 201 22 10.95 D 201 32 15.92

It is shown in Table 2a that 50% of the colleges have integrated science class sizes of less than 30; 50% more than 30; 100% of the colleges having classroom spaces of between 80-108 square meters, 75% of the colleges have laboratory spaces of between 144 to 160 square meters, 25% of less than 144 square meters and 100% of the colleges have inadequate staff offices and library books. Table 2b further shows that the integrated science equipment available in the colleges range between 9.45% to 15.92% of the number recommended by the NCCE. Table 3: Proportion of Available Staff Academic staff (Qualified). Support staff* No. No. % No. No. % College Recommendation

Available Available Recommendation Available Available

A 8 4 50 5 2 40 B 8 3 37.50 5 1 20 C 8 3 37.50 5 2 40 D 8 4 50 5 1 20 Overall 32 14 43.75 20 6 30 * Support staff =1 Lab technician

=2 Lab assistance =3 Lab attendant =4 Workshop attendant =5 Cleaner

The proportion of the recommended qualified integrated academic staff range between 37.50% in the colleges, while that of support staff range between 20 to 40% of the recommended number of the



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academic staff, and 30% of the recommended number of the support staff are available in all the colleges. Table 4: Mean Ratings (MR) of Teachers use to Teaching Methods

Rating scale Teaching method Very often

(4) Often

(8) Rarely

(2) Never

(1) MR STD

Dev. Meaning

Lecture 94 75 47 28 2.96 1.02 Often Demonstration 62 49 70 63 2.45 1.13 Rarely Project 48 37 46 113 2.08 1.18 Rarely Textbook 23 16 49 156 1.61 0.97 Rarely Field trip 24 14 26 175 1.58 1.04 Often Discussion 111 66 27 40 3.01 1.10 Often Any other & activity

22 65

33

124

1.94

1.66

Rarely

MEAN RATE (MR) KEY 0 - 1.49 = Never 1.50 - 2.49 = Rarely 2.50 - 3.49 = Often 3.50 - 4.00 = Very often As seen in table 4, demonstration (MR = 2.45); Project (MR = 2.08); Textbook (MR = 1.61); Field trip (MR = 1.58); methods and activity in combination with any other method (MR = 1.94); are rarely used in teaching integrated science while lecture (MR = 2.96) and discussion (MR = 3.01) are often used. Discussion and Implications for the Integrated Science Teacher Education Evidence from this study has shown that the quality of integrated science teacher education in the state owned colleges of education had improved through the supervisory intervention of the NCCE in some aspects of the programme. Through, the admission criterion though the JME has put in place its objective of harmonization of the quality of entrants into the programme, but has not been sufficiently realized as the bulk of the admission is still through locally organized and less objective Pre-NCE remedial



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programme. The extent of availability of some physical facilities has also been improved with 50% of the colleges having a class size less than 30 prescribed by the NCCE via-a-vis evident viability of spacious classroom and laboratories in all and 75% of the colleges respectively is quite an impressive development. Enough space for effective student-student and student-teacher activities based interaction is thus ensured. However, that all the colleges are plagued with inadequate staff office spaces, library books, near-to-nothing science equipment and highly inadequate staffing imply that the output of both the teachers and the trainees in the programme are highly minimized as these are very indispensable inputs for the maximization of any education programme, particularly a science education programme. Furthermore, the evidence that the teacher trainees patronize lecture and mere discussion methods as the expense of the prescription. Popular activity oriented approach has obvious negative implications on the quality of integrated science graduates. As teachers are generally known to teach as they were taught, the products of these colleges would end up specialists in the unorthodox and ineffective methods in integrated science. Conclusion and recommendations The state owned colleges of education have made improvement in integrated science teacher education. However, inadequate funding seems to have imposed serious threats to some vital aspects of the programme; such as poor staffing, inadequate physical and science teaching equipment, among others.

The following recommendations are made on the basis of major findings. Government should provide a well-equipped laboratories, funds for the maintenance of necessary equipment, adequate staffing, provision of textbooks or scientific Journals and other materials necessary for the professional growth of the teachers/students. Information and communication technology is vital in the concretization of some abstract concepts in integrated science.



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References Bajah, S.T. (1981). Teaching Integrated Science Creatively.- Ibadon:

University of Ibadan Press. Ezeh, D.N. (1992). Towards Effective integrated science teacher

education programme in Nigeria. In B.G. Nworgu (Ed). Perspectives in Teacher Education in Nigeria; APUEN Monograph 3; 67-75.

Maduabum, M.A. (1990). Crisis in integrated science classroom:

Reflections on integrated science Teacher Education in Nigeria; Journal of the Science Teachers Association of Nigeria. 26(2), 19-24.

Mani, P.C. (1978). The education of teachers of integrated science in

ABU, Nigeria. Journal of the Science Teachers Association of Nigeria. 166(2). 82-91.

Olarewaju, A.O. (1984). An experimental evaluation of the revised edition of integrated science project. Journal of the Science Teachers Association of Nigeria. 22(1&2), 9-12.

Oloruntegbe, K.O. (1996). The place of evaluation in Integrated

Science. Journal of the Science Teachers Association of Nigeria. 31 (1&2). 9-12.

Yoloye, T.W. (1985). A unified training programme for integrated

science. Curriculum Organization of Nigeria, Monograph3. 253-261.



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PHYSIOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF RAPID WEIGHT LOSS PRACTICES AMONG COMBAT ATHLETES

By Paul C. E. Iro, Ph.D.,

Abstract Athletes sometimes resort to quick-fix weight loss practices in order to fit into weight categories, which they think would improve their strength and therefore, performance ratings at sports competitions. This paper explores popular methods employed by combat athletes in their quest for rapid weight loss and evaluates their effects on the health and performance capacity of athletes. It is hoped that knowledge of the pitfalls of cutting weight will serve as a sound scientific basis for wise choice of adequate methods, and discourage the use of high-risk weight-loss practices. In the main, they use dehydration, carbohydrate restriction, and food deprivation, which exert multiple deleterious effects on both the short- and long-terms that impair the healthiness and physical performance potentials of the practitioner. Rapid weight loss regimes should thus be discouraged as they deny the athletes vital nutrients, and cause metabolic derangement that is detrimental to health and sports performance. In essence, athletes who cut weight are not losing body fat but rather, athletic performance ability. It was recommended among other things that the safety of the athlete should not be sacrificed for accolade. Weight reduction based on sound nutrition and prolonged conditioning, which enhances self–understanding, attainment of effective body weight and competitive readiness, appears better.

Keywords: Weight Making, Total body weight, Body composition, Metabolism,

Muscular strength, Thermoregulation.


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Introduction Athletes embrace several practices in order to gain a competitive edge. One of such practices is the slashing of body weight just before competitions. The target is to fit them into weight categories, which by their estimation, is likely to enhance their performance profile at competitions. The desire is usually to attain the maximum weight reduction that is achievable shortly before a competition (Bloomfield, Fricker, & Fitch, 1992). Quite often, the weight differentials between the present and desired weights are quite large. This practice is termed “weight making” and is very common in combative sports, as athletes compete in weight classes. Athletes in sports, which impose weight limits for competitions such as wrestling, judo, and boxing, are the most vulnerable (Foss & Keteyian, 1998).

Weighing scales determine total body weights. Total body weight figures do not reveal the body composition fractions that compose the observed weight and the associated physiological capabilities. Hence, selection of an adequate weight reduction regime among sports-men and -women is rationally based on the importance of providing a sound basis for health promotion and athletic achievement. Aside from the supply of energy, foods serve as building blocks for tissues and supply other vital ingredients (vitamin and minerals) for the maintenance of body tissues and numerous catabolic activities in the body. For most sports, for instance, a low body fat mass and for some others a large muscle mass is desirable for optimal performance (Bloomfield et. al., 1992). Outside tactical considerations, combat sports require high muscle strength for meaningful achievement and this depends on the size of the lean body mass compartment of body composition. The critical point therefore, is to examine other parameters pivotal to optimal performance output and health, which are masked by total body weight data. The implication is that depending on the adequacy of the weight loss measure, an individual may indeed be jeopardizing his chances of success while hoping to achieve improved



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performance. It may also cause structural changes capable of modifying the metabolism in a manner that could produce far-reaching health complications.

This spells out the need to properly understand the risks associated with rapid weight loss methods for safe and effective training and competition among athletes. The prime focus of this article therefore, is to identify popular rapid weight loss methods and explore their limitations on health and performance in combative sports. Knowing the shortcomings of rapid weight loss will provide this category of athletes with a sound foundation for choosing effective and efficient weight loss techniques, and discourage hazardous practices.

Summary of non-dietary, quick, weight - loss methods Athletes use a variety of non-dietary weight loss techniques to achieve quick weight loss. They are not usually used in isolation. Oftentimes, athletes combine food restriction, restricted water intake, and other dehydration methods such as working out in rubberized suits, inducing vomiting, and use of laxatives. These are age-long practices used by athletes to achieve rapid weight loss (Steen & Brownell, 1990; Foss & Keteyian, 1998).

The American College of Sports Medicine (1996) in its position statement on weight loss practices among athletes, observed that these forced weight loss methods are generally linked with reduced muscular strength and stamina, reduced blood and plasma volumes; lowered cardiac efficiency at submaximal workloads, decreased oxygen uptake when food restriction is involved, decreased renal blood flow and volume of filtered fluid, impaired thermoregulation, and liver glycogen depletion. These conditions impair performance output. Hazards and Precaution on rapid weight loss diets The use of fad diets to “cut-weight” is of recent origin. The safest weight loss regime incorporates exercise and balanced diet that is low in calorie (Heyward, 1998; Robergs & Keteyian, 2003).

Physiological Evaluation of Rapid eight Loss Practices among combat athletes, PAUL


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However, the desire for rapid weight loss may become so compelling that athletes resort to diets that are nutritionally inadequate and unhealthy to achieve this objective. Oftentimes, these diets disregard the importance of balanced diets for proper nourishment by excluding or limiting carbohydrate, protein or fat, in the dietary plan. This section addresses the key issues associated with crash diets in which carbohydrate is low or absent and explains why they are undesirable. An Ideal Weight Loss Diet Should be Rich in Carbohydrate Carbohydrate is vital for several body functions. However, many weight loss diets contain very low or no carbohydrate. Popular among such diets are the Yudkin, Stillman, Atkins, and Mayo Clinic diets (Serdula, Williamson, Anda, Levy, Heaton, & Byers, 1994). Carbohydrate restriction in a weight loss programme can produce the 3 serious adverse conditions, thus: First, glucose is the sole source of energy for normal nervous system activity. Adequate daily carbohydrate ingestion prevents exhaustion of glycogen stores and breakdown of muscle tissue for energy (protein-sparing effect). Depletion of glycogen stores compels the body to catabolize tissue protein for glucose. The result is loss of protein, not fat.

Secondly, glucose and muscle glycogen are the primary energy sources for high intensity, short duration as well as low intensity, long duration activity. Inadequate supply of carbohydrate in the diet will cause depletion of muscle glycogen stores and thus diminish endurance output, and vice versa.

Thirdly, carbohydrate is required for the metabolism of fat. As a result of carbohydrate restriction or depletion of glycogen stores, the adipose tissue releases more fatty acids than the individual can metabolize, resulting in the incomplete oxidation of fats. The outcome is the formation of ketone bodies. This process may lead to the accumulation of excessive amounts of ketone bodies by the liver – a condition called ketosis. Excess ketone bodies are usually excreted in the urine and exhaled air. With this, blood pH may drop to unsafe levels. To avert these undesirable consequences of low



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carbohydrate diet, Heyward (1998) recommends the inclusion of 58 to 70% carbohydrates in a weight loss diet. Low Carbohydrate Diet Produces Quick Weight Loss Absence or limited amount of carbohydrate in the diet produces quick weight loss. This is partly because of the storage properties of glycogen and partly because muscle glycogen stores are quickly used up (Ganong, 2005). It is well established that every gramme of carbohydrate is stored with 3 grammes of water. The loss of water that accompanies glycogen depletion leads to substantial weight loss since one litre of water weighs about 0.90 kg (roughly 2 lbs.). Conversely, pre-dietary weight is regained shortly after normal carbohydrate intake is resumed. Diets High in Protein but Low in Carbohydrate are Unsafe Hypoglycemic diets necessitate the breaking down of tissue protein as an alternative source of energy. The outcome is muscle dystrophy. Lemon (1989) and Tarnopolsky, Atkinson, MacDougall, Chesley, Phillips, and Schwarcz (1992) agree that daily protein intake that yields 1.2 to 1.6 g per kilogramme body weight of protein is enough to compensate for the extra protein requirement of the average athlete per day. This recommendation is ideal as ingesting more than this amount of protein does not enhance protein synthesis (Fox, 2006). Beyond this range, the excess protein is broken down to form nitrogen, and carbon skeleton. The nitrogen is passed out in urine as urea, while the carbon skeleton is either transformed into glucose or used as fuel. Examples of protein-rich diets are Scardale diets, Pennington, and Copper.

Some diets in this category require the user to drink copious amounts of water. This is meant to forestall dehydration brought on by the stockpiling of urea and to flush out ketone bodies from the body. This requirement places extra strain on the kidneys and may threaten individuals with gout or kidney dysfunction (Fox, 2006). Fasting/Skipping of Meals is Unsafe Some persons restrict their diet or abstain completely from food in order to lose weight. This practice starves the individual of food



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nutrients. It stimulates increased secretion of enzymes for fat deposition and therefore increases fat storage by the body. The absence of carbohydrate as the preferred fuel also causes the body to catabolize protein to satisfy its energy needs. This phenomenon causes diminution of lean body mass and is associated with severe consequences such as anaemia, gout, low blood pressure and several metabolic disturbances. It can lead to hair loss, hyperuricaemia, dizziness, abnormal kidney function, fainting, involuntary and painful muscle contraction. When an individual adopts skipping of meals as a weight loss method, the body switches over to the fasting mode. Like caloric restriction, this promotes increased absorption of food from the small intestine; the body adjusts to a lower metabolic rate, resulting in the accumulation of body fat (Donahue, Lin, Kirshchenbaum, & Keesey, 1984). Hence, nutritionists recommend three meals and up to 6 smaller meals per day. High Fat Diets are Unhealthy Certain diets (e.g. Atkins diet) permit unlimited fat intake but limit carbohydrate ingestion. This produces high serum triglycerides and cholesterol, which are well-established risk factors of cardiovascular disease. High low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL), high total cholesterol, and triglycerides are linked with the narrowing and stiffening of arteries and coronary heart disease - CHD (Baumgartner, Hemsfield, & Roche, 1995). In addition, fat has the highest caloric value of all food classes. It is known that 1 gramme of carbohydrate yields 4.1 kcal, while protein and fat yield 4.3 and 9.3 kcal per gramme in that order. Fatty food is appetizing and is often used to garnish other foods. Hence, the high energy content of fatty foods and their availability put the individual at high risk of ingesting large amounts of fat (Lenfant, & Ernst, 1994). Since the body cannot convert fatty acid to glucose, excess fat is stored in the body fat depot.



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Hazards of Rapid Weight Loss in Sport Inappropriate weight loss practices have several negative

effects on human physiology capable of initiating a vicious cycle that will further jeopardize the health and performance capacity of the individual. Inadequate weight loss methods lead to insufficient glycogen stores, dehydration, muscle weakness, fatigue, irritability, malnutrition and digestive upset (Weltman, Matter, & Stamford, 1980). The consequences of these physiological alterations caused by improper weight loss methods are diminished speed, coordination, strength, impaired health and ultimately, disappointing training adaptation and performance output. Sometimes the obsession for weight loss results in a pathological aversion for food and weight gain and eventually leads to eating disorders. The frequency of occurrence of eating disorders among male and female athletes is not well documented. (Bloomfield, et. al., 1992); however, in a study of 695 secondary school and university athletes of both sexes, 3% had anorexia nervosa and about 22% satisfied the conditions for bulimia nervosa (Black & Burkes-Miller, 1988).

Rapid weight loss procedures have been associated with adverse acute and chronic effects. The section that follows presents its shortcomings on both the short term and long term bases. The Short term Defects

Fast methods of weight reduction produce significant imbalances in body composition (Sharkey, 1990). They bring about weight reductions through loss of body water, minerals, electrolytes and the associated protein, plus rapid depletion of liver and muscle glycogen stores. Research indicates that for every grammme of glycogen catabolized, there is a concomitant loss of 2.5 grammmes of water. Hence, 2 to 3 kilogrammes of body weight can be easily shed due to glycogen depletion and dehydration. As a consequence, energy restriction over a short term produces substantial loss of muscle mass over and above fat loss. This places the individual at high risk for impaired muscular strength, endurance, and compromises temperature regulation.



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The Long-Term Effects Several shortcomings are associated with long term caloric restriction in a weight loss programme. These defects arise from the non-availability of sufficient energy to support training and preserve lean body mass (Lemon, 1989). If the weight loss diet is very restrictive in carbohydrates and other energy-rich foods, it places the individual at high risk for loss of body protein. In this circumstance, the athlete operates under severe energy deficit and reverts to protein for energy supply. Individuals in this situation have been reported to experience hypovolaemia, low volume of body fluids, with attendant weakness and fainting (Pavlov et. al., 1985). Absence and cessation of menstruation (primary and secondary amenorrhea, respectively) have also been reported as consequences of strict caloric restriction. Conclusion Rapid weight loss is not an alternative to a weight loss plan that incorporates balanced diet that supplies enough energy for attainment and sustenance of effective competition weight and proper hydration. Most rapid weight loss regimes produce considerable weight reductions, which on face value appear impressive. Since they emphasize low carbohydrate ingestion, which leverages on dehydration, brought on by muscle and liver glycogen depletion, this method can be quite hazardous. This is because hypoglycemic diets cause sodium diuresis (increased excretion of sodium in the urine), loss of fluid from both the intracellular and extracellular compartments, and loss of lean body mass. These lost ingredients (lean body mass and water) are vital requirements for healthy metabolism. Aside from the associated metabolic derangement, the resultant fatigue, muscle weakness, and depleted substrate stores directly impair exercise capacity. An analysis of the capabilities tasked by should form the basis for the choice of weight loss regimen that should enhance these capabilities. Recommendations Based on the pitfalls of hasty weight loss practices identified above,

the following recommendations become relevant:



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1. The safety of the athlete should not be sacrificed for sports laurels. The use of rapid weight loss methods among athletes should be discouraged because of its deleterious effects on health and performance capacity of the athlete.

2. Young athletes should be educated in the importance of periodic medical examination and the advantage of an all-year-round conditioning for muscular fitness, cardiorespiratory endurance and nutritional readiness. These fitness attributes play important roles in sports achievement. Aside from an improved understanding of the self, it protects athletes from hasty weight loss methods, which portend danger for the health and performance of the athlete.

3. Since it is difficult to scientifically determine the most effective body weight for athletes, an all-year-round conditioning and nutrition programme is likely to offer experience for better self-understanding and therefore valid estimation of effective body weight to the athlete.

4. Reorienting athletes regarding the hazards of fast weight loss could go a long way in discouraging the desperate chase for laurels at the risk of health and safety of sports – men and – women.

References American College of Sports Medicine (1996). Position stand on

weight loss in wrestlers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 28(2): xi – xii.

Baumgartner, R.N.,Hemsfield, S.B., & Roche, A.F.(1995). Human

body composition and the epidemiology of chronic diseases. Obesity Research 3: 73-95.

Black, D.R. & Burkes-Miller, M.E. (1988). Male and female college

athletes: Use of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa weight loss methods. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 59, 252 – 256.



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Bloomfield, P.A., Fricker, P.A., & Fitch, K.D. (Ed.) (1992). Textbook of Science and Medicine in Sport. Illinois: Human Kinetics.

Donahue,C.P., Lin, D.H., Kirshchenbaum, D.S., & Keesey, R.E.

(1984). Metabolic consequence of dieting and exercise in the treatment of obesity. Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology 52: 229 – 240.

Foss, M.I. & Keteyian, S.J. (1998). Fox’s Physiological Basis of

Exercise and Sport. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Fox, S.I. (2006). Human Physiology (9th ed.). New York: McGraw-

Hill. Ganong, W.F. (2005). Review of Medical Physiology. International

edition. (22nd ed.). Asia: McGraw-Hill Education. Heyward, V. H. (1998). Advanced Fitness Assessment and Exercise

Prescription. (3rd ed.). Illinois: Human Kinetics. Lemon, P.W. (1989). Influence of dietary protein and total energy

intake on strength improvement. Sports Science Exchange 2(14) Gatorade Sports Science Institute: Quaker Oats.

Lenfant, C., & Ernst, N. (1994). Daily dietary fat and total food-

energy intakes: Third national health and nutrition examination survey, phase 1, 1988 – 91. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 43:116 – 117.

Robergs, R.A., & Keteyian, S.J. (2003). Fundamentals of Exercise

Physiology for Fitness, Performance, and Health (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. p.424- 428.



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Serdula, M. K., Williamson, D. F., Anda, R. F., Levy, A., Heaton, A., & Byers, T. (1994). Weight control practices in adults: Results of a multistage telephone survey. American Journal of Public Health 84: 1821 – 1824.

Shakey, B.J. (1990). Physiology of Fitness (3rd ed.).Illinois: Human

Kinetics. Steen, S. N. & Brownell, K. D. (1990). Patterns of weight loss and

regain in wrestlers. Has the tradition changed? Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 22(6): 762 – 768.

Tarnopolsky, M.A., Atkinson, S.A., MacDougall, J.D., Chesley, A.,

Phillips, S., & Schwarcz, H. P. (1992). Evaluation of protein requirements for trained strength athletes. Journal of Applied Physiology 73: 1986 – 1995.

Weltman, A., Matter, S., & Stamford, B.A. (1980). Caloric

restriction and / or mild exercise: effects on serum lipids and body composition. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 33: 1002 -1009.



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ATTITUDE TOWARDS WEIGHT-CONTROL METHODS AMONG ATHLETES IN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,

NSUKKA

IFEANYICHUKWU CHRISTIAN ELENDU E-mail: [email protected]

& IFEANYICHUKWU JOY CHIGBATA

Abstract The attitude towards weight-control methods among athletes in University of Nigeria, Nsukka was established using a descriptive cross-sectional survey design. Four research questions guided the study. Three hundred and fifty-two (352) athletes constituted the population as well as the sample for the study. A validated 4-point modified Likert questionnaire was used for data collection. The overall reliability co-efficient (.79) of the instrument was established using Pearson product moment correlation in conjunction with Spearman-Brown correction statistic and inter-scale reliability co-efficients of .75 (healthy weight-control methods) and .81(unhealthy weight-control methods) were ascertained using Cronbach alpha. Generated data were analyzed using mean ( x ) in the Statistical Package for Social Sciences – SPSS Batch system. Results of the study revealed that the athletes had positive attitude towards healthy weight-gain, and weight-loss methods, respectively. Again the athletes showed negative attitude towards unhealthy weight-gain, and weight-loss methods, respectively. Recommendations made include that nutritionists should be attached to athletes to monitor their nutrition, and that regular workshops/seminars should be organized on the subject. Keywords: Attitude, Weight, Weight-control, Athlete.


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Introduction Children and adolescents are concerned about weight issues (Middleman, Vazquez & Durant, 1998). Weight, according to Hornby (2001) refers to how heavy somebody or something is which can be measured in kilograms or pounds. Both male and female adolescents have been recognized to have great concern for their weight. Studies (Paxton et al., 1991; O’Dea & Abraham, 1999) reported that female adolescents showed greater concern for body weight and shape. Also, Drenowski, Kurth and Krahn (1995), Parkes and Read (1997), and McCreary and Sasse (2000) reported increasing weight concerns among male adolescents.

Reginald et al. (2005) stated that children and adolescents are often involved in sports in which weight loss or weight gain is perceived as an advantage. Weight-control is the practice or act of increasing, decreasing or maintaining one’s normal weight. According to Reginald et al., (2005) athletes may practice weight-control methods during the sports season or year-round. An athlete is one trained to compete in athletics and games (Uzoalor & Okafor, 1993). In the context of this study, an athlete refers to one who represents his or her university in sports competition.

Studies (Reginald et al., 2005; Sansone & Sawyer, 2005; Ashley, Smith, Robinson & Richardson, 1996; Perriello, 2001; O’Dea & Caputi, 2001) abound on athletes’ weight-control practices. Some of the unhealthy weight-loss methods include voluntary dehydration (Gisolfi & Duchman, 1992; Reginald et al., 2005); food restriction and over-exercising (Johnson, 1994; Reginald et al., 2005), and vomiting, using rubber suits, steam baths or saunas, using anorexic drugs, laxatives, diuretics, diet pills, nutritional supplements (Reginald et al., 2005). Researchers (Reginald et al., 2005; Perriello, 2001; Smith & Roberts, 1976; Smith, 1976) identified the healthy weight-loss methods to include decrease in energy or calories intake, increase in calories expenditure and increase fluid intake.



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Use of prescription drugs, nutritional supplements, excessive food consumption or purposeful over-eating, and sedentary living according to LuAnn-Soliah, Janelle-Walter, Sunni-Barnes, and Scott-Yeang (2003) are potentially harmful weight-gain strategies. Increased energy or calories intake, decrease calories expenditure (Reginald et al., 2005; Smith & Roberts, 1976) adequate strength training programme, adequate rest and balanced diet (Reginald et al., 2005; Grandjean, 1999) are healthy means of gaining weight.

Experts (Ashley, Smith, Robinson, & Richardson, 1996; Brownell & Rodin, 1992, 1992; Perriello, 2001) have found that in an attempt to loose weight and body fat or gain weight and muscle mass, some athletes resort to unhealthy weighty-control practices. Attitude may be a precursor of behaviour. Athletes’ weight-control practices could be a reflection of their attitude. Mika as cited in Tomik (2007) defined attitude as a relatively established structure of cognitive and emotional processes and behaviours related to a subject. Tomik (2007) stated that the three components of attitude are cognitive, affective and behavioural attitude. In this study, attitude refers to an athlete’s cognitive, affective and behavioural dispositions towards weight-control methods.

Considering the harmful effects of unhealthy weight practices, there is need to change the unhealthy weight- control practices of the athletes. Achalu (2006) noted that to change behaviour, the first thing is to determine the frames of reference held by the target group or audience and to assess their attitudes, values, and perceptions about the problem or situation in question. From reviewed literature and studies, attitude towards weight-control methods among university athletes especially in Nigeria appears to be under-researched. It was in the light of the above premise that this study was conducted to establish the attitude towards weight-control methods among athletes in University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

Attitude towards weight-control methods among athletes in University of Nigeria, Nsukka, ELENDU & CHIGBATA


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Research Questions 1. What is the attitude towards healthy weight-gain methods

among athletes in University of Nigeria, Nsukka? 2. What is the athletes’ attitude towards unhealthy weight-gain

methods? 3. What is the attitude of the athletes towards healthy weight-loss

methods? 4. What is the athletes’ attitude towards unhealthy weight-loss

methods? Methods A descriptive cross-sectional survey design was used to study three hundred and fifty-two athletes. Data were collected from the participants using a 4 point modified Likert questionnaire ranging from Strongly Agree (4 points), Agree (3 points), Disagree (2 points), and Strongly Disagree (1 point). Five experts established face and content validity of the questionnaire. A split-half method was used after administering twenty copies of the instrument to athletes in University of Port Harcourt, Rivers state. An overall reliability co-efficient of .79 was established using Pearson product moment correlation in conjunction with Spearman-Brown correction statistic and inter-scale reliability co-efficients of .75 (healthy weight-control methods) and .81(unhealthy weight-control methods) ascertained using Cronbach alpha. Three hundred and fifty-two copies of questionnaire were administered and only 227 copies were returned, giving a return rate of 64.49 per cent. One hundred and sixty-two out of 227 copies of returned questionnaire were properly filled and used for analysis. Data were analyzed using mean ( x ) in the Statistical Package for Social Sciences – SPSS Batch system. A criterion mean of 2.50 was used in taking decision on the research questions. In this study, an item mean or grand mean that is equal to or greater than 2.50 was adjudged to be positive attitude while any item mean or grand mean that is less than 2.50 was adjudged to be negative attitude. In addition, the criteria for establishing the attitude strength outlined by Wojciechowski as cited in Tomik (2007) are: 0



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– 0.49 (highly negative); 0.5 – 1.49 (negative); 1.5 – 2.49 (Neutral); 2.5 – 3.49 (Positive), and 3.5 – 4.0 (Highly positive). The above criteria were adopted to interpret the attitude strength of the athletes towards weight-control methods. Results Research Question 1: What is the attitude towards healthy weight-gain methods among athletes in University of Nigeria, Nsukka? Table 1: Athletes’ attitude towards healthy weight-gain methods (n=162).

S/N Statements x 1 Increasing the consumption of calories to gain weight is

good. 2.60

2 It is not bad to increasing fluid intake to gain weight. 2.58 3 I enjoy using weight training programs to gain weight. 3.21 4 It is proper to have adequate rest to gain weight 2.46 5 It is appropriate to eat balanced diet to gain weight. 2.54 6 I decrease my expenditure of calories to gain weight. 2.92 Grand mean 2.75

Table 1 showed that the athletes had positive attitude towards

increasing the consumption of calories ( x = 2.60); using weight training programmes ( x = 3.21), and eating balanced diet ( x = 2.54) to gain weight. The table showed that the athletes also had positive attitude towards increasing fluid intake ( x = 2.58), having adequate rest ( x = 2.64), and decrease expenditure of calories ( x = 2.92) to gain weight. Above all, the grand mean of 2.75 indicated that the athletes had positive attitude towards healthy weight-gain methods. Also, going by Wojciechowski’s attitude strength criteria, the athletes also had positive ( x = 2.75) attitude towards healthy weight-gain methods. Research Question 2: What is the athletes’ attitude towards unhealthy weight-gain methods?



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Table 2: Athletes’ attitude towards unhealthy weight-gain methods (n = 162)

S/N Statements x 1 I enjoy using drugs to gain weight. 1.67 2 I use nutritional supplements to gain weight 2.01 3 Engaging in excessive food consumption to gain

weight is proper. 1.60

Grand mean 1.76 It is evident in table 2 that the athletes had negative attitude towards using drugs ( x = 1.67), and using nutritional supplements ( x = 2.01) to gain weight. The table also revealed the negative attitude of the athletes towards engaging in excessive food consumption ( x = 1.60) to gain weight. The table showed a grand mean of 1.76 indicating that the athletes had negative attitude towards unhealthy weight-gain methods. Also, going by Wojciechowski’s attitude strength criteria, the athletes had neutral ( x = 1.76) attitude towards unhealthy weight-gain methods. Research Question 3: What is the attitude of the athletes towards healthy weight-loss methods? Table 3: Athletes’ attitude towards healthy weight-loss methods (n = 162).

S/N Statements x 1 It is good to decrease the consumption of calories to lose

weight. 3.00

2 I increase my expenditure of calories through exercise to lose weight.

3.17

Grand mean 3.09

Table 3 revealed that the athletes had positive attitude towards decreasing calories consumption ( x = 3.00), and increasing the expenditure of calories through exercise to lose weight ( x =3.17) to lose weight. With a grand mean of 3.09, the athletes had positive attitude towards healthy weight-loss methods. Furthermore, going by



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Wojciechowski’s attitude strength criteria, the athletes had positive ( x = 3.09) attitude towards healthy weight-loss methods. Research Question 4: What is the athletes’ attitude towards unhealthy weight-loss methods? Table 4: Athletes’ attitude towards unhealthy weight-loss methods (n = 162).

S/N Statements x 1 It is ideal restricting food intake (fasting, skipping

meals) to lose weight. 1.89

2 It is not bad to increasing fluid intake to gain weight. 2.13 3 I enjoy using weight training programs to gain weight. 2.02 4 It is proper to have adequate rest to gain weight 1.66 5 It is appropriate to eat balanced diet to gain weight. 2.48 6 I decrease my expenditure of calories to gain weight. 1.12 Grand mean 1.88

Data in table 4 revealed that the athletes had negative attitude

towards food restriction ( x = 1.89); over-exercising ( x = 2.13), and using drugs ( x = 2.02) to lose weight. The athletes at the same time had negative attitude towards using nutritional supplements ( x = 1.66); voluntary fluid reduction or dehydration ( x = 2.48), and using steam baths or saunas ( x = 1.12) to lose weight. The grand mean of 1.88 revealed that the athletes had negative attitude towards unhealthy weight-loss methods. Again, going by Wojciechowski’s attitude strength criteria, the athletes had neutral ( x = 1.88) attitude towards unhealthy weight-loss methods. Summary of Findings It was found that the athletes had: 1. positive attitude towards increasing the consumption of

calories, increase fluid intake, using weight training programmes, adequate rest, balance diet, and decrease expenditure of calories to gain weight;



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2. negative attitude towards using drugs, nutritional supplements, and excessive food consumption to gain weight;

3. positive attitude towards decreasing the consumption of calories, and increasing the expenditure of calories through exercise to lose weight, and

4. Negative attitude towards food restriction, over-exercising, using drugs, using nutritional supplements, voluntary fluid reduction or dehydration, and using steam baths or saunas to lose weight.

Discussions The finding that the athletes had positive attitude towards healthy weight-gain methods as evident in table 1 was interesting. This is because the healthy weight-gain methods have no deleterious effects on the body. The athletes’ negative attitude towards unhealthy weight-gain methods (Table 2) was surprising as athletes’ concern for self-esteem, social pressures and body image are related to eating disorder (Berry & Howe, 2000). One expects that the athletes will be more in agreement with the unhealthy weight-gain to meet weight requirements of their sports especially during competition. The positive attitude of the athletes towards healthy weight-loss methods (Table 3) was expected, as they may be aware of the harmless effects of healthy weight-loss practices. It was found that the athletes had negative attitude towards unhealthy weight-loss methods (Table 4). The finding was interesting notwithstanding the self-esteem, social pressures and concern for body image (Greenleaf, 2002), majority of the athletes are in disagreement with the unhealthy weight-loss practices. Possibly, the athletes may be aware of the health, fitness and performance implications of the practices. Conclusion and Recommendations Based on the findings of the study, it was concluded that the athletes had positive attitude towards healthy weight-gain, and weight-loss methods, respectively. Also, the athletes had negative



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attitude towards unhealthy weight-gain, and weight-loss methods, respectively. The following recommendations have been made: 1. Athletes should be encouraged to maintain their attitude

towards weight management. 2. Weight management education programmes should be

integrated into the training regimens of the athletes. 3. Workshops and seminars on weight management should be

organized for the athletes. The deleterious effects of unhealthy weight management practices should be emphasized.

4. Nutritionists and dieticians should be employed and attached to the athletes to monitor their nutrition.

5. Exercise experts should be employed to monitor the exercise pattern of the athletes as weight management strategy.

6. Parents and other stakeholders should be involved in ensuring that athletes maintain their attitude towards weight management.

7. Athletes’ attitude towards weight management should continuously be studied to serve as a check.

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Concepts, planning and evaluation (2nd ed.). Lagos: Simarch Nigeria Limited.

Ashley, C. D., Smith, J. F., Robinson, J. B., & Richardson, M. T. (1996). Disordered eating in female collegiate athletes and collegiate females in an advanced program of study: A preliminary investigation. International Journal of Sport Nutrition, 6, 391 – 401.

Berry, T., & Howe, B. (2000). Risk factors for disordered eating in female university athletes. Journal of Sport Behaviour, 23 (3), 207 – 218.



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Drenowski, A., Kurth, C. L., & Krahn, D. D. (1995). Effects of body image on dieting, exercise and anabolic steroid use in adolescent males. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 17, 381 – 386.

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mass. Clinical Sports Medicine, 18, 623 – 632. Greenleaf, C. (2002). Athletic body image: Exploratory interviews

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O’Dea, J. A., & Caputi, P. (2001). Association between socioeconomic status, weight, age and gender, and the body image and weight control practices of 6-to-19-year-old children and adolescents. Health Education Research, 16, (5), 521 – 532.

Parkes, P. S., & Read, M. H. (1997). Adolescent male athletes: Body image, diet and exercise. Adolescence, 32, 593 – 602.

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Reginald, L.; David, T.; Joel, S.; Jorge, G.; Thomas, J. M.; Frederick, E. R., & Stephen, G. R. (2005). Promotion of healthy weight-control practices in young athletes. Pediatrics, 116 (6), 1557 – 1564.

Sansone, R. A., & Sawyer, R. (2005). Weight loss pressure on a 5 year old wrestler. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 39, (1).

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