PURPOSE OF FLIGHT TRAININGThe overall purpose of primary and intermediate flighttraining, as outlined in this handbook, is the acquisitionand honing of basic airmanship skills. Airmanshipcan be defined as:

• A sound acquaintance with the principles offlight,

• The ability to operate an airplane with compe-tence and precision both on the ground and in theair, and

• The exercise of sound judgment that results inoptimal operational safety and efficiency.

Learning to fly an airplane has often been likened tolearning to drive an automobile. This analogy ismisleading. Since an airplane operates in a differentenvironment, three dimensional, it requires a type ofmotor skill development that is more sensitive to thissituation such as:

• Coordination—The ability to use the hands andfeet together subconsciously and in the properrelationship to produce desired results in the air-plane.

• Timing—The application of muscular coordina-tion at the proper instant to make flight, and allmaneuvers incident thereto, a constant smoothprocess.

• Control touch—The ability to sense the actionof the airplane and its probable actions in theimmediate future, with regard to attitude andspeed variations, by the sensing and evaluation ofvarying pressures and resistance of the controlsurfaces transmitted through the cockpit flightcontrols.

• Speed sense—The ability to sense instantly andreact to any reasonable variation of airspeed.

An airman becomes one with the airplane rather thana machine operator. An accomplished airmandemonstrates the ability to assess a situation quicklyand accurately and deduce the correct procedure tobe followed under the circumstance; to analyzeaccurately the probable results of a given set of cir-cumstances or of a proposed procedure; to exercisecare and due regard for safety; to gauge accuratelythe performance of the airplane; and to recognize

personal limitations and limitations of the airplaneand avoid approaching the critical points of each.The development of airmanship skills requires effortand dedication on the part of both the student pilotand the flight instructor, beginning with the very firsttraining flight where proper habit formation beginswith the student being introduced to good operatingpractices.

Every airplane has its own particular flight characteris-tics. The purpose of primary and intermediate flighttraining, however, is not to learn how to fly a particularmake and model airplane. The underlying purpose offlight training is to develop skills and safe habits thatare transferable to any airplane. Basic airmanship skillsserve as a firm foundation for this. The pilot who hasacquired necessary airmanship skills during training,and demonstrates these skills by flying training-typeairplanes with precision and safe flying habits, will beable to easily transition to more complex and higherperformance airplanes. It should also be rememberedthat the goal of flight training is a safe and competentpilot, and that passing required practical tests for pilotcertification is only incidental to this goal.

ROLE OF THE FAAThe Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is empow-ered by the U.S. Congress to promote aviation safetyby prescribing safety standards for civil aviation. Thisis accomplished through the Code of FederalRegulations (CFRs) formerly referred to as FederalAviation Regulations (FARs).

Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR)part 61 pertains to the certification of pilots, flightinstructors, and ground instructors. 14 CFR part 61 pre-scribes the eligibility, aeronautical knowledge, flightproficiency, and training and testing requirements foreach type of pilot certificate issued.

14 CFR part 67 prescribes the medical standards andcertification procedures for issuing medical certificatesfor airmen and for remaining eligible for a medicalcertificate.

14 CFR part 91 contains general operating and flightrules. The section is broad in scope and providesgeneral guidance in the areas of general flight rules,visual flight rules (VFR), instrument flight rules(IFR), aircraft maintenance, and preventive mainte-nance and alterations.

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Within the FAA, the Flight Standards Service sets theaviation standards for airmen and aircraft operations inthe United States and for American airmen and aircraftaround the world. The FAA Flight Standards Service isheadquartered in Washington, D.C., and is broadlyorganized into divisions based on work function (AirTransportation, Aircraft Maintenance, TechnicalPrograms, a Regulatory Support Division based inOklahoma City, OK, and a General Aviation andCommercial Division). Regional Flight Standards divi-sion managers, one at each of the FAA’s nine regionaloffices, coordinate Flight Standards activities withintheir respective regions.

The interface between the FAA Flight StandardsService and the aviation community/general publicis the local Flight Standards District Office (FSDO).[Figure 1-1] The approximately 90 FSDOs arestrategically located across the United States, eachoffice having jurisdiction over a specific geographicarea. The individual FSDO is responsible for all airactivity occurring within its geographic boundaries.In addition to accident investigation and theenforcement of aviation regulations, the individualFSDO is responsible for the certification and sur-veillance of air carriers, air operators, flightschools/training centers, and airmen including pilotsand flight instructors.

Each FSDO is staffed by aviation safety inspectorswhose specialties include operations, maintenance,and avionics. General aviation operations inspec-tors are highly qualified and experienced aviators.Once accepted for the position, an inspector mustsatisfactorily complete a course of indoctrinationtraining conducted at the FAA Academy, whichincludes airman evaluation and pilot testing tech-niques and procedures. Thereafter, the inspector mustcomplete recurrent training on a regular basis. Amongother duties, the FSDO inspector is responsible foradministering FAA practical tests for pilot and flight

instructor certificates and associated ratings. All ques-tions concerning pilot certification (and/or requests forother aviation information or services) should be directedto the FSDO having jurisdiction in the particular geo-graphic area. FSDO telephone numbers are listed in theblue pages of the telephone directory under United StatesGovernment offices, Department of Transportation,Federal Aviation Administration.

ROLE OF THE PILOT EXAMINERPilot and flight instructor certificates are issued bythe FAA upon satisfactory completion of requiredknowledge and practical tests. The administrationof these tests is an FAA responsibility normallycarried out at the FSDO level by FSDO inspectors.The FAA, however, being a U.S. governmentagency, has limited resources and must prioritizeits responsibilities. The agency’s highest priorityis the surveillance of certificated air carriers, withthe certification of airmen (including pilots andflight instructors) having a lower priority.

In order to satisfy the public need for pilot testing andcertification services, the FAA delegates certain of theseresponsibilities, as the need arises, to private individu-als who are not FAA employees. A designated pilotexaminer (DPE) is a private citizen who is designatedas a representative of the FAAAdministrator to performspecific (but limited) pilot certification tasks on behalfof the FAA, and may charge a reasonable fee for doingso. Generally, a DPE’s authority is limited to acceptingapplications and conducting practical tests leading tothe issuance of specific pilot certificates and/or ratings.A DPE operates under the direct supervision of theFSDO that holds the examiner’s designation file. AFSDO inspector is assigned to monitor the DPE’s certi-fication activities. Normally, the DPE is authorized toconduct these activities only within the designatingFSDO’s jurisdictional area.

The FAA selects only highly qualified individuals tobe designated pilot examiners. These individuals musthave good industry reputations for professionalism,high integrity, a demonstrated willingness to serve thepublic, and adhere to FAA policies and procedures incertification matters. A designated pilot examiner isexpected to administer practical tests with the samedegree of professionalism, using the same methods,procedures, and standards as an FAA aviation safetyinspector. It should be remembered, however, that aDPE is not an FAA aviation safety inspector. A DPEcannot initiate enforcement action, investigate acci-dents, or perform surveillance activities on behalf ofthe FAA. However, the majority of FAA practical testsat the recreational, private, and commercial pilot levelare administered by FAA designated pilot examiners.Figure 1-1. FAA FSDO.

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ROLE OF THE FLIGHT INSTRUCTORThe flight instructor is the cornerstone of aviationsafety. The FAA has adopted an operational trainingconcept that places the full responsibility for studenttraining on the authorized flight instructor. In this role,the instructor assumes the total responsibility for train-ing the student pilot in all the knowledge areas andskills necessary to operate safely and competently as acertificated pilot in the National Airspace System. Thistraining will include airmanship skills, pilot judgmentand decision making, and accepted good operatingpractices.

An FAA certificated flight instructor has to meetbroad flying experience requirements, pass rigidknowledge and practical tests, and demonstrate theability to apply recommended teaching techniquesbefore being certificated. In addition, the flightinstructor’s certificate must be renewed every 24months by showing continued success in trainingpilots, or by satisfactorily completing a flight instruc-tor’s refresher course or a practical test designed toupgrade aeronautical knowledge, pilot proficiency,and teaching techniques.

A pilot training program is dependent on the quality ofthe ground and flight instruction the student pilotreceives. A good flight instructor will have a thoroughunderstanding of the learning process, knowledge ofthe fundamentals of teaching, and the ability to com-municate effectively with the student pilot.

A good flight instructor will use a syllabus and insiston correct techniques and procedures from thebeginning of training so that the student will developproper habit patterns. The syllabus should embodythe “building block” method of instruction, in whichthe student progresses from the known to theunknown. The course of instruction should be laidout so that each new maneuver embodies the principlesinvolved in the performance of those previouslyundertaken. Consequently, through each new subjectintroduced, the student not only learns a new princi-ple or technique, but broadens his/her application ofthose previously learned and has his/her deficienciesin the previous maneuvers emphasized and madeobvious.

The flying habits of the flight instructor, both duringflight instruction and as observed by students whenconducting other pilot operations, have a vital effecton safety. Students consider their flight instructor to bea paragon of flying proficiency whose flying habitsthey, consciously or unconsciously, attempt to imitate.For this reason, a good flight instructor will meticu-lously observe the safety practices taught the students.Additionally, a good flight instructor will carefully

observe all regulations and recognized safety practicesduring all flight operations.

Generally, the student pilot who enrolls in a pilot trainingprogram is prepared to commit considerable time,effort, and expense in pursuit of a pilot certificate. Thestudent may tend to judge the effectiveness of the flightinstructor, and the overall success of the pilot trainingprogram, solely in terms of being able to pass therequisite FAA practical test. A good flight instructor,however, will be able to communicate to the studentthat evaluation through practical tests is a mere sam-pling of pilot ability that is compressed into a shortperiod of time. The flight instructor’s role, however, isto train the “total” pilot.

SOURCES OF FLIGHT TRAININGThe major sources of flight training in the United Statesinclude FAA-approved pilot schools and training cen-ters, non-certificated (14 CFR part 61) flying schools,and independent flight instructors. FAA “approved”schools are those flight schools certificated by the FAAas pilot schools under 14 CFR part 141. [Figure 1-2]Application for certification is voluntary, and the schoolmust meet stringent requirements for personnel, equip-ment, maintenance, and facilities. The school mustoperate in accordance with an established curriculum,which includes a training course outline (TCO)

Figure 1-2. FAA-approved pilot school certificate.

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approved by the FAA. The TCO must contain studentenrollment prerequisites, detailed description of eachlesson including standards and objectives, expectedaccomplishments and standards for each stage of train-ing, and a description of the checks and tests used tomeasure a student’s accomplishments. FAA-approvedpilot school certificates must be renewed every 2 years.Renewal is contingent upon proof of continued highquality instruction and a minimum level of instructionalactivity. Training at an FAA certificated pilot school isstructured. Because of this structured environment, theCFRs allow graduates of these pilot schools to meet thecertification experience requirements of 14 CFR part61 with less flight time. Many FAA certificated pilotschools have designated pilot examiners (DPEs) ontheir staff to administer FAA practical tests. Someschools have been granted examining authority by theFAA. A school with examining authority for a particu-lar course or courses has the authority to recommend itsgraduates for pilot certificates or ratings without furthertesting by the FAA. A list of FAA certificated pilotschools and their training courses can be found inAdvisory Circular (AC) 140-2, FAA Certificated PilotSchool Directory.

FAA-approved training centers are certificated under14 CFR part 142. Training centers, like certificatedpilot schools, operate in a structured environment withapproved courses and curricula, and stringent standardsfor personnel, equipment, facilities, operating proce-dures and record keeping. Training centers certificatedunder 14 CFR part 142, however, specialize in the useof flight simulation (flight simulators and flight train-ing devices) in their training courses.

The overwhelming majority of flying schools in theUnited States are not certificated by the FAA. Theseschools operate under the provisions of 14 CFR part61. Many of these non-certificated flying schools offerexcellent training, and meet or exceed the standardsrequired of FAA-approved pilot schools. Flightinstructors employed by non-certificated flyingschools, as well as independent flight instructors, mustmeet the same basic 14 CFR part 61 flight instructorrequirements for certification and renewal as thoseflight instructors employed by FAA certificated pilotschools. In the end, any training program is dependentupon the quality of the ground and flight instruction astudent pilot receives.

PRACTICAL TEST STANDARDSPractical tests for FAA pilot certificates and associatedratings are administered by FAA inspectors and desig-nated pilot examiners in accordance with FAA-developedpractical test standards (PTS). [Figure 1-3] 14 CFRpart 61 specifies the areas of operation in whichknowledge and skill must be demonstrated by theapplicant. The CFRs provide the flexibility to permit

the FAA to publish practical test standards containingthe areas of operation and specific tasks in whichcompetence must be demonstrated. The FAA requiresthat all practical tests be conducted in accordance withthe appropriate practical test standards and the policiesset forth in the Introduction section of the practical teststandard book.

It must be emphasized that the practical test standardsbook is a testing document rather than a teaching doc-ument. An appropriately rated flight instructor isresponsible for training a pilot applicant to acceptablestandards in all subject matter areas, procedures, andmaneuvers included in the tasks within each area ofoperation in the appropriate practical test standard.The pilot applicant should be familiar with this bookand refer to the standards it contains during training.However, the practical test standard book is notintended to be used as a training syllabus. It containsthe standards to which maneuvers/procedures on FAApractical tests must be performed and the FAA policiesgoverning the administration of practical tests.Descriptions of tasks, and information on how toperform maneuvers and procedures are contained inreference and teaching documents such as thishandbook. A list of reference documents is containedin the Introduction section of each practical test stan-dard book.

Practical test standards may be downloaded from theRegulatory Support Division’s, AFS-600, Web site athttp://afs600.faa.gov. Printed copies of practical teststandards can be purchased from the Superintendentof Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,Washington, DC 20402. The official online bookstoreWeb site for the U.S. Government Printing Office iswww.access.gpo.gov.

FLIGHT SAFETY PRACTICESIn the interest of safety and good habit pattern forma-tion, there are certain basic flight safety practices andprocedures that must be emphasized by the flightinstructor, and adhered to by both instructor and student,beginning with the very first dual instruction flight.These include, but are not limited to, collisionavoidance procedures including proper scanningtechniques and clearing procedures, runway incursionavoidance, stall awareness, positive transfer ofcontrols, and cockpit workload management.

COLLISION AVOIDANCEAll pilots must be alert to the potential for midaircollision and near midair collisions. The general operat-ing and flight rules in 14 CFR part 91 set forth theconcept of “See and Avoid.” This concept requiresthat vigilance shall be maintained at all times, byeach person operating an aircraft regardless ofwhether the operation is conducted under instrument

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flight rules (IFR) or visual flight rules (VFR). Pilotsshould also keep in mind their responsibility for con-tinuously maintaining a vigilant lookout regardless ofthe type of aircraft being flown and the purpose of theflight. Most midair collision accidents and reportednear midair collision incidents occur in good VFRweather conditions and during the hours of daylight.Most of these accident/incidents occur within 5 milesof an airport and/or near navigation aids.

The “See and Avoid” concept relies on knowledgeof the limitations of the human eye, and the use ofproper visual scanning techniques to help compen-sate for these limitations. The importance of, andthe proper techniques for, visual scanning shouldbe taught to a student pilot at the very beginning offlight training. The competent flight instructorshould be familiar with the visual scanning andcollision avoidance information contained inAdvisory Circular (AC) 90-48, Pilots’ Role inCollision Avoidance, and the AeronauticalInformation Manual (AIM).

There are many different types of clearing procedures.Most are centered around the use of clearing turns. Theessential idea of the clearing turn is to be certain thatthe next maneuver is not going to proceed into anotherairplane’s flightpath. Some pilot training programshave hard and fast rules, such as requiring two 90°

turns in opposite directions before executing anytraining maneuver. Other types of clearing proceduresmay be developed by individual flight instructors.Whatever the preferred method, the flight instructorshould teach the beginning student an effective clear-ing procedure and insist on its use. The student pilotshould execute the appropriate clearing procedurebefore all turns and before executing any trainingmaneuver. Proper clearing procedures, combinedwith proper visual scanning techniques, are the mosteffective strategy for collision avoidance.

RUNWAY INCURSION AVOIDANCEA runway incursion is any occurrence at an airportinvolving an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object on theground that creates a collision hazard or results in aloss of separation with an aircraft taking off, landing,or intending to land. The three major areas contribut-ing to runway incursions are:

• Communications,

• Airport knowledge, and

• Cockpit procedures for maintaining orientation.

Taxi operations require constant vigilance by the entireflight crew, not just the pilot taxiing the airplane. Thisis especially true during flight training operations.Both the student pilot and the flight instructor need tobe continually aware of the movement and location of

Figure 1-3. PTS books.

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other aircraft and ground vehicles on the airportmovement area. Many flight training activities areconducted at non-tower controlled airports. Theabsence of an operating airport control tower creates aneed for increased vigilance on the part of pilots oper-ating at those airports.

Planning, clear communications, and enhancedsituational awareness during airport surfaceoperations will reduce the potential for surface inci-dents. Safe aircraft operations can be accomplishedand incidents eliminated if the pilot is properly trainedearly on and, throughout his/her flying career,accomplishes standard taxi operating procedures andpractices. This requires the development of theformalized teaching of safe operating practices duringtaxi operations. The flight instructor is the key to thisteaching. The flight instructor should instill in thestudent an awareness of the potential for runwayincursion, and should emphasize the runwayincursion avoidance procedures contained inAdvisory Circular (AC) 91-73, Part 91 Pilot andFlightcrew Procedures During Taxi Operations andPart 135 Single-Pilot Operations.

STALL AWARENESS14 CFR part 61 requires that a student pilot receive andlog flight training in stalls and stall recoveries prior tosolo flight. During this training, the flight instructorshould emphasize that the direct cause of every stall isan excessive angle of attack. The student pilot shouldfully understand that there are any number of flightmaneuvers which may produce an increase in thewing’s angle of attack, but the stall does not occur untilthe angle of attack becomes excessive. This “critical”angle of attack varies from 16 to 20° depending on theairplane design.

The flight instructor must emphasize that low speed isnot necessary to produce a stall. The wing can bebrought to an excessive angle of attack at any speed.High pitch attitude is not an absolute indication ofproximity to a stall. Some airplanes are capable of ver-tical flight with a corresponding low angle of attack.Most airplanes are quite capable of stalling at a level ornear level pitch attitude.

The key to stall awareness is the pilot’s ability tovisualize the wing’s angle of attack in any particularcircumstance, and thereby be able to estimate his/hermargin of safety above stall. This is a learned skillthat must be acquired early in flight training andcarried through the pilot’s entire flying career. Thepilot must understand and appreciate factors such asairspeed, pitch attitude, load factor, relative wind,power setting, and aircraft configuration in order todevelop a reasonably accurate mental picture of thewing’s angle of attack at any particular time. It is

essential to flight safety that a pilot take into consid-eration this visualization of the wing’s angle ofattack prior to entering any flight maneuver.

USE OF CHECKLISTSChecklists have been the foundation of pilot standard-ization and cockpit safety for years. The checklist is anaid to the memory and helps to ensure that criticalitems necessary for the safe operation of aircraft arenot overlooked or forgotten. However, checklists areof no value if the pilot is not committed to its use.Without discipline and dedication to using the check-list at the appropriate times, the odds are on the side oferror. Pilots who fail to take the checklist seriouslybecome complacent and the only thing they can relyon is memory.

The importance of consistent use of checklists cannotbe overstated in pilot training. A major objective inprimary flight training is to establish habit patterns thatwill serve pilots well throughout their entire flyingcareer. The flight instructor must promote a positiveattitude toward the use of checklists, and the studentpilot must realize its importance. At a minimum, pre-pared checklists should be used for the followingphases of flight.

• Preflight Inspection.

• Before Engine Start.

• Engine Starting.

• Before Taxiing.

• Before Takeoff.

• After Takeoff.

• Cruise.

• Descent.

• Before Landing.

• After Landing.

• Engine Shutdown and Securing.

POSITIVE TRANSFER OF CONTROLSDuring flight training, there must always be a clearunderstanding between the student and flight instruc-tor of who has control of the aircraft. Prior to anydual training flight, a briefing should be conductedthat includes the procedure for the exchange of flightcontrols. The following three-step process for theexchange of flight controls is highly recommended.

When a flight instructor wishes the student to takecontrol of the aircraft, he/she should say to the stu-dent, “You have the flight controls.” The studentshould acknowledge immediately by saying, “I havethe flight controls.” The flight instructor confirms by

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again saying, “You have the flight controls.” Part ofthe procedure should be a visual check to ensure thatthe other person actually has the flight controls. Whenreturning the controls to the flight instructor, the stu-dent should follow the same procedure the instructorused when giving control to the student. The studentshould stay on the controls until the instructor says:“I have the flight controls.” There should never be

any doubt as to who is flying the airplane at any onetime. Numerous accidents have occurred due to a lackof communication or misunderstanding as to whoactually had control of the aircraft, particularlybetween students and flight instructors. Establishingthe above procedure during initial training will ensurethe formation of a very beneficial habit pattern.

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VISUAL INSPECTIONThe accomplishment of a safe flight begins with a care-ful visual inspection of the airplane. The purpose of thepreflight visual inspection is twofold: to determine thatthe airplane is legally airworthy, and that it is in condi-tion for safe flight. The airworthiness of the airplane isdetermined, in part, by the following certificates anddocuments, which must be on board the airplane whenoperated. [Figure 2-1]

Airworthiness certificate.

Registration certificate.

FCC radio station license, if required by the typeof operation.

Airplane operating limitations, which may be inthe form of an FAA-approved Airplane FlightManual and/or Pilot’s Operating Handbook(AFM/POH), placards, instrument markings, orany combination thereof.

Airplane logbooks are not required to be kept in theairplane when it is operated. However, they should beinspected prior to flight to show that the airplane hashad required tests and inspections. Maintenance

records for the airframe and engine are required to bekept. There may also be additional propeller records.

At a minimum, there should be an annual inspectionwithin the preceding 12-calendar months. In addition,the airplane may also be required to have a 100-hourinspection in accordance with Title14 of the Code ofFederal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91, section91.409(b).

If a transponder is to be used, it is required to beinspected within the preceding 24-calendar months. Ifthe airplane is operated under instrument flight rules(IFR) in controlled airspace, the pitot-static system isalso required to be inspected within the preceding24-calendar months.

The emergency locator transmitter (ELT) should alsobe checked. The ELT is battery powered, and thebattery replacement or recharge date should notbe exceeded.

Airworthiness Directives (ADs) have varyingcompliance intervals and are usually tracked in aseparate area of the appropriate airframe, engine, orpropeller record.

Figure 2-1. Aircraft documents and AFM/POH.

•

•

•

•

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The determination of whether the airplane is in a con-dition for safe flight is made by a preflight inspectionof the airplane and its components. [Figure 2-2] Thepreflight inspection should be performed in accordancewith a printed checklist provided by the airplane man-ufacturer for the specific make and model airplane.However, the following general areas are applicable toall airplanes.

The preflight inspection of the airplane should beginwhile approaching the airplane on the ramp. The pilotshould make note of the general appearance of theairplane, looking for obvious discrepancies such as alanding gear out of alignment, structural distortion,skin damage, and dripping fuel or oil leaks. Uponreaching the airplane, all tiedowns, control locks, andchocks should be removed.

INSIDE THE COCKPITThe inspection should start with the cabin door. If thedoor is hard to open or close, or if the carpeting orseats are wet from a recent rain, there is a good chancethat the door, fuselage, or both are misaligned. Thismay be a sign of structural damage.

The windshield and side windows should be examinedfor cracks and/or crazing. Crazing is the first stage ofdelamination of the plastic. Crazing decreasesvisibility, and a severely crazed window can result innear zero visibility due to light refraction at certainangles to the sun.

The pilot should check the seats, seat rails, and seatbelt attach points for wear, cracks, and serviceability.The seat rail holes where the seat lock pins fit should

1

2

3

4

5

67

8

910

Figure 2-2. Preflight inspection.

Figure 2-3. Inside the cockpit.

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also be inspected. The holes should be round and notoval. The pin and seat rail grips should also be checkedfor wear and serviceability.

Inside the cockpit, three key items to be checked are:(1) battery and ignition switches—off, (2) controlcolumn locks—removed, (3) landing gear control—down and locked. [Figure 2-3]

The fuel selectors should be checked for properoperation in all positions—including the OFF posi-tion. Stiff selectors, or ones where the tank position ishard to find, are unacceptable. The primer should alsobe exercised. The pilot should feel resistance whenthe primer is both pulled out and pushed in. Theprimer should also lock securely. Faulty primers caninterfere with proper engine operation. [Figure 2-4]The engine controls should also be manipulated byslowly moving each through its full range to checkfor binding or stiffness.

The airspeed indicator should be properly marked, andthe indicator needle should read zero. If it does not, theinstrument may not be calibrated correctly. Similarly,the vertical speed indicator (VSI) should also read zerowhen the airplane is on the ground. If it does not, asmall screwdriver can be used to zero the instrument.The VSI is the only flight instrument that a pilot hasthe prerogative to adjust. All others must be adjustedby an FAA certificated repairman or mechanic.

The magnetic compass is a required instrument forboth VFR and IFR flight. It must be securely mounted,with a correction card in place. The instrument facemust be clear and the instrument case full of fluid. Acloudy instrument face, bubbles in the fluid, or apartially filled case renders the instrument unusable.[Figure 2-5]

The gyro driven attitude indicator should be checkedbefore being powered. A white haze on the inside of

Figure 2-4. Fuel selector and primer.

Figure 2-5. Airspeed indicator, VSI, and magnetic compass.

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the glass face may be a sign that the seal has beenbreached, allowing moisture and dirt to be sucked intothe instrument.

The altimeter should be checked against the ramp orfield elevation after setting in the barometric pressure.If the variation between the known field elevation andthe altimeter indication is more than 75 feet, itsaccuracy is questionable.

The pilot should turn on the battery master switch andmake note of the fuel quantity gauge indications forcomparison with an actual visual inspection of the fueltanks during the exterior inspection.

OUTER WING SURFACES AND TAILSECTIONThe pilot should inspect for any signs of deterioration,distortion, and loose or missing rivets or screws,especially in the area where the outer skin attaches tothe airplane structure. [Figure 2-6] The pilot shouldlook along the wing spar rivet line—from the wingtipto the fuselage—for skin distortion. Any ripples and/orwaves may be an indication of internal damageor failure.

Loose or sheared aluminum rivets may be identified bythe presence of black oxide which forms rapidly when

the rivet works free in its hole. Pressure applied to theskin adjacent to the rivet head will help verify theloosened condition of the rivet.

When examining the outer wing surface, it should beremembered that any damage, distortion, ormalformation of the wing leading edge renders theairplane unairworthy. Serious dents in the leadingedge, and disrepair of items such as stall strips, anddeicer boots can cause the airplane to beaerodynamically unsound. Also, special care shouldbe taken when examining the wingtips. Airplanewingtips are usually fiberglass. They are easilydamaged and subject to cracking. The pilot shouldlook at stop drilled cracks for evidence of crackprogression, which can, under some circumstances,lead to in-flight failure of the wingtip.

The pilot should remember that fuel stains anywhereon the wing warrant further investigation—no matterhow old the stains appear to be. Fuel stains are a signof probable fuel leakage. On airplanes equipped withintegral fuel tanks, evidence of fuel leakage can befound along rivet lines along the underside ofthe wing.

Figure 2-6. Wing and tail section inspection.

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FUEL AND OILParticular attention should be paid to the fuel quantity,type and grade, and quality. [Figure 2-7] Many fueltanks are very sensitive to airplane attitude whenattempting to fuel for maximum capacity. Nosewheelstrut extension, both high as well as low, cansignificantly alter the attitude, and therefore the fuelcapacity. The airplane attitude can also be affectedlaterally by a ramp that slopes, leaving one wingslightly higher than another. Always confirm the fuelquantity indicated on the fuel gauges by visuallyinspecting the level of each tank.

The type, grade, and color of fuel are critical to safeoperation. The only widely available aviation gasoline(AVGAS) grade in the United States is low-lead100-octane, or 100LL. AVGAS is dyed for easyrecognition of its grade and has a familiar gasolinescent. Jet-A, or jet fuel, is a kerosene-based fuel forturbine powered airplanes. It has disastrousconsequences when inadvertently introduced intoreciprocating airplane engines. The piston engineoperating on jet fuel may start, run, and power theairplane, but will fail because the engine has beendestroyed from detonation.

Jet fuel has a distinctive kerosene scent and is oily tothe touch when rubbed between fingers. Jet fuel isclear or straw colored, although it may appear dyedwhen mixed in a tank containing AVGAS. When a fewdrops of AVGAS are placed upon white paper, theyevaporate quickly and leave just a trace of dye. Incomparison, jet fuel is slower to evaporate and leavesan oily smudge. Jet fuel refueling trucks anddispensing equipment are marked with JET-A placardsin white letters on a black background. Prudent pilotswill supervise fueling to ensure that the correct tanksare filled with the right quantity, type, and grade of

fuel. The pilot should always ensure that the fuel capshave been securely replaced following each fueling.

Engines certificated for grades 80/87 or 91/96 AVGASwill run satisfactorily on 100LL. The reverse is nottrue. Fuel of a lower grade/octane, if found, shouldnever be substituted for a required higher grade.Detonation will severely damage the engine in a veryshort period of time.

Automotive gasoline is sometimes used as a substitutefuel in certain airplanes. Its use is acceptable onlywhen the particular airplane has been issued asupplemental type certificate (STC) to both theairframe and engine allowing its use.

Checking for water and other sediment contaminationis a key preflight element. Water tends to accumulatein fuel tanks from condensation, particularly inpartially filled tanks. Because water is heavier thanfuel, it tends to collect in the low points of the fuelsystem. Water can also be introduced into the fuelsystem from deteriorated gas cap seals exposed to rain,or from the supplier’s storage tanks and deliveryvehicles. Sediment contamination can arise from dustand dirt entering the tanks during refueling, or fromdeteriorating rubber fuel tanks or tank sealant.

The best preventive measure is to minimize theopportunity for water to condense in the tanks. Ifpossible, the fuel tanks should be completely filledwith the proper grade of fuel after each flight, or atleast filled after the last flight of the day. The more fuelthere is in the tanks, the less opportunity forcondensation to occur. Keeping fuel tanks filled is alsothe best way to slow the aging of rubber fuel tanks andtank sealant.

Sufficient fuel should be drained from the fuel strainerquick drain and from each fuel tank sump to check forfuel grade/color, water, dirt, and smell. If water ispresent, it will usually be in bead-like droplets,different in color (usually clear, sometimes muddy), inthe bottom of the sample. In extreme cases, do notoverlook the possibility that the entire sample,particularly a small sample, is water. If water is foundin the first fuel sample, further samples should be takenuntil no water appears. Significant and/or consistentwater or sediment contamination are grounds forfurther investigation by qualified maintenancepersonnel. Each fuel tank sump should be drainedduring preflight and after refueling.

The fuel tank vent is an important part of a preflightinspection. Unless outside air is able to enter the tankas fuel is drawn out, the eventual result will be fuelgauge malfunction and/or fuel starvation. During thepreflight inspection, the pilot should be alert for any

Figure 2-7. Aviation fuel types, grades, and colors.

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signs of vent tubing damage, as well as vent blockage.A functional check of the fuel vent system can be donesimply by opening the fuel cap. If there is a rush of airwhen the fuel tank cap is cracked, there could be aserious problem with the vent system.

The oil level should be checked during each preflightand rechecked with each refueling. Reciprocatingairplane engines can be expected to consume a smallamount of oil during normal operation. If theconsumption grows or suddenly changes, qualifiedmaintenance personnel should investigate. If lineservice personnel add oil to the engine, the pilot shouldensure that the oil cap has been securely replaced.

LANDING GEAR,TIRES, AND BRAKESTires should be inspected for proper inflation, as wellas cuts, bruises, wear, bulges, imbedded foreign object,and deterioration. As a general rule, tires with cordshowing, and those with cracked sidewalls areconsidered unairworthy.

Brakes and brake systems should be checked for rustand corrosion, loose nuts/bolts, alignment, brake padwear/cracks, signs of hydraulic fluid leakage, andhydraulic line security/abrasion.

An examination of the nose gear should include theshimmy damper, which is painted white, and the torquelink, which is painted red, for proper servicing andgeneral condition. All landing gear shock struts shouldalso be checked for proper inflation.

ENGINE AND PROPELLERThe pilot should make note of the condition of theengine cowling. [Figure 2-8] If the cowling rivet headsreveal aluminum oxide residue, and chipped paintsurrounding and radiating away from the cowling rivetheads, it is a sign that the rivets have been rotating untilthe holes have been elongated. If allowed to continue,

the cowling may eventually separate from the airplanein flight.

Certain engine/propeller combinations requireinstallation of a prop spinner for proper enginecooling. In these cases, the engine should not beoperated unless the spinner is present and properlyinstalled. The pilot should inspect the propellerspinner and spinner mounting plate for security ofattachment, any signs of chafing of propeller blades,and defects such as cracking. A cracked spinner isunairworthy.

The propeller should be checked for nicks, cracks,pitting, corrosion, and security. The propeller hubshould be checked for oil leaks, and the alternator/generator drive belt should be checked for propertension and signs of wear.

When inspecting inside the cowling, the pilot shouldlook for signs of fuel dye which may indicate a fuelleak. The pilot should check for oil leaks, deteriorationof oil lines, and to make certain that the oil cap, filter,oil cooler and drain plug are secure. The exhaustsystem should be checked for white stains caused byexhaust leaks at the cylinder head or cracks in thestacks. The heat muffs should also be checked forgeneral condition and signs of cracks or leaks.

The air filter should be checked for condition andsecure fit, as well as hydraulic lines for deteriorationand/or leaks. The pilot should also check for loose orforeign objects inside the cowling such as bird nests,shop rags, and/or tools. All visible wires and linesshould be checked for security and condition. Andlastly, when the cowling is closed, the cowlingfasteners should be checked for security.

Figure 2-8. Check the propeller and inside the cowling.

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COCKPIT MANAGEMENTAfter entering the airplane, the pilot should first ensurethat all necessary equipment, documents, checklists,and navigation charts appropriate for the flight are onboard. If a portable intercom, headsets, or a hand-heldglobal positioning system (GPS) is used, the pilot isresponsible for ensuring that the routing of wires andcables does not interfere with the motion or theoperation of any control.

Regardless of what materials are to be used, theyshould be neatly arranged and organized in a mannerthat makes them readily available. The cockpit andcabin should be checked for articles that might betossed about if turbulence is encountered. Loose itemsshould be properly secured. All pilots should form thehabit of good housekeeping.

The pilot must be able to see inside and outsidereferences. If the range of motion of an adjustable seatis inadequate, cushions should be used to provide theproper seating position.

When the pilot is comfortably seated, the safety beltand shoulder harness (if installed) should be fastenedand adjusted to a comfortably snug fit. The shoulderharness must be worn at least for the takeoff andlanding, unless the pilot cannot reach or operate thecontrols with it fastened. The safety belt must be wornat all times when the pilot is seated at the controls.

If the seats are adjustable, it is important to ensure thatthe seat is locked in position. Accidents have occurredas the result of seat movement during acceleration orpitch attitude changes during takeoffs or landings.When the seat suddenly moves too close or too faraway from the controls, the pilot may be unable tomaintain control of the airplane.

14 CFR part 91 requires the pilot to ensure that eachperson on board is briefed on how to fasten andunfasten his/her safety belt and, if installed, shoulderharness. This should be accomplished before startingthe engine, along with a passenger briefing on theproper use of safety equipment and exit information.Airplane manufacturers have printed briefing cardsavailable, similar to those used by airlines, tosupplement the pilot’s briefing.

GROUND OPERATIONSIt is important that a pilot operates an airplane safelyon the ground. This includes being familiar withstandard hand signals that are used by ramp personnel.[Figure 2-9]

ENGINE STARTINGThe specific procedures for engine starting will not bediscussed here since there are as many different

methods as there are different engines, fuel systems,and starting conditions. The before engine starting andengine starting checklist procedures should be fol-lowed. There are, however, certain precautions thatapply to all airplanes.

Some pilots have started the engine with the tail of theairplane pointed toward an open hangar door, parkedautomobiles, or a group of bystanders. This is not onlydiscourteous, but may result in personal injury anddamage to the property of others. Propeller blast canbe surprisingly powerful.

When ready to start the engine, the pilot should look inall directions to be sure that nothing is or will be in thevicinity of the propeller. This includes nearby personsand aircraft that could be struck by the propeller blastor the debris it might pick up from the ground. Theanticollision light should be turned on prior to enginestart, even during daytime operations. At night, theposition (navigation) lights should also be on.

The pilot should always call “CLEAR” out of the sidewindow and wait for a response from persons who maybe nearby before activating the starter.

Figure 2-9. Standard hand signals.

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When activating the starter, one hand should be kepton the throttle. This allows prompt response if theengine falters during starting, and allows the pilot torapidly retard the throttle if revolutions per minute(r.p.m.) are excessive after starting. A low r.p.m.setting (800 to 1,000) is recommended immediatelyfollowing engine start. It is highly undesirable to allowthe r.p.m. to race immediately after start, as there willbe insufficient lubrication until the oil pressure rises.In freezing temperatures, the engine will also beexposed to potential mechanical distress until it warmsand normal internal operating clearances are assumed.

As soon as the engine is operating smoothly, the oilpressure should be checked. If it does not rise to themanufacturer’s specified value, the engine may not bereceiving proper lubrication and should be shut downimmediately to prevent serious damage.

Although quite rare, the starter motor may remain onand engaged after the engine starts. This can bedetected by a continuous very high current draw on theammeter. Some airplanes also have a starter engagedwarning light specifically for this purpose. The engineshould be shut down immediately should this occur.

Starters are small electric motors designed to drawlarge amounts of current for short periods of cranking.Should the engine fail to start readily, avoidcontinuous starter operation for periods longer than 30seconds without a cool down period of at least 30seconds to a minute (some AFM/POH specify evenlonger). Their service life is drastically shortened fromhigh heat through overuse.

HAND PROPPINGEven though most airplanes are equipped with electricstarters, it is helpful if a pilot is familiar with the pro-cedures and dangers involved in starting an engine byturning the propeller by hand (hand propping). Due tothe associated hazards, this method of starting shouldbe used only when absolutely necessary and whenproper precautions have been taken.

An engine should not be hand propped unless twopeople, both familiar with the airplane and handpropping techniques, are available to perform theprocedure. The person pulling the propeller bladesthrough directs all activity and is in charge of theprocedure. The other person, thoroughly familiarwith the controls, must be seated in the airplane withthe brakes set. As an additional precaution, chocksmay be placed in front of the main wheels. If this isnot feasible, the airplane’s tail may be securely tied.Never allow a person unfamiliar with the controls tooccupy the pilot’s seat when hand propping. Theprocedure should never be attempted alone.

When hand propping is necessary, the ground surfacenear the propeller should be stable and free of debris.Unless a firm footing is available, consider relocatingthe airplane. Loose gravel, wet grass, mud, oil, ice, orsnow might cause the person pulling the propellerthrough to slip into the rotating blades as the enginestarts.

Both participants should discuss the procedure andagree on voice commands and expected action. Tobegin the procedure, the fuel system and enginecontrols (tank selector, primer, pump, throttle, andmixture) are set for a normal start. The ignition/magneto switch should be checked to be sure that it isOFF. Then the descending propeller blade should berotated so that it assumes a position slightly above thehorizontal. The person doing the hand propping shouldface the descending blade squarely and stand slightlyless than one arm’s length from the blade. If a stancetoo far away were assumed, it would be necessary tolean forward in an unbalanced condition to reach theblade. This may cause the person to fall forward intothe rotating blades when the engine starts.

The procedure and commands for hand propping are:

Person out front says, “GAS ON, SWITCH OFF,THROTTLE CLOSED, BRAKES SET.”

Pilot seat occupant, after making sure the fuel isON, mixture is RICH, ignition/magneto switch isOFF, throttle is CLOSED, and brakes SET, says,“GAS ON, SWITCH OFF, THROTTLECLOSED, BRAKES SET.”

Person out front, after pulling the propellerthrough to prime the engine says, “BRAKESAND CONTACT.”

Pilot seat occupant checks the brakes SET andturns the ignition switch ON, then says,“BRAKES AND CONTACT.”

The propeller is swung by forcing the blade downwardrapidly, pushing with the palms of both hands. If theblade is gripped tightly with the fingers, the person’sbody may be drawn into the propeller blades shouldthe engine misfire and rotate momentarily in theopposite direction. As the blade is pushed down, theperson should step backward, away from the propeller.If the engine does not start, the propeller should not berepositioned for another attempt until it is certain theignition/magneto switch is turned OFF.

The words CONTACT (mags ON) and SWITCH OFF(mags OFF) are used because they are significantlydifferent from each other. Under noisy conditions orhigh winds, the words CONTACT and SWITCH OFF

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are less likely to be misunderstood than SWITCH ONand SWITCH OFF.

When removing the wheel chocks after the enginestarts, it is essential that the pilot remember that thepropeller is almost invisible. Incredible as it may seem,serious injuries and fatalities occur when people whohave just started an engine walk or reach into thepropeller arc to remove the chocks. Before the chocksare removed, the throttle should be set to idle and thechocks approached from the rear of the propeller.Never approach the chocks from the front or the side.

The procedures for hand propping should always be inaccordance with the manufacturer’s recommendationsand checklist. Special starting procedures are usedwhen the engine is already warm, very cold, or whenflooded or vapor locked. There will also be a differentstarting procedure when an external power sourceis used.

TAXIINGThe following basic taxi information is applicable toboth nosewheel and tailwheel airplanes.

Taxiing is the controlled movement of the airplaneunder its own power while on the ground. Since anairplane is moved under its own power between theparking area and the runway, the pilot must thoroughlyunderstand and be proficient in taxi procedures.

An awareness of other aircraft that are taking off,landing, or taxiing, and consideration for the right-of-way of others is essential to safety. When taxiing, thepilot’s eyes should be looking outside the airplane, tothe sides, as well as the front. The pilot must be awareof the entire area around the airplane to ensure that theairplane will clear all obstructions and other aircraft. Ifat any time there is doubt about the clearance from anobject, the pilot should stop the airplane and havesomeone check the clearance. It may be necessary tohave the airplane towed or physically moved by aground crew.

It is difficult to set any rule for a single, safe taxiingspeed. What is reasonable and prudent under someconditions may be imprudent or hazardous under oth-ers. The primary requirements for safe taxiing are pos-itive control, the ability to recognize potential hazardsin time to avoid them, and the ability to stop or turnwhere and when desired, without undue reliance on thebrakes. Pilots should proceed at a cautious speed oncongested or busy ramps. Normally, the speed shouldbe at the rate where movement of the airplane isdependent on the throttle. That is, slow enough sowhen the throttle is closed, the airplane can be stoppedpromptly. When yellow taxiway centerline stripes areprovided, they should be observed unless necessary toclear airplanes or obstructions.

When taxiing, it is best to slow down beforeattempting a turn. Sharp, high-speed turns placeundesirable side loads on the landing gear and mayresult in an uncontrollable swerve or a ground loop.This swerve is most likely to occur when turning froma downwind heading toward an upwind heading. Inmoderate to high-wind conditions, pilots will note theairplane’s tendency to weathervane, or turn into thewind when the airplane is proceeding crosswind.

When taxiing at appropriate speeds in no-windconditions, the aileron and elevator control surfaceshave little or no effect on directional control of theairplane. The controls should not be consideredsteering devices and should be held in a neutralposition. Their proper use while taxiing in windyconditions will be discussed later. [Figure 2-10]

Steering is accomplished with rudder pedals andbrakes. To turn the airplane on the ground, the pilotshould apply rudder in the desired direction of turn anduse whatever power or brake that is necessary tocontrol the taxi speed. The rudder pedal should be heldin the direction of the turn until just short of the pointwhere the turn is to be stopped. Rudder pressure is thenreleased or opposite pressure is applied as needed.

More engine power may be required to start theairplane moving forward, or to start a turn, than isrequired to keep it moving in any given direction.When using additional power, the throttle shouldimmediately be retarded once the airplane beginsmoving, to prevent excessive acceleration.

When first beginning to taxi, the brakes should betested for proper operation as soon as the airplane isput in motion. Applying power to start the airplane

Use Up Aileronon LH Wing andNeutral Elevator

Use Up Aileronon RH Wing andNeutral Elevator

Use Down Aileronon LH Wing andDown Elevator

Use Down Aileronon RH Wing andDown Elevator

Figure 2-10. Flight control positions during taxi.

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moving forward slowly, then retarding the throttle andsimultaneously applying pressure smoothly to bothbrakes does this. If braking action is unsatisfactory, theengine should be shut down immediately.

The presence of moderate to strong headwinds and/ora strong propeller slipstream makes the use of theelevator necessary to maintain control of the pitchattitude while taxiing. This becomes apparent whenconsidering the lifting action that may be created onthe horizontal tail surfaces by either of those twofactors. The elevator control in nosewheel-typeairplanes should be held in the neutral position, whilein tailwheel-type airplanes it should be held in the aftposition to hold the tail down.

Downwind taxiing will usually require less enginepower after the initial ground roll is begun, since thewind will be pushing the airplane forward. [Figure2-11] To avoid overheating the brakes when taxiingdownwind, keep engine power to a minimum. Ratherthan continuously riding the brakes to control speed, itis better to apply brakes only occasionally. Other thansharp turns at low speed, the throttle should always beat idle before the brakes are applied. It is a commonstudent error to taxi with a power setting that requirescontrolling taxi speed with the brakes. This is theaeronautical equivalent of driving an automobile withboth the accelerator and brake pedals depressed.

When taxiing with a quartering headwind, the wing onthe upwind side will tend to be lifted by the windunless the aileron control is held in that direction(upwind aileron UP). [Figure 2-12] Moving the aileron

into the UP position reduces the effect of the windstriking that wing, thus reducing the lifting action.This control movement will also cause the downwindaileron to be placed in the DOWN position, thus asmall amount of lift and drag on the downwind wing,further reducing the tendency of the upwind wingto rise.

When taxiing with a quartering tailwind, the elevatorshould be held in the DOWN position, and the upwindaileron, DOWN. [Figure 2-13] Since the wind isstriking the airplane from behind, these controlpositions reduce the tendency of the wind to get underthe tail and the wing and to nose the airplane over.

The application of these crosswind taxi correctionshelps to minimize the weathervaning tendency andultimately results in making the airplane easier tosteer.

Normally, all turns should be started using the rudderpedal to steer the nosewheel. To tighten the turn afterfull pedal deflection is reached, the brake may beapplied as needed. When stopping the airplane, it isadvisable to always stop with the nosewheel straightahead to relieve any side load on the nosewheel and tomake it easier to start moving ahead.

During crosswind taxiing, even the nosewheel-typeairplane has some tendency to weathervane. However,

WHEN TAXIING DOWNWIND

Keep engine powerto a minimum.

Do not ride the brakes. Reduce power and use

brakes intermittently.

Figure 2-11. Downwind taxi.

Upwind Aileron Up

Downwind Aileron Down

Elevator Neutral

Figure 2-12. Quartering headwind.

Upwind Aileron Down

Downwind Aileron Up

Elevator Down

Figure 2-13. Quartering tailwind.

Figure 2-14. Surface area most affected by wind.

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the weathervaning tendency is less than intailwheel-type airplanes because the main wheels arelocated farther aft, and the nosewheel’s ground frictionhelps to resist the tendency. [Figure 2-14] Thenosewheel linkage from the rudder pedals providesadequate steering control for safe and efficient groundhandling, and normally, only rudder pressure isnecessary to correct for a crosswind.

BEFORE TAKEOFF CHECKThe before takeoff check is the systematic procedurefor making a check of the engine, controls, systems,instruments, and avionics prior to flight. Normally, it isperformed after taxiing to a position near the takeoffend of the runway. Taxiing to that position usuallyallows sufficient time for the engine to warm up to atleast minimum operating temperatures. This ensuresadequate lubrication and internal engine clearancesbefore being operated at high power settings. Manyengines require that the oil temperature reach aminimum value as stated in the AFM/POH before highpower is applied.

Air-cooled engines generally are closely cowled andequipped with pressure baffles that direct the flow ofair to the engine in sufficient quantities for cooling inflight. On the ground, however, much less air is forcedthrough the cowling and around the baffling.Prolonged ground operations may cause cylinderoverheating long before there is an indication of risingoil temperature. Cowl flaps, if available, should be setaccording to the AFM/POH.

Before beginning the before takeoff check, the airplaneshould be positioned clear of other aircraft. Thereshould not be anything behind the airplane that mightbe damaged by the prop blast. To minimizeoverheating during engine runup, it is recommendedthat the airplane be headed as nearly as possible intothe wind. After the airplane is properly positioned forthe runup, it should be allowed to roll forward slightlyso that the nosewheel or tailwheel will be aligned foreand aft.

During the engine runup, the surface under the airplaneshould be firm (a smooth, paved, or turf surface ifpossible) and free of debris. Otherwise, the propellermay pick up pebbles, dirt, mud, sand, or other looseobjects and hurl them backwards. This damages thepropeller and may damage the tail of the airplane.Small chips in the leading edge of the propeller formstress risers, or lines of concentrated high stress. Theseare highly undesirable and may lead to cracks andpossible propeller blade failure.

While performing the engine runup, the pilot mustdivide attention inside and outside the airplane. If the

parking brake slips, or if application of the toe brakesis inadequate for the amount of power applied, theairplane could move forward unnoticed if attention isfixed inside the airplane.

Each airplane has different features and equipment,and the before takeoff checklist provided by theairplane manufacturer or operator should be used toperform the runup.

AFTER LANDINGDuring the after-landing roll, the airplane should begradually slowed to normal taxi speed before turningoff the landing runway. Any significant degree of turnat faster speeds could result in ground looping andsubsequent damage to the airplane.

To give full attention to controlling the airplane duringthe landing roll, the after-landing check should beperformed only after the airplane is brought to acomplete stop clear of the active runway. There havebeen many cases of the pilot mistakenly grasping thewrong handle and retracting the landing gear, insteadof the flaps, due to improper division of attention whilethe airplane was moving. However, this procedure maybe modified if the manufacturer recommends thatspecific after-landing items be accomplished duringlanding rollout. For example, when performing ashort-field landing, the manufacturer may recommendretracting the flaps on rollout to improve braking. Inthis situation, the pilot should make a positiveidentification of the flap control and retract the flaps.

CLEAR OF RUNWAYBecause of different features and equipment in variousairplanes, the after-landing checklist provided by themanufacturer should be used. Some of the items mayinclude:

• Flaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Identify and retract

• Cowl flaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Open

• Propeller control . . . . . . . . . . . Full increase

• Trim tabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Set

PARKINGUnless parking in a designated, supervised area, thepilot should select a location and heading which willprevent the propeller or jet blast of other airplanes fromstriking the airplane broadside. Whenever possible, theairplane should be parked headed into the existing orforecast wind. After stopping on the desired heading,the airplane should be allowed to roll straight aheadenough to straighten the nosewheel or tailwheel.

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ENGINE SHUTDOWNFinally, the pilot should always use the procedures inthe manufacturer’s checklist for shutting down theengine and securing the airplane. Some of the impor-tant items include:

Set the parking brakes ON.

Set throttle to IDLE or 1,000 r.p.m. If tur-bocharged, observe the manufacturer’s spooldown procedure.

Turn ignition switch OFF then ON at idle tocheck for proper operation of switch in the OFFposition.

Set propeller control (if equipped) to FULLINCREASE.

Turn electrical units and radios OFF.

Set mixture control to IDLE CUTOFF.

Turn ignition switch to OFF when engine stops.

Turn master electrical switch to OFF.

Install control lock.

POSTFLIGHTA flight is never complete until the engine is shut downand the airplane is secured. A pilot should consider thisan essential part of any flight.

SECURING AND SERVICINGAfter engine shutdown and deplaning passengers, thepilot should accomplish a postflight inspection. Thisincludes checking the general condition of the aircraft.For a departure, the oil should be checked and fueladded if required. If the aircraft is going to be inactive,it is a good operating practice to fill the tanks to thetop to prevent water condensation from forming.When the flight is completed for the day, the aircraftshould be hangared or tied down and the flightcontrols secured.

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THE FOUR FUNDAMENTALSThere are four fundamental basic flight maneuversupon which all flying tasks are based: straight-and-level flight, turns, climbs, and descents. All controlled flight consists of either one, or a combinationor more than one, of these basic maneuvers. If a studentpilot is able to perform these maneuvers well, and thestudent’s proficiency is based on accurate “feel” andcontrol analysis rather than mechanical movements, theability to perform any assigned maneuver will only bea matter of obtaining a clear visual and mental concep-tion of it. The flight instructor must impart a goodknowledge of these basic elements to the student, andmust combine them and plan their practice so thatperfect performance of each is instinctive withoutconscious effort. The importance of this to the successof flight training cannot be overemphasized. As thestudent progresses to more complex maneuvers,discounting any difficulties in visualizing themaneuvers, most student difficulties will be caused bya lack of training, practice, or understanding of theprinciples of one or more of these fundamentals.

EFFECTS AND USE OF THE CONTROLSIn explaining the functions of the controls, the instructorshould emphasize that the controls never change in theresults produced in relation to the pilot. The pilot shouldalways be considered the center of movement of the air-plane, or the reference point from which the movementsof the airplane are judged and described. The followingwill always be true, regardless of the airplane’s attitudein relation to the Earth.

• When back pressure is applied to the elevator con-trol, the airplane’s nose rises in relation to the pilot.

• When forward pressure is applied to the elevatorcontrol, the airplane’s nose lowers in relation to thepilot.

• When right pressure is applied to the aileron con-trol, the airplane’s right wing lowers in relation tothe pilot.

• When left pressure is applied to the aileron control,the airplane’s left wing lowers in relation to thepilot.

• When pressure is applied to the right rudder pedal,the airplane’s nose moves (yaws) to the right inrelation to the pilot.

• When pressure is applied to the left rudder pedal,the airplane’s nose moves (yaws) to the left inrelation to the pilot.

The preceding explanations should prevent thebeginning pilot from thinking in terms of “up” or“down” in respect to the Earth, which is only a relativestate to the pilot. It will also make understanding of thefunctions of the controls much easier, particularlywhen performing steep banked turns and the moreadvanced maneuvers. Consequently, the pilot must beable to properly determine the control applicationrequired to place the airplane in any attitude or flightcondition that is desired.

The flight instructor should explain that the controlswill have a natural “live pressure” while in flight andthat they will remain in neutral position of their ownaccord, if the airplane is trimmed properly.

With this in mind, the pilot should be cautionednever to think of movement of the controls, but ofexerting a force on them against this live pressure orresistance. Movement of the controls should not beemphasized; it is the duration and amount of theforce exerted on them that effects the displacementof the control surfaces and maneuvers the airplane.

The amount of force the airflow exerts on a controlsurface is governed by the airspeed and the degree thatthe surface is moved out of its neutral or streamlinedposition. Since the airspeed will not be the same in allmaneuvers, the actual amount the control surfaces aremoved is of little importance; but it is important thatthe pilot maneuver the airplane by applying sufficientcontrol pressure to obtain a desired result, regardlessof how far the control surfaces are actually moved.

The controls should be held lightly, with the fingers,not grabbed and squeezed. Pressure should be exertedon the control yoke with the fingers. A common errorin beginning pilots is a tendency to “choke the stick.”This tendency should be avoided as it prevents thedevelopment of “feel,” which is an important part ofaircraft control.

The pilot’s feet should rest comfortably against therudder pedals. Both heels should support the weightof the feet on the cockpit floor with the ball of eachfoot touching the individual rudder pedals. The legsand feet should not be tense; they must be relaxedjust as when driving an automobile.

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When using the rudder pedals, pressure should beapplied smoothly and evenly by pressing with the ballof one foot. Since the rudder pedals are interconnected,and act in opposite directions, when pressure is appliedto one pedal, pressure on the other must be relaxed pro-portionately. When the rudder pedal must be movedsignificantly, heavy pressure changes should be madeby applying the pressure with the ball of the foot whilethe heels slide along the cockpit floor. Remember, theball of each foot must rest comfortably on the rudderpedals so that even slight pressure changes can be felt.

In summary, during flight, it is the pressure the pilotexerts on the control yoke and rudder pedals thatcauses the airplane to move about its axes. When acontrol surface is moved out of its streamlined position(even slightly), the air flowing past it will exert a forceagainst it and will try to return it to its streamlined posi-tion. It is this force that the pilot feels as pressure onthe control yoke and the rudder pedals.

FEEL OF THE AIRPLANEThe ability to sense a flight condition, without relyingon cockpit instrumentation, is often called “feel of theairplane,” but senses in addition to “feel” are involved.

Sounds inherent to flight are an important sense indeveloping “feel.” The air that rushes past the mod-ern light plane cockpit/cabin is often masked bysoundproofing, but it can still be heard. When thelevel of sound increases, it indicates that airspeed isincreasing. Also, the powerplant emits distinctivesound patterns in different conditions of flight. Thesound of the engine in cruise flight may be differentfrom that in a climb, and different again from that ina dive. When power is used in fixed-pitch propellerairplanes, the loss of r.p.m. is particularly notice-able. The amount of noise that can be heard willdepend on how much the slipstream masks it out.But the relationship between slipstream noise andpowerplant noise aids the pilot in estimating notonly the present airspeed but the trend of the air-speed.

There are three sources of actual “feel” that are veryimportant to the pilot. One is the pilot’s own body asit responds to forces of acceleration. The “G” loadsimposed on the airframe are also felt by the pilot.Centripetal accelerations force the pilot down into theseat or raise the pilot against the seat belt. Radialaccelerations, as they produce slips or skids of the air-frame, shift the pilot from side to side in the seat.These forces need not be strong, only perceptible bythe pilot to be useful. An accomplished pilot who hasexcellent “feel” for the airplane will be able to detecteven the minutest change.

The response of the aileron and rudder controls to thepilot’s touch is another element of “feel,” and is one

that provides direct information concerning airspeed.As previously stated, control surfaces move in theairstream and meet resistance proportional to thespeed of the airstream. When the airstream is fast, thecontrols are stiff and hard to move. When the airstreamis slow, the controls move easily, but must be deflecteda greater distance. The pressure that must be exertedon the controls to effect a desired result, and the lagbetween their movement and the response of the air-plane, becomes greater as airspeed decreases.

Another type of “feel” comes to the pilot through theairframe. It consists mainly of vibration. An exampleis the aerodynamic buffeting and shaking that precedesa stall.

Kinesthesia, or the sensing of changes in direction orspeed of motion, is one of the most important senses apilot can develop. When properly developed, kines-thesia can warn the pilot of changes in speed and/orthe beginning of a settling or mushing of the airplane.

The senses that contribute to “feel” of the airplane areinherent in every person. However, “feel” must bedeveloped. The flight instructor should direct thebeginning pilot to be attuned to these senses and teachan awareness of their meaning as it relates to variousconditions of flight. To do this effectively, the flightinstructor must fully understand the differencebetween perceiving something and merely noticing it.It is a well established fact that the pilot who developsa “feel” for the airplane early in flight training willhave little difficulty with advanced flight maneuvers.

ATTITUDE FLYINGIn contact (VFR) flying, flying by attitude means visu-ally establishing the airplane’s attitude with referenceto the natural horizon. [Figure 3-1] Attitude is theangular difference measured between an airplane’saxis and the line of the Earth’s horizon. Pitch attitudeis the angle formed by the longitudinal axis, and bankattitude is the angle formed by the lateral axis.Rotation about the airplane’s vertical axis (yaw) istermed an attitude relative to the airplane’s flightpath,but not relative to the natural horizon.

In attitude flying, airplane control is composed of fourcomponents: pitch control, bank control, power con-trol, and trim.

• Pitch control is the control of the airplane aboutthe lateral axis by using the elevator to raise andlower the nose in relation to the natural horizon.

• Bank control is control of the airplane about the lon-gitudinal axis by use of the ailerons to attain a desiredbank angle in relation to the natural horizon.

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• Power control is used when the flight situationindicates a need for a change in thrust.

• Trim is used to relieve all possible control pres-sures held after a desired attitude has beenattained.

The primary rule of attitude flying is:

ATTITUDE + POWER = PERFORMANCE

INTEGRATED FLIGHT INSTRUCTIONWhen introducing basic flight maneuvers to a beginningpilot, it is recommended that the “Integrated” or“Composite” method of flight instruction be used. Thismeans the use of outside references and flight instru-ments to establish and maintain desired flight attitudesand airplane performance. [Figure 3-2] When beginningpilots use this technique, they achieve a more preciseand competent overall piloting ability. Although thismethod of airplane control may become second naturewith experience, the beginning pilot must make a deter-mined effort to master the technique. The basic elementsof which are as follows.

• The airplane’s attitude is established and main-tained by positioning the airplane in relation to thenatural horizon. At least 90 percent of the pilot’sattention should be devoted to this end, along with

PITCH CONTROL

BANK CONTROL

Figure 3-1. Airplane attitude is based on relative positions of the nose and wings on the natural horizon.

No more than10% of the pilot's attention shouldbe inside thecockpit.

90% of the time, the pilot's attention shouldbe outside the cockpit.

Figure 3-2. Integrated or composite method of flight instruction.

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scanning for other airplanes. If, during a recheck ofthe pitch and/or bank, either or both are found to beother than desired, an immediate correction is madeto return the airplane to the proper attitude.Continuous checks and immediate corrections willallow little chance for the airplane to deviate fromthe desired heading, altitude, and flightpath.

• The airplane’s attitude is confirmed by referring toflight instruments, and its performance checked. Ifairplane performance, as indicated by flight instru-ments, indicates a need for correction, a specificamount of correction must be determined, thenapplied with reference to the natural horizon. The air-plane’s attitude and performance are then recheckedby referring to flight instruments. The pilot thenmaintains the corrected attitude by reference to thenatural horizon.

• The pilot should monitor the airplane’s perform-ance by making numerous quick glances at theflight instruments. No more than 10 percent of thepilot’s attention should be inside the cockpit. Thepilot must develop the skill to instantly focus onthe appropriate flight instrument, and then imme-diately return to outside reference to control theairplane’s attitude.

The pilot should become familiar with the relationshipbetween outside references to the natural horizon andthe corresponding indications on flight instrumentsinside the cockpit. For example, a pitch attitude adjust-ment may require a movement of the pilot’s referencepoint on the airplane of several inches in relation to thenatural horizon, but correspond to a small fraction ofan inch movement of the reference bar on the air-plane’s attitude indicator. Similarly, a deviation fromdesired bank, which is very obvious when referencingthe wingtip’s position relative to the natural horizon,may be nearly imperceptible on the airplane’s attitudeindicator to the beginning pilot.

The use of integrated flight instruction does not, and isnot intended to prepare pilots for flight in instrumentweather conditions. The most common error made by thebeginning student is to make pitch or bank correctionswhile still looking inside the cockpit. Control pressure isapplied, but the beginning pilot, not being familiar withthe intricacies of flight by references to instruments,including such things as instrument lag and gyroscopicprecession, will invariably make excessive attitude cor-rections and end up “chasing the instruments.” Airplaneattitude by reference to the natural horizon, however, isimmediate in its indications, accurate, and presentedmany times larger than any instrument could be. Also,the beginning pilot must be made aware that anytime, forwhatever reason, airplane attitude by reference to the nat-ural horizon cannot be established and/or maintained, thesituation should be considered a bona fide emergency.

STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLIGHTIt is impossible to emphasize too strongly the neces-sity for forming correct habits in flying straight andlevel. All other flight maneuvers are in essence adeviation from this fundamental flight maneuver.Many flight instructors and students are prone tobelieve that perfection in straight-and-level flightwill come of itself, but such is not the case. It is notuncommon to find a pilot whose basic flying abilityconsistently falls just short of minimum expectedstandards, and upon analyzing the reasons for theshortcomings to discover that the cause is the inabil-ity to fly straight and level properly.

Straight-and-level flight is flight in which a constantheading and altitude are maintained. It is accomplishedby making immediate and measured corrections for devia-tions in direction and altitude from unintentional slightturns, descents, and climbs. Level flight, at first, is a matterof consciously fixing the relationship of the position ofsome portion of the airplane, used as a reference point, withthe horizon. In establishing the reference points, theinstructor should place the airplane in the desired positionand aid the student in selecting reference points. Theinstructor should be aware that no two pilots see this rela-tionship exactly the same. The references will depend onwhere the pilot is sitting, the pilot’s height (whether shortor tall), and the pilot’s manner of sitting. It is, therefore,important that during the fixing of this relationship, thepilot sit in a normal manner; otherwise the points will notbe the same when the normal position is resumed.

In learning to control the airplane in level flight, it isimportant that the student be taught to maintain a lightgrip on the flight controls, and that the control forcesdesired be exerted lightly and just enough to producethe desired result. The student should learn to associ-ate the apparent movement of the references with theforces which produce it. In this way, the student candevelop the ability to regulate the change desired inthe airplane’s attitude by the amount and direction offorces applied to the controls without the necessity ofreferring to instrument or outside references for eachminor correction.

The pitch attitude for level flight (constant altitude) isusually obtained by selecting some portion of the air-plane’s nose as a reference point, and then keepingthat point in a fixed position relative to the horizon.[Figure 3-3] Using the principles of attitude flying,that position should be cross-checked occasionallyagainst the altimeter to determine whether or not thepitch attitude is correct. If altitude is being gained orlost, the pitch attitude should be readjusted in rela-tion to the horizon and then the altimeter recheckedto determine if altitude is now being maintained. The

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application of forward or back-elevator pressure isused to control this attitude.

The pitch information obtained from the attitude indi-cator also will show the position of the nose relative tothe horizon and will indicate whether elevator pressureis necessary to change the pitch attitude to return tolevel flight. However, the primary reference source isthe natural horizon.

In all normal maneuvers, the term “increase the pitchattitude” implies raising the nose in relation to the hori-zon; the term “decreasing the pitch attitude” meanslowering the nose.

Straight flight (laterally level flight) is accomplishedby visually checking the relationship of the airplane’swingtips with the horizon. Both wingtips should beequidistant above or below the horizon (depending onwhether the airplane is a high-wing or low-wing type),and any necessary adjustments should be made withthe ailerons, noting the relationship of control pressureand the airplane’s attitude. [Figure 3-4] The studentshould understand that anytime the wings are banked,even though very slightly, the airplane will turn. Theobjective of straight-and-level flight is to detect smalldeviations from laterally level flight as soon as theyoccur, necessitating only small corrections. Referenceto the heading indicator should be made to note anychange in direction.

STRAIGHT AND LEVEL

Fixed

Reference Point

Figure 3-3. Nose reference for straight-and-level flight.

Figure 3-4. Wingtip reference for straight-and-level flight.

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Continually observing the wingtips has advantagesother than being the only positive check for leveling thewings. It also helps divert the pilot’s attention from theairplane’s nose, prevents a fixed stare, and automaticallyexpands the pilot’s area of vision by increasing the rangenecessary for the pilot’s vision to cover. In practicingstraight-and-level-flight, the wingtips can be used notonly for establishing the airplane’s laterally level atti-tude or bank, but to a lesser degree, its pitch attitude.This is noted only for assistance in learning straight-and-level flight, and is not a recommended practice in nor-mal operations.

The scope of a student’s vision is also very important,for if it is obscured the student will tend to look out toone side continually (usually the left) and consequentlylean that way. This not only gives the student a biasedangle from which to judge, but also causes the studentto exert unconscious pressure on the controls in thatdirection, which results in dragging a wing.

With the wings approximately level, it is possible tomaintain straight flight by simply exerting the neces-sary forces on the rudder in the desired direction.However, the instructor should point out that thepractice of using rudder alone is not correct and maymake precise control of the airplane difficult.Straight–and-level flight requires almost no applica-tion of control pressures if the airplane is properlytrimmed and the air is smooth. For that reason, thestudent must not form the habit of constantly movingthe controls unnecessarily. The student must learn torecognize when corrections are necessary, and then tomake a measured response easily and naturally.

To obtain the proper conception of the forcesrequired on the rudder during straight-and-level-flight, the airplane must be held level. One of themost common faults of beginning students is thetendency to concentrate on the nose of the airplaneand attempting to hold the wings level by observingthe curvature of the nose cowling. With this method,the reference line is very short and the deviation,particularly if very slight, can go unnoticed. Also, avery small deviation from level, by this short refer-ence line, becomes considerable at the wingtips andresults in an appreciable dragging of one wing. Thisattitude requires the use of additional rudder tomaintain straight flight, giving a false conception ofneutral control forces. The habit of dragging onewing, and compensating with rudder pressure, ifallowed to develop is particularly hard to break, andif not corrected will result in considerable difficultyin mastering other flight maneuvers.

For all practical purposes, the airspeed will remain con-stant in straight-and-level flight with a constant powersetting. Practice of intentional airspeed changes, byincreasing or decreasing the power, will provide an

excellent means of developing proficiency in maintain-ing straight-and-level flight at various speeds.Significant changes in airspeed will, of course, requireconsiderable changes in pitch attitude and pitch trim tomaintain altitude. Pronounced changes in pitch attitudeand trim will also be necessary as the flaps and landinggear are operated.

Common errors in the performance of straight-and-level flight are:

• Attempting to use improper reference points onthe airplane to establish attitude.

• Forgetting the location of preselected referencepoints on subsequent flights.

• Attempting to establish or correct airplane attitudeusing flight instruments rather than outside visualreference.

• Attempting to maintain direction using only rud-der control.

• Habitually flying with one wing low.

• “Chasing” the flight instruments rather thanadhering to the principles of attitude flying.

• Too tight a grip on the flight controls resulting inovercontrol and lack of feel.

• Pushing or pulling on the flight controls ratherthan exerting pressure against the airstream.

• Improper scanning and/or devoting insufficienttime to outside visual reference. (Head in thecockpit.)

• Fixation on the nose (pitch attitude) referencepoint.

• Unnecessary or inappropriate control inputs.

• Failure to make timely and measured controlinputs when deviations from straight-and-levelflight are detected.

• Inadequate attention to sensory inputs in develop-ing feel for the airplane.

TRIM CONTROLThe airplane is designed so that the primary flightcontrols (rudder, aileron, and elevator) are stream-lined with the nonmovable airplane surfaces whenthe airplane is cruising straight-and-level at normalweight and loading. If the airplane is flying out ofthat basic balanced condition, one or more of thecontrol surfaces is going to have to be held out of itsstreamlined position by continuous control input.The use of trim tabs relieves the pilot of this require-ment. Proper trim technique is a very important and

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often overlooked basic flying skill. An improperlytrimmed airplane requires constant control pressures,produces pilot tension and fatigue, distracts the pilotfrom scanning, and contributes to abrupt and erraticairplane attitude control.

Because of their relatively low power and speed, notall light airplanes have a complete set of trim tabsthat are adjustable from the cockpit. In airplaneswhere rudder, aileron, and elevator trim are avail-able, a definite sequence of trim application shouldbe used. Elevator/stabilator should be trimmed firstto relieve the need for control pressure to maintainconstant airspeed/pitch attitude. Attempts to trim therudder at varying airspeed are impractical in pro-peller driven airplanes because of the change in thetorque correcting offset of the vertical fin. Once aconstant airspeed/pitch attitude has been established,the pilot should hold the wings level with aileronpressure while rudder pressure is trimmed out.Aileron trim should then be adjusted to relieve anylateral control yoke pressure.

A common trim control error is the tendency toovercontrol the airplane with trim adjustments. Toavoid this the pilot must learn to establish and holdthe airplane in the desired attitude using the primaryflight controls. The proper attitude should be estab-lished with reference to the horizon and then veri-fied by reference to performance indications on theflight instruments. The pilot should then apply trimin the above sequence to relieve whatever hand andfoot pressure had been required. The pilot mustavoid using the trim to establish or correct airplaneattitude. The airplane attitude must be establishedand held first, then control pressures trimmed outso that the airplane will maintain the desired atti-tude in “hands off” flight. Attempting to “fly theairplane with the trim tabs” is a common fault inbasic flying technique even among experiencedpilots.

A properly trimmed airplane is an indication of goodpiloting skills. Any control pressures the pilot feelsshould be a result of deliberate pilot control input dur-ing a planned change in airplane attitude, not a resultof pressures being applied by the airplane because thepilot is allowing it to assume control.

LEVEL TURNSA turn is made by banking the wings in the direction ofthe desired turn. A specific angle of bank is selected bythe pilot, control pressures applied to achieve thedesired bank angle, and appropriate control pressuresexerted to maintain the desired bank angle once it isestablished. [Figure 3-5]

All four primary controls are used in close coordina-tion when making turns. Their functions are as follows.

• The ailerons bank the wings and so determine therate of turn at any given airspeed.

• The elevator moves the nose of the airplane up ordown in relation to the pilot, and perpendicular tothe wings. Doing that, it both sets the pitch attitudein the turn and “pulls” the nose of the airplanearound the turn.

• The throttle provides thrust which may be used forairspeed to tighten the turn.

• The rudder offsets any yaw effects developed bythe other controls. The rudder does not turn the air-plane.

For purposes of this discussion, turns are divided intothree classes: shallow turns, medium turns, and steepturns.

• Shallow turns are those in which the bank (lessthan approximately 20°) is so shallow that theinherent lateral stability of the airplane is acting tolevel the wings unless some aileron is applied tomaintain the bank.

• Medium turns are those resulting from a degree ofbank (approximately 20° to 45°) at which the air-plane remains at a constant bank.

Figure 3-5. Level turn to the left.

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Steep turns are those resulting from a degree ofbank (45° or more) at which the “overbankingtendency” of an airplane overcomes stability, andthe bank increases unless aileron is applied toprevent it.

Changing the direction of the wing’s lift toward oneside or the other causes the airplane to be pulled in thatdirection. [Figure 3-6] Applying coordinated aileronand rudder to bank the airplane in the direction of thedesired turn does this.

When an airplane is flying straight and level, the total liftis acting perpendicular to the wings and to the Earth. Asthe airplane is banked into a turn, the lift then becomesthe resultant of two components. One, the vertical liftcomponent, continues to act perpendicular to the Earthand opposes gravity. Second, the horizontal lift compo-nent (centripetal) acts parallel to the Earth’s surface andopposes inertia (apparent centrifugal force). These twolift components act at right angles to each other, causingthe resultant total lifting force to act perpendicular to thebanked wing of the airplane. It is the horizontal lift com-ponent that actually turns the airplane—not the rudder.When applying aileron to bank the airplane, the loweredaileron (on the rising wing) produces a greater drag thanthe raised aileron (on the lowering wing). [Figure 3-7]This increased aileron yaws the airplane toward the risingwing, or opposite to the direction of turn. To counteractthis adverse yawing moment, rudder pressure must beapplied simultaneously with aileron in the desireddirection of turn. This action is required to produce acoordinated turn.

After the bank has been established in a mediumbanked turn, all pressure applied to the aileron may berelaxed. The airplane will remain at the selected bank

with no further tendency to yaw since there is nolonger a deflection of the ailerons. As a result, pres-sure may also be relaxed on the rudder pedals, and therudder allowed to streamline itself with the directionof the slipstream. Rudder pressure maintained after theturn is established will cause the airplane to skid to theoutside of the turn. If a definite effort is made to centerthe rudder rather than let it streamline itself to the turn,it is probable that some opposite rudder pressure willbe exerted inadvertently. This will force the airplane toyaw opposite its turning path, causing the airplane toslip to the inside of the turn. The ball in the turn-and-slip indicator will be displaced off-center wheneverthe airplane is skidding or slipping sideways. [Figure3-8] In proper coordinated flight, there is no skiddingor slipping. An essential basic airmanship skill is theability of the pilot to sense or “feel” any uncoordinatedcondition (slip or skid) without referring to instrumentreference. During this stage of training, the flightinstructor should stress the development of this abilityand insist on its use to attain perfect coordination in allsubsequent training.

In all constant altitude, constant airspeed turns, it isnecessary to increase the angle of attack of the wingwhen rolling into the turn by applying up elevator.This is required because part of the vertical lift hasbeen diverted to horizontal lift. Thus, the total lift mustbe increased to compensate for this loss.

To stop the turn, the wings are returned to level flightby the coordinated use of the ailerons and rudderapplied in the opposite direction. To understand therelationship between airspeed, bank, and radius ofturn, it should be noted that the rate of turn at anygiven true airspeed depends on the horizontal lift com-ponent. The horizontal lift component varies in pro-portion to the amount of bank. Therefore, the rate ofturn at a given true airspeed increases as the angle ofbank is increased. On the other hand, when a turn ismade at a higher true airspeed at a given bank angle,the inertia is greater and the horizontal lift componentrequired for the turn is greater, causing the turning rate

Figure 3-6. Change in lift causes airplane to turn.

More lift

Additionalinduced drag

Rudder overcomesadverse yaw tocoordinate the turn

Reduced lift

Figure 3-7. Forces during a turn.

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to become slower. [Figure 3-9 on next page] Therefore,at a given angle of bank, a higher true airspeed willmake the radius of turn larger because the airplane willbe turning at a slower rate.

When changing from a shallow bank to a mediumbank, the airspeed of the wing on the outside of the turnincreases in relation to the inside wing as the radius ofturn decreases. The additional lift developed becauseof this increase in speed of the wing balances theinherent lateral stability of the airplane. At any givenairspeed, aileron pressure is not required to maintainthe bank. If the bank is allowed to increase from amedium to a steep bank, the radius of turn decreasesfurther. The lift of the outside wing causes the bank tosteepen and opposite aileron is necessary to keep thebank constant.

As the radius of the turn becomes smaller, a significantdifference develops between the speed of the insidewing and the speed of the outside wing. The wing onthe outside of the turn travels a longer circuit than theinside wing, yet both complete their respective circuitsin the same length of time. Therefore, the outside wingtravels faster than the inside wing, and as a result, itdevelops more lift. This creates an overbankingtendency that must be controlled by the use of theailerons. [Figure 3-10] Because the outboard wing isdeveloping more lift, it also has more induced drag.This causes a slight slip during steep turns that must becorrected by use of the rudder.

Sometimes during early training in steep turns, thenose may be allowed to get excessively low resultingin a significant loss in altitude. To recover, the pilotshould first reduce the angle of bank with coordinateduse of the rudder and aileron, then raise the nose of theairplane to level flight with the elevator. If recoveryfrom an excessively nose-low steep bank condition is

attempted by use of the elevator only, it will cause asteepening of the bank and could result in overstress-ing the airplane. Normally, small corrections for pitchduring steep turns are accomplished with the elevator,and the bank is held constant with the ailerons.

To establish the desired angle of bank, the pilot shoulduse outside visual reference points, as well as the bankindicator on the attitude indicator.

The best outside reference for establishing the degree ofbank is the angle formed by the raised wing of low-wingairplanes (the lowered wing of high-wing airplanes) andthe horizon, or the angle made by the top of the enginecowling and the horizon. [Figure 3-11 on page 3-11]Since on most light airplanes the engine cowling is fairlyflat, its horizontal angle to the horizon will give someindication of the approximate degree of bank. Also,information obtained from the attitude indicator willshow the angle of the wing in relation to the horizon.Information from the turn coordinator, however, will not.

SKID COORDINATED SLIP TURN

Pilot feelssideways forceto outside of turn

Pilot feelsforce straight

down into seat

Pilot feelssideways forceto inside of turn

Ball to outsideof turn

Ball centered Ball to insideof turn

Figure 3-8. Indications of a slip and skid.

OVERBANKING TENDENCY

Outer wing travels greater distance • Higher Speed • More Lift

Inner wing travels shorter distance • Lower speed • Less lift

Figure 3-10. Overbanking tendency during a steep turn.

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CONSTANT AIRSPEED

10° Angle of Bank

20° Angle of Bank

30° Angle of Bank

When airspeed is held constant, a larger angle of bank will result in a smaller turn radius and a greater turn rate.

CONSTANT ANGLE OF BANK

When angle of bank is held constant, a slower airspeed will result in a smaller turn radius and greater turn rate.

80 kts

90 kts

100 kts

Figure 3-9. Angle of bank and airspeed regulate rate and radius of turn.

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The pilot’s posture while seated in the airplane is veryimportant, particularly during turns. It will affect theinterpretation of outside visual references. At thebeginning, the student may lean away from the turn inan attempt to remain upright in relation to the groundrather than ride with the airplane. This should be cor-rected immediately if the student is to properly learn touse visual references. [Figure 3-12]

Parallax error is common among students and experi-enced pilots. This error is a characteristic of airplanesthat have side-by-side seats because the pilot is seated toone side of the longitudinal axis about which the airplanerolls. This makes the nose appear to rise when making aleft turn and to descend when making right turns. [Figure3-13]

Beginning students should not use large aileron andrudder applications because this produces a rapid rollrate and allows little time for corrections before thedesired bank is reached. Slower (small control dis-placement) roll rates provide more time to makenecessary pitch and bank corrections. As soon asthe airplane rolls from the wings-level attitude, thenose should also start to move along the horizon,increasing its rate of travel proportionately as thebank is increased.

The following variations provide excellent guides.

• If the nose starts to move before the bank starts,rudder is being applied too soon.

• If the bank starts before the nose starts turning, orthe nose moves in the opposite direction, the rud-der is being applied too late.

• If the nose moves up or down when entering abank, excessive or insufficient up elevator is beingapplied.

As the desired angle of bank is established, aileronand rudder pressures should be relaxed. This willstop the bank from increasing because the aileronand rudder control surfaces will be neutral in theirstreamlined position. The up-elevator pressureshould not be relaxed, but should be held constant tomaintain a constant altitude. Throughout the turn, thepilot should cross-check the airspeed indicator, andif the airspeed has decreased more than 5 knots, addi-tional power should be used. The cross-check shouldalso include outside references, altimeter, and verti-cal speed indicator (VSI), which can help determinewhether or not the pitch attitude is correct. If gainingor losing altitude, the pitch attitude should beadjusted in relation to the horizon, and then thealtimeter and VSI rechecked to determine if altitudeis being maintained.

Figure 3-11. Visual reference for angle of bank.

RIGHT WRONG

Figure 3-13. Parallax view.

Figure 3-12. Right and wrong posture while seated in theairplane.

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During all turns, the ailerons, rudder, and elevator areused to correct minor variations in pitch and bank justas they are in straight-and-level flight.

The rollout from a turn is similar to the roll-in exceptthe flight controls are applied in the opposite direction.Aileron and rudder are applied in the direction of therollout or toward the high wing. As the angle of bankdecreases, the elevator pressure should be relaxed asnecessary to maintain altitude.

Since the airplane will continue turning as long as thereis any bank, the rollout must be started before reachingthe desired heading. The amount of lead required to rollout on the desired heading will depend on the degree ofbank used in the turn. Normally, the lead is one-half thedegrees of bank. For example, if the bank is 30°, lead therollout by 15°. As the wings become level, the controlpressures should be smoothly relaxed so that the controlsare neutralized as the airplane returns to straight-and-level flight. As the rollout is being completed, attentionshould be given to outside visual references, as well asthe attitude and heading indicators to determine that thewings are being leveled and the turn stopped.

Instruction in level turns should begin with mediumturns, so that the student has an opportunity to graspthe fundamentals of turning flight without havingto deal with overbanking tendency, or the inherentstability of the airplane attempting to level thewings. The instructor should not ask the student toroll the airplane from bank to bank, but to changeits attitude from level to bank, bank to level, and soon with a slight pause at the termination of eachphase. This pause allows the airplane to free itselffrom the effects of any misuse of the controls andassures a correct start for the next turn. Duringthese exercises, the idea of control forces, ratherthan movement, should be emphasized by pointingout the resistance of the controls to varying forcesapplied to them. The beginning student should beencouraged to use the rudder freely. Skidding in thisphase indicates positive control use, and may beeasily corrected later. The use of too little rudder, orrudder use in the wrong direction at this stage oftraining, on the other hand, indicates a lack ofproper conception of coordination.

In practicing turns, the action of the airplane’s nosewill show any error in coordination of the controls.Often, during the entry or recovery from a bank, thenose will describe a vertical arc above or below thehorizon, and then remain in proper position after thebank is established. This is the result of lack of timingand coordination of forces on the elevator and ruddercontrols during the entry and recovery. It indicates thatthe student has a knowledge of correct turns, but thatentry and recovery techniques are in error.

Because the elevator and ailerons are on one control,and pressures on both are executed simultaneously, thebeginning pilot is often apt to continue pressure on oneof these unintentionally when force on the other onlyis intended. This is particularly true in left-hand turns,because the position of the hands makes correctmovements slightly awkward at first. This is some-times responsible for the habit of climbing slightly inright-hand turns and diving slightly in left-handturns. This results from many factors, including theunequal rudder pressures required to the right and tothe left when turning, due to the torque effect.

The tendency to climb in right-hand turns and descendin left-hand turns is also prevalent in airplanes havingside-by-side cockpit seating. In this case, it is due tothe pilot’s being seated to one side of the longitudinalaxis about which the airplane rolls. This makes thenose appear to rise during a correctly executed left turnand to descend during a correctly executed right turn.An attempt to keep the nose on the same apparent levelwill cause climbing in right turns and diving in leftturns.

Excellent coordination and timing of all the controls inturning requires much practice. It is essential that thiscoordination be developed, because it is the very basisof this fundamental flight maneuver.

If the body is properly relaxed, it will act as a pendu-lum and may be swayed by any force acting on it.During a skid, it will be swayed away from the turn,and during a slip, toward the inside of the turn. Thesame effects will be noted in tendencies to slide on theseat. As the “feel” of flying develops, the properlydirected student will become highly sensitive to thislast tendency and will be able to detect the presenceof, or even the approach of, a slip or skid long beforeany other indication is present.

Common errors in the performance of level turns are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area before begin-ning the turn.

• Attempting to execute the turn solely by instru-ment reference.

• Attempting to sit up straight, in relation to theground, during a turn, rather than riding with theairplane.

• Insufficient feel for the airplane as evidenced bythe inability to detect slips/skids without referenceto flight instruments.

• Attempting to maintain a constant bank angle byreferencing the “cant” of the airplane’s nose.

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• Fixating on the nose reference while excludingwingtip reference.

• “Ground shyness”—making “flat turns” (skid-ding) while operating at low altitudes in a con-scious or subconscious effort to avoid bankingclose to the ground.

• Holding rudder in the turn.

• Gaining proficiency in turns in only one direction(usually the left).

• Failure to coordinate the use of throttle with othercontrols.

• Altitude gain/loss during the turn.

CLIMBS AND CLIMBING TURNSWhen an airplane enters a climb, it changes its flight-path from level flight to an inclined plane or climbattitude. In a climb, weight no longer acts in a direc-tion perpendicular to the flightpath. It acts in a rear-ward direction. This causes an increase in total dragrequiring an increase in thrust (power) to balance theforces. An airplane can only sustain a climb anglewhen there is sufficient thrust to offset increased drag;therefore, climb is limited by the thrust available.

Like other maneuvers, climbs should be performedusing outside visual references and flight instruments.It is important that the pilot know the engine powersettings and pitch attitudes that will produce the fol-lowing conditions of climb.

NORMAL CLIMB—Normal climb is performed atan airspeed recommended by the airplane manufac-turer. Normal climb speed is generally somewhathigher than the airplane’s best rate of climb. The addi-tional airspeed provides better engine cooling, easiercontrol, and better visibility over the nose. Normal

climb is sometimes referred to as “cruise climb.”Complex or high performance airplanes may have aspecified cruise climb in addition to normal climb.

BEST RATE OF CLIMB—Best rate of climb (VY) isperformed at an airspeed where the most excess poweris available over that required for level flight. Thiscondition of climb will produce the most gain in alti-tude in the least amount of time (maximum rate ofclimb in feet per minute). The best rate of climb madeat full allowable power is a maximum climb. It mustbe fully understood that attempts to obtain moreclimb performance than the airplane is capable of byincreasing pitch attitude will result in a decrease inthe rate of altitude gain.

BEST ANGLE OF CLIMB—Best angle of climb(VX) is performed at an airspeed that will produce themost altitude gain in a given distance. Best angle-of-climb airspeed (VX) is considerably lower than bestrate of climb (VY), and is the airspeed where the mostexcess thrust is available over that required for levelflight. The best angle of climb will result in a steeperclimb path, although the airplane will take longer toreach the same altitude than it would at best rate ofclimb. The best angle of climb, therefore, is used inclearing obstacles after takeoff. [Figure 3-14]

It should be noted that, as altitude increases, the speedfor best angle of climb increases, and the speed for bestrate of climb decreases. The point at which these twospeeds meet is the absolute ceiling of the airplane.[Figure 3-15 on next page]

A straight climb is entered by gently increasing pitchattitude to a predetermined level using back-elevatorpressure, and simultaneously increasing engine powerto the climb power setting. Due to an increase indownwash over the horizontal stabilizer as power isapplied, the airplane’s nose will tend to immediatelybegin to rise of its own accord to an attitude higher than

Best angle-of-climb airspeed (Vx)

gives the greatest altitude gain in the

shortest horizontal distance.

Best rate-of-climb airspeed (Vy)

gives the greatest altitude gain

in the shortest time.

Figure 3-14. Best angle of climb vs. best rate of climb.

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that at which it would stabilize. The pilot must be pre-pared for this.

As a climb is started, the airspeed will gradually dimin-ish. This reduction in airspeed is gradual because ofthe initial momentum of the airplane. The thrustrequired to maintain straight-and-level flight at a givenairspeed is not sufficient to maintain the same airspeedin a climb. Climbing flight requires more power thanflying level because of the increased drag caused bygravity acting rearward. Therefore, power must beadvanced to a higher power setting to offset theincreased drag.

The propeller effects at climb power are a primary fac-tor. This is because airspeed is significantly slowerthan at cruising speed, and the airplane’s angle ofattack is significantly greater. Under these conditions,torque and asymmetrical loading of the propeller willcause the airplane to roll and yaw to the left. Tocounteract this, the right rudder must be used.

During the early practice of climbs and climbing turns,this may make coordination of the controls seem awk-ward (left climbing turn holding right rudder), but aftera little practice this correction for propeller effects willbecome instinctive.

Trim is also a very important consideration during aclimb. After the climb has been established, the air-plane should be trimmed to relieve all pressures fromthe flight controls. If changes are made in the pitch atti-tude, power, or airspeed, the airplane should beretrimmed in order to relieve control pressures.

When performing a climb, the power should beadvanced to the climb power recommended by themanufacturer. If the airplane is equipped with a con-trollable-pitch propeller, it will have not only anengine tachometer, but also a manifold pressure gauge.Normally, the flaps and landing gear (if retractable)should be in the retracted position to reduce drag.

As the airplane gains altitude during a climb, the man-ifold pressure gauge (if equipped) will indicate a lossin manifold pressure (power). This is because the samevolume of air going into the engine’s induction systemgradually decreases in density as altitude increases.When the volume of air in the manifold decreases, itcauses a loss of power. This will occur at the rate ofapproximately 1-inch of manifold pressure for each1,000-foot gain in altitude. During prolonged climbs,the throttle must be continually advanced, if constantpower is to be maintained.

To enter the climb, simultaneously advance the throttleand apply back-elevator pressure to raise the nose of theairplane to the proper position in relation to the horizon.As power is increased, the airplane’s nose will rise dueto increased download on the stabilizer. This is causedby increased slipstream. As the pitch attitude increasesand the airspeed decreases, progressively more rightrudder must be applied to compensate for propellereffects and to hold a constant heading.

After the climb is established, back-elevator pressuremust be maintained to keep the pitch attitude constant.As the airspeed decreases, the elevators will try toreturn to their neutral or streamlined position, and theairplane’s nose will tend to lower. Nose-up elevatortrim should be used to compensate for this so that thepitch attitude can be maintained without holding back-elevator pressure. Throughout the climb, since thepower is fixed at the climb power setting, the airspeedis controlled by the use of elevator.

A cross-check of the airspeed indicator, attitude indi-cator, and the position of the airplane’s nose in relationto the horizon will determine if the pitch attitude iscorrect. At the same time, a constant heading shouldbe held with the wings level if a straight climb is beingperformed, or a constant angle of bank and rate of turnif a climbing turn is being performed. [Figure 3-16]

To return to straight-and-level flight from a climb, it isnecessary to initiate the level-off at approximately 10percent of the rate of climb. For example, if the airplaneis climbing at 500 feet per minute (f.p.m.), leveling offshould start 50 feet below the desired altitude. The nosemust be lowered gradually because a loss of altitudewill result if the pitch attitude is changed to the levelflight position without allowing the airspeed to increaseproportionately.

Absolute Ceiling

Service Ceiling

Figure 3-15. Absolute ceiling.

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After the airplane is established in level flight at aconstant altitude, climb power should be retainedtemporarily so that the airplane will accelerate to thecruise airspeed more rapidly. When the speed reachesthe desired cruise speed, the throttle setting and thepropeller control (if equipped) should be set to thecruise power setting and the airplane trimmed. Afterallowing time for engine temperatures to stabilize,adjust the mixture control as required.

In the performance of climbing turns, the followingfactors should be considered.

• With a constant power setting, the same pitch atti-tude and airspeed cannot be maintained in a bankas in a straight climb due to the increase in the totallift required.

• The degree of bank should not be too steep. Asteep bank significantly decreases the rate ofclimb. The bank should always remain constant.

• It is necessary to maintain a constant airspeed andconstant rate of turn in both right and left turns.The coordination of all flight controls is a primaryfactor.

• At a constant power setting, the airplane will climbat a slightly shallower climb angle because someof the lift is being used to turn the airplane.

• Attention should be diverted from fixation on theairplane’s nose and divided equally among insideand outside references.

There are two ways to establish a climbing turn. Eitherestablish a straight climb and then turn, or enter theclimb and turn simultaneously. Climbing turns shouldbe used when climbing to the local practice area.Climbing turns allow better visual scanning, and it iseasier for other pilots to see a turning aircraft.

In any turn, the loss of vertical lift and increasedinduced drag, due to increased angle of attack,

becomes greater as the angle of bank is increased. Soshallow turns should be used to maintain an efficientrate of climb.

All the factors that affect the airplane during level(constant altitude) turns will affect it during climbingturns or any other training maneuver. It will be notedthat because of the low airspeed, aileron drag (adverseyaw) will have a more prominent effect than it did instraight-and-level flight and more rudder pressure willhave to be blended with aileron pressure to keep theairplane in coordinated flight during changes in bankangle. Additional elevator back pressure and trim willalso have to be used to compensate for centrifugalforce, for the loss of vertical lift, and to keep pitch atti-tude constant.

During climbing turns, as in any turn, the loss of verti-cal lift and induced drag due to increased angle ofattack becomes greater as the angle of bank isincreased, so shallow turns should be used to maintainan efficient rate of climb. If a medium or steep bankedturn is used, climb performance will be degraded.

Common errors in the performance of climbs andclimbing turns are:

• Attempting to establish climb pitch attitude by ref-erencing the airspeed indicator, resulting in “chas-ing” the airspeed.

• Applying elevator pressure too aggressively,resulting in an excessive climb angle.

• Applying elevator pressure too aggressively dur-ing level-off resulting in negative “G” forces.

• Inadequate or inappropriate rudder pressure dur-ing climbing turns.

• Allowing the airplane to yaw in straight climbs,usually due to inadequate right rudder pressure.

• Fixation on the nose during straight climbs, result-ing in climbing with one wing low.

• Failure to initiate a climbing turn properly with useof rudder and elevators, resulting in little turn, butrather a climb with one wing low.

• Improper coordination resulting in a slip whichcounteracts the effect of the climb, resulting in lit-tle or no altitude gain.

• Inability to keep pitch and bank attitude constantduring climbing turns.

• Attempting to exceed the airplane’s climb capability.

DESCENTS AND DESCENDING TURNSWhen an airplane enters a descent, it changes its flight-path from level to an inclined plane. It is important that

Figure 3-16. Climb indications.

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the pilot know the power settings and pitch attitudesthat will produce the following conditions of descent.

PARTIAL POWER DESCENT—The normalmethod of losing altitude is to descend with partialpower. This is often termed “cruise” or “enroute”descent. The airspeed and power setting recommendedby the airplane manufacturer for prolonged descentshould be used. The target descent rate should be 400 –500 f.p.m. The airspeed may vary from cruise airspeedto that used on the downwind leg of the landing pat-tern. But the wide range of possible airspeeds shouldnot be interpreted to permit erratic pitch changes. Thedesired airspeed, pitch attitude, and power combina-tion should be preselected and kept constant.

DESCENT AT MINIMUM SAFE AIRSPEED—Aminimum safe airspeed descent is a nose-high, powerassisted descent condition principally used for clearingobstacles during a landing approach to a short runway.The airspeed used for this descent condition is recom-mended by the airplane manufacturer and normally isno greater than 1.3 VSO. Some characteristics of theminimum safe airspeed descent are a steeper than nor-mal descent angle, and the excessive power that maybe required to produce acceleration at low airspeedshould “mushing” and/or an excessive rate of descentbe allowed to develop.

GLIDES—A glide is a basic maneuver in which theairplane loses altitude in a controlled descent with littleor no engine power; forward motion is maintained bygravity pulling the airplane along an inclined path andthe descent rate is controlled by the pilot balancing theforces of gravity and lift.

Although glides are directly related to the practice ofpower-off accuracy landings, they have a specificoperational purpose in normal landing approaches, andforced landings after engine failure. Therefore, it isnecessary that they be performed more subconsciouslythan other maneuvers because most of the time duringtheir execution, the pilot will be giving full attention todetails other than the mechanics of performing themaneuver. Since glides are usually performed rela-tively close to the ground, accuracy of their executionand the formation of proper technique and habits are ofspecial importance.

Because the application of controls is somewhat dif-ferent in glides than in power-on descents, glidingmaneuvers require the perfection of a techniquesomewhat different from that required for ordinarypower-on maneuvers. This control difference iscaused primarily by two factors—the absence of theusual propeller slipstream, and the difference in therelative effectiveness of the various control surfacesat slow speeds.

The glide ratio of an airplane is the distance the air-plane will, with power off, travel forward in relation tothe altitude it loses. For instance, if an airplane travels10,000 feet forward while descending 1,000 feet, itsglide ratio is said to be 10 to 1.

The glide ratio is affected by all four fundamentalforces that act on an airplane (weight, lift, drag, andthrust). If all factors affecting the airplane are constant,the glide ratio will be constant. Although the effect ofwind will not be covered in this section, it is a veryprominent force acting on the gliding distance of theairplane in relationship to its movement over theground. With a tailwind, the airplane will glide fartherbecause of the higher groundspeed. Conversely, with aheadwind the airplane will not glide as far because ofthe slower groundspeed.

Variations in weight do not affect the glide angle pro-vided the pilot uses the correct airspeed. Since it is thelift over drag (L/D) ratio that determines the distance theairplane can glide, weight will not affect the distance.The glide ratio is based only on the relationship of theaerodynamic forces acting on the airplane. The onlyeffect weight has is to vary the time the airplane willglide. The heavier the airplane the higher the airspeedmust be to obtain the same glide ratio. For example, iftwo airplanes having the same L/D ratio, but differentweights, start a glide from the same altitude, the heavierairplane gliding at a higher airspeed will arrive at thesame touchdown point in a shorter time. Both airplaneswill cover the same distance, only the lighter airplanewill take a longer time.

Under various flight conditions, the drag factor maychange through the operation of the landing gearand/or flaps. When the landing gear or the flaps areextended, drag increases and the airspeed willdecrease unless the pitch attitude is lowered. As thepitch is lowered, the glidepath steepens and reducesthe distance traveled. With the power off, a wind-milling propeller also creates considerable drag,thereby retarding the airplane’s forward movement.

Although the propeller thrust of the airplane is nor-mally dependent on the power output of the engine,the throttle is in the closed position during a glide sothe thrust is constant. Since power is not used during aglide or power-off approach, the pitch attitude must beadjusted as necessary to maintain a constant airspeed.

The best speed for the glide is one at which the air-plane will travel the greatest forward distance for agiven loss of altitude in still air. This best glide speedcorresponds to an angle of attack resulting in the leastdrag on the airplane and giving the best lift-to-dragratio (L/DMAX). [Figure 3-17]

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Any change in the gliding airspeed will result in a pro-portionate change in glide ratio. Any speed, other thanthe best glide speed, results in more drag. Therefore, asthe glide airspeed is reduced or increased from theoptimum or best glide speed, the glide ratio is alsochanged. When descending at a speed below the bestglide speed, induced drag increases. When descendingat a speed above best glide speed, parasite dragincreases. In either case, the rate of descent willincrease. [Figure 3-18]

This leads to a cardinal rule of airplane flying that astudent pilot must understand and appreciate: The pilotmust never attempt to “stretch” a glide by applyingback-elevator pressure and reducing the airspeedbelow the airplane’s recommended best glide speed.Attempts to stretch a glide will invariably result in anincrease in the rate and angle of descent and may pre-cipitate an inadvertent stall.

To enter a glide, the pilot should close the throttle andadvance the propeller (if so equipped) to low pitch(high r.p.m.). A constant altitude should be held withback pressure on the elevator control until the airspeeddecreases to the recommended glide speed. Due to adecrease in downwash over the horizontal stabilizer aspower is reduced, the airplane’s nose will tend toimmediately begin to lower of its own accord to an atti-

tude lower than that at which it would stabilize. Thepilot must be prepared for this. To keep pitch attitudeconstant after a power change, the pilot must coun-teract the immediate trim change. If the pitch attitudeis allowed to decrease during glide entry, excessspeed will be carried into the glide and retard theattainment of the correct glide angle and airspeed.Speed should be allowed to dissipate before the pitchattitude is decreased. This point is particularlyimportant in so-called clean airplanes as they arevery slow to lose their speed and any slight deviationof the nose downwards results in an immediateincrease in airspeed. Once the airspeed has dissi-pated to normal or best glide speed, the pitch attitudeshould be allowed to decrease to maintain that speed.This should be done with reference to the horizon.When the speed has stabilized, the airplane shouldbe retrimmed for “hands off” flight.

When the approximate gliding pitch attitude isestablished, the airspeed indicator should bechecked. If the airspeed is higher than the recom-mended speed, the pitch attitude is too low, and ifthe airspeed is less than recommended, the pitchattitude is too high; therefore, the pitch attitudeshould be readjusted accordingly referencing thehorizon. After the adjustment has been made, theairplane should be retrimmed so that it will maintainthis attitude without the need to hold pressure on theelevator control. The principles of attitude flyingrequire that the proper flight attitude be establishedusing outside visual references first, then using theflight instruments as a secondary check. It is a goodpractice to always retrim the airplane after eachpitch adjustment.

A stabilized power-off descent at the best glide speedis often referred to as a normal glide. The flightinstructor should demonstrate a normal glide, anddirect the student pilot to memorize the airplane’sangle and speed by visually checking the airplane’sattitude with reference to the horizon, and noting thepitch of the sound made by the air passing over thestructure, the pressure on the controls, and the feel of

Incr

easi

ng L

ift-t

o-D

rag

Rat

io

Increasing Angle of Attack

L/Dmax

Figure 3-17. L/DMAX.

Best Glide Speed

Too Fast

Too Slow

Figure 3-18. Best glide speed provides the greatest forward distance for a given loss of altitude.

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the airplane. Due to lack of experience, the beginningstudent may be unable to recognize slight variationsof speed and angle of bank immediately by vision orby the pressure required on the controls. Hearing willprobably be the indicator that will be the most easilyused at first. The instructor should, therefore, be cer-tain that the student understands that an increase inthe pitch of sound denotes increasing speed, while adecrease in pitch denotes less speed. When such anindication is received, the student should consciouslyapply the other two means of perception so as toestablish the proper relationship. The student pilotmust use all three elements consciously until theybecome habits, and must be alert when attention isdiverted from the attitude of the airplane and beresponsive to any warning given by a variation in thefeel of the airplane or controls, or by a change in thepitch of the sound.

After a good comprehension of the normal glide isattained, the student pilot should be instructed in the dif-ferences in the results of normal and “abnormal” glides.Abnormal glides being those conducted at speeds otherthan the normal best glide speed. Pilots who do notacquire an understanding and appreciation of thesedifferences will experience difficulties with accuracylandings, which are comparatively simple if thefundamentals of the glide are thoroughly understood.

Too fast a glide during the approach for landinginvariably results in floating over the ground forvarying distances, or even overshooting, while tooslow a glide causes undershooting, flat approaches,and hard touchdowns. A pilot without the ability torecognize a normal glide will not be able to judgewhere the airplane will go, or can be made to go, inan emergency. Whereas, in a normal glide, the flight-path may be sighted to the spot on the ground onwhich the airplane will land. This cannot be done inany abnormal glide.

GLIDING TURNS—The action of the controlsystem is somewhat different in a glide than withpower, making gliding maneuvers stand in a class bythemselves and require the perfection of a techniquedifferent from that required for ordinary powermaneuvers. The control difference is caused mainly bytwo factors—the absence of the usual slipstream, andthe difference or relative effectiveness of the variouscontrol surfaces at various speeds and particularly atreduced speed. The latter factor has its effectexaggerated by the first, and makes the task ofcoordination even more difficult for the inexperiencedpilot. These principles should be thoroughly explainedin order that the student may be alert to the necessarydifferences in coordination.

After a feel for the airplane and control touch havebeen developed, the necessary compensation will be

automatic; but while any mechanical tendency exists,the student will have difficulty executing gliding turns,particularly when making a practical application ofthem in attempting accuracy landings.

Three elements in gliding turns which tend to force thenose down and increase glide speed are:

• Decrease in effective lift due to the direction ofthe lifting force being at an angle to the pull ofgravity.

• The use of the rudder acting as it does in the entryto a power turn.

• The normal stability and inherent characteristicsof the airplane to nose down with the power off.

These three factors make it necessary to use more backpressure on the elevator than is required for a straightglide or a power turn and, therefore, have a greatereffect on the relationship of control coordination.

When recovery is being made from a gliding turn, theforce on the elevator control which was applied duringthe turn must be decreased or the nose will come uptoo high and considerable speed will be lost. This errorwill require considerable attention and conscious con-trol adjustment before the normal glide can again beresumed.

In order to maintain the most efficient or normal glidein a turn, more altitude must be sacrificed than in astraight glide since this is the only way speed can bemaintained without power. Turning in a glidedecreases the performance of the airplane to an evengreater extent than a normal turn with power.

Still another factor is the difference in rudder action inturns with and without power. In power turns it isrequired that the desired recovery point be anticipated inthe use of controls and that considerably more pressurethan usual be exerted on the rudder. In the recovery froma gliding turn, the same rudder action takes place butwithout as much pressure being necessary. The actualdisplacement of the rudder is approximately the same,but it seems to be less in a glide because the resistance topressure is so much less due to the absence of the pro-peller slipstream. This often results in a much greaterapplication of rudder through a greater range than is real-ized, resulting in an abrupt stoppage of the turn when therudder is applied for recovery. This factor is particularlyimportant during landing practice since the studentalmost invariably recovers from the last turn too soonand may enter a cross-control condition trying to correctthe landing with the rudder alone. This results in landingfrom a skid that is too easily mistaken for drift.

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There is another danger in excessive rudder use duringgliding turns. As the airplane skids, the bank willincrease. This often alarms the beginning pilot when itoccurs close to the ground, and the pilot may respondby applying aileron pressure toward the outside of theturn to stop the bank. At the same time, the rudderforces the nose down and the pilot may apply back-ele-vator pressure to hold it up. If allowed to progress, thissituation may result in a fully developed cross-controlcondition. A stall in this situation will almost certainlyresult in a spin.

The level-off from a glide must be started beforereaching the desired altitude because of the airplane’sdownward inertia. The amount of lead depends on therate of descent and the pilot’s control technique. Withtoo little lead, there will be a tendency to descendbelow the selected altitude. For example, assuming a500-foot per minute rate of descent, the altitude mustbe led by 100 – 150 feet to level off at an airspeedhigher than the glide speed. At the lead point, powershould be increased to the appropriate level flightcruise setting so the desired airspeed will be attainedat the desired altitude. The nose tends to rise as bothairspeed and downwash on the tail section increase.The pilot must be prepared for this and smoothly con-trol the pitch attitude to attain level flight attitude sothat the level-off is completed at the desired altitude.

Particular attention should be paid to the action of theairplane’s nose when recovering (and entering) glidingturns. The nose must not be allowed to describe an arcwith relation to the horizon, and particularly it mustnot be allowed to come up during recovery from turns,which require a constant variation of the relative pres-sures on the different controls.

Common errors in the performance of descents anddescending turns are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Inadequate back-elevator control during glideentry resulting in too steep a glide.

• Failure to slow the airplane to approximate glidespeed prior to lowering pitch attitude.

• Attempting to establish/maintain a normal glidesolely by reference to flight instruments.

• Inability to sense changes in airspeed throughsound and feel.

• Inability to stabilize the glide (chasing the airspeedindicator).

• Attempting to “stretch” the glide by applyingback-elevator pressure.

• Skidding or slipping during gliding turns due toinadequate appreciation of the difference in rudderaction as opposed to turns with power.

• Failure to lower pitch attitude during gliding turnentry resulting in a decrease in airspeed.

• Excessive rudder pressure during recovery fromgliding turns.

• Inadequate pitch control during recovery fromstraight glides.

• “Ground shyness”—resulting in cross-controllingduring gliding turns near the ground.

• Failure to maintain constant bank angle duringgliding turns.

PITCH AND POWERNo discussion of climbs and descents would becomplete without touching on the question of whatcontrols altitude and what controls airspeed. Thepilot must understand the effects of both power andelevator control, working together, during differentconditions of flight. The closest one can come to aformula for determining airspeed/altitude controlthat is valid under all circumstances is a basic prin-ciple of attitude flying which states:

“At any pitch attitude, the amount of power usedwill determine whether the airplane will climb,descend, or remain level at that attitude.”

Through a wide range of nose-low attitudes, a descentis the only possible condition of flight. The addition ofpower at these attitudes will only result in a greater rateof descent at a faster airspeed.

Through a range of attitudes from very slightlynose-low to about 30° nose-up, a typical light air-plane can be made to climb, descend, or maintainaltitude depending on the power used. In about thelower third of this range, the airplane will descendat idle power without stalling. As pitch attitude isincreased, however, engine power will be requiredto prevent a stall. Even more power will be requiredto maintain altitude, and even more for a climb. At apitch attitude approaching 30° nose-up, all availablepower will provide only enough thrust to maintainaltitude. A slight increase in the steepness of climbor a slight decrease in power will produce a descent.From that point, the least inducement will result in astall.

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