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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataNames:Cooke,NicoleA.,author.Title:Fakenewsandalternativefacts:informationliteracyinapost-truthera/NicoleA.Cooke.Description:Chicago:ALAEditions,animprintoftheAmericanLibraryAssociation,2018.|Series:ALAspecialreport|Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.

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Subjects:LCSH:Informationliteracy.|Informationbehavior.|Medialiteracy.|Fakenews.Classification:LCCZA3075.C6752018|DDC306.4/2—dc23LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2018009348

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CONTENTS

Preface

1.IntroductionFakeNewsIsOldNewsTheNeedtoBeMulti-LiterateUnderstandingtheCurrentStateoftheMedia

2.TheInformationBehaviorofItAllLearningTheoryMisinformation/DisinformationAnEmotionalDimensionofInformationBehavior

3.TheIllusionofInternetSavvyPoliticalEconomyandtheIllusionofChoiceTheRiseofIterativeJournalism

4.CriticalThinkingandMetaliteracyCriticalThinkingCriticalMediaConsumptionthroughMultipleLiteracyInstruction

5.ConclusionRevisitingtheHeadlinesMovingPastFakeNewsLessonPlanExamplesfromtheIllinoisWorkshop

Appendix:AdditionalResourcesTheLargerContextofFakeNews—SuggestedBooks

MultipleFormsofLiteracy—SuggestedArticlesandWebsitesResourcesforInformationConsumers

ReferencesAbouttheAuthorIndex

A

PREFACE

t the2017AmericanLibraryAssociation (ALA)AnnualConference,2016presidential nominee Hillary Clinton addressed thousands of librarians andinformationprofessionals.Clintonpraisedlibrariansforbeingonthefrontlinesworkingforthebenefitoftheircommunities,andinparticular,forencouragingliteracy, reading, and the development of “curious, brave, informed citizens.”She also commended libraries for safeguarding the First Amendment andproviding services and resources to immigrants and refugees.However, itwasClinton’s assessment of librarianship’s most urgent battle that garnereddeafeningcheersandanovation.Shesaidthatlibrarians“havetobeonthefrontlinesofoneof themost important fightswehaveever faced inhistory in thiscountry: the right todefend truthand reason,evidenceand facts” (ABCNews2017).Inthispost-truthagelibrariansaremoreimportantthanever.

Fake, or fabricated, news is expressly disseminated for the sake of earningmoneyfromclicksandviews,anditisalsousedtomisleadandmisinform.Withastonishingspeed,fakenewsgoesviralwithoutbeingvettedorconfirmed.Evenifsuchinformationiseventuallyretractedordisproved,thedamagehasalreadybeen done and the false information remains digitally archived. This scenarioplayedoutinrealtime,andinepicproportions,inthemonthsleadinguptothe2016presidentialelection.Now,aftertheelection,increasingattentionisbeingpaidtofakenews.Butfakenewsisnotnew,norareitsrelatives:hoaxes,satire,algorithmicbiases,lies,alternativefacts(NBCNews2017),andpropaganda.Itjusthasanalarmingnewveneer.1

It is also true that librarians have been engaged, and been pioneers, in thebusinessof teaching information literacy skills andpromoting critical thinkingfordecades,butthisworkhas,inlightofrecentevents,takenonnewmeaningand relevance for the public.Now librarians are being called upon to use ourinformation literacy skills to help debunk and decipher fake news.We have aprimeopportunitytohelpourcommunitiesandconstituentsbecomecriticalandsavvy information consumers, which in turn benefits our nation’s democracy.Librarianscombatingfakenewsandstrengtheningthecriticalthinkingskillsofourpatronsiswhatthisreportisallabout.Thisreportwilladdresstherenewed

phenomenonoffakenewsanditsrelatedconceptsanddiscusshowaknowledgeof information behavior and critical information evaluation skills can aid incombatingtheeffectsoffakenews.

NOTE1.“Alternative facts” isaphraseusedbyU.S.Counselor to thePresidentKellyanneConwayduringaMeetthePressinterviewonJanuary22,2017.DuringtheinterviewConwayattemptedtodefendandsugarcoatallegedliestoldbyPresidentTrumpandformerpresssecretarySeanSpicer.MeetthePresshost Chuck Todd responded to Conway by stating that “alternative facts aren’t facts, they arefalsehoods.”

R

1INTRODUCTION

eadthefollowingheadlinesanddetermineifthestatementsaretrueorfalse.

True or False? Ariana Grande Left Bloodied and Dazed afterManchesterBombing

TrueorFalse?NativeAmericanNamesDeletedoffFacebookTrue or False? London Mayor Sadiq Khan Says Citizens Have NoReasontoBeAlarmedFollowingTerrorAttack

TrueorFalse? J.K.RowlingMocksPresidentTrump forTweeting intheThirdPerson

TrueorFalse?IrelandJustElectedTheirFirstGayPrimeMinisterTrueorFalse?ManMowedLawnduringTornadoTrueorFalse?MaxineWatersBlames the LondonAttack onClimateandHealthCare“Inaction”

TrueorFalse?FishSwimintheStreetsofMiamiatHighTide

▪Whydotheseheadlinesringtrueorfalse?▪Ifyousawtheseheadlinesonsocialmedia,wouldyousharethemwithyournetworks?Whyorwhynot?

▪ How would you present and explain these examples to others?Whatstrategiesandresourceswouldyousuggest?

See the “Revisiting theHeadlines” section of this book’s “Conclusion” for anexplanationanddiscussionabouttheseheadlines.

FAKENEWSISOLDNEWS

Aliecanrunaroundtheworldbeforethetruthhasgotitsbootson.

—QuoteoftenattributedtoauthorTerryPratchett,WinstonChurchill,MarkTwain,JamesWatt,andvariousothers

It’s no secret that the Internet is saturated with information of all kinds, and

muchof the information isof lowornoquality.Yet,beforewecanblink, thisinformation makes the rounds without being confirmed. It is all too easy tobelievethelatestgossiporinnuendoorgetlostinYouTubevideosfeaturingpetsand pranks. Unfortunately, there is another, darker dimension of informationfound online—there is an excessive amount of web-based information that isboth sensational and malicious, to the point of being harmful and evendangerous. Even if such information is corrected or disproved, the audience’sattentionhas long shifted, thedamagehas alreadybeendone, and theoriginalmisinformationcontinuestofloataroundonlineforfuturediscovery.

It is now said thatwe live in a post-truth era—an era inwhich audiences areincreasinglylikelytobelieveinformationthatappealstotheiremotionsandtheirpersonal beliefs, as opposed to seeking and accepting information that isregarded as factual and objective. People’s information consumption is beingincreasinglyguidedbytheaffective,oremotional,dimensionoftheirpsyche,asopposedtothecognitivedimension.Thispost-truthrealityisoneofthereasonswhyfakenewshasbecomesoinescapable,andconsequently,whyit’ssohardtocombat and interrupt the production and dissemination of deliberately falseinformation.

Thephenomenonoffakenewsisnotnew,noristheconceptofpost-truth.TheColbertReport introducedus to theconceptof“truthiness”overadecadeago,warningus,albeitcomically,ofthedangerofacceptinginformationandstoriesbecausetheyappealtoouremotionsandnotbecausetheyaresupportedbyanyreal evidenceor facts (Colbert2005).Now, in2018, journalists and themediaremainonhighalertandarewarningtheirconstituentsaboutthe“productionofconfusion”thatsurroundsthecurrentpresidentialadministrationandencouragestheindustrythatisfakenews.Alternativefactsaredisseminateddaily,andfact-based information or reporting that is negative or objected to is quickly anderroneously labeled as fake news, further obfuscating and suppressinginformationthatcitizensshouldbeawareofandprioritizing.

THENEEDTOBEMULTI-LITERATE

In an age inwhich tweets and Facebook statuses are being reported as news,Internet users need to be competent and intelligent users of information;informationconsumersshouldbeableandpreparedtocritiquethe“news”beingbroadcast,and theyshouldbeable toseekandfind the information that isnot

being broadcast or otherwise prioritized. Additionally, they should be able todescribe and understand the difference between the various providers andprovocateursofinformation.Anapproachtoreachingthislevelofcriticalmediaconsumption is to impart literacy skills to Internet users, many of whompatronizeourlibraries.Specifically,criticalinformationliteracy(Elmborg2006;Eisenberg et al. 2004), digital literacy (Bawden 2008; Bawden and Robinson2002), media literacy (Buckingham 2013; Hobbs 2011; De Abreu 2010), andultimately metaliteracy (Jacobson and Mackey 2016, 2013; Mackey andJacobson 2014, 2011;Witek and Grettano 2014) would facilitate the averageuser’sabilitytoseek,find,anduseappropriateandqualityinformation,whichinturn would facilitate more meaningful learning and understanding. Literacyskillswouldfacilitateashiftfromtheroutinecrowd-sourcingofinformationonthe Internet to the substantive evaluation and usage of information. Furtherdiscussion aboutmetaliteracy and the importance of critical information skillsappearsinchapter4ofthisreport.

Information creation and consumptionwill always be a significant part of ourlives and our society, influencing how we understand and interact with theworld.Butthemoreinformationwehaveaccessto,theharderitbecomestopickoutthegoodbits,usethem,andrelevantlyapplythemtoourlivesandindividualneeds. Formulating ways to educate users of all ages, inside and outside offormaleducationalandlibrarysettings,isanimportanttopicthatisnotlimitedtoanyoneareaorgroupofpeople,oranyonedisciplineofstudy.Theprocurementand implementation of literacy skills is a long-term and integral part ofaddressingthechallengesinvolvedininformationconsumption.

UNDERSTANDINGTHECURRENTSTATEOFTHEMEDIA

Ofparticularnotetothisconversationistheroleofjournalisminthesphereoffakenews.JayRosen,amediacriticandprofessorof journalismatNewYorkUniversity (2017), warns against low-quality journalism and describes the“productionofconfusion”wroughtinpartbyfakenewsandalternativefactsbystating:

TheproductionofconfusionisamethodthattheTrumpWhiteHouseisusingascontrol, and the fact that when we’re done listening to Kellyanne Conway, weknow lessasviewersdoesn’t seem tobother the journalistswho interviewher,andthey’resortofslowinaccommodatingthisfact.

The production of confusion is facilitated by the current administration’sknowledgeofthemedia’s“deepgrammar”andtheirsubsequentmanipulationofnews outlets—they know that the media needs to have access to them, tointerview them, tobeprivy to information anddocuments they areproducing.Rosen suggests that this “deep grammar” of the media (the underlying andimplicitbusinessmodelofhowthenewsoutletsfunction)causesthemtolower,orignore,theirstandardsandethics,andnotchallengefakenewsandalternativefactsinthewaytheyknowthattheycouldorshould,becauseindoingso,theycould inadvertently cut off their sources of information, rendering themnoncompetitive(forexample,when theNewYorkTimes isbanned fromWhiteHouse press briefings, they are at a disadvantagewhen trying to analyze andreport the news).Rosen further describes the “deep grammar” of the press bysaying:

Thedeepgrammarislikethelogicbeneaththepractice.So,forexample,thefactthat youneed your interviewees to comeback is part of the deepgrammar ofjournalism,right?Itaffectsalotofwhatyoudobutit’snotonthesurface,it’snotexplained to viewers. It’s not something that journalists would talk about veryoften.Butcertainly,KellyanneConwayknowsthatanditgivesheranadvantagebecausesheknowsshehastobewelcomedback.

Butagain,noneofthisisnew.Journalismandmediaoutletsarenostrangerstocontroversy andmanipulative tactics, nor are government or corporate entitiesunfamiliarwithdevicesusedtocurryfavorwith,orpenalize,journalistsandthemedia. Consider the legacies of yellow journalism and propaganda and theirparticular relationships to political information and world events. Yellowjournalism, synonymous with “the penny press,” “jazz journalism,” “tabloidTV,”and“Internetgossip,”ischaracterizedbysensationalordramaticlanguageandheadlines,andexaggeratedandpotentiallyscandalouscontentthatispoorlyresearchedandoftenwithoutmerit(Cohen2000,8).Suchstoriesaregeneratedsolely for attention and revenue (i.e., click-bait). Modern-day tabloids stillengage in thesepractices,andsocialmedia is ripewithfantasticheadlinesanddescriptionswhosesolepurposeistogetuserstoclickandshare.Thegoalistoemploy“circulation-buildinggimmicks”thatemphasize“dramaoveraccuracy”(Cohen2000,18).

Propagandaisinformationofaprejudicedordisingenuousnaturethatisusedtoencourageapoliticalcauseorpointofview(Stanley2015).Propagandautilizesthe psychological devices of influencing and altering the attitude of a grouptoward a specific cause, position, or political agenda in an effort to form a

consensus and to ensure a homogeneous viewpoint or belief. Propaganda isinformation that is subjective and is used primarily to influence the targetaudience and further an agenda, often by presenting facts selectively (perhapslying by omission), or by using coded or suggestivemessages or language toelicit an emotional response, as opposed to a rational response. Propaganda isoftenassociatedwithmaterialpreparedbygovernments,butactivistgroupsandcorporate entities can also engage in propaganda. Despite its long historicalcontext,propagandaisaliveandwell,andithasbeenattheheartofthecriticismlevied against Facebook after the 2016 U.S. presidential election (Shane andGoel 2017). Facebook at first denied any involvement in the dissemination ofpurchased advertisements designed to sway social media users, but it lateradmitted that fake Russian accounts purchased approximately $100,000 intargetedpoliticaladspriortotheelection.Thefulleffectoftheseadsisnotyetknown,butithasbeenestablishedthattheseadsreachedmanypeopleandmayindeedhaveinfluencedtheirthinkingandopinions,particularlyifpeopledidnotrealizethattheinformationpresentedintheadswasfake.Propagandaishidinginplainsightand influencinggreatmultitudesof informationconsumerseveryday.

A cursory understanding of political economy and the underlying businessstructuresofthenewsmediaisanimportantcontextforappreciatingwhyfakenews is sowidespreadanddifficult tocontest.Morediscussionaboutpoliticaleconomy,andthemedia’simpactoninformationevaluationandconsumption,isfeaturedinchapter3.

I

2THEINFORMATIONBEHAVIOROFITALL

nformationdoesn’t exist in a vacuum; rather, it is surrounded and shapedbycontext, both internal and external. In addition to the context producedby thefinancialandbusinessdimensionsof themedia, theconceptsofpost-truthandtruthinessalsoemphasize that there isawide-rangingspectrumofmotivationsand emotions that motivate everyday information consumption. Information-seeking, information selection, information avoidance, and information usage(which are all part of the information behavior continuum) contribute to ourunderstanding of how information is consumed on a daily basis, and providefurtherunderstandingofwhyconsumersaresusceptibletofakenews.

LEARNINGTHEORY

Abriefmentionof learning theory isappropriatehere inorder togainameta-level understanding of how people acquire and absorb the information aroundthem.The subsequentdiscussionof informationbehavior is informedby theselargerconceptsoflearningandunderstanding.

In hisworkThe ThreeDimensions of Learning (2002),Knud Illeris positionslearning at the intersection of internal and external cognitive, emotional, andsociallearningprocesses.Tappingintothefieldsofeducation,psychology,andmanagement,Illerispositsthatlearninghastwofundamentalassumptions.First,learning involves two distinct processes: an internal psychological process inwhich new information is acquired and added to existing knowledge, and anexternalprocessinwhichtheindividual’sinformationacquisitionisshapedandinfluencedbytheirinteractionswiththeirenvironment.Second,thelearningthatoccursduring these internal and external processes encompasses three sociallysituated contexts: the cognitive domain of knowledge acquisition, thepsychologicaldimensionsofemotionandmotivation,andthesocialdomainsofcommunicationandcooperation.

Similarly,CharBooth(2011),haswrittenaboutreflectiveteachingandlearning,and suggests that there are four factorsof learning:memory,priorknowledge,environment,andmotivation(42–46).Whenconsideringthistypology,memorycan be connected to the processing that one goes through when acquiring,filtering, and absorbing new information; information overload, which occurswhentoomuchinformationisacquiredandsubsequentlyrejected,isalsorelatedto information processing. Prior knowledge refers to an individual’s existingmental schemas and shapes theway inwhich new information is accepted orrejected; for example, mental schemas can be rigid and cause cognitivedissonanceandreinforceconfirmationbiasandfilterbubbles(moreonthislaterin the chapter). An individual’s prior knowledge can also indicate theirreadiness, or lack thereof, to receive new and/or conflicting information. Theenvironment refers to the physical or mental factors that can influenceinformationacquisitionor rejection; forexample,bothangerandhungercouldpreventanindividualfrombeingreceptivetonewinformation.Thefinalfactor,motivation, refers to the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that influence theprocurement or dismissal of new information; an individual might be quitemotivated to learnnew factswhen facedwith an academic exam, and anotherpersonmightbepersonallymotivated to learnsign language toconnectwithahearing-impairedfriend.

WhatisimportanttonoteaboutthemodelspresentedbyBoothandIllerisisthatthey emphasize the cognitive and the affective dimensions of learning andinformationacquisition.Learning,andconsequentlyanindividual’sinformationbehaviorpatterns,arecomplex,multifaceted,anddynamic.Itisnowonderthatthe fake news phenomenon is so complicated and challenging to address andresist.Thefollowingsectionswilladdresstwooftheprimarycognitiveaspects,andthenseveraloftheaffectiveaspects,offakenews.

MISINFORMATION/DISINFORMATION

Thetwocognitivedimensionsofinformationbehaviorthataremostapplicableto fake news are misinformation and disinformation. Misinformation anddisinformation (mis/dis) can be thought of as two sides of the same coin.Misinformationissimplyinformationthatisincomplete(Fox1983;Losee1997;Zhou and Zhang 2007), but it can also be defined as information that isuncertain, vague, or ambiguous. However, misinformation may still be “true,accurate,andinformativedependingonthecontext”(KarlovaandLee2011,3).

TheOxfordEnglishDictionary defines “disinformation” as “the disseminationofdeliberatelyfalseinformation.”Thisisespeciallytruewhentheinformationinquestionislikelytobebroadlyandquicklydisseminated,suchasinformationontheInternet.Fallis(2009,1–3)providesamorenuanceddefinitionbysuggestingthatdisinformation is carefullyplanned, can come from individualsorgroups,canbecirculatedbyentitiesotherthanthecreators(i.e.,misinformationspreadbyanewsorganization),andistypicallywrittenorverbalinformation.Hernonconcurs by warning that “we can put quotation marks around anything andchangemeaning,”andthatmis/disissoeasilyspreadbecause“thepersondoingthemisusemightonlybeguiltyofmakingsomethingpubliclyavailable,througha listserv or electronic journal or newsletter, without checking the originalsource” (1995, 136). The key to disinformation is that it is created withmaliciousorill intent.However,itcanalsobemotivatedbybenevolence(e.g.,littlewhite liesmeant to sparehurt feelings, or lying about a surprise) (Rubin2010;Walczyk et al. 2008). In such cases, it really is context that enables anindividual to begin to make sense of the mis/dis (or information in general)beingpresentedtothem.

Because mis/dis is related to notions and discussions of credibility,trustworthiness,anddeception,itcanbehardtodiscernthemotivationsbehindthis type of erroneous information-sharing. These motivations are especiallyhard to discern in the online environment, where there is an abundance ofinformation(bothaccurateandinaccurate)andoftena lackofvisualandauralclues,cluesthatinreallifemightalertaconsumerofinformationthatsomethingis amissor false.Becauseof theubiquityof technology in today’sworld, it isparticularly important to be conscious ofmis/dis not only because it prohibitscollectivecomprehensionandintelligence,butbecauseitcanindeeddoharmbyprioritizing and upholding biased, misleading, or false agendas and opinions(i.e.,propaganda).ZhouandZhang(2007,804)state:“withthegrowinguseofInternet andubiquitous informationaccess,misinformation ispervasiveon theInternet and disseminated though online communication media, which couldlead to serious consequences for individuals, organizations, and/or the entiresocietyatlarge.”

ANEMOTIONALDIMENSIONOFINFORMATIONBEHAVIOR

In addition to considering mis/dis as part of the information consumer’scognitiveprocessingoffakenewsinthepost-truthera,itisespeciallyimportant

torecognizetheemotional,oraffective,componentsofmis/dis;itistheaffectivedimension of learning and information behavior that enables us to understandhowandwhyfakenewshasbecomesopervasiveandhardtodisplace.Oneofthe hallmarks of the post-truth era is the fact that consumerswill deliberatelypass over objective facts in favor of information that agreeswith or confirmstheir existing beliefs, because they are emotionally invested in their currentmentalschemasorareemotionallyattachedtothepeopleororganizationswhichthe new information portrays. The affection dimension of information-seekingand usage circumvents the cognitive processes of information-gathering andselection.Amongtheexamplesofaffectiveinformationbehaviortobeawareofare confirmation bias, filter bubbles (also known as an echo chamber),informationoverload,satisficing,andinformationavoidance.

It’s easy for anyone, even information professionals, to become overwhelmedandoverloadedbythesheervolumeofinformationpresentedtousonanygivenday over the Internet and other forms of communication. Added to the sheervolume of information is information that is charged by political issues andinvolves potentially life-altering societal problems. The 2016 presidentialelectionwassuchatime,nomatterwhataperson’spoliticalpartyaffiliationorleanings;information-seekinganduseinsuchafraughtenvironmentisstressful.The information behavior researchers Donald Case and Lisa Given (2016)suggest that information-seekers during political campaigns may be “activelyopen to receiving new information and receiving it through serendipity, in anintense and condensed period of time” (30). Such information is often not ascomprehensiveorasrigorouslyvettedasonemightpreferbecausethetopicsaresocomplexand“havesuchawiderangeofopinionsassociatedwiththem”(30).And “as the number of information items increases—or as the amount ofavailable time decreases—people resort to simpler and less reliable rules formakingchoicestoshortentheirresearchtime”(102).Contextuallyspeaking,thisinformationmayalsobeimpactedbypersonalexperiencesandviewpoints,andbyamultitudeofinformationsources“includingnewsbroadcasts,newspapers,magazines, the Internet, social media, andmany personal conversations” (30)thatmayvarywidelyinregardtodepthandclarity.

Social media plays a significant role in information overload because itfacilitates the rapid dissemination of information, fake or otherwise.Instantaneously, storiescanbeshared,whether theyhavebeen readornot; forexample, there is the accepted online shorthand of TL, DR—too long, didn’tread—whichgivespeoplelicensetoshareandcommentoncontentthey’venot

actuallyread,muchlessevaluated(Gil2016;Dictionary.comn.d.).Theinstantgratificationassociatedwithsharingonlinestories,“liking”somethingfirst,andcollectingfriends’reactionsalsoencouragesthedisseminationoffakenews.

Socialmediaalsoencapsulatesusers intofilterbubbles; filterbubbles (orechochambers) are the result of the careful curation of social media feeds, whichenables users to be surrounded by like-minded people and information that isaligned with their existing beliefs. Filter bubbles are further aggravated byconfirmation bias, which suggests that users may actively seek and useinformation that already concurs with their existing mental models, priorknowledge,andmemories,asopposedtoseekinginformationfromavarietyofpotentially conflicting sources. It is very easy for people to avoid distasteful,upsetting, or just incongruent information while in their social media filterbubbles. Filter bubbles are an example of selective exposure, or selectiveinformation-seeking,whichisdefinedasthepredispositionto“seekinformationthat is congruent” with “prior knowledge, beliefs, and opinions, and to avoidexposure to information that conflicts with those internal states” (Case andGiven2016,115).

Hand-in-hand with selective exposure is information avoidance. Whenpurposeful choices are made regarding what information is obtained andconsequently used, there are alsopurposeful decisionsbeingmade aboutwhatinformation is disregarded, evaded, or rejected in order to maintain existingstatesofbelief(CaseandGiven2016,117).Afinalpieceofthedecision-makingprocess, as it relates to information overload, selective exposure, andinformationavoidance, issatisficing.Satisficingisselectinginformationthat is“good enough” to satisfy basic needs (36) or “choosing the first ‘acceptableanswer’ to a question or solution to a problem” (102), “even if it meansacceptingalowerqualityorquantityofinformation”(194).Satisficingcouldbea result of intellectual laziness, being unwilling or unable to deal withinformationoverload,ornothavingtherequisiteinformationevaluationskillstoreliablysourceinformation.Whateverthereason,satisficingalsocontributestothe spread and inescapabiltyofmisinformation, disinformation, and fakenewsby allowing low-quality information to remain in circulation and bedisseminated;itmaynotbethebestinformation,butit’s“goodenough”nottobequestionedorchallenged.

I

3THEILLUSIONOFINTERNETSAVVY

nconjunctionwithpossiblydetrimentalmisinformationanddisinformation isthe assumption that Internet users are savvy searchers and consumers ofinformation because they are proficientwith technological tools.AbercrombieandLonghurst(1998)refertothisasparticipationin“mediascapes”;mediascapeparticipantsareInternetuserswhoarewellversedin themechanicsofplayinggames,photoshopping,creatingmemesandmashups,andsoon,butwhoaren’tnecessarily able to discern the information that is being manipulated andpresented to them. Participation in mediascapes is a way for online users,especially younger adults, to communicate, interact, and be seen by theircontemporaries. Use of the latest digital tools and media facilitates instantgratification and allows users to receive quick and widespread attention(Lankshear and Knobel 2011). The creation of memes, mashups, andphotoshopped images ismoreabout theirproducers and their “surface images,style,andbrandsassociatedwithmarkersofidentityandstatus”thanitisaboutthe content and subjects containedwithin these digital products (AbercrombieandLonghurst 1998, 82). Frequently,mediascapes involve celebrities or otherpublicfigures; theseareimagesandpersonalities“thatareoftenconfusedwiththerealities”andworldsofthepeoplecreatingsaiddigitalproducts(LankshearandKnobel2011,14).

POLITICALECONOMYANDTHEILLUSIONOFCHOICE

Internettraffic,intheformofclicksandviews,equatestorevenue.Generatingactivityonawebsite toearnmoney is adriving forcebehind thecreationanddissemination of fake news. There is a dimension of political economy thatundergirds thiseraofonline journalismandcontentproduction.Simplystated,political economy refers to the study of production (of a product), trade, andmoneyearnedfromsaidproductionintrade.Inmanyways,thenewsmediaandjournalismoutletsengageinpoliticaleconomy—theyproduceatangibleproduct(anews report,whether inprint, online, or in an audiovisual format) and they

receivemoneyforthatproduct.Tothisend,itpays,literally,foranewssourcetobe the first outlet to produce and disseminate a story, and to produce theirproductinquantity.1Fakenewsisnowthenewestversionofthisproduct,andinadditiontoanincreaseinquantity,thereisasignificantdecreaseinquality.

Oncea rudimentaryunderstandingofpoliticaleconomy is inhand, itbecomeseasier to identify the effects of political economy and recognize the influencethat moneymaking has on our information consumption, particularly in andaroundsocialmedia.AnamazingexampleofthishittheUnitedStatesnewsinJune2017,whenitwasreportedthattherewasavendingmachineinRussiathatallowsuserstopurchase“likes”fortheirInstagramphotos;foraprice,andthealarmingamountofuncertainty thataccompaniesprovidingaRussianvendingmachine with personal passwords and log-in information, customers canpurchasehundredsofnewfollowersandlikesfortheirsocialmediacontent.2Notonlyisthiscapitalismatitsbest(orworst),butitspeakstothedeep-seatedandcompulsiveneed tobe liked thatmanifestssoclearlyonsocialmedia,andhasreshaped how people seek and share information—a need for instantgratification,aneedforattention,andaneedtofurthercultivateafilterbubble.FormerGoogleproductmanagerTristanHarrissaysthatconsumersareaddictedto social media and online content, which is exploited by online contentdevelopers, again, to earn online traffic and revenue. “Brain hacking,” as it’scalled, capitalizes on information consumers’ incessant need to check digitaldevicesandseewhatnewcontenthasbeenposted,pushed,orhighlightedonline(Cooper2017).

TheIllusionofChoice

Holiday(2013)providesafascinatingaccountofhowinformationismassaged,manipulated, and pushed up themedia food chainwhere it receives buzz andhigh levelsofattentionandcredibility,with littleornoverificationorvalidity.Most of what is considered mainstream, commercial, or traditional news andmassmediacomesfromsurprisinglyfewsources(ColumbiaJournalismReview2017;CraftandDavis2016,87–96;Miller2015,315;Selyukh,Hollenhorst,andPark 2016; Vinton 2016). The highly concentrated nexus ofmedia ownershiprevolves around a few large media conglomerates like Viacom, CBSCorporation, Time Warner, 21st Century Fox, Walt Disney Company, HearstCorporation,andtheComcastCorporation(Le2015;PewResearch2017).Themediaoligopoly(thetermusedwhenafewcompaniesdominateamarket)also

includes radio, print, and Internet holdings and venues that also produce anddisseminatenews.Theseentitiesalsotypicallyhaveblogsandothersubsidiarysitesattachedtothem.

Blogs,whichtheself-proclaimedmediamanipulatorRyanHoliday(2013)usesasabroadtermtoencompasssocialmediaandonlineinformationsources,needcontent, and a lot of it; they have no real news cycle like newspapers andtelevision channels; rather, they need constant content in order to keep theirfollowers engaged. “The site that covers themost stuffwins” (14).There is acertain power and cachet that comes with being covered by blogs and socialmedia,andtheyneedtomaintaintheirreputations,evenifthesereputationsarenotbasedonprovidinghigh-qualityinformation.

TheeconomicsoftheInternethavecreatedatwistedsetofincentivesthatmaketraffic more important—and more profitable—than the truth. With the massmedia—andtoday,massculture—relyingontheWebforthenextbigthing,thishascreatedasetofincentivesthathavemassiveimplications.Theconstraintsofbloggingcreateartificialcontent,whichismaderealandimpactstheoutcomeofreal-world events. Blogs need traffic, and being first drives traffic, so entirestoriesarecreatedoutofwholeclothtomakethathappen.Thisisjustonefacetof the economics of blogging, but it’s a critical one.Whenweunderstand thelogicthatdrivesthesebusinesschoices,thosechoicesbecomepredictable.Andwhat is predictable can be anticipated, redirected, accelerated, or controlled—howeveryouorIchoose(Holiday2013,15–16).

THERISEOFITERATIVEJOURNALISM

Thecycleoffakenewsbeginswithhyperlocalsitesthathavelowornobarriersfor information to enter the stream. Holiday describes the process ofinformation,howeverquestionable,beingpickedupbysmallblogsthatseemtobe monitored by the Huffington Post and other popular sites. Once thatinformation is picked up, the “news story” is on its way. The key is to haveknowledgeoftherightentrypointsthatwillfacilitatetheriseandspreadofthisfake,orpartiallyfake, information.Similarly, thereis legacymedia, the“sistersites” of mainstream media outlets such as the blogs of newspapers andtelevisionstations.Thesesistersitesbenefitfromthesamebranding,URL,andassumedqualityofthemainsite.“PlacesliketheWallStreetJournal,Newsweek,andCBSallhavesistersiteslikeSmartMoney.com,Mainstreet.com,BNet.com,

and others that feature the companies’ logos but have their own editorialstandards [that are] not always as rigorous as their old media counterparts”(Holiday 2013, 21).Once information hits the sister sites, it is easier for it toreach national media platforms; these platforms need content and page viewstoo, and are prone to look for and publish information that’s trending and“bubblingupontheInternet”(23).Thenationalmediaistakingthenewsatfacevalueand is alsonotdoingduediligence in regard to fact-checkingorvettinginformation.

Subsequently,DJs,newsanchors,andother“on-air”personalitiesnowreportonwhatthey’veseenandheardonblogs,YouTube,Twitter,andothersocialmediaplatforms,insteadofnewspapers,television,andothermoretraditionalsourcesof journalistic information. They are discovering and borrowing celebrity andgossip-based news that lacks credibility, but gains them viewers and listeners.They are engaging in what is referred to as iterative journalism—mediapersonalitiesarereportingwhatthey’veheard,notwhattheyhavediscoveredorsoughtoutdirectly.Theiremphasisisongettinginformationfirst,whetheritisrightorwrong; false informationcanalwaysbecorrected later,even ifnooneseesorhearsacorrectionorretraction(Holiday2013,167).Theaudiencewillhavemovedonbythatpoint,withthefalseorinflatedinformationstillinhand.Withiterativejournalism,thereislittledistinctionbetweentruthandfiction,andtherearenomistakes,justupdates.Thisformofreportingismoreaboutopinionand commentary than it is about the objective facts that journalism hastraditionallybeenbasedupon.

Thisageofiterativejournalismisdue,inpart,tothreefactors:therejectionofgatekeepingandcontrol,“frustrationwithhomogeneity,”and theembracingofindividualpreferences.Added to this is theproliferationofonline sourcesandinformation that seem to exist primarily on social media platforms. Holiday(2013)arguesthatournewsmediahasbecomefragmentedasaresult(314–15).

Insteadof thehomogeneousnewsworldof thepast, inwhichmoststoriesandreports essentially were the same, the fragmented news era boasts aheterogeneousnewsenvironmentwhereinaccountsofoneissue,topic,oreventcan differ significantly depending on the source. The proliferation of onlinenews, particularly when mediated through social media or “micro media,”providesnichecontentproducerswithalargenumberofplatformsfortargetedexposuretospecificaudiences.Withasimpleclickofthemouse,changeofthechannel, or file download, consumers can choose a newsmedia outlet that is

mostalignedwiththeirideologicalpreferences.Thisisfragmentationinnews.Itprovidesmorechoiceandpossibleexposuretowiderperspectives in thenews,thoughat thecostof a radical increase in theamountofbiasedorunbalancedreportspropagatinginthemassmedia(Holiday2013,315).

These high levels of personalization and preferences for heterogeneity,especially in online spaces, provide the perfect unmonitored environment inwhichfakenewscangrowandthrive.

The continual rise of blogs and the proliferation of information of all kindsrepresentaneweraofinformationproduction,distribution,andconsumption.Inhisbook Information2.0,MartinDeSaulles (2015)discusses theexplosionofcitizenjournalists;averageindividualshavesomuchaccesstotechnologythatitisalltooeasytocapturepictures,audio,andvideoanduploadthemtoTwitter,Facebook,YouTube, andanyotheronline sites.Theseon-the-ground reportersare not only content consumers, they are also content producers, and they canpublish this content themselves, or sell it to the highest bidder (e.g., thepaparazzi).While some of this amateur-produced content is best described asgossip,someofthisinformationispromotedasameansforsocialchangeandisviewedasamethodofresistanceandprotest(e.g.,videosofpoliceshootings).Becausethereare lowtonobarriersforpublishingcitizen-producedcontent, itoftencircumventsvettingandtraditionalchannelsofdissemination.DeSaullesreferstothisasdisintermediation(79).Technologychangesthewayinformationtravels from its producers to its audiences. In most cases, these alternativepathways lead to “the disintermediation of traditional gatekeepers, includinginformation professionals. Disintermediation is the bypassing of establishedplayers inavaluechaineither throughthe introductionofnewtechnologiesorvianewbusinessprocesses.”Disintermediation isyetanother reasonwhyfakenewsthrives,becauseinformationcantravelfromcontentproducertoconsumerinamatterofsecondswithoutbeingvettedbyintermediariessuchasreputablenewsorganizations.Andthislackofvettingorconfirmationcanbeadisserviceto the consumer,whomaynot be awareof the lowquality of the informationbeingconsumedormaynothavetheskillstodiscernotherwise.Sowheredoesthis leave information professionals, who for years have been teaching andpromoting information literacy skills and education?We continue to do whatwe’vealwaysdone,butweneedtoaddressthedevelopmentofcriticalthinkingskillswithgreatercontext.Thecognitiveandemotionaldimensionsoflearningand information acquisitionneed tobe considered, and in addition to teachingpatronsandstudentshowtoevaluate informationthat ispresentedto them,we

need to teach them how to think about the production of information and theback-end workings of their favorite information sources. Informationprofessionals are increasingly tasked with teaching patrons to prepare for“criticalanalysisforresponsibleengagement”(Miller2015,315).

Thereisadangerthatusersoftheseinformationserviceswillbeunawareofthefilteringthatistakingplaceandassumetheinformationtheyarebeingpresentedwithisrepresentativeofthebroaderuniverseofdatathatexistsontheopenweb.Sorather thansimplyshowingusershowtoperformbettersearches,arole formany information professionals will be to help information seers betterunderstand what is going on in the backend systems of Google, Facebook,Amazon,andotherInternetservices.(DeSaulles2015,126)

Patronsneedtoknowthe“what”oftheinformationthey’reconsuming,andtheyalsoneedtorecognizeandunderstandthe“who,”“why,”“how,”and“when”ofinformationproduction,dissemination,andconsumption.Librarians(alongwitheducatorsandjournalists)arenowinthepositionofbeing“truthworkers”inanage of “factual recession” (Head andWihbey 2017), taking their informationliteracyskills,messages,andoutreachtoawholenewlevel.

NOTES1.Fakenewsproducersarekeenlyawareofthemedia’sneedtobefirstwithascoop,andtheyrecognizethatnewsoutletswillrunwithastoryevenifithasnotbeencompletelyvettedorconfirmed.InJuly2017, the television journalist Rachel Maddow claimed that she was sent fake National SecurityAdministration documents; presumably the goalwas to haveMaddow run the story so a campaigncouldthenbelaunchedtoattackhercredibility,costingherviewers’trust(Borchers2017).Fakenewsproducers are in many cases savvier than the average media or news consumer, and they areproactivelytryingtounderminethepeopleandvenuesthatseektoexposethem.Thepost-trutheraisaprecariousone.

2.B.Feldman,“InRussia,YouCanBuyInstagramLikesfromaVendingMachine,”June8,2017,http://nymag.com/selectall/2017/06/you-can-buy-instagram-likes-from-a-russian-vending-machine.html; Y.Tan, “There’s a Vending Machine Selling Fake Instagram Likes, Because This Is What We’veBecome,” June 7, 2017, http://mashable.com/2017/06/07/instagram-likes-vending-machine/#QRODfQKZNmqa.

M

4CRITICALTHINKINGANDMETALITERACY

isinformation and disinformation in conjunction with the false illusion ofInternetandmediasavvyareproblematicintheirownright.Combinethiswithpost-truth, truthiness, filter bubbles, and confirmationbias, and it’s nowonderthat fake news is so widespread. In an age in which Tweets and Facebookstatusesarebeing reportedasnewsand likesandsharesaremoresoughtafterthanthetruth,informationconsumersneedtobeknowledgeable,sharp,tireless,andactiveusersandcreatorsofinformationinordertoactuallydiscernfactsandtrue statements. This level of critical media consumption requires anunderstandingofwhyconsumersareespeciallysusceptible tofakenews.Thenwe need to impart literacy skills to these users. Information professionals areperfectly poised to accept this challenge of improving critical mediaconsumption,andexpandexistinginformationliteracyconversations,strategies,andtechniques.

CRITICALTHINKING

Thinkingisanaction.

—bellhooks2010,7

In her writings about education and the need for improved and engagedpedagogy, theeducatorandwriterbellhooksdenounces thedevaluationof theinnate inquisitiveness and appetite that children have for learning; she arguesthat the interactive processes that young children employ to learn about theirsurroundings become passive once they begin formal schooling. Formaleducationteacheschildrentoconsumeinformationwithoutquestioninaneffort“to educate them for conformity and obedience” (2010, 8). hooks challengesstudentsandteacherstorelishindependentthoughtsandreconnectwithcriticalthinking. She says that critical thinking involves “discerning the who, what,when,where,andhowofthings—andthenutilizingthatknowledgeinamannerthatenablesyoutodeterminewhatmattersmost”(9).

There are other authors who, while taking a psychological or journalisticapproach, concur with hooks and encourage information consumers to beproactiveandselectivewiththeinformationtheyabsorbandactupon.KovachandRosenstiel(2011)suggestthatconsumersshouldbeskeptical;thisdoesnotmeanthatindividualsshouldbepessimisticandrejecteverythingtheyhearandsee.Rather, readers and listeners shouldnot indiscriminately acceptwhat theysee and hear; instead, they should be continually questioning the informationbeing presented, even if it’s presented by a trusted source. The authors alsosuggest that the current information divide in our (post-truth) society is thatbetweenthosewhocreateinformationandcontent,andthosewhoconsumethatinformation in anuncriticalway. Jackson and Jamieson (2007) refer to this asbeing caught up in the spin. Spin, which is equivalent tomisinformation andsometimes disinformation, “paints a false picture of reality by bending facts,mischaracterizingthewordsofothers, ignoringordenyingcrucialevidence,orjust ‘spinning a yarn,’ bymaking things up” (vii).Levitin (2016) concurs andreferstothisascounterknowledge,whichis“misinformationpackagedtolooklike fact and that some critical mass of people has begun to believe” (168).Counter knowledge, like mis/dis, can thrive because it may indeed contain akernel of truth, some level of believability, and social capital that make itbelievable(170).

Fakenews,spin,andcounterknowledgeprofitfrom“persuasionbyassociation”(Levitin 2016, 176),which explains thatwhenmis/dis comes from a reliable,and perhaps mostly ingenuous source, it is likely not to be detected orinterrogated.AgoodexampleofthisparticularphenomenonisBrianWilliams,theformeranchorofNBC’sNightlyNews,whowasterminatedfromhispositionfor “embellishing” his reports and “misrepresenting” his participation in thestorieshecovered(Calamur2015).BecauseWilliamswasconsideredatrustedsourceofinformation,hisaggrandizementswentundetectedforyears.Spinandcounter knowledge areunquestionablyprecursorsof fakenews and alternativefacts.Beingcurious, askingquestions, respecting facts, andevaluating sourceshelp information consumers to become “unspun,” become critical consumers,andbecomeresistanttothespinoftenpresentedinthemedia(179).

CRITICALMEDIACONSUMPTIONTHROUGHMULTIPLELITERACYINSTRUCTION

ThereisnoshortageofmisinformationanddisinformationontheInternet,and

despite the rapid nature of their dissemination and their recalcitrant stayingpower,thereareanynumberofsourcesthatcanbeconsultedtoauthenticateandrepudiate suspect information.Snopes.com(www.snopes.com), theCenters forDisease Control (www.cdc.gov/hoax_rumors.html), Know Your Meme(http://knowyourmeme.com),andPolitiFact(www.politifact.com)arebutafewexamplesofrecognizedsitesthatregularlyaddressanddebunkhoaxes,rumors,and urban legends that circulate on the Internet. Started in 1995, Snopes.comresearchescirculatedstoriesandprovides thehistoricalcontextof rumors.TheCentersforDiseaseControl(CDC)isaU.S.governmentagency,anditswebsiteisaneasywaytoconfirmordenymedicalinformationandrumors.KnowYourMemeisanothersitethatgivescomprehensiveinformationaboutthemessages,visuals,andvideosthatappearregularlyonsocialmediasites.AndPolitiFactisamongthesitesthatdealspecificallywithpoliticalinformationandfodder.Sinceeveryonehastheirownbeliefsandopinions,allsitesmaynotbeappropriateforeveryaudience;newssites,and thesites thataimtodispelmyths, rumors,andother hoaxes, are variously categorized as liberal, conservative, left-leaning,right-leaning, or otherwise biased (Attkisson 2017; Jerz 2016). With this inmind,partofbeingasavvyconsumerisbeingopentoideasthatdifferfromyourown,andlocatingsitesthatareappropriateyetstilladheretosomebasictenetsof information evaluation, such as referencing multiple sources to confirminformation and checking sites for currency and reputable authors/creators.(Pleaseseechapter5formoresuggestionsforevaluatinginformationsources.)

In the days following the 2016 presidential election, numerous lists and sitesemerged to shed light on the panoply of fake news, satire, propaganda, andotherwisemisleadingsitesthatcurrentlydominatesocialmediafeeds,especiallyasitpertainstopoliticalinformation.Computercodersandhackershavejoinedthestruggle, creatingplug-ins thathelp Internetusersunderstanddubious sitesthatappearintheirnewsfeedsandbrowsers;however,thesehacksdonot,andshould not, take the place of individuals doing manual due diligence.Information evaluation cannot be totally outsourced. The majority ofdisinformationontheInternetcouldbeuncoveredwithrudimentaryevaluationskills. If informationconsumerswould take the timeandeffort tomakea fewsimple assessments, disinformation wouldn’t be so prevalent or insidious. Inorder to become critical consumers of information, users should question thecurrencyoftheinformation(orlackthereof),carefullyexaminethesite’sURL,consider the language being used (i.e., language that is melodramatic,provocative, or absolute), consider the reasonableness of the information, andconsider the reputation and leanings of the website providing the information

(e.g.,TheOnion is a known satire site, and storieswith that byline should betreated as fiction even if the headlines and content seem realistic). Anotherquestion to ask is if the information is reported elsewhere online (i.e.,triangulatinginformation).Althoughtheseareostensiblyeasyquestionstoask,criticalinformationconsumptionisnotinstinctiveandInternetusersneedtobetaught to evaluate, organize, and effectively use information. Informationconsumersneedtobeproficientinmultipleformsofliteracy(AreaandPessoa2012;CopeandKalantzis2009;NewLondonGroup1996;Walsh2010).

Specifically, critical information literacy (Eisenberg, Lowe, and Spitzer 2004;Elmborg2006)anddigitalliteracy(Bawden2008;BawdenandRobinson2002)would aid the average Internet user’s ability to seek, find, and use qualityinformation, which in turn would promote more thoughtful discourse andlearning.Critical informationconsumersshouldbe literate inmultipledomainsand able to apply quality information to their daily lives. Such literacy skillswould facilitate a shift from routine and mindless information-sharing andacceptancetothesubstantiveevaluationofinformation.

Informationliteracy1haslongbeendiscussedandtaught inlibraries,andrefersto acquiring and building up the capacity to read, interpret, assess, and useinformation in everyday life (Kuhlthau 1987). Information literacy is not thesame as conventional skills-based literacy; rather, it refers to a frame ofreferenceforconsuminginformation,oratypeofcriticalthinking.Informationliteracy considers the larger context in which information is discovered andconsumed,and itencouragesusers toseek information that is relevantandhasthe potential to be useful over the long term. Critical information literacyextends the concept of information literacy by advocating that information beviewed in situ, and that it be evaluated in relation to the underlying powerstructures that shape all information, and the acquisitionof agency that comeswith the acquisition of quality information (Accardi, Drabinski, and Kumbier2010;Booth2011;Elmborg2006;Tisdell2008).

Because the current proliferation of fake news is happening primarily online,digital literacy skills are also important to contemplate and incorporate.Alongwith the related concepts of media and visual literacy, digital literacy is inessenceaboutbeing“deeply literate in thedigitalworld”andbeing“skilledatdecipheringcompleximagesandsoundsaswellas thesyntacticalsubtletiesofwords” (Lanham 1995). Paul Gilster (1997) describes digital literacy as themastering of ideas and not keystrokes (or other techniques and technologies).

The focusofmedia literacy ismore specific, focusingonmassmedia such astelevisionandradio,oftenwhenexaminingpopularculture.Medialiteracyalsoexaminesmediaproduction,videogames,andprintproducts likecomicbooksandgraphicnovels.Visualliteracy(alsoreferredtoasgraphicliteracy)examineselectronicandothertypesofvisuallybasedimages,andfocusesontheabilitytodecipher imagery and the intentional and unintentional messages that areprojectedtherein.

Metaliteracy

While discrete areas of literacy are certainly important (e.g., media, digital,cyber, visual, mobile, health, new media, ICT, and information fluency), thisreport advocates that critical consumers of information adapt a metaliteracyapproach. Thomas P. Mackey and Trudi E. Jacobson (2011, 2014) discussmetaliteracy as it pertains to library and information science. They describemetaliteracyinthefollowingway:

Metaliteracy is an overarching and self-referential framework that integratesemerging technologies and unifies multiple literacy types. This redefinition ofinformation literacy expands the scope of generally understood informationcompetencies and places a particular emphasis on producing and sharinginformationinparticipatorydigitalenvironments.(2011,62–63)

Specifically, metaliteracy asks us to understand the format type and deliverymodeofinformation;evaluatedynamiccontentcritically;evaluateuserfeedbackof information; produce original content in multiple media formats; create acontextforuser-generatedinformation;understandpersonalprivacy,informationethics, and intellectual property issues; and share information in participatoryenvironments (Mackey and Jacobson 2011).Metaliteracy clearly encompassesstandard elements of information and other literacies, but it challengesinformation professionals to take a step back and look at the bigger literacypicture.Metaliteracyencouragescriticalthinkingandcollaboration,particularlyin an online environment, and encourages participants to be active in theconstructionanddistributionofknowledge.Metaliteracyprovidesaholisticlensthrough which to contemplate how critical consumers can interact withinformation;thisapproachfocusesontheindividualconsumer,andputsanequalemphasisonthecontextthatshapesinformationproductionandconsumption.

Theindividualisakeypartoftheprocess,butthesocialcontexthelpsshapethe

experience.Socialmediaenvironmentsaresociallyconstructedspacesthatrelyon the contributions of individuals to create meaning. (Mackey and Jacobson2014,4)

Ultimately, themetaliterate learner is the active learner that bell hookswritesabout (2010, 7). “The metaliterate learner is an active participant who is aneffectivecommunicatorandtranslatorofinformation.Themetaliteratelearnerisan author of information in many forms” (Mackey and Jacobson 2014, 91).Metaliterate learnersarecriticallyengaged learnersandare themselvescontentproducers,who can contribute to discourse and can also successfully navigatetheinformationlandscapethatisriddledwithalternativefacts,biases,spin,andcounterknowledge.Itisthemetaliteratelearnerwhomaybethebestequippedtoconfrontanddispelfakenews.Thoseininformationprofessions,particularlythe library profession, which has a long history of the practice and study ofinformation literacy, are well positioned to work with the general public toimprovecritical thinkingand informationevaluationskills, and topromote thebenefits of being metaliterate. Information professionals have a renewedopportunityandenhancedplatformtoasserttheirexpertiseandtheirwillingnesstoco-createknowledgewiththeirconstituents.

NOTE1.Pleasesee the“Appendix:AdditionalResources” later in thisbook for reading recommendations toengagemoredeeplywiththeliteraturesurroundingthevariousformsofliteracy.

“T

5CONCLUSION

heeraof thepennypress,yellow journalism,and jazz journalism is stillwithusinanewformat,butquiterecognizable.Itjusthasn’tbeengivenanewname”(Cohen2000,121).Fakenewsisnotnew,it’sjustthelatestmonikerforanage-oldphenomenon;andconsequently, it’snotgoingaway.Whenthefakenews moniker has faded, the problem will still exist, and eventually it willreemergewith a new name.Whilewe are currently living in a post-truth era,informationwillcontinuetoproliferateanddominateoursociety,coloringhowwe learn, play, and interact with the world. The more information we haveaccess to, the harder it becomes to pick out the good bits, use them, andrelevantly apply them toour lives.Devisingways to educate consumersof allages,insideandoutsideofformaleducationalsettings,isanimportanttopicthatisnotlimitedtoanyoneareaorgroupofpeople,oranyonedisciplineofstudy.The acquisition and implementation ofmetaliteracy skills are a long-term andintegral part of addressing the reach and influence of fake news andmisinformationanddisinformation.

REVISITINGTHEHEADLINES

Let’sreturntotheTrueorFalse?headlinesfromchapter1.

True or False? Ariana Grande Left Bloodied and Dazed afterManchesterBombing

False. A picture of a seemingly bloodied Grande was circulated,primarilyonTwitter,aftertheterroristbombingthatoccurredoutsideof her May 2017 concert in Manchester, England. The picture wastakenyearsearlieronthesetofanAmericantelevisionshowentitledScream Queens, which was a comedic horror story. The picture ofGrande was from the set, after the scene where her character waskilled and she was wearing fake blood. While the events and thepicture were real in their own rights, they were mashed together,

yellow journalism-style, to create amore dramatic and click-worthyInternetstory.

Checkthesource:“ArianaGrandeEmergeswithCutandBloodiedFaceFollowingScreamQueensFilming,”www.mirror.co.uk/3am/celebrity-news/ariana-grande-emerges-cut-bloodied-5940376

TrueorFalse?NativeAmericanNamesDeletedoffFacebookTrue. There have been several occasions and stories about NativeAmerican social media users having their Facebook accountssuspended or deleted for using “fake names.” Tribal names haveerroneouslybeenconsideredfake,andareeitherreportedtoFacebookbyotherusersorflaggedbyFacebookstaff.Theseusershavehadtoproduce identificationwith their legalnames inorder to restore theiraccounts.Someusershave reportedhaving their accounts suspendedordeletedmorethanonce.

Check thesource: “FacebookStillSuspendingNativeAmericansOver‘Real Name’ Policy,” https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/feb/16/facebook-real-name-policy-suspends-native-americans

True or False? London Mayor Sadiq Khan Says Citizens Have NoReasontoBeAlarmedFollowingTerrorAttack

TrueandFalse.After theMay 2017 terrorist bombing inManchester,England, LondonMayor SadiqKhanwas criticized on socialmediafor downplaying events and advising citizens not to be alarmed. Infact, Khan did express that sentiment, but his full statement revealsthat he actually advised his constituents to not be alarmed by theincreased police presence in the aftermath of the bombing.This is aprime example of comments taken out of context, and the lack ofcontext can create confusion and completely change themeaning oftheoriginalremarks.Itisnotquiteyellowjournalism,buttheeffectisthesame:salaciousheadlinesthatgetpeople’sattentionforthewrongreasons.

Check the source: “London’s Mayor Said There’s ‘No Reason to BeAlarmed’ by a Terrorist Attack?” www.snopes.com/2017/06/04/london-mayor-sadiq-khan-no-reason-to-be-alarmed-trump

TrueorFalse? J.K.RowlingMocksPresidentTrump forTweeting intheThirdPerson

True. While the headline may not seem true, it is indeed a factualstatement. However ridiculous it may seem to people who do not

followHarryPotter author J.K.Rowling, shedoes indeedmock,ortroll,DonaldTrumponaregularbasisonsocialmedia.

Checkthesource:“J.K.RowlingMocksPresidentTrumpforTweetingin the Third Person,” http://time.com/4765203/j-k-rowling-donald-trump-third-person-tweet

TrueorFalse?IrelandJustElectedTheirFirstGayPrimeMinisterTrue. In June 2017 Leo Varadkar was indeed elected Ireland’s primeminister.Whiletheheadlineiscorrect,thewordingisreductionistandcould be perceived as questionable to readers not familiar withVaradkar, Ireland, or the country’s political climate. Thewording oftheheadlineisdesignedtoenticeclicksorviews.Varadkar is indeedgay and he is of Indian descent; his election is a celebration ofdiversityand indicativeof thestrides that Irelandhasmade in recentyears.

Check the source: “Leo Varadkar Was Just Voted to Become PrimeMinister of Ireland,” www.teenvogue.com/story/leo-varadkar-was-just-voted-prime-minister-of-ireland?mbid=social_facebook

TrueorFalse?ManMowedLawnduringTornadoTrue. InJune2017aspectacularpicturemadethesocialmediarounds,showing amanmowinghis lawnwith a large and significant funnelcloudinthebackground.Thepicturewasinitiallythoughttobefake,aphotoshopped image created to get attention. This example drawsattention to theproliferationof fake images thatexistandare sharedonline.It’salsoanexamplethatindicatesthataudiencesdohavesomelevelofskepticismwhenconsuminginformationandvisualimages.

Check the source: “Man Mowed Lawn during Tornado?”www.snopes.com/man-mowed-lawn-tornado/?utm_source=facebook&utm_medium=social

TrueorFalse?MaxineWatersBlames the LondonAttack onClimateandHealthCare“Inaction”

False.AftertheMay2017terroristbombinginManchester,England,itwas reported that U.S. Congresswoman Maxine Waters made theseclaimsabout thecauseof theBritish tragedyviaTwitter. In fact, thetweet was sent from a parody account@MaxineVVaters (notice thetwo capital Vs designed to look like the W in Waters). The fakeaccount copiedWaters’sprofilepicture anddetails tomimicher realaccount and look official to cursory glances. The congresswoman’s

actual Twitter account is @MaxineWaters and is verified with theplatform’sbluecheckmark,whichindicatesthattheaccounthasbeenvettedandcertifiedtobealegitimateaccount.Thisisanexampleofafakeaccount,whichareverycommon,andremindsus tobewaryoftweets thatare reported inothervenues, forexample, tweets thatareembeddedinarticlesandothersocialmediaplatforms.Therearemanyfake tweet generators that mimic legitimate accounts, usually ofcelebritiesandotherpublic figures,and thatareused to trickreadersand spread disinformation. Examples of tweet generators includehttp://faketrumptweet.com, https://tweeterino.com, andhttp://tweetfake.com. There are also fake Facebook status generators(www.prankmenot.com/?facebook_status) and fake web pagegenerators (www.twerkerapp.com). All of these sites rely on visualfamiliarityandemphasizetheneedforstrongvisualliteracyskills.

Check the source: “DidMaxineWaters Blame the London Attack onClimate and Health Care ‘Inaction’?” www.snopes.com/maxine-waters-london-attack-climate-healthcare/?utm_source=facebook&utm_medium=social

TrueorFalse?FishSwimintheStreetsofMiamiatHighTideTrue. Despite being seemingly unbelievable, this headline is true, andindicative of ongoing severe weather conditions in Miami. BecauseMiamiisverynearwater,hightidesanderodingshorelinesenablefishand otherwater-basedwildlife to travel inland. This phenomenon isquitewelldocumentedandphotographed.

Checkthesource:

▪ “Do the Fish Swim in the Streets ofMiami atHighTide, asBarack Obama Said in Paris?” www.politifact.com/florida/statements/2015/dec/04/barack-obama/do-fish-swim-streets-miami-high-tide-barack-obama-

▪ “During Autumn King Tides, Nuisance Flooding BecomesChronic Flooding in Miami Area,” https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/capital-weather-gang/wp/2015/10/20/during-autumn-king-tides-nuisance-flooding-becomes-chronic-flooding-in-miami-area/?utm_term=.933e29ab2309

▪“SouthFlorida’sRisingSeas—SeaLevelRiseDocumentary,”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-JbzypWJk64

▪ “Is Miami Beach Doomed?” https://www.theatlantic.com/

video/index/460332/is-miami-beach-doomed

Considerthesamequestionsthatopenedthisreport;nowthatyouhavegainedsome new and additional knowledge about the fake news phenomenon, haveyouranswerschanged?

▪Whydotheseheadlinesringtrueorfalse?▪Ifyousawtheseheadlinesonsocialmedia,wouldyousharethemwithyournetworks?

▪ How would you present and explain these examples to others?Whatstrategiesandresourceswouldyousuggest?

MOVINGPASTFAKENEWS

For information professionals, particularly for those who have taught in anycapacity,evaluatingwebsitesandinformationisnotnew,andthetipsandtricksgivenbelowwill be familiar.However, theybear repeating, asweprepare forour expanded roles as truthworkers.Alongwithmetaliteracy, these strategiesshould be incorporated into a larger mindset and incorporated into a largerrepertoireofskillsthatwillbeusedtoevaluatealltypesofinformation,notjustfakenews.

Triangulate

▪Whenyouseeaheadlineorcaptionaboutanewsitem,especiallyonsocialmedia,canyouverifyitwithatleasttwoothersources?Chances are that if you can’t verify or find the information inanotherlocation,theinformationisfalse.

Checkyourownbiases

▪Areyouassumingtheinformationis trueorfalseonthebasisofyourpersonalbeliefsandleanings?

Readoutsideyourbubble

▪IfyouareaNewYorkTimesdevotee,doyoureadBreitbartNews(andviceversa)?Youmaynotagreewithwhatyoureadinothersources, but it can be helpful to be aware of thewide range ofopinionsthatexistoutsideofyourinnercircle.

Know the difference between satire, propaganda, infotainment,opinion,anddog-whistling

▪Theyareallrelated,buttherearenuancesbetweenthem.Knowingthesedistinctionswillhelpyouevaluateinformation.

Check Snopes, Politifact, FactCheck.org, Know Your Meme, andotherfact-checkingsources

▪Again,canyoutriangulatetheinformationyou’rereading/seeing?

Checktheheadline

▪ Is the headline inALLCAPS? Is the language extreme, absurd,absolute,orflowery?

Checkthesource

▪ Is thisasourceyou’re familiarwith?Is thereanauthor?Doyouknowthem?

What’stheirangle?

▪ Is this source considered conservative, liberal, or in between? Iswhat you’re reading an advertisement or otherwise sponsoredcontent?

Doesthewebsitehavean“about”page?

Isthesiteoverrunwithads?

Aretheresupportingsourcesorcitations?

Checkthedate

▪ Is this news current? Or is the site appropriating old news tofurtherapointoragenda?

Evaluating information, especially online information, and being a savvyinformationconsumerencompassesmanykindsofliteracy—information,media,visual,digital,andsoon.Identifyingfaketweetsandsocialmediastatuses(e.g.,FakeTrumpTweet.com and http://simitator.com/generator/facebook), spottingphotoshopped images, recognizing the underlying content in a meme (e.g.,http://knowyourmeme.com),andthelikerequiretheimplementationofavarietyofliteracy-basedskills.Thisspeakstotheadvantageofassumingametaliteracyapproachtoaddressingfakenews,andbecomingcriticallyliterate inabroadersense.

LESSONPLAN

Nowthatyou’velearnedmoreaboutthecontextoffakenews,it’stimetoplanalessonorworkshop thatwill educateothers. Insteadofdetailingaprescriptivelessonplan,thissectionpresentsa“recipe”ofsortsthatwillallowinformationprofessionals in all settings to devise a plan that is customizable to specificsettings and age levels. As an example, I will describe a workshop that wasdeliveredtocollegestudentsandadultcommunitiesattheSchoolofInformationSciences, at theUniversity of Illinois. Themain components of theworkshopare:

1.Anopeningactivity

▪Whatisfakenews?Whydoesitmatter?Howdoesitaffectyouasaninformationconsumerandinformedcitizen?

2.Contentandcontext

▪Definitions of terms; that is, “propaganda,” “disinformation,”

“filterbubbles,”andsoon▪Whatroledojournalistsplayinfakenews?▪ How does the current climate influence the creation anddisseminationoffakenews?

▪ Why should we try to be aware of confirmation bias, filterbubbles,andotherdimensionsof informationacquisitionandsharing?

▪Whatismetaliteracyandwhyisitimportant?

3. Examples of fake news (as many as are appropriate and in anycombination)

▪Print▪Socialmedia▪Photographs▪Videos

4.Tips,tricks,andstrategies

▪Presentconcretestrategiesforstrengtheningliteracyskills▪Presentconcretestrategiesforevaluatinginformation▪ Provide handouts or other takeaway information for futurereference that includes a summary of what was covered inpoints1–3.

5.Strategiesinaction/hands-onlearning

▪Havelearnerssearchforexamplesoffakenews/disinformation(inprintoronline)

Canthisinformationbeverified?Howcanyoutellifit’sfakenews?

▪Providelearnerswithpre-preparedexamplesoffakenewsandrealnewsitems

What’s fake and what’s real? How do you know?Whatstepsbroughtyoutothisconclusion?

EXAMPLESFROMTHEILLINOISWORKSHOP

1.Asanopeningactivity,learnersparticipateinaquiz,suchasthisoneproduced by the BBC: www.bbc.com/news/magazine-38005844. An

alternativewouldbetopresenttheheadlinesintroducedinchapter1ofthisreport.Someoftheitemsaretruenewsitems,othersarenot;thelearners’ answers should be based on their gut reactions and do notneed tobe“correct.”Thegoal is toget theaudiencewarmedupandpreparedforthediscussion.

2.Learnersarethenpresentedwithabrieflecture(acondensedversionof chapters 1–4) where they are introduced to important terms andcontextrelatedtofakenews.

3. Several quick and visual examples are presented, such as a screencapture from FakeTrumpTweet.com, a photoshopped image, and thehoax site https://www.martinlutherking.org. Elements that indicatedisinformation are clearly explicated. As a substantive or mainexampleusedtogeneratediscussion,thecaseofthe“LoveAmongtheRuins:TheVancouverKissCouple”1waspresented.Beginningwithapictureofthecouple(doaquickGoogleimagessearch), learnersareaskedtodiscusswhattheyseeinthepicture.Thentheyarepresentedwith information from these sources (in a handout or projected on ascreen):

▪ http://youthandmedia.org/teaching-and-outreach/workshops/information-quality-news-literacy/lamp-camp

▪ https://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/06/24/overlooked-vancouver-video-shows-kissing-couple-was-knocked-down-by-riot-police

▪http://dlrp.berkman.harvard.edu/node/25▪ They are also shown this video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RlzNQFcUQVU and are shown additional stillphotographsofthecouple,takenfromdifferentangles.

4. The tips and strategies for “Moving Past Fake News” that werepresentedearlierinthischapterarediscussedwithlearners.

A Pinterest site was created to supplement this report and to facilitatelesson/workshopplanning; thesitecontainshundredsofbookmarks toarticles,lesson plans, videos, and other information related to the fake newsphenomenon.Itcanbefoundhere:https://www.pinterest.com/nicolecooke/fake-news-alternative-facts-critical-literacy.

NOTE

1.Everyone isaconsumerof information,andeveryoneshouldhave theskillsnecessary tobecriticalconsumersandcreatorsofinformation.Becomingmetaliterateinawaythatisespeciallyeffectiveinthe online domain takes practice and diligence, and begins with learning in the classroom and inlibraries.Theendgoalistoproduceproactivecriticalthinkers,researchers,andinformationconsumerswho can sidestep false information and its deleterious effects. Special thanks toDr. RachelMagee(SchoolofInformationSciences,UniversityofIllinois)forsuggesting“LoveAmongtheRuins”asanexample.

I

APPENDIXADDITIONALRESOURCES

nFebruary2017,IpresentedawebinarfortheAmericanLibraryAssociationon the topic of fake news; it was this webinar that inspired this report. Arecordingofthewebinarisreferencedhere:

Cooke,N.A.“Post-Truth:FakeNewsandaNewEraofInformationLiteracy.”ProgrammingLibrarian:AWebsite of theAmericanLibraryAssociationPublicProgramsOffice. February 2017. (Invitedwebinar).http://programminglibrarian.org/learn/post-truth-fake-news-and-new-era-information-literacy.

A Pinterest site was created to supplement this webinar; the site containshundredsofbookmarks to articles, lessonplans, videos, andother informationrelated to the fake news phenomenon. It can be found here: https://www.pinterest.com/nicolecooke/fake-news-alternative-facts-critical-literacy.

THE LARGER CONTEXT OF FAKE NEWS—SUGGESTEDBOOKS

Booth,Char.ReflectiveTeaching,EffectiveLearning:InstructionalLiteracyforLibraryEducators.AmericanLibraryAssociation,2011.

Boyd,Danah.It’sComplicated:TheSocialLivesofNetworkedTeens.YaleUniversityPress,2014.

Carr,Nicholas.TheShallows:WhattheInternetIsDoingtoOurBrains.W.W.Norton,2011.

Kovach, Bill, and Tom Rosenstiel.Blur: How to KnowWhat’s True in the Age of Information Overload.BloomsburyPublishingUSA,2011.

Levitin,DanielJ.AFieldGuidetoLies:CriticalThinkingintheInformationAge.Penguin,2016.

———.TheOrganizedMind:ThinkingStraightintheAgeofInformationOverload.Penguin,2014.

Pariser,Eli.TheFilterBubble:WhattheInternetIsHidingfromYou.PenguinUK,2011.

Sloman,Steven,andPhilipFernbach.TheKnowledgeIllusion:WhyWeNeverThinkAlone.Penguin,2017.

Stanley,Jason.HowPropagandaWorks.PrincetonUniversityPress,2015.

MULTIPLE FORMS OF LITERACY—SUGGESTED

ARTICLESANDWEBSITES

Area,Manuel,andTeresaPessoa.“FromSolidtoLiquid:NewLiteraciestotheCulturalChangesofWeb2.0.”Comunicar38,no.19(2012):13–20.

Buschman, John. “Information Literacy, ‘New’ Literacies, and Literacy.”The Library Quarterly 79, no. 1(2009):95–118.

Cooke, Nicole A. “Becoming an Andragogical Librarian: Using Library Instruction as a Tool to CombatLibraryAnxietyandEmpowerAdultLearners.”NewReviewofAcademicLibrarianship16,no.2(2010):208–27.

Cope, Bill, and Mary Kalantzis. “‘Multiliteracies’: New Literacies, New Learning.” Pedagogies: AnInternationalJournal4,no.3(2009):164–95.

Dunaway, Michelle Kathleen. “Connectivism: Learning Theory and Pedagogical Practice for NetworkedInformationLandscapes.”ReferenceServicesReview39,no.4(2011):675–85.

Eisenberg,MichaelB.,CarrieA.Lowe,andKathleenL.Spitzer.InformationLiteracy:EssentialSkillsfortheInformationAge.Westport,CT:Greenwood,2004.

Grassian, Esther. “Information Literacy and Instruction: Teaching and Learning Alternatives: A GlobalOverview.”Reference&UserServicesQuarterly56,no.4(2017):232–39.

Harris,BenjaminR. “BlurringBorders,VisualizingConnections:Aligning InformationandVisualLiteracyLearningOutcomes.”ReferenceServicesReview38,no.4(2010):523–35.

Hattwig, Denise, Kaila Bussert, AnnMedaille, and Joanna Burgess. “Visual Literacy Standards in HigherEducation:NewOpportunitiesforLibrariesandStudentLearning.”portal:LibrariesandtheAcademy13,no.1(2013):61–89.

Head,Alison,etal.“ProjectInformationLiteracy.”www.projectinfolit.org.

Higgins, Shana, and Lua Gregory. Information Literacy and Social Justice: Radical Professional Praxis.LibraryJuice,2013.

Ipri, Thomas A. “Introducing Transliteracy: What Does It Mean to Academic Libraries?” College andResearchLibrariesNews71,no.10(2010):532–33,567.

Jacobs, Heidi L. M. “Information Literacy and Reflective Pedagogical Praxis.” The Journal of AcademicLibrarianship34,no.3(2008):256–62.

Koltay,Tibor.“TheMediaandtheLiteracies:MediaLiteracy,InformationLiteracy,DigitalLiteracy.”Media,Culture&Society33,no.2(2011):211–21.

Limberg, Louise, Mikael Alexandersson, Annika Lantz-Andersson, and Lena Folkesson. “What Matters?ShapingMeaningfulLearningthroughTeachingInformationLiteracy.”Libri58,no.2(2008):82–91.

Limberg,Louise,Olof Sundin, andSannaTalja. “ThreeTheoretical Perspectives on InformationLiteracy.”HumanIT:JournalforInformationTechnologyStudiesasaHumanScience11,no.2(2013):93–130.

Lloyd,Annemaree.“InformationLiteracyLandscapes:AnEmergingPicture.”JournalofDocumentation62,no.5(2006):570–83.

———. “Information Literacy: Different Contexts, Different Concepts, Different Truths?” Journal ofLibrarianshipandInformationScience37,no.2(2005):82–88.

———.“InformationLiteracy:TheMeta-CompetencyoftheKnowledgeEconomy?AnExploratoryPaper.”

JournalofLibrarianshipandInformationScience35,no.2(2003):87–92.

Marcum,JamesW.“RethinkingInformationLiteracy.”TheLibraryQuarterly72,no.1(2002):1–26.

Matteson, Miriam L. “The Whole Student: Cognition, Emotion, and Information Literacy.” College andResearchLibraries75,no.6(2014):862.

Nelson,Nerissa.“VisualLiteracyandLibraryInstruction:ACriticalAnalysis.”EducationLibraries27,no.1(2004):5–10.

NewLondonGroup.“APedagogyofMultiliteracies:DesigningSocialFutures.”HarvardEducationalReview66,no.1(1996):60–93.

Owusu-Ansah,EdwardK.“InformationLiteracyandtheAcademicLibrary:ACriticalLookataConceptandtheControversiesSurroundingIt.”TheJournalofAcademicLibrarianship29,no.4(2003):219–30.

Pinto,Maria,JoseAntonioCordon,andRaquelGómezDíaz.“ThirtyYearsofInformationLiteracy(1977–2007):ATerminological,ConceptualandStatisticalAnalysis.”JournalofLibrarianshipandInformationScience42,no.1(2010):3–19.

Rader,HanneloreB.“InformationLiteracy1973–2002:ASelectedLiteratureReview.”LibraryTrends51,no.2(2002):242–59.

Rheingold,Howard.“StewardsofDigitalLiteracies.”KnowledgeQuest41,no.1(2012):53–55.

Snavely, Loanne, and Natasha Cooper. “The Information Literacy Debate.” The Journal of AcademicLibrarianship23,no.1(1997):9–14.

Swanson,TroyA.“ARadicalStep:ImplementingaCriticalInformationLiteracyModel.”portal:LibrariesandtheAcademy4,no.2(2004):259–73.

Tewell,Eamon.“ADecadeofCriticalInformationLiteracy:AReviewoftheLiterature.”CommunicationsinInformationLiteracy9,no.1(2015):24–43.

Thomas, Sue, Chris Joseph, Jess Laccetti, Bruce Mason, Simon Mills, Simon Perril, and Kate Pullinger.“Transliteracy:CrossingDivides.”FirstMonday12,no.12(2007).www.ojphi.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/2060.

Tripp,Lisa.“DigitalYouth,Libraries,andNewMediaLiteracy.”TheReferenceLibrarian52,no.4 (2011):329–41.

RESOURCESFORINFORMATIONCONSUMERS

Fact-Checking

Snopes:www.snopes.com/info/aboutus.aspThe snopes.comwebsitewas founded byDavidMikkelson, who lives andworksintheLosAngelesarea.Whathebeganin1995asanexpressionofhisinterest in researching urban legends has since grown into what is widelyregardedbyfolklorists,journalists,andlaypersonsalikeasoneoftheWeb’sessential resources.Snopes.comisroutinely includedinannual“Bestof the

Web”listsandhasbeentherecipientoftwoWebbyawards.TheMikkelsonshavemademultipleappearancesasguestsonnationalnewsprogramssuchas20/20, ABC World News, CNN Sunday Morning, and NPR’s All ThingsConsidered.Theyandtheirworkhavebeenprofiledinnumerousmajornewspublications,includingtheNewYorkTimes,LosAngelesTimes,WashingtonPost,WallStreetJournal, and anApril 2009Reader’sDigest feature (“TheRumor Detectives”) published as part of that magazine’s “Your America:InspiringPeopleandStories”series.

PolitiFact:www.politifact.comPolitiFact is a fact-checking website that rates the accuracy of claims byelectedofficialsandotherswhospeakupinAmericanpolitics.PolitiFact isrun by editors and reporters from the Tampa Bay Times, an independentnewspaper in Florida, as is PunditFact, a site devoted to fact-checkingpundits. The PolitiFact state sites are run by news organizations that havepartnered with the Times. The state sites and PunditFact follow the sameprinciplesasthenationalsite.

checkology® Virtual Classroom: www.thenewsliteracyproject.org/services/checkology

TheNewsLiteracyProject’scheckology®virtualclassroomisaninnovativespace where students discover how to effectively navigate today’schallenginginformationlandscapebymasteringthecoreskillsandconceptsofnewsliteracy.Itequipsstudentswiththetoolstointerpretthenewsandinformationthat

shapetheirlivessotheycanmakeinformeddecisionsaboutwhattobelieve,share,andacton—andultimatelybecomeactivemembersofcivicsociety.

The Fact Checker (The Washington Post): https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/fact-checker

ThiscolumnfirststartedonSeptember19,2007,asafeatureduringthe2008presidentialcampaign.TheWashingtonPostreviveditasapermanentfeatureon January11, 2011. The purpose of this website, and an accompanyingcolumnintheSundayprinteditionoftheWashingtonPost,isto“truthsquad”the statements of political figures regarding issues of great importance, betheynational,internationalorlocal.Butitisnotlimitedtopoliticalchargesorcountercharges. It also seeks to explain difficult issues, provide missingcontext,andprovideanalysisandexplanationofvarious“codewords”usedbypoliticians,diplomats,andotherstoobscureorshadethetruth.

FactCheck.org:https://www.factcheck.orgFactCheck is a nonpartisan, nonprofit “consumer advocate” for voters thataims to reduce the level of deception and confusion in U.S. politics. ItmonitorsthefactualaccuracyofwhatissaidbymajorU.S.politicalplayersintheformofTVads,debates,speeches,interviews,andnewsreleases.Theirgoalistoapplythebestpracticesofbothjournalismandscholarship,andtoincreasepublicknowledgeandunderstanding.FactCheck.org is a project of theAnnenbergPublic PolicyCenter of the

University of Pennsylvania. The APPC was established by publisher andphilanthropistWalterAnnenbergtocreateacommunityofscholarswithintheUniversity of Pennsylvania that would address public policy issues at thelocal,state,andfederallevels.

Graphics

Figure1.HowtoSpotFakeNews©IFLA2017,CC-BY4.0,withthankstoFactCheck.org.

Figure2.¿EstaNoticiaEsFalsa?©IFLA2017,CC-BY4.0,withthankstoFactCheck.org.TranslationbyDiegoGracia.

Figure3.BreakingNewsConsumer’sHandbook:FakeNewsEditionCourtesyofOnTheMediafromWNYCStudios.Retrievedfromhttps://www.wnyc.org/story/breaking-news-consumer-handbook-fake-news-edition.

Figure4.Don’tGetFooled:7SimpleStepsCourtesyoftheNewsLiteracyProject.

Figure5.FactorFiction©2017AmericanLibraryAssociation.TextbyJoannaM.Burkhardt.Posteravailableathttps://www.alastore.ala.org/content/fact-or-fiction-poster.

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ABOUTTHEAUTHOR

DR.NICOLEA.COOKEisanassistantprofessorattheSchoolofInformationSciencesoftheUniversityofIllinois,Urbana-Champaign,wheresheisalsotheprogramdirector for theMastersofLibraryand InformationScienceprogram.CookereceivedaPhDdegreeincommunication,information,andlibrarystudiesfromRutgersUniversity in2012,where shewasoneof the first 12AmericanLibraryAssociationSpectrumDoctoralFellows.SheholdsanMLSdegreefromRutgers University, and anM.Ed. in adult education from Pennsylvania StateUniversity.Previously, shewas a tenured reference and instruction librarian atMontclairStateUniversity(NJ).

Cooke is professionally active in the ALA, the Association of College andResearch Libraries, the Association of Library and Information ScienceEducators (ALISE), and several other professional library organizations. Shewasawardedthe2017ALAAchievementinLibraryDiversityResearchAward,presentedbytheALA’sOfficeforDiversityandLiteracyOutreachServices,andshe received the2016ALAEqualityAward.Shehasalsobeenhonoredas theUniversityof IllinoisYWCA’s2015LeadershipAward inEducationwinner inrecognition of her work in social justice and higher education, and she wasselectedastheuniversity’s2016LarineY.CowanMakeaDifferenceAwardforTeachingandMentoringinDiversity.Shewasthe2013RecipientoftheNormanHorrocksLeadershipAwardgivenbyALISE,andLibraryJournalnamedheraMover&Shakerin2007.

Cooke’s research and teaching interests include human information behavior(particularly in the online context), critical cultural information studies, anddiversityandsocialjusticeinlibrarianship(withanemphasisoninfusingtheminto LIS education and pedagogy). She has published articles in journalsincluding The Library Quarterly, Library & Information Science Research,Libraries: Culture, History, and Society, InterActions: UCLA Journal ofEducationandInformation,Journalof theAssociationforInformationScienceand Technology, Online Learning (the official journal of the Online LearningConsortium). Polymath: An Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences Journal,Information Research, The Journal of Library & Information Services in

Distance Learning, The New Review of Academic Librarianship, and TheLibrary and Book Trade Almanac 2013. Cooke coauthored InstructionalStrategiesandTechniquesforInformationProfessionals(ChandosPress,2012),and co-edited Teaching for Justice: Implementing Social Justice in the LISClassroom (LibraryJuicePress,2017).HerlatestworkisInformationServicestoDiversePopulations(LibrariesUnlimited,2016).

INDEX

ABCNews,viiAbercrombie,Nicholas,10Accardi,MariaT.,18affectivedimensionsofinformationbehavior,7–9oflearning,5–6

alternativefacts“deepgrammar”and,3–4disseminationof,2KellyanneConwayand,viiimetaliteratelearnersand,19inpresidentialelectionof2016,viispin/counterknowledgeasprecursorsto,16

AmericanLibraryAssociation(ALA)AnnualConference,HillaryClintonat,viiFactorFiction,38fakenewswebinarpresentedto,29

angle,25AnnenbergPublicPolicyCenteroftheUniversityofPennsylvania,33Area,Manuel,17“ArianaGrandeEmergeswithCutandBloodiedFaceFollowingScreamQueensFilming”(mirror.co.uk),20assumptions,5theatlantic.com,23Attkisson,Sharyl,17

Bawden,David,2,17BBC.com,26behaviorSeeinformationbehavior

bias,24blogsillusionofchoice,11–12iterativejournalism,riseof,12–14

books,onfakenews,29Booth,Char,5–6,18“brainhacking,”11BreakingNewsConsumer’sHandbook:FakeNewsEdition(onthemedia.org),36Buckingham,David,2

Calamur,Krishnadev,16Case,Donald,8CentersforDiseaseControl,16checkology®VirtualClassroom,32choice,illusionof,11–12citizenjournalists,13–14Clinton,Hillary,viicognitivedimensionsoflearning,5–6misinformation/disinformation,6–7

Cohen,Daniel,4,20Colbert,Stephen,2TheColbertReport(televisionshow),2collaboration,19ColumbiaJournalismReview,11confirmationbiasawarenessof,7insocialmediafilterbubbles,8

confusion,productionof,2,3contentblogtrafficand,11–12infakenewslessonplan,26

contextcommentstakenoutof,21infakenewslessonplan,26ofinformation,5

Conway,Kellyanne,viii,3Cooke,N.A.,29Cooper,Anderson,11Cope,Bill,17counterknowledge,16Craft,Stephanie,11criticalinformationliteracy,17–18criticalthinkingcriticalmediaconsumptionthroughmultipleliteracyinstruction,16–18definitionof,15

metaliteracy,18–19questioningofinformation,15–16

date,25Davis,CharlesN.,11DeAbreu,B.,2DeSaulles,Martin,13,14“deepgrammar,”3“DidMaxineWatersBlametheLondonAttackonClimateandHealthCare‘Inaction’?”(snopes.com),22digitalliteracy,18disinformationevaluationof,17fakenews,widespreadnatureof,15overviewof,6–7sourcestoauthenticate/repudiateinformation,16

disintermediation,13–14“DotheFishSwimintheStreetsofMiamiatHighTide,asBarackObamaSaidinParis?”(politifact.com),23Don’tGetFooled:7SimpleSteps(NewsLiteracyProject),37Drabinski,EmilyE.,18“During Autumn King Tides, Nuisance Flooding Becomes Chronic Flooding in Miami Area”(washingtonpost.com),23

echochambersSeefilterbubbles

Eisenberg,MichaelB.,2,17Elmborg,James,2,17,18emotionsemotionaldimensionofinformationbehavior,7–9fakenewsappealsto,2

environment,5,6externalprocess,oflearning,5

FacebookNativeAmericannameson,21propaganda,disseminationof,4statusgenerators,22

“FacebookStillSuspendingNativeAmericansOver‘RealName’Policy”(theguardian.com),21TheFactChecker(WashingtonPost),32–33FactorFiction(ALA),38

fact-checkingsourceschecking,24listof,32–33

FactCheck.orgcheckinginformationon,24descriptionof,33HowtoSpotFakeNewsgraphics,34–35

facts,7fakenewsbookson,29emotionaldimensionofinformationbehavior,7–9headlines,revisiting,20–23informationconsumption,5iterativejournalism,riseof,12–14lessonplan,25–26lessonplan,Illinoisworkshopexamples,26–27misinformation/disinformation,6–7movingpast,23–25asoldnews,1–2,20politicaleconomy,10–11purposeof/damagefrom,viiroleofjournalismin,3–4widespread,reasonsfor,15

fakenews,resourcesonbooksonfakenews,29BreakingNewsConsumer’sHandbook:FakeNewsEdition,36Don’tGetFooled:7SimpleSteps,37FactorFiction(ALA),38fact-checkingsources,32–33HowtoSpotFakeNewsgraphics,34–35multipleformsofliteracy,articles/websiteson,30–31

FakeTrumpTweet.com,22,25,27Fallis,Don,6filterbubblesawarenessof,7readingoutside,24Russianvendingmachinefor“likes,”11socialmedia’srolein,8

Fox,ChristopherJ.,6fragmentednews,13

gatekeeping,13–14

Gilster,Paul,18Given,Lisa,8Goel,V.,4Grande,Ariana,20graphics,34–35Grettano,Teresa,2theguardian.com,21

Harris,Tristan,11Head,Alison,14headlinescheckingon,24revisiting,20–23trueorfalsestatements,1

Hernon,Peter,6heterogeneity,13Hobbs,R.,2Holiday,Ryanonblogs,11,12onfragmentationinnews,13onillusionofchoice,11oniterativejournalism,12

Hollenhorst,Maria,11hooks,bell,15,19HowtoSpotFakeNews(FactCheck.org),34–35HuffingtonPost,12

Illeris,Knud,5,6illusionofchoice,11–12informationcitizen-producedcontent,13–14consumptionof,5evaluationof,tips/tricksfor,23–25fact-checkingsources,32–33multi-literacy,needfor,2–3inpost-truthera,2questioningof,15–16sources,toolstoauthenticate/repudiateinformation,16–17

Information2.0(DeSaulles),13informationavoidance,7,8

informationbehavioremotionaldimensionof,7–9informationconsumption,5learningtheory,5–6misinformation/disinformation,6–7

informationliteracycriticalmediaconsumptionthroughmultipleliteracyinstruction,16–18fakenewsand,viiiterativejournalismand,14needtobemulti-literate,2–3

informationoverloadawarenessof,7socialmedia’srolein,8

informationprofessionals,19Instagram,11internalprocess,oflearning,5Internetemotionaldimensionofinformationbehavior,7–9evaluationofinformation,tips/tricksfor,23–25fakenewson,1–2illusionofchoice,11–12iterativejournalism,riseof,12–14misinformation/disinformationon,6–7multi-literacy,needfor,2–3politicaleconomyand,10–11sourcestoauthenticate/repudiateinformation,16–17

Internetsavvyusers,illusionofillusionofchoice,11–12iterativejournalism,riseof,12–14mediascapes,participationin,10politicaleconomy,10–11

“IsMiamiBeachDoomed?”(theatlantic.com),23iterativejournalism,12–14

“J.K.RowlingMocksPresidentTrumpforTweetingintheThirdPerson”(time.com),21Jackson,Brooks,16Jacobson,TrudiE.,2,18,19Jamieson,KathleenHall,16Jerz,DennisG.,17journalismcurrentstateofmedia,3–4iterative,riseof,12–14

politicaleconomy,participationin,10–11

Kalantzis,Mary,17Karlova,Natascha,6Khan,Sadiq,21KnowYourMeme,16,24Kovach,Bill,15–16Kuhlthau,CarolC.,17Kumbier,AlanaA.,18

Lanham,RichardA.,18Le,Vanna,11learningcriticalthinkingand,15fakenewslessonplan,25–27learningtheory,5–6metaliteratelearner,19

Lee,JinHa,6legacymedia,12“LeoVaradkarWasJustVotedtoBecomePrimeMinisterofIreland”(teenvogue.com),21–22lessonplanIllinoisworkshopexamples,26–27recipefor,25–26

Levitin,DanielJ.,16librariansHillaryClintonon,viiinformationliteracyskillsof,viias“truthworkers,”14

“likes,”11,15literacycriticalmediaconsumptionthroughmultipleliteracyinstruction,16–18forevaluationofonlineinformation,25multipleformsofliteracy,articles/websiteson,30–31Seealsoinformationliteracy;metaliteracy

“London’sMayorSaidThere’s‘NoReasontoBeAlarmed’byaTerroristAttack?”(snopes.com),21Longhurst,BrianJ.,10Losee,RobertM.,6Lowe,CarrieA.,17

Mackey,ThomasP.,2,18,19“ManMowedLawnduringTornado?”(snopes.com),22martinlutherking.org,27mashups,10mediacriticalmediaconsumptionthroughmultipleliteracyinstruction,16–18currentstateof,3–4headlines,revisiting,20–23illusionofchoice,11–12iterativejournalism,riseof,12–14multi-literacy,needfor,2–3politicaleconomy,participationin,10–11

medialiteracy,18mediascapes,10MeetthePress(televisionshow),viiimemes,10memory,5–6metaliteracycriticalmediaconsumptionthroughmultipleliteracyinstruction,16–18descriptionof,18–19forevaluationofonlineinformation,25metaliteratelearner,19multipleformsofliteracy,articles/websiteson,30–31needtobemulti-literate,2–3skills,acquisitionof,20

Mikkelson,David,32Miller,Willie,11,14misinformationfakenews,widespread,15onInternet,1–2overviewof,6–7sourcestoauthenticate/repudiateinformation,16spinasequivalentto,16

money,10–11motivation,5,6

NBCNews,viiNewLondonGroup,17NewYorkTimes,3newscurrentstateofmedia,3–4headlines,revisiting,20–23

illusionofchoice,11–12iterativejournalism,riseof,12–14multi-literacy,needfor,2–3Seealsofakenews

NewsLiteracyProjectcheckology®VirtualClassroom,32Don’tGetFooled:7SimpleSteps,37

NightlyNews(televisionshow),16

Obama,Barack,23TheOnion,17onthemedia.org,36OxfordEnglishDictionary,6

Park,Katie,11personalization,ofnews,13Pessoa,Teresa,17PewResearch,11photoshoppedimagescreationof,10infakenewslessonplan,27spotting,25

Pinterestforfakenewslessonplan,27sitefor“Post-Truth:FakeNewsandaNewEraofInformationLiteracy”webinar,29

politicalads,4politicaleconomyoverviewof,10–11understandingof,4

politicalinformation,16–17PolitiFact.comtoauthenticate/repudiateinformation,16–17checkinginformationon,24descriptionof,32“DotheFishSwimintheStreetsofMiamiatHighTide,asBarackObamaSaidinParis?,”23

post-trutheradescriptionof,2emotionaldimensionofinformationbehavior,7–9informationconsumptionmotivationsand,5informationin,20

“Post-Truth:FakeNewsandaNewEraofInformationLiteracy”webinar(Cooke),29presidentialelectionof2016,USemotionaldimensionofinformationbehaviorand,7–8Facebookdisseminationofpropagandain,4fakenewsduring,vii

press,3–4Seealsojournalism;media

priorknowledge,5,6propaganda,4

reflectiveteaching/learning,5–6resourcesBreakingNewsConsumer’sHandbook:FakeNewsEdition,36Don’tGetFooled:7SimpleSteps,37FactorFiction(ALA),38fact-checkingsources,32–33HowtoSpotFakeNewsgraphics,34–35multipleformsofliteracy,articles/websiteson,30–31suggestedbooksonfakenews,29

Robinson,Lyn,2,17Rosen,Jay,3Rosenstiel,Tom,15–16Rowling,J.K.,21Rubin,VictoriaL.,7

satisficing,7,8–9SchoolofInformationSciences,attheUniversityofIllinois,25–27Selyukh,Alina,11Shane,S.,4sistersites,12snopes.comtoauthenticate/repudiateinformation,16checkinginformationon,24descriptionof,32headlinesof,21,22

socialmediaemotionaldimensionofinformationbehaviorand,8–9iterativejournalism,riseof,12–14metaliteracyand,19politicaleconomyand,11

yellowjournalismon,4sourceevaluationof,tips/tricksfor,23–25fact-checkingsources,24,32–33questioningofinformation,16

“SouthFlorida’sRisingSeas—SeaLevelRiseDocumentary”(youtube.com),23spin,16Spitzer,KathleenL.,17Stanley,Jason,4

teenvogue.com,21–22thinkingSeecriticalthinking

TheThreeDimensionsofLearning(Illeris),5time.com,21Tisdell,ElizabethJ.,18Todd,Chuck,viiitrafficonblogs,contentand,11–12politicaleconomyand,10–11

triangulate,24trueorfalsestatements,1,20–23Trump,Donaldalternativefactsphraseand,viiifaketrumptweet.com,22,25,27J.K.Rowlingon,1,21productionofconfusion,3

trust,7,16Seealsopost-truthera

truthcounterknowledgeand,16criticalmediaconsumptionfor,15iterativejournalismand,12–14librariansinpost-truthage,viiquoteabout,1

truthworkers,14,23“truthiness”concept,2,5tweetgenerators,22TwitterJ.K.RowlingonDonaldTrump’stweets,21parodyaccountofMaxineWaterson,22

UniversityofIllinois,SchoolofInformationSciences,25–27

Varadkar,Leo,21–22vetting,13–14Vinton,Kate,11visualliteracy,18

Walczyk,JeffreyJ.,7Walsh,John,17washingtonpost.com,23,32–33Waters,Maxine,22websiteevaluationof,tips/tricksfor,23–25multipleformsofliteracy,articles/websiteson,30–31

Wihbey,John,14Williams,Brian,16Witek,Donna,2

yellowjournalism,4,20,21youtube.com,23

Zhang,Dongsong,6,7Zhou,Lina,6,7