alemu diribssa.doc
TRANSCRIPT
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ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF EARTH SCIENCES
GROUNDWATER–SURFACE WATER INTERACTION AND ANALYSIS OF RECENT
CHANGES IN HYDROLOGIC ENVIRONMENT OF LAKE ZIWAY CATCHMENT
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES OF ADDIS ABABA
UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
DEGREE OF MASTERS IN HYDROGEOLOGY
BY: ALEMU DRIBSSA
JUNE 2006
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am ve! "#$e%&e$ &' m! e(ea)* a$v"(' D+ Te#a,em A!e#e-. -*'(e /#e(eve$ a#$
)'#&"#/e$ /"$a#)e ma$e &*e )'m1",a&"'# ' &*e (&/$! 1'(("%,e+ Ha$#3& %ee# *"( a(("(&a#)e "#
1'v"$"# *"( e&",e "$ea(. eee#)e ma&e"a,( a#$ 1"va&e "e,$ e4/"1me#&. &*"( -'5 -'/,$
*ave #'& %ee# a)*"eve$+
M! ("#)ee &*a#5( ' &' ma#aeme#& a#$ (&a ' O'm"a a&e '5( C'#(&/)&"'#
E#&e1"(e+ T*e a(("(&a#)e &*e! ave me 'm (&a&"'#e! (ev")e &' 1'v"("'# ' )a '
"e,$-'5 -",, a,-a!( %e emem%ee$+ Ma#! &*a#5( &' A&' Ta"5/ Neea. Ge#ea, Ma#ae '
&*e E#&e1"(e -*' a,,'-e$ me &' ',,'- &*e 1'(&a$/a&e 1'am %e("$e( &*e e#)'/aeme#&
*e *a( %ee# 'e"# me $/"# &*e (&/$!+
I -'/,$ ,"5e &' &*a#5 I#(&"&/&"'#( *e,1e$ me %! /#"(*"# (e)'#$a! $a&a ' &*e 1e1aa&"'# '
&*"( -'5+ M"#"(&! ' a&e Re('/)e(. Na&"'#a, Me&e'','")a, Sev")e Ae#)!. M"#"(&! '
M"#e( a#$ E#e! ' &*e" 5"#$ 1'v"("'# ' e4/e(&e$ ma&e"a,( a#$ "$ea(. (*'/,$ %e
a11e)"a&e$+
I '-a$ m! e(1e)& a#$ $ee1e(& 1a"(e &' m! am",! ' &*e" 1e("(&e#& ,'ve. 1a&"e#)e. (/11'&
a#$ e#)'/aeme#& &*a& &*e! ave me &*'/*'/& &*e (&/$! 1e"'$+ Hea&e,& a11e)"a&"'# 'e(
&' m! -"e. '+ Ye#e#e(* De%e%e. -*' &''5 &*e e(1'#("%","&! &' ,''5 a&e '/ )*",$e#7
%e("$e( *e e/,a (&/$"e( a& a#'&*e U#"ve("&!+
F"#a,,!. m! e#$,e(( &*a#5( ' &' m! 1ae#&(. %'&*e( a#$ ("(&e( ' &*e" e#)'/aeme#& a#$
$eam &' (ee me (/))e((/, "# eve! a(1e)& 'm )*",$*''$ /1 /#&", &*"( ,eve,+
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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AC8NOLEDGMENT 99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999"
LIST OF TABLES 99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999v
LIST OF FIGURES 99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999v""
LIST OF ANNEES 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999v"""
ABSTRACT 99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999 ";
1. INTRODUCTION 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999<
e)&"ve( 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999=
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=+= S&/)&/e 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
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$"()*ae mea(/eme#&( a#$ (1"# (/ve! 99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999?
6+6 C*a##e, -a&e %a,a#)e a#$ e(&"ma&"'# ' "#$"e)& '/#$-a&e e)*ae '#
(e,e)&e$ "ve (&e&)*e( 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999@0
6+6+< L'((e( '# Me5" R"ve %e&-ee# D/$a a#$ Me5" T'-# a/"# (&a&"'#( 9999999@0
6+6+2 L'((e( '# 8a&a R"ve %e&-ee# A%/a a#$ F"&e a/"# (&a&"'#( 99999999999999999@<
6+ H!$'a1* a#a,!("( 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999@2
6++< H!$'a1* (*a1e 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999@=
6++2 M'#&*,! ,'-( ' "ve( a( 1e)e#&ae ' &*e" e(1e)&"ve &'&a, a##/a, $"()*ae9@?
6++= H!$'a1* (e1aa&"'# 9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999@6
6+ Ba(e,'- a#$ a"#a,, e,a&"'#(*"1 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999@
LAKE WATER BALANCE 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999 60
+< T*e -a&e %a,a#)e e4/a&"'# 99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999960
+2 E(&"ma&"'# ' -a&e %a,a#)e va"a%,e( 99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999 60
+= La5e -a&e %a,a#)e e(&"ma&"'# 9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999996<
+? D"()/(("'# 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999996=
ASSESSMENT OF RECENT CHANGES IN HYDROLOGIC ENVIRONMENT
OF THE CATCHMENT 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999996?
+< I#&'$/)&"'# 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999 6?
+2 T*e e(1'#(e ' -a&e %a,a#)e )'m1'#e#&( &' e)e#& ),"ma&") )*a#e 999999999999999996?
+2+< Pe)"1"&a&"'# 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999996?
+2+2 Eva1'a&"'# 9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999996
+= C*a#e( "# -a&e /(e9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999996
+=+< La5e -a&e a%(&a)&"'# 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999996
+=+2 A%(&a)&"'# 'm 8a&a R"ve 9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999996
+=+= A%(&a)&"'# 'm Me5" R"ve 9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999996
+? C*a#e( "# -a&e %a,a#)e )'m1'#e#&( $/e &' )'m%"#e$ ee)&( ),"ma&e a#$ */ma#
"#&eee#)e 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999990
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+?+< R"ve( "#,'- &' &*e ,a5e 9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999990
+?+2 La5e (&'ae a#$ '/&,'- 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999992
+?+= G'/#$-a&e e)*ae 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999@
+@ a&e %a,a#)e a#a,!("( ' &*e ee)& ' )*a#e( "# *!$','") )'m1'#e#&( 99999999
+ Concl!"on #n$ R%co&&%n$#'"on 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
+
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Me5" R"ve( a& &*e" e(1e)&"ve a/"# (&a&"'#(999999999999999999999999999999999999 ?0
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Ta%,e 6+
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F"/e ?+: S)a&&e 1,'& %e&-ee# "-a! La5e ,eve, a#$ B/,%/,a R"ve999999999999999999999999=
F"/e @+' "ve( "# &*e )a&)*me#& 9999999999999999999999999@
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F"/e + Re)e#& )*a#e( "# )'#("(&e#)e %e&-ee# &*e e;aea&e$ Me5" R"ve
$"()*ae a#$ B/&a>"a 1e)"1"&a&"'# 9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999<
F"/e +: T*e e,a&"'#(*"1( am'# 8a&a R"ve "ve &"me( e;aea&e$ a##/a, ,'-7
A(e,a (&a&"'# a#$ -e"*&e$ )a&)*me#& 1e)"1"&a&"'# 99999999999999999999999999999999<
F"/e +
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F"/e +
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ABSTRACT
T*e (&/$! aea "( #'&*e# 1a& ' &*e Ce#&a, Ma"# E&*"'1"a# "& va,,e! %'/#$e$ "# -e(& a#$
#'&* %! A-a(* %a("#7 a#$ "# ea(& %! a%" (*e%e,e )a&)*me#&+ Me5" a#$ 8a&a ae &*e ma"#
"ve( $a"#"# -e(&e# a#$ ea(&e# 1a& ' &*e )a&)*me#& e(1e)&"ve,! a#$ %'&* ee$ La5e
"-a! %e'e '/&,'- &' B/,%/,a R"ve "# ('/&* -e(&+ T*e aea *a( mea# a##/a, 1e)"1"&a&"'#.
1'&e#&"a, eva1'&a#(1"a&"'# a#$ a)&/a, eva1'&a#(1"a&"'# ' mm.
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CHA)TER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 B#c*+,on$
O a,, &*e (/%(&a#)e( &*a& ae #e)e((a! &' ,"e '# &*e ea&*. -a&e "( %! a &*e m'(&
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/#eve# (1a&"a, a#$ &em1'a, $"(&"%/&"'#+
a&e "( "#"&e e('/)e a#$ m/(& %e ma#ae$ "# (/(&a"#a%,e -a! &' mee& */ma# a( -e,, a(
e#v"'#me#&a, #ee$(+ T*e (/(&a"#a%,e /(e ' -a&e "( %e)'m"# "#)ea("#,! "m1'&a#& "#
,e"(,a&"ve ae#$a ' &*e )'/#&!+ T*e 'vea,, 'a, ' &*e Na&"'#a, a&e Re('/)e P',")!
"( &' e#*a#)e a#$ 1'm'&e a,, #a&"'#a, e'&( &'-a$ &*e e")"e#&. e4/"&a%,e a#$ '1&"m/m
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/("# %'&* a"#9e$ a#$ ""a&"'# 'm ),'(e,! (1a)e$ "ve( a#$ &"%/&a"e( $a"#"# *"*
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've a%(&a)&"'# ' -a&e &' mee& a(& '-"# $ema#$ ae &*ea&e#"# &*e aea+ T*e
"m1a)& "( m'e 1'#'/#)e$ "# &*e $'-# (&eam aea( -*ee &*ee "( 1'' '/#$-a&e
$eve,'1me#& a#$ &*e 1e'1,e *ave %ee# /("# (/a)e -a&e ' *'me )'#(/m1&"'# a#$
&*e" ,"ve(&')5+
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ava",a%,e e('/)e( "( )"&")a,,! "m1'&a#&+ I#'ma&"'# a%'/& &*e &em1'a, a#$ (1a&"a,
$"(&"%/&"'#. a( -e,, a( $!#am")( ' &*e e('/)e. "( "m1'&a#& &' 1,a# ' aea( ' m'e
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&*e 1'%,em -"&* e(1e)& &' &*e "("# $ema#$+
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1. ),%"o! Wo,*
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Ha",e Ga(*e-e)& (&/$! ' Me5" ""a&"'# a#$ /a, $eve,'1me#&. &*e
1"ma! em1*a("( -a( "ve# &' &*e a((e((me#& ' -a&e e('/)e 1'&e#&"a, "# Me5"A%">a&a
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T*e (1e)"") '%>e)&"ve( ae &*e ',,'-"#:
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CHA)TER TWO
GENERAL OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY AREA
.1 Loc#'"on #n$ Acc%!!""l"'4
T*e (&/$! aea "( &*e #'&*e# 1a& ' Ce#&a, E&*"'1"a# R"& Va,,e! )a&)*me#&7 ,')a&e$
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8a55a ' A(" "# "&( ea(&e# ("$e+ T*e aea "( a%'/& ?
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T*e )a&)*me#& "( a))e((e$ %! A$$"( A%a%a9M'>'9"-a!. A$$"( A%a%a9A,em Ge#a9
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.3 To5o+,#504 #n$ $,#"n#+%
T*e (&/$! aea "( %'/#$e$ "# &*e ea(& %! C*",a,' ?0@6m a+(+,. Ga,ama?
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.6 So"l7 l#n$ !% #n$ l#n$ co%,
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e& a,
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.6. L#n$ !% #n$ l#n$ co%,
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#/me'/( '/1(+ H'-eve. ' "&( e,eva#)e &' &*e '%>e)&"ve ' (&/$!. ,"5e e(&"ma&"'# '
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2 Ma(*! a#$ (-am1! aea( =+< 2=
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GEOLOGY
/.1 In',o$c'"on
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v',)a#'9&e)&'#") a#$ (e$"me#&a! 1')e((e( Te#a,em A!e#e-.
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' &-' ,ae v',)a#") )e#&e( B'a a#$ Be")*' a((')"a&e$ -"&* a ea& #/m%e '
(ma,,e v',)a#") ')" a#$ -"&* (/% *"(&'")a, ,"m"&e$ "((/e e/1&"'#(+ M'(& ' &*e
1'$/)&( '/#$ "# &*"( aea ae (",")") 1!'),a(&")(+ B'a v',)a#' "( ,')a&e$ '# &*e
#'&*ea(& ' &*e (&/$! aea a#$ "& )'#("(&( ' a,&e#a#)e( ' 1/m")e a#$ a(* ,a!e(
iii. 1'',! -e,$e$ ' )'m1,e&e,! /#-e,$e$+ Ba")*' v',)a#")( "( ,')a&e$ >/(& #'&*ea(& '
B'a a#$ )'m1"(e( )'m1,e&e,! ' /#-e,$e$ 1/m")e ,'-(+
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iv. Gadamotta rhyolite: T*"( *!',"&") ,ava "( ' ea,! P,e"(&')e#e a,5a,"#e a#$
1ea,5a,"#e ,ava a#$ %e$e$ &/ )'ve"# (ma,, aea "# ('/&*-e(& ' &*e (&/$! aea+
/..6 Volc#no-!%$"&%n'#,4 ,oc*! #n$ l#c!',"n% !%$"&%n'!
T*e(e (e$"me#&( 1e$'m"#a#&,! )'m1"(e v',)a#'),a(&") (e$"me#&(. &/ a#$ a((')"a&e$
,a)/(&"#e (e$"me#&(+
T*e ,a)/(&"#e (e$"me#&( "#),/$e (",&(. ),a!(. $"a&'m"&e a#$ ma&e"a,( ' a(* a#$ &/
a((')"a&e$ -"&* ')5 ame#&( $e"ve$ 'm -"$e va"&! ' v',)a#") ')5(+
T*e (e$"me#&( m/(& *ave %ee# $e1'("&e$ $/"# a -"$e &"me "#&eva, 'm &*e e#$ '
P,"')e#e /#&", e)e#& -*")* "( (/e(&e$ %! &*e" )'#("$ea%,e &*")5#e(( a#$ %! &*e a)&
&*a& "# ma#! 1,a)e( &*e! /#$e,"e !'/# v',)a#") 1'$/)&( a#$ ae '&e# a&*e $ee1,!
ae)&e$ %! e"'#a, a/,&(+ Be("$e( v',)a#'9(e$"me#&a! a#$ ,a)/(&"#e $e1'("&( a,,/v"/m
"( -"$e,! '%(eve$ "# va,,e!(+
E"*& ,"&*'(&a&"a1*") /#"&( -ee "$e#&""e$ "# &*e (&/$! aea:
"+ Pelite dominated lacustrine deposits: $e1'("&( ' 1e,"&e a#$ 1ea& 200 BP9Pe(e#&""+ Colluvium: ave,(. (a#$(. (",&( a#$ v',)a#") 1!'),a(&")( m"$ P,e"(&')e#e9Re)e#&
"""+ Alluvial deposit : ma"#,! &ea)e ave,. (a#$ a#$ (",& a((')"a&e$ ,')a,,! -"&* ),a!
H',')e#e 9 Pe(e#&+
"v+ Deltaic and fluvio-deltaic deposits: $e1'("&( ' (a#$. (",&. a#$ ),a! H',')e#e+
v+ Meki and ater deltaic deposits: (a#$. (",& a#$ ),a! H',')e#e+
v"+ Tufa fluvo-lacustrine deposits: ma"#,! ave,. (a#$. 1e,"&e. a#$ 1ea& H',')e#e+
v""+ !i"ay terrace and volcano-lacustrine deposits: 1!'),a(&")( $e"ve$ 'm a(* a#$ &/+
A,(' "#),/$e$ ae 1e,"&e. $"a&'m"&e. (",&. a#$ ),a! -"&* '))a("'#a, (*'e (a#$ a#$ (*e,,
%e$( H',')e#e+
vii. Bul#ula deposits: v',)a#'9,a)/(&"#e $e1'("&(. ma"#,! 1!'),a(&")( $e"ve$ 'm a(*
a#$ &/. a#$ (/%'$"#a&e (*e,, %e$( a#$ (a#$+
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/./ S',c',%
T*e E&*"'1"a# "& va,,e! "( a a%e# -"&* aveae -"$&* ' 05m "# &*e (&/$! aea+
Te#("'#a, m'veme#&( ae e(1'#("%,e ' 'ma&"'# ' &*e "& -*")* 1'$/)e$ a #/m%e '
#'ma, a/,&( D" P',a.
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CHA)TER FOUR
Naae&* '/
D"#' 'ma&"'#
F"/e =+< Ge','") Ma1 &a5e# 'm Te#a,em A!e#e-.
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HYDROMETEOROLOGY
3.1. In',o$c'"on
H!$'me&e'','! "( )'#)e#e$ -"&* &*e (&/$! ' &*e a&m'(1*e") a#$ ,a#$ 1*a(e( ' &*e
H!$','") )!),e -"&* em1*a("( '# &*e "#&ee,a&"'#( "#v',ve$ MO.
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Pe)"1"&a&"'# "# &*e )a&)*me#& va"e( -"&* a,&"&/$e+ H"* a,&"&/$e aea( ,"5e C*",a,'. Ga,ama.
a#$ G/a*e m'/#&a"#( e)e"ve mea# a##/a, a"#a,, ' 've
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N'
S&a&"'#
Re)'$"#
1e"'$
L')a&"'#
A,&"&/$e
m+a+(+,+
Mea# m'#&*,! 1e)"1"&a&"'# mm
UTM YUTM Ja# Fe% Ma A1 Ma! J/# J/, A/ Se1 O)& N'v De
)
A##/a,
< A%/a
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T*e I('*!e&a, me&*'$ ma5e( /(e ' >'"#"# 1'"#&( ' e4/a, a"#a,, va,/e( a#$ &*e#
mea(/e( &*e" "#&e "('*!e&a, aea+ T*e mea# a##/a, 1e)"1"&a&"'# ' &*e )a&)*me#& /("#
&*"( me&*'$ "( 6mm+
Ta%,e ?+2 A"a, mea# $e1&* ' 1e)"1"&a&"'# /("# T*e"((e# 1',!'#
S&a&"'# Aea e#),'(e$ e"*&e$ Mea# a##/a, e"*&e$
N' %! 1',!'# Aea Pe)"1"&a&"'# mm
A##/a, 1e)"1"&a&"'#
mm
< A%/a ?
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F"/e ?+2 I('*!e&a, ma1 mea# a##/a, 1e)"1"&a&"'# "('*!e&(. mm
Ta%,e ?+= A"a, mea# $e1&* ' 1e)"1"&a&"'# /("# I('*!e&a, me&*'$
P'("&"'# ' I('*!&a, Aea %e&-ee# e"*&e$ Aveae va,/e e"*&e$
I('*!e& a#e I('*!e&( 5m2 aea ' "('*!e&( 1e)"1"&a&"'#mm
@0900 =@@ ?+ @ =
009@0 2
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Ta%,e ?+? Mea# m'#&*,! 1e)"1"&a&"'# "# "ve )a&)*me#&( /("# $a&a ' T*"e((e# 1',!'#mm
Ca&)*me#&Aea
5m2
A##9
/a,
Ja# Fe% Ma A1 Ma! J/# J/, A/ Se1 O)& N'vDe)
Me5" 22@6 2 @=
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3./ E#5o',#n!5",#'"on
Eva1'&a#(1"a&"'# "( &*e ,'(( ' -a&e &' &*e a&m'(1*ee &*'/* eva1'a&"'# 'm a,,
(/a)e(7 "#),/$"# eva1'a&"'# 'm ee -a&e (/a)e(. ('",. a#$ ma#ma$e (/a)e( a#$
&a#(1"a&"'# 'm 1,a#&( H'/*&'#.
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T*e e,a&"ve */m"$"&! ' a# a" ma(( "( &*e 1e)e#& a&"' ' &*e am( ' -a&e 1e )/%") me&e
' a" &' &*e )a1a)"&! ' a" &' *',$ ma;"m/m am'/#& ' a". ' &*e &em1ea&/e ' a" ma((
Fe&&e.
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N'S&a&"'#
Re)'$"#
1e"'$ Ja# Fe% Ma A1 Ma! J/# J/, A/ Se1 O)& N'v De)
< B/" /(&me#& %e"# ma$e ' &*e ,a&"&/$e.
,')a&"'# a#$ #/m%e ' $a!,"*& *'/( D/##e a#$ Le'1',$.
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T*e m'#&*,! 1'&e#&"a, eva1'&a#(1"a&"'# ' a#! m'#&* "# )mm'#&* "( &*e# )a,)/,a&e$
'm &*e e4/a&"'#:
PET
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Ea : e#e! ' eva1'a&"'# mm$a!
∆ : (,'1e ' &*e )/ve ' (a&/a&e$ va1e 1e((/e 1,'&&e$ aa"#(& &em1a&/e a#$
γ : *!'me&") )'#(&a#& &a5e# a( 0+2 mmH' F+
T*e e4/a&"'# "( $e"ve$ 'm a ("m1,""e$ e#e! %a,a#)e 'm/,a:
- +o , += ?+
*ee7
, : ava",a%,e *ea&+
+o : a&e ' ' eva1'a&"'#
- : e#e! ' *ea&"# a"+
T*e va,/e ' 0 + a#$- )a# %e $e"#e$ %! ae'$!#am") e4/a&"'# a(
( )( )d so eeu f + −= ?+
a#$:
- ( )( )TaT u f s −
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( ) .or .I , −−= < ?+
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Ta%,e ?+ Mea# m'#&*,! La5e -a&e eva1'a&"'# /("# Pa# a#$ Pe#ma# me&*'$( mm
Me&*'$ Ja# Fe% Ma A1 Ma! J/# J/, A/ Se1 O)& N'vDe
)A##/a,
Pe#ma#
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T a .o ?σ = ( ( ) / nea B=+0"a ' e()a1me#&(7 a#$ "-a! (&a&"'# ' "& ,''+
A))'$"#,!. 1'&e#&"a, eva1'&a#(1"a&"'# PET )'m1/&e$ /("# &*e a%'ve e4/a&"'#( '
$"ee#& 1*!("'a1*") aea( a#$ "ve )a&)*me#&( ae 1e(e#&e$ "# &a%,e ?+
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A)&/a, eva1'&a#(1"a&"'# "( &*e am'/#& ' eva1'a&"'# &*a& '))/( /#$e a "ve# ),"ma&")
a#$ ('", m'"(&/e )'#$"&"'#(+ T*ee'e. "& "( a,-a!( ,e(( &*a# ' e4/a, &' 1'&e#&"a,
eva1'&a#(1"a&"'# PET+
*e# &*ee "( a%/#$a#& m'"(&/e "# &*e ('",. &*e a)&/a, eva1'&a#(1"a&"'# a&e "( e4/a, &'
1'&e#&"a, eva1'&a#(1"a&"'#+ O# &*e '&*e *a#$. " &*ee "( #' a"# &' e1,e#"(* &*e -a&e
(/11,!. &*e ('", m'"(&/e a$/a,,! %e)'me( $e1,e&e$ %! &*e $ema#$ ' vee&a&"'# a#$
1'$/)e( ('", m'"(&/e $e")"&+ T*ee'e. &*e a1 %e&-ee# 1'&e#&"a, a#$ a)&/a,
eva1'&a#(1"a&"'# "( e,e)&e$ %! &*e am'/#& ' $e")"&+
T*e va,/e( ' ('", m'"(&/e $e")"& a#$ a)&/a, eva1'&a#(1"a&"'# va! -"&* ('", &!1e a#$
vee&a&"'# S*a-.
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Lam: A))/m/,a&e$ 1'&e#&"a, -a&e ,'(( a& m'#&* M mm+
: Ava",a%,e -a&e )a1a)"&! ' &*e ''& '#e mm
T*e ('", m'"(&/e ' ea)* -e& m'#&* "( '%&a"#e$ %! a$$"# &*e e;)e(( ' a"# ' &*e )/e#&
m'#&* &' &*e ('", m'"(&/e ' &*e m'#&* %e'e+ H'-eve. &*"( (/m ma! #'& e;)ee$ &*e -a&e
)a1a)"&! a#$ e;)e(( "( %''5e$ a( m'"(&/e (/1,/(+
T*e m'#&*,! a)&/a, eva1'&a#(1"a&"'#. AETm. "( &*e# '/#$ a(:
P+T A+T = " mm P+T P >
?+2?
O&*e-"(e.
mmmm 9 9 P A+T −+= −< ?+2@
*ee. A+T "( a)&/a, eva1'&a#(1"a&"'#. P+T . P'&e#&"a, eva1'&a#(1"a&"'#. P "( ae"a,
1e)"1"&a&"'#. Sm9< a#$ Sm ae ('", m'"(&/e $/"# &*e m'#&* m9< a#$ m e(1e)&"ve,!+
A))'$"#,!. &*e m'#&*,! a#$ a##/a, a)&/a, eva1'&a#(1"a&"'# 'm &*e &*ee 1*!("'a1*")
aea( a( -e,, a( "ve )a&)*me#&( /("# "#1/&( ' %'&* Pe#ma# a#$ T*'#-a"&e 1'&e#&"a,
eva1'&a#(1"a&"'# e(/,&( ae "ve# "# &*e ',,'-"# &a%,e:
Ta%,e ?+
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Me&*'$ Ca&)*me#& Ja# Fe% Ma A1 Ma! J/# J/, A/ Se1 O)& N'v
De
) A##/a,
8a&a = @= @ 6 = 0 6= = 6
Pe#ma# Me5" =< ?6 = @ 2 = 2 < ? 2
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"-a! La5e ,eve, "( e(&"ma&e$ %! a (&a a/e ,')a&e$ a& B')*e(a a'/#$ &*e '/&,'- ' &*e
,a5e &' B/,%/,a R"ve+ Ba(e$ '# &*"&! !ea(
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F"/e ?+6 Mea# m'#&*,! ,/)&/a&"'# ' La5e "-a! ,eve,
F'm &*e a%'ve a1*( -e )a# /#$e(&a#$ &*a& 1ea5( ' ,a5e ,eve, a#$ B/,%/,a R"ve ,'-
$' #'& )'"#)"$e -"&* 1ea5 $"()*ae( ' "ve( "#,'- Me5" a#$ 8a&a &' &*e ,a5e+ T*ee "(
a%'/& ?@$a!( '#e m'#&* a#$ *a, ,a &"me %e&-ee# 1ea5 ' "#,'- a#$ &*a& ' ,a5e ,eve,7
a#$ "# &/# a%'/&
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CC: C'e,a&"'# )'e")"e#&F"/e ?+ S)a&&e 1,'& %e&-ee# "-a! La5e ,eve, a#$ B/,%/,a R"ve $"()*ae
F'm &*e e4/a&"'# ' &*e a%'ve a1*. -e )a# /#$e(&a#$ &*a& #' ,'- ' B/,%/,a R"ve
-",, %e 'me$ " ,a5e ,eve, $'1( %e,'- 0+m ' &*e )/e#& (&a a/e+
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CHA)TER FIVE
ESTIMATION OF DIRECT GROUNDWATER RECHARGE
G'/#$-a&e e)*ae "( a /#)&"'# ' &*e v',/me ' e("$/a, a"#a,,. (/a)e "#",&a&"'#.
a#$ e','")a, 1e)',a&"'# a&e( Ma,"#.
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' a)&/a, eva1'&a#(1"a&"'# "# )*a1&e '/ "( /&*e /(e$ &' eva,/a&e &*e e("$/a, m'"(&/e
a&e eva1'a&"'# ,'((+ T*e (/1,/( am'/#& $e&em"#e$ "# &*"( 1')e(( a&e $e$/)&"'# '
(/a)e /#' e1e(e#&( $"e)& '/#$-a&e e)*ae ' a "ve# ('", a#$ vee&a&"'#
)'#$"&"'#+
U("# *!$'a1* (e1aa&"'# ' $"ee#& "ve( ,"5e A(e%e5a. Tema,a. U11e 8a&a. L'-e
8a&a a#$ Me5" "# &' &*e" e(1e)&"ve (/a)e /#' a#$ %a(e,'- )'m1'#e#&(. &*e (/a)e
/#' ' *"*,a#$ "ve( "( a%'/& ?2 ' &'&a, ,'-. -*",e a& e()a1me#&( "& "( a%'/& =@
)*a1&e (";+ A))'$"#,!. &*e -e"*&e$ a##/a, e)*ae ' &*e aea /("# ('", m'"(&/e
%/$e&"# me&*'$ "( @mm+
6. G,on$:#'%, #l#nc% &%'0o$
G'/#$-a&e e)*ae )a# %e e(&"ma&e$ %! -a&e %a,a#)e a( ',,'-(:
G DAEL> ΔS @+2
*ee. G : G'/#$-a&e e)*ae
D : G'/#$-a&e $"()*ae Ba(e ,'- a#$ (1"# $"()*ae
A : G'/#$-a&e a%(&a)&"'#
E : Eva1'a&"'#
L : C*a##e, ,'((e( "#,/e#& (ee1ae
ΔS: C*a#e "# '/#$-a&e (&'ae
*e# -e )'#("$e '# a##/a, %a("(. &*e )*a#e "# (&'ae "( a((/me$ &' %e e'7 a#$ "
eva1'a&"'# a#$ '/#$-a&e a%(&a)&"'# ae /&*e a((/me$ &' %e #e,""%,e. &*e
ema"#"# e4/a&"'# -",, %e)'me:
G DL @+=
T*e $"()*ae D "# &*"( e4/a&"'# "( e1e(e#&e$ %! %a(e,'- -*",e "#,/e#& (ee1ae L "(
&*e -a&e -*")* "( 1a& ' %a(e,'- )'#&"%/&e$ &' '/#$-a&e 'm "ve( a#$ $'e( #'&
a11ea a& &*e a/"# (&a&"'#+
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T*e /#)e&a"#&! "# e(&"ma&"# a)&/a, am'/#& ' /1(&eam a%(&a)&"'# ')e$ &' /(e &*e "ve
$"()*ae $a&a %e'e )'mme#)eme#& ' ("#"")a#& ""a&"'# 1'>e)&(+
I# '$e &' $e&em"#e e)*ae ' La5e "-a! )a&)*me#& /("# &*"( me&*'$. mea# $a",!
$"()*ae e)'$( ' 8a&a R"ve a/e$ '# A%/a 'm
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Ta%,e @+< M'#&*,! %a(e,'-. (/a)e /#' a#$ &'&a, ,'- ' 8a&a a#$ Me5" R"ve( a&
e(1e)&"ve a/"# (&a&"'#( ' &*e )'#("$ee$ 1e"'$
Ca&)*9
me#&
Ga/"#(&a&"'#
Aea
8m2Ja# Fe% Ma A1 Ma! J/# J/, A/ Se1 O)& N'v
De
)
T
a
Me5"Me5"
&'-#22@6
BF
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*e# -e )'m1ae &*e a%'ve me&*'$(. &*e ('",9-a&e %a,a#)e me&*'$ (/e( 'm "&( ,e((
va,"$"&! "# a"$ a#$ (em" a"$ '#e(. a( "& -a( $eve,'1e$ ' */m"$ ),"ma&e Le#e e& a,.
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CHA)TER SI(
GROUNDWATER AND SURFACE WATER INTERACTION
?.1 In',o$c'"on
G'/#$-a&e a#$ (/a)e -a&e "#&ea)&"'# "( a #a&/a, 1*e#'me#'# $")&a&e$ %! &*e a)&
&*a& &*e &-' -a&e me$"a ae )"&")a, )'m1'#e#&( ' '#e (!(&em "#&"ma&e,! ,"#5e$ %!
*!$','") )!),e "#&e. ' "ve( -"&* e(1e)& &' e','!. '/#$-a&e e,eva&"'# )'#&'/(. (,'1e( a#$
),"ma&e+
?. T0% 04$,olo+"c c0#,#c'%,"!'"c! o9 ,"%,! "n '0% c#'c0&%n'
I# &*e (&/$! aea. &*e "ve( ae a/e$ a& ("; (&a&"'#(+ Ea)* )a&)*me#& (*'-( "&( $"(&"#)&
*!$'e','")a, )*aa)&e"(&")( %e"# )'#&',,e$ %! e','!. (,'1e. ('", a#$ ),"ma&e+
Ta%,e 6+< H!$','")a, )*aa)&e"(&")( ' a/e$ "ve( "# &*e )a&)*me#&
N' Ca&)*m#&
#ame
Ca&)*me#&
aea5m2
Ga/"#
(&a&"'#
Mea# a##/a,
Pe)"1"&a&"'#mm
S,'1e
Mea# a##/a,
$"()*ae mm
< U11e Me5" 20=0 D/$a @ =+6
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F"/e 6+< L')a&"'# ' "ve a/"# (&a&"'#(
?./ )%,&%#"l"'4 $"!',"'"on "n '0% c#'c0&%n'
T*e ')5( "# &*e (&/$! aea 1'((e(( $"ee#& 1emea%","&"e( $/e &' va"a&"'# "# ,"&*','!.
1"ma! a#$ (e)'#$a! (&/)&/e. ame#& ("e ' 1!'),a(&") (e$"me#&(. a#$ -ea&*e"#
a$e(+ A))'$"#,!. &*e )a&)*me#& "( ),a((""e$ "# &' "ve a#e( ' 1emea%","&! F"/e 6+2+
?./.1 H"+0 'o %,4 0"+0 5%,&%#"l"'4 8on%
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&*e )*aa)&e"(&")( ' "#"m%"&e. a)&/"# a#$ -ea&*e"# a$e. &*e /#"&( 1'((e(( me$"/m
&' *"* 1emea%","&!+
?././ M%$"& 5%,&%#"l"'4 8on%
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&*"( '#e ae *"*,! -e,$e$ "#"m%"&e(. &/. *!',"&e a#$ &a)*!&e -"&*'/& v"("%,e ,ae a/,&(+
T*e /11e -ea&*ee$ ')5 a#$ ('",( ae 1emea%,e7 *'-eve. &*e /#$e,!"# v',)a#")
(e4/e#)e( ae ma(("ve+
?./.6 V%,4 lo: 5%,&%#"l"'4 Zon%
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F"/e 6+= T*e e,a&"'#(*"1 %e&-ee# '/#$-a&e &a%,e e,eva&"'# )'#&'/ a#$ "ve(
Ta%,e 6+2 T*e e,a&"'#(*"1 %e&-ee# "ve %e$ e,eva&"'# &a5e# 'm DEM a#$ '/#$-a&e
&a%,e e,eva&"'# a& &*a& 1'"#&
La%e, UTMm YUTMm
G'/#$-a&e
e,eva&"'# m+a+(+,
R"veS&eam %e$
E,eva&"'# m+a+(+,+
C*aa)&e(&")(
' "ve(&eam
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?.6 A!!%!!&%n' o9 +,on$:#'%, #n$ !,9#c% :#'%, "n'%,#c'"on !"n+ 9"%l$ #!%
,"%, $"!c0#,+% &%#!,%&%n'! #n$ !5,"n+ !,%4
I# '$e &' a#a,!e &*e *!$'e','")a, $!#am")( "# &*e )a&)*me#&. "ve $"()*ae
mea(/eme#&( -ee ma$e a& $"ee#& ea)*e( "# &*e aea+ T*e mea(/eme#&( -ee
)'#$/)&e$ "# &*e m'#&*( ' N'vem%e. De)em%e a#$ Fe%/a! $/"# -*")* &*e "ve ,'-
-a( e#&"e,! &*e '/#$-a&e )'m1'#e#& Ta%,e 6+=+
F"/e 6+? L')a&"'# Ma1 ' "e,$ %a(e "ve $"()*ae mea(/eme#&(+
N'&e &*a& '#,! e1e(e#&a&"ve mea(/eme#& ("&e( ae "#$")a&e$ '# &*e ma1 ' ),a"&!7 a#$
a$$"&"'#a, $a&a ae ava",a%,e "# &*e ',,'-"# &a%,e:
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Ta%,e 6+= L')a&"'# a#$ am'/#& ' $"()*ae /("# "e,$ %a(e mea(/eme#&(
N' Da&e La%e,
UTM
ea(&"#
YUTM
N'&*"# Q,S S"&e #ame
< 2
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C*a##e, ,'(( '# Me5" R"ve -a( '%(eve$ "# "& ,'' (e$"me#& %e&-ee# D/$a a#$ me5"
&'-#(+ De),"#e "# %a(e,'- %e&-ee# mea(/"# 1'"#&( ' R06. R0 a#$ R0 "# &*e a%'ve
"/e "( (/e(&"ve ' ,'((e( "# &*e (e$"me#&+ He#)e. $"()*ae9aea )'e,a&"'# )'e")"e#&
a,(' e$/)e( &' 0+6
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)*a##e, -a&e %/$e&"# m'$e, -a( )'#$/)&e$ /("# $a&a ' a/"# (&a&"'#( "# e(1e)&"ve
aea( a#$ e(&"ma&"'# ' ('me 1aame&e(+
I# )*a##e, -a&e %a,a#)e m'$e,. &*e $"()*ae a& &*e $'-# (&eam e#$ ' a "ve# "ve "(
e;1e((e$ %! &*e ',,'-"# 'm/,a:
Q$ Q/ Q" Q& Q' E ΔS% 6+
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Ta%,e 6+? C*a##e, -a&e %a,a#)e '# Me5" R"ve %e&-ee# D/$a a#$ Me5" &'-# (&a&"'#(
S&a&"'#(D"()*ae m)m
Ja# Fe% Ma A1 Ma! J/# J/, A/ Se1 O)& N'v De)A##9
/a,
Me5" &'-#
Q$2+2= 2+@
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Q$
F"&e
Q/?+@ @+ +6
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F"/e 6+@ H!$'a1*( ' $"ee#& R"ve (!(&em( (*'-"# $"(&"#)& (*a1e(
A( )a# %e '%(eve$ "# &*e a%'ve *!$'a1*(. 8a&a R"ve a& F"&e a/"# (&a&"'# (*'-( *"*
"e/,a"&"e( e,e)&"# a(& e(1'#(e &' a"#a,, %e)a/(e ' *"* e,"e . ,'- 1emea%","&! ')5(
(e)&"'# 6+= a#$ ('",(7 )a/("# *"* 1'&e#&"a, ' ,''$ /#' a( e(1'#(e &' $a",!
1e)"1"&a&"'#+
Me5" R"ve *!$'a1* a( ' Me5" &'-# (&a&"'# *a( m'$ea&e "e/,a"&"e( a#$ a(& "("# ,"m%
a( )'m1ae$ &' 8a&a a& F"&e+ T*"( )a# %e e;1,a"#e$ %! &*e ee)& ' ea,! )'mme#)eme#& '
1e)"1"&a&"'# "# &*"( e"'# av'e$ %! O'a1*") ee)& ' Gaa*e M'/#&a"#(+ D/e &' ,e((
&'1'a1*") a$"e#& a#$ m'e 1emea%,e ')5( "# &*e )a&)*me#&. &*e *!$'a1* (*'-( ,e((
va"a&"'#+
T*e (*a1e ' 8a&a R"ve *!$'a1* a/e$ a& A%/a "( (m''&*7 (,'- "("# ,"m% a#$ (,'-
e)e(("'# &*a# &*e a%'ve me#&"'#e$ "ve(+ A( &*e a/"# (&a&"'# "( a& &*e ''& ' ea(&e#
e()a1me#&. a,, *"*,a#$ ,'-( a#$ &*e #'# $e"#e$ )*a##e, ,'-( $/"# &*e a"#! (ea('# "#
&*e )a&)*me#& ae e/,a&e$ %! &*e e','")a, (&/)&/e "+e '#>" Fa/,& Be,&+ T*e ee)& ' &*e
*"*,! 1emea%,e (&/)&/e "( e,e)&e$ %! ,e(( e(1'#(e ' ,'- &' $a",! 1e)"1"&a&"'#+
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M'(& 1a& ' C*/a )a&)*me#& ,"e( "# a/,& '#e a( a e(/,& ' -*")* &*e ,'- ae)&e$ %! *"*
1emea%","&! ' &*e (&/)&/e a#$ e)e#& %a(a,& ma5"# &*e *!$'a1* ,e(( e(1'#("ve &' $a",!
a"#a,, a( )'m1ae$ &' &*e '&*e "ve )a&)*me#&(+
?.. Mon'0l4 9lo:! o9 ,"%,! #! 5%,c%n'#+% o9 '0%", ,%!5%c'"% 'o'#l #nn#l $"!c0#,+%
T*e a)&/a, 1a&&e# ' ,'- $/"# &*e !ea $e1e#$( '# 1e)"1"&a&"'#. eva1'&a#(1"a&"'#. ('",
a#$ e','")a, )*aa)&e"(&")( ' &*e )a&)*me#&+ T*e ea&e &*e "#",&a&"'# "# &*e (&'ae
)a1a)"&! ' a "ve# )a&)*me#&. &*e *"* ,'- "( (/(&a"#e$ &*'/* &*e $! (ea('#(. a#$ 1ea5
,'-( a&e 1e"'$ ' *"*e(& 1e)"1"&a&"'# Ma,"#.
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a"#! (ea('# "# )'m1a"('# &' '&*e )a&)*me#&(+ I&( ,'-e 1'1'&"'# ' ,'- $/"# $! (ea('#
"( a&&"%/&e$ &' ,e(( (&'ae ' &*e ')5(+
8a&a R"ve )a&)*me#& a/e$ a& A%/a *a( ("m",a %e*av"' -"&* F"&e (&a&"'# e;)e1& "&( *"*e
1'1'&"'# ' ,'- a&e a"#! (ea('#+ A( $"()/((e$ a%'ve. &*"( "( $/e &' &*e e;"(&e#)e '
e','")a, (&/)&/e( a& ,'-e ea)* ' &*e "ve av'"# *!$a/,") )'#$/)&"v"&! a#$ (&'ae '
'/#$-a&e+
Me5" R"ve *a( *"*e 1'1'&"'# ' ,'- $/"# ea,! -e& (ea('# $/e &' )'mme#)eme#& '
1e)"1"&a&"'#. -*",e "&( a(& $e),"#e $/"# e;&eme $! (ea('# "( e,a&e$ &' ,e(( (&'ae ' ')5(
a#$ )*a##e, ,'((+
C*/a R"ve *a( e,a&"ve,! ,e(( $ev"a&"'# ' ,'- &*'/*'/& &*e !ea+ T*e *!$'e','")a,
1'("&"'# ' &*"( )a&)*me#& "+e $"()*ae '#e ' &*e e"'#a, )a&)*me#& a#$ av'a%,e
*!$'e','")a, )*aa)&e"(&")( ' ')5( "# &*e (/%9)a&)*me#& a)","&a&e (/(&a"#a%,e ,'- ' &*e
"ve+
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H!$'a1* "( a# aea&e ' (/a)e /#'. "#&e,'-. )*a##e, 1e)"1"&a&"'# a#$ %a(e ,'-+
H'-eve. ' 1a)&")a, a11,")a&"'# "& "( )/(&'ma! &' $"v"$e &*e *!$'a1* "# &' (/a)e /#'
a#$ %a(e ,'-+
T*ee ae $"ee#& me&*'$( &' (e1aa&e %a(e ,'-7 (/)* a( a1*")a,. (&a&"(&")a,. $e1,e&"'# )/ve
a#a,!("( a#$ /("# TIMEPLOT ('&-ae+ I# &*"( (&/$!. &*e ('&-ae -a( /(e$ a&e "#$e1e#$e#&
)*e)5 ' &*e e(/,& -"&* '&*e me&*'$( ' (e1aa&"'#+ Ma#! !ea(3 $a",! aveae $"()*ae(
*ave %ee# /(e$ &' )'#(&/)& *!$'a1*( %e'e (e1aa&"# %a(e,'-+
A))'$"#,!. &*e a##/a, %a(e,'- )'m1'#e#&( ' Me5". 8a&a a/e$ a& F"&e. 8a&a a/e$ a&
A%/a a#$ C*/a a& Aa&a ae 62. @6. 6? a#$ ? ' &*e" &'&a, a##/a, ,'-( e(1e)&"ve,!+
F'm &*e a%'ve va,/e(. -e )a# /#$e(&a#$ &*a& a%'/& &*ee '/&* ' C*/a "ve a##/a, ,'- "(
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"&( %a(e,'- %e)a/(e ' *"*e )'#&"%/&"'# %! a/,&(. >'"#&( a#$ %a(a,&") ')5 ' *"*
1emea%","&! "# &*e )a&)*me#&+
Ba(e,'- e)e(("'# "( e1e(e#&e$ %! &*e ',,'-"# e#ea,,! /(e$ e4/a&"'#:
Q& Q' e9α &9&' 6+2
*ee. Q& : Ba(e,'- a& &"me &
Q': Ba(e,'- a& &'me &'
α : e)e(("'# )'#(&a#&
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N' Ca&)*me#&
#ame
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F"/e 6+ Ba(e,'- )'m1'#e#&( ' ma>' "ve( "# &*e )a&)*me#&
F"/e 6+ Ba(e,'- e)e(("'# )/ve( ' ma>' "ve(
Ba(e,'- )'m1'#e#&( ' U11e 8a&a a#$ C*/a R"ve( (*'- &*e (&'ae )*aa)&e(&")( ' &*e"
)a&)*me#&+ H'-eve. %a(e,'-( ' L'-e 8a&a a#$ Me5" R"ve( ae 1a& ' &*e &'&a,
'/#$-a&e )'m1'#e#&( e()a1e$ 'm ,'((e( "# &*e" /1(&eam+ T*ee'e. &*e! $' #'& e,e)&
&*e (&'ae )*aa)&e(&")( ' &*e" )a&)*me#&+
T*e (*a1e a#$ (,'1e ' L'-e 8a&a a#$ Me5" R"ve e)e(("'# a1*( $")&a&e &*e a&e '
)*a##e, ,'((e(+ F' "#(&a#)e. &*e a1*( ' &*e(e "ve( %e)'me (&ee1e a&e m'#&*( ' O)&'%e
-*",e &*e '&*e &-' *ave e#&,e (,'1e( "/e 6++
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Ta%,e 6+ M'#&*,! %a(e,'- )'m1'#e#&( ' "ve (!(&em( m)m
Ja# Fe% Ma
A##
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< Me5"
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8a&a #ee$ *"*e a"#a,, &' 1'$/)e %a(e,'-+ T*"( "( $/e &' &*e a)& &*a& &*e! *ave ea&e
)*a#)e ' 1'$/)"# *"*e (/a)e /#' &*a# %a(e,'- $/"# *"* "#&e#("&! 1e)"1"&a&"'#
%e)a/(e ' &*e )a&)*me#& e,"e a#$ '&*e *!$'e','") (e&&"#(+
L'-e 8a&a a#$ Me5" *ave ,'- 1e)e#&ae ' %a(e,'- &' 1e)"1"&a&"'# $/e &' &*e a)& &*a& a(
-e ' $'-#(&eam &' "& ,''. &*ee "( $e)ea(e "# 1e)"1"&a&"'#. "#)ea(e "# eva1'&a#(1"a&"'#
a#$ m'e "m1'&a#&,! )*a##e, ,'(( a%'ve &*e a/"# (&a&"'#(+
CHA)TER SEVEN
LAKE WATER BALANCE
.1 T0% :#'%, #l#nc% %#'"on
a&e %a,a#)e "( &*e a11,")a&"'# ' &*e 1"#)"1,e ' )'#(eva&"'# ' ma(( "# *!$','!
UNESCO.
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Mea# m'#&*,! )*a#e "# v',/me -a( )a,)/,a&e$ 'm a)e#& a/e$ "ve(+
D/e &' $"")/,&! ' e(&"ma&"# '/#$-a&e "#,'- a#$ '/&,'-. &*e! ae &ea&e$ a( #e& ,/;
G"9G' a#$ e(&"ma&e$ a( e("$/a, ' '&*e -a&e %a,a#)e )'m1'#e#&(+
Eva1'a&"'# 'm &*e ,a5e (/a)e -a( e(&"ma&e$ %! Pe#ma# ae'$!#am") a#$ e#e! %/$e&
)'m%"#e$ me&*'$ /("# "-a! (&a&"'# ),"ma&") $a&a '
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./ L#*% :#'%, #l#nc% %!'"'"on
M'#&*,! -a&e %a,a#)e ' &*e ,a5e "( (/mma"e$ "# &*e ',,'-"# &a%,e:
Ta%,e +< M'#&*,! -a&e %a,a#)e ' &*e ,a5e
M'#&* I#,'- mm O/&,'- mm )*a#e
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Nea&"ve #e& '/#$-a&e G"9G' ,/; (*'-( &*a& &*ee "( m'e '/#$-a&e '/&,'- &*a#
"#,'- %a(e$ '# &*e ',,'-"# e,a&"'#(*"17 $e"ve$ 'm e4/a&"'# +<
C*a#e "# (&'ae S/a)e '/&,'- 9 S/a)e "#,'- G'/#$-a&e "#,'- 9 G'/#$-a&e '/&,'-
A))'$"#,!. -*e# &*e e(/,& ' &*e ,e& *a#$ ("$e e4/a&"'# "( #ea&"ve. "& (*'-( &*a& &*ee "(
m'e '/#$-a&e '/&,'- &*a# "#,'- a#$ v")e ve(a+
.3 D"!c!!"on
F'm &a%,e +< a#$ "/e +< -e )a# '%(eve &*a& m'e '/#$-a&e '/&,'- &*a# "#,'-
'))/( "# A1", a( -e,, a( %e&-ee# m"$ Ma! a#$ M"$ Se1&em%e7 a#$ ea)* ma;"m/m "#
A//(&+ Le(( '/#$-a&e '/&,'- m'e '/#$-a&e "#,'- &a5e( 1,a)e "# '&*e m'#&*(7 a#$
a&&a"# "&( ma;"m/m "# m"$ O)&'%e "+e+ e- m'#&*( a&e 1e)"1"&a&"'# )ea(e(+
I -e '%(eve "/e +
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F"/e +< M'#&*,! $"(&"%/&"'# ' '/#$-a&e ,/; G "#,'- G '/&,'-
T*e '))/e#)e ' m'e '/#$-a&e '/&,'- 've "#,'- "# A1", "( e(/,&e$ 'm &*e (1"#
a"#. $/"# -*")* &*ee ae ,e(( eva1'a&"'# a#$ a%(&a)&"'#7 a#$ m'e 1e)"1"&a&"'# a#$ "#,'-
&*a# "&( 1e)e$"# m'#&*( a( -e,, a( "# Ma!+ T*ee'e. m'e '/#$-a&e '/&,'- "( #ee$e$ &'
5ee1 &*e (!(&em a& e4/","%"/m+
CHA)TER EIGHT
ASSESSMENT OF RECENT CHANGES IN HYDROLOGIC ENVIRONMENT OF
THE CATCHMENT
.1 In',o$c'"on
I& "( %e,"eve$ &*a& &*e "#)ea(e "# a&m'(1*e") )'#)e#&a&"'# ' ee#*'/(e a(e( $/e &' */ma#
a)&"v"&"e( *a( %'/*& ),"ma&") )*a#e( 've &*e -',$+ T*e a(e( a,&e *ea& %a,a#)e( ' &*e
ea&* a#$ "m1a)& &*e e"'#a, *!$','") )!),e -"&* (/%(e4/e#& ee)& '# 4/a#&"&! a#$ 4/a,"&!
' -a&e e('/)e(+ A))'$"# &' Y'*a##"( G+ E!e(/( e& a, 200
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I# a$$"&"'#. &*ee "( a# "#)ea(e "# 1'1/,a&"'# 1e((/e )'#&"#/'/(,! "# &*e )'/#&! -*")* )'/,$
ea&,! "#,/e#)e &*e *!$','") e#v"'#me#&+ T*"( "m1a)& )a# %e "# &*e 'm ' ,a#$
"m1'veme#&( &*a& ae)& &*e %a,a#)e %e&-ee# eva1'&a#(1"a&"'#. (/a)e /#' a#$
'/#$-a&e e)*ae7 a#$ a%(&a)&"'# ' -a&e e(/,&"# "# e$/)&"'# ' '/&,'- a#$ (&'ae
)'m1'#e#&( ' -a&e %a,a#)e+
T*"( )*a1&e ')/(e( '# &*e ee)& ' ),"ma&e )*a#e a#$ */ma# a)&"v"&"e( '# *!$','! a#$
*!$'e','! ' &*e (&/$! aea+
. T0% ,%!5on!% o9 :#'%, #l#nc% co&5on%n'! 'o ,%c%n' cl"'"c c0#n+%
. .1. ),%c"5"'#'"on
I# &*"( a#a,!("(. m'#&*,! e)'$( ' B/&a>"a. A(e,a a#$ -e"*&e$ aveae ' a,,
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F"/e +2 Te#$ "# "ve !ea( m'v"# aveae 1e)"1"&a&"'#( 've &*e )a&)*me#&
.. E#5o,#'"on
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' e#e! ava",a%,e. &*e m'"(&/e )'#&e#& ' a". a#$ &*e a&e ' m'veme#& ' a" a)'(( &*e
(/a)e+ A))'$"#,!. )*a#e "# ),"ma&e ' a "ve# aea -",, ea&,! ae)& &*e a&e '
eva1'a&"'# 'm &*e (/a)e a#$ "# &/# %"#( *!$','")a, "#%a,a#)e+
C*a#e "# eva1'a&"'# ' &*e (&/$! aea -a( a((e((e$ /("# 1a# eva1'a&"'# e(&a%,"(*e$ a& B/".
"-a!. 8/,/m(a a#$ Mea' (&a&"'#(+ T*e $"(&"%/&"'# ' &*e (&a&"'# )a# e1e(e#& a,, &*e &*ee
1*!("'a1*") aea( ' &*e )a&)*me#& "+e *"*,a#$. e()a1me#& a#$ "& ,''+ T*e a((e((me#&
-a( $'#e %! )'#("$e"# "-a! a#$ Mea' (&a&"'#( $a&a a( -e,, a( %! -e"*"# a,, (&a&"'#(
$a&a 1*!("'a1*") aea -"(e a&e a1 ",,"# /("# ee(("'# a#$ )'e,a&"'# a#a,!("(+
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F"/e += Pa# Eva1'a&"'# ' "-a!. Mea' (&a&"'#( a#$ -e"*&e$ )a&)*me#& aea
F"/e +? Te#$( "# -e"*&e$ 1a# eva1'a&"'# ' &*e )a&)*me#&
I# a$$"&"'#. &e#$ "# eva1'a&"'# ' &*e ,a5e (/a)e -a( a#a,!e$ /("# Pe#ma#
)'m1/&a&"'#a, me&*'$ ' -a&e %'$! eva1'a&"'# C*a1&e &*ee+
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F"/e +@ Te#$( "# ,a5e (/a)e eva1'a&"'#
A( )a# %e (ee# 'm F"/e +=. +? a#$ +@ a%'ve. &*ee "( ("#"")a#& "#)ea(e "#
eva1'&e#(1"a&"'# 've &*e aea+
./ C0#n+%! "n :#'%, !%
I# ,"#e -"&* G've#me#&3( P've&! A,,ev"a&"'# P'am. &*ee ae #/me'/( ""a&"'#
$eve,'1me#& a)&"v"&"e( /("# a%(&a)&"'# ' -a&e 'm &*e La5e a#$ "ve( "# &*e )a&)*me#&+
./.1 L#*% :#'%, #!',#c'"on
D/e &' "&( a))e(("%","&!. av'a%,e ,')a&"'# "# e,a&"'# &' A$$"( A%a%a a#$ e(* -a&e 4/a,"&!.
La5e "-a! *a( %ee# )'#("$ee$ &*e m'(& "m1'&a#& -a&e e;1,'"&a&"'# aea "# &*e "& va,,e!
HALCRO.
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O#"'#. &'ma&'. )a%%ae. 1e11e. ('*/m. a#$ ma"e ae &*e ma>' )'1( '-# "# &*e aea+
A((/m"# 600mm aveae -a&e e4/"eme#& FAO I"a&"'#. Da"#ae a#$ Sa,"#"&! Pa1e.
' vee&a%,e( '-#
&-")e a !ea "# &*e aea+ U("# ("m",a )'m1/&a&"'#a, me&*'$( a( a%'ve a#$ a##e; ? ' )'19
-a&e e4/"eme#&. &*e &'&a, a##/a, a%(&a)&"'# 'm &*e "ve a#$ "&( &"%/&a"e( "( 6m)m+
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F"/e +6 Te#$( "# )a&)*me#& -a&e /(e 'm ,a5e a#$ "ve(
Ta%,e +< E(&"ma&e$ a%(&a)&"'# ' -a&e 'm La5e "-a!. 8a&a a#$ Me5" R"ve( m)m
Yea
S'/)e( ' a%(&a)&"'#
La5e 8a&a Me5"
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Me5" "ve $"()*ae "( *"*,! (e#("&"ve &' B/&a>"a a"#a,, &*a# -e"*&e$ )a&)*me#&
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a#$ B/&a>"a 1e)"1"&a&"'# ae 1aa,,e, $/"# &*e )'#("$ee$ 1e"'$+
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-e"*&e$ )a&)*me#& 1e)"1"&a&"'#+
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B/&a>"a 1e)"1"&a&"'#
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Q a#$ P (&a#$ ' "ve $"()*ae a#$ 1e)"1"&a&"'# e(1e)&"ve,!
F"/e +
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A,, &*e a%'ve a)&'( )'#("$ee$ "# &*"( )*a1&e 1'(e )*a#e( "# ,a5e (&'ae+ Ta%,e +2 (*'-(
&*e )'e,a&"'# %e&-ee# *!$','") 1aame&e( "# &*e )a&)*me#&+ T*e )'e,a&"'# ma&"; ),ea,!
(*'-( &*a& ,a5e ,eve, "( m'e (e#("&"ve &' )a&)*me#& -"(e *!$','! &*a# "&( ),'(e e#v"'#me#&+
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"# &*e ,a5e (/a)e+ T*e ma&"; a,(' (*'-( &*a& 8a&a a#$ Me5" R"ve( ae 1'',! )'e,a&e$ &'
,a5e ,eve, &*a# &*e! ae ' ea)* '&*e7 "#$")a&"# &*e "m1'&a#)e ' '&*e a)&'( ae)&"# &*e
,a5e (&'ae+
Ta%,e +2 C'e,a&"'# e,a&"'#(*"1 am'# ,a5e a#$ '&*e -a&e %a,a#)e )'m1'#e#&(
La5e
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'))/e#)e ' $e),"#e "# m'"(&/e a#$ a((')"a&e$ ,a5e ,eve,+ H'-eve. &*e ,eve, (*'-(
$e),"#"# &e#$ $/"# &*e 1a(& "&ee# !ea( a( $e1")&e$ "# &*e ',,'-"# "/e+
F"/e +
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F"/e +
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T*e ee)& ' ,a#$ $ea$a&"'# "# *!$','! "( ma#"e(&e$ %! "#)ea("# &*e a&e ' (/a)e
/#' a#$ eva1'a&"'#7 a#$ e$/)"# "#",&a&"'# a#$ 1e)',a&"'# &' &*e (/%(/a)e (!(&em+ T*e
ee)& ' ,a#$ $ea$a&"'# '# e)*ae -a( a#a,!e$ %! &*e )*a#e "# (/(&a"#a%","&! ' %a(e,'-
$/"# $! (ea('#( "# &*e )a&)*me#&+ F"/e +
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T*e $e),"#"# &e#$ ' '/#$-a&e e)*ae "# e)e#& !ea( "( a&&"%/&e$ %'&* &' ),"ma&e
)*a#e a#$ e;)e(("ve */ma# "#&eee#)e( "# *!$','") )!),e+ T*e a&e ' $e),"#e "# Me5"
)a&)*me#& "( *"*e &*a# "# &*e 8a&a )a&)*me#&+
. 6 W#'%, #l#nc% #n#l4!"! 9o, '0% %99%c' o9 c0#n+%! "n 04$,olo+"c co&5on%n'!
T*e (&a&"# 1'"#& ' a#! -a&e %a,a#)e e4/a&"'# "(:
I#,'- O/&,'- C*a#e "# (&'ae
T*e e4/a&"'# ' La5e "-a! -",, %e:
8 " M" P, G" E, B' A G' ΔV +
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8". M" P, ae 8a&a "#,'-. Me5" "#,'- a#$ ,a5e (/a)e 1e)"1"&a&"'# e(1e)&"ve,!7 a#$ E "( eva1'a&"'#+
F"/e +
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CHA)TER NINE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
.1 Concl!"on
T*e (&/$! aea "( ,')a&e$ "# )e#&a, E&*"'1"a e#),'(e$ %e&-ee# ,a&"&/$e ' 0203@?K &' 02@3@6K
a#$ ,'#"&/$e ' =0
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Ta%,e +< S/mma! ' 1'&e#&"a, eva1'&a#(1"a&"'# mm
Me&*'$ P*!("'a1*") aea( Ca&)*me#&(
La5e
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'm 1e)"1"&a&"'# $"e)& '/#$-a&e e)*ae -a( e(&"ma&e$ /("# ('", m'"(&/e %/$e&"#
a#$ '/#$-a&e %a,a#)e me&*'$(+
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(ma,, am'/#& +mm a& a/,& e()a1me#&(+ T*e me&*'$ a,(' "ve( 6mm a& *"*,a#$ aea(
a#$ -e"*&e$ e)*ae ' @mm ' &*e -*',e )a&)*me#&+ H'-eve. &*e me&*'$ *a( ,"m"&a&"'#
"# "&( a11,")a%","&! &' a"$ a#$ (em" a"$ ),"ma&") '#e a( -e,, a( ' *"*,! a)&/e$ aea(
-*ee &*ee "( ,e(( ('", $eve,'1me#&+ T*e '/#$-a&e %a,a#)e me&*'$ a&e $e&em"#a&"'# '
)'#("$ea%,e ,'((e( &*a& $' #'& a11ea "# a/"# (&a&"'#( e(/,&e$ "# =mm ' a##/a, e)*ae+
D/e &' "&( ,e(( ,"m"&a&"'# "# a11,")a%","&!. "& "( a" &' &a5e &*e e(/,& ' '/#$-a&e %a,a#)e
me&*'$ =mm a( a##/a, $"e)& '/#$-a&e e)*ae ' &*e )a&)*me#&+
C*aa)&e"a&"'# ' )a&)*me#& *!$'e','! /("# "ve( $"()*ae. (*'- &*a& &*e $"(&"%/&"'#
' e','")a, /#"&(. e','")a, (&/)&/e(. &'1'a1*! a#$ 1e)"1"&a&"'# )'#&', &*e "#&ea)&"'#
' '/#$-a&e a#$ (/a)e -a&e "# &*e aea+
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e,a&"'# &' &*e e,eva&"'# )'#&'/+ I# &*e *"*,a#$ aea( ' &*e )a&)*me#&. &*e e,eva&"'# ' &*e
-a&e &a%,e )'#&'/( ,"e a%'ve &*e "ve( %e$ "#$")a&"# e,/e#& )*aa)&e(&")( ' &*e "ve(+ T*e
e,eva&"'# ' Me5" R"ve "# v',)a#'9,a)/(&"#e (e$"me#& ' "& ,'' a#$ &*a& ' 8a&a a& &*e
)e#&a, a#$ /11e 1a& ' '#>" Fa/,& Be,& ,"e a%'ve &*e e,eva&"'# ' &*e )'#&'/ (*'-"#
,''("# %e*av"' ' &*e "ve(+
Ba(e,'- mea(/eme#&( *ave %ee# $'#e &' "$e#&"! &*e aea( ' e,/e#& a#$ "#,/e#& a,'# &*e
"ve( ea)* $/"# ea('#a%,! /#"#&e/1&e$ &"me "+e+ (*'& &"me a1 %e&-ee# $"()*ae
mea(/eme#&( a,'# "ve ea)*e( "# '$e &' )*aa)&e"e &*e *!$'e','") $!#am")( ' &*e
aea+ C'm1a"('# %! (ee1ae /# ' %a(e,'- mea(/eme#&(. (*'- &*a& &*e /1(&eam
$"()*ae( ' L'-e Me5" "# &*e v',)a#'9,a)/(&"#e (e$"me#& a#$ 8a&a "# &*e /11e 1a& ' &*e
Fa/,& Be,& ae ea&e &*a# &*e" e(1e)&"ve ,'-e ea)*e(+ F' "#(&a#)e &*ee "( ,'(( '
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8a&a R"ve "# &*e a/,& %e,& $/"# &*e (/ve!+ H'-eve. a%'ve &*'(e aea( a( -e,, a( "# L'-e
8a&a a#$ C*/a R"ve( &*e %a(e,'- &e#$( &' "#)ea(e $'-#(&eam+
C*a##e, ,'((e( '%(eve$ "# &*e a%'ve a((e((me#& *ave %ee# 4/a#&""e$ /("# )*a##e, -a&e
%a,a#)e a11'a)*. -*")* "( '#e ' &*e eva,/a&"'# &e)*#"4/e( ' &*e "#&ea)&"'#+ A))'$"#,!.
Me5" R"ve *a( ,'((e( ' a%'/& ?=m)m %e&-ee# D/$a a#$ Me5" &'-# (&a&"'#( "# &*e (&e&)* '
=?+25m7 -*",e &*e 8a&a R"ve ,'((e( a%'/& 6m)m -a&e a##/a,,! %e&-ee# F"&e a#$ A%/a
(&a&"'#( "# =6+25m "ve (&e&)*+
I# &*e *!$'a1* a#a,!("(. &*e (*a1e. 1e)e#& m'#&*,! ,'- 1a&&e# a#$ %a(e,'- (e1aa&"'# '
'/ "ve( "# &*e )a&)*me#& -ee )'m1ae$ &' )*aa)&e"e &*e *!$'e','! ' ea)*
)a&)*me#&+ 8a&a R"ve a& F"&e a/"# (&a&"'# (*'-( a(& e(1'#(e &' $a",! 1e)"1"&a&"'#. m'e
,'- $/"# &*e a"#! ea('# a( )'m1ae$ &' '&*e "ve )a&)*me#&(. a#$ ,'-e 1e)e#&ae '
%a(e,'- &' &'&a, a##/a, /#'+ T*e *!$'a1* ' Me5" R"ve *a( ,'-e "e/,a"&"e(. ea,!
"(e. a#$ a(& e)e(("'# $/"# $! (ea('# &*a# &*e a%'ve me#&"'#e$ "ve+ T*e *!$'a1* '
8a&a R"ve a& A%/a "( (m''&*. (*'-"# ,e(( e(1'#(e &' $a",! 1e)"1"&a&"'#. *"*e /#'
a&e "mme$"a&e e#$ ' -e& (ea('# %/& $e),"#"# a& a(&e a&e+ C*/a R"ve *a( (m''&*
*!$'a1* -"&* ,e(( va"a&"'# "# "&( ,'- &*'/*'/& &*e !ea. *"*e(& 1'1'&"'# ' %a(e,'-
a#$ ,a& e)e(("'# )/ve+ T*e(e %e*av"'( ' &*e *!$'a1*( (*'- &*a& "ve )a&)*me#&( ' &*e
aea *ave $"ee#& *!$'e','")a, )*aa)&e"(&")(+
A#a,!("( ' &*e e,a&"'#(*"1 %e&-ee# 1e)"1"&a&"'# a#$ %a(e,'- ' ma>' "ve( (*'-( &*a&
Me5". L'-e 8a&a. U11e 8a&a a#$ Me5" *ave +. +
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/,&"ma&e ,'- &' &*e ,a5e+ I# &*e m'#&* ' N'vem%e '/#$-a&e "#,'- 've '/&,'- e&(
1ea5 1'"#&+ H'-eve. $e")"& $/"# A//(& ma5e( *"*e '/& ,'- &*a# "#,'- "# &*e a##/a,
%a("(+
Ta%,e += S/mma! ' a##/a, La5e "-a! -a&e %a,a#)e
I#,'- m)m O/&,'- m)m C*a#e
La5e
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Q
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Q
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m)m
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&*e e;)e(( -a&e ,'(& $/e &' eva1'a&"'#+ S/)* &e)*#"4/e )a# *e,1 &' $eve,'1 m'e aea
/("# &*e (ame am'/#& ' -a&e+
• a&e *ave(&"# *a( &' %e 1a)&")e$ e(1e)"a,,! "# &*e ,'-,a#$ aea( -*ee &*ee "( *"*
eva1'a&"'# &*a& $e1,e&e( ava",a%,e m'"(&/e "# &*e aea( (' a( &' e$/)e a%(&a)&"'#
'm '&*e ('/)e(
• G'/#$-a&e $eve,'1me#& "( #ee$e$ ' )'mm/#"&"e( ,"v"# "# &*e $'-#(&eam ' &*e
,a5e -*' ae a)"# -a&e (/11,! 1'%,em -*e# &*e ,'- ' B/,%/,a R"ve $"m"#"(*e(+
• E")"e#& ""a&"'# /("# '/#$-a&e "( "m1'&a#& e(1e)"a,,! a& *"* e('/)e aea( ,"5e
ea(&e# a/,& e()a1me#& -*ee 8a&a R"ve ,'((e( &' (/11,eme#& e;"(&"# ()*eme( a#$
e$/)e $"e)& a%(&a)&"'# 'm (/a)e e('/)e(+
• S'", a#$ -a&e )'#(eva&"'# (*'/,$ %e 1a)&")e$ "# &*e aea7 %!: &ee 1,a#&a&"'#.
a,,'-"#. a#$ )'#&'/ am"# &' "#)ea(e '/#$-a&e e)*ae a#$ e$/)e ,a#$
$ea$a&"'# -*")* )a# 1'&e#&"a,,! %"# ,'((e( ' ava",a%,e m'"(&/e7 "#),/$"# ,a5e+
• I# '$e &' av'"$ 've a%(&a)&"'# 'm &*e ,a5e e(1e)"a,,! $/"# &*e !ea( ' ,e((
1e)"1"&a&"'# "# &*e )a&)*me#&. &*e ,a5e ,eve, (*'/,$ %e m'#"&'e$ %e'e ""a&"'#
a)&"v"&"e( "# &*e aea+
• C'mm/#"&! a-ae#e(( a#$ &a"#"# a%'/& &*e ee)& ' &*e" a)&"v"&"e( '# &*e *!$','")
e#v"'#me#& a( -e,, a( e")"e#& a#$ (/(&a"#a%,e /(e ' &*e" -a&e e('/)e(+
• F')/("# '# *"* va,/e )'1(. /("# ,"m"&e$ aea a#$ -a&e. )a# e$/)e &*e am'/#& '
a%(&a)&e$ -a&e. "#)ea(e 1'$/)&"v"&! a#$ *e#)e &*e a)*"eveme#& ' e4/"&a%,e -a&e
e('/)e $"(&"%/&"'#+
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REFERENCE@
C',e%a#$e. J+H+.
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' ,ae ,a5e( a#$ e(ev'"(+ V',+
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@=11+
S',5','v. A+A C*a1ma#. T+G+e$. e a5'. 200?+ A((e((me#& e1'& '# "-a!
A%"!a&a ,a5e (!(&em+ U#1/%","(*e$ &e)*#")a, e1'&.
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S&a&9
"'#A%/a
Ae&
a A(e,a B'5'>" B/"
B/&a"
a D"a9,/ E>e9(a,e,e
8a&a
/e#& 8e(a 8'(*e
8/,9
/m(a Me5" Mea'
Sa9
/e T'a
A%/a
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A##e; 2+ I#&ea&e$ vee&a&"'# a#$ ava",a%,e -a&e *',$"# )a1a)"&! ' $"ee#& ('", &!1e(
Vee&a&"'# '/1 S'", &e;&/e
R''&"#
$e1&* Ava",a%,e -a&e Aea
Ca1a)"&!mm H E R
S*a,,'- ''&e$ F"#e (a#$ 0+@0 @0 2< 9 9
1,a#&((1"#a)*. 1ea( "#e (a#$! ,'aam 0+@0 @ 9 9 2
%ea#( e&)+ S",&! ,'am 0+62
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Sea('#a, ET )'1 mm Sea('#a, ET )'1 mm
A,a,a
Av')a$'Ba#a#a(
Bea#(
C')'aC'ee
C'&&'#
Da&e(De)"$/'/( &ee(
F,a;
Ga"#( (ma,,
Ga1e/"&Ma"e
O", (ee$(
6009
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N'L ')a&"'#
Me5" #/)1,"&!
N' L')a&"'# UTM YUTM GLUTM YUTM
GL
a,&"&/$e
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Yea A%/a F"&e D/$a
Me5"
&'-# C*/a
#ea
Sa/e
#ea
Sa/e A$am" T/,/
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Yea Aveae Ma;+ M"#+ Yea Aveae Ma;+ M"#+
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Catchent
*eiCat.P
+atar Cat.P
,!e&a%"taira
Pan$apora-tion
(Penan
*ei +atar
1970 886 1207 ?? 1420 1484
1971 860 1026 @2 1283 1044
1972 918 1200