aligning second language learning and call
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Aligning Second Language Learning and
Computer-Assisted Language Learning: Networking the
Language Class, Tandem Learning and e-moviesSatomi Kawaguchi, University of Western Sydney, NSW, Australia
Bruno Di Biase, University of Western Sydney, NSW, Australia
Abstract: Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is fast becoming a normal part of second
language (L2) learning both inside and outside classroom thanks to advancements in communication
technology. However, technological availability, rather than pedagogical objectives, tends to dictate
the choice of CALL activities (Miyamoto 2001) in L2 learning. This paper presents three multimedial
activities introduced as part of a blended learning project in Japanese L2 and other languages at the
University of Western Sydney, aiming to align second language learning and CALL as well as gauging
learner satisfaction. These are: (a) social networking using BEBO, (b) tandem learning using MSNand (c) a short e-movie production. We will show how we align pedagogical goal and CALL activities
(Levy 2007). We also show that CALLs capabilities may, for instance, be used to enhance language
input and learner output both of which are crucial for language acquisition (c.f., Krashen 1985, Long
1996, Swain 1985). CALL can be used for real-time interaction, production and feedback. Further,
using an analysis of language produced in tandem learning activities based on Processability Theory
(PT, Pienemann 1998, Pienemann, Di Biase & Kawaguchi 2005) we address the question does CALL
activity promote language learning?. Results suggest that there are vast individual differences in
students learning outcomes. This justies close monitoring to promote overall linguistic development
e.g. by using a reliable developmental measure such as PT.
Keywords: Aligning CALL and L2 Learning Objectives, CALL, Second Language Learning, Social
Networks, Tandem Learning, Processability Theory
ENTHUSIASM FOR TECHNOLOGICAL innovation in language learning may
blur the primary aim of language learning itself (both the process and product) and
minimize or ignore the alignment of technological tools with language learning ob-
jectives. Traditional approaches to language teaching, on the other hand, tend to be
skeptical about, hence avoid, the use of innovations altogether, thus missing out on the
considerable advantages offered by available communication technologies. How to avoid
the two extremes? Further, evaluations of the use andeffects of technology tend to emphasize
student satisfaction tending to gloss over, again, language learning objectives. In reporting
on the implementation of blended learning in an intermediate Japanese L2 class at the Uni-
versity of Western Sydney (UWS) this paper argues for the importance of aligning second
language learning objectives and ComputerAssisted Language Learning (Levy& Stockwell,
2006). At the same time we argue for gauging not only learner satisfaction but also language
learning itself. So, we will illustrate a range of multimedia on-line activities and show how
they can be aligned with language learning objectives and thus enhance their potential to
support second language acquisition. We will then show (a) evaluations of students percep-
The International Journal of Learning
Volume 16, Number 10, 2009, http://www.Learning-Journal.com, ISSN 1447-9494
Common Ground, Satomi Kawaguchi, Bruno Di Biase, All Rights Reserved, Permissions:[email protected]
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tion and satisfaction on blended learning experiences and (b) how to measure language de-
velopment through one on-line activity, i.e., tandem learning.
Second Language Acquisition and CALL
The use of computer technologies in second language classrooms is moving towards norm-
alisation (Chambers& Bax, 2006). Computer assisted language learning (CALL) in second
language education enhances language input, language output and learner interaction, all of
which are crucial for language acquisition (cf. Krashen, 1985; Long, 1996; Swain, 1985).
Also, CALL canpromote learners motivation (Levy & Stockwell, 2006), autonomy (Lewis,
2005) and collaboration (Finkbeiner, 2001). In line with the Levelt (1989) Speech Processing
Model, Payne & Whitney (2002) propose that synchronous, computer-mediated communic-
ation using chat mayachieve betteroutcomes than face-to-faceactivities because the language
processing of the former, though similar, is slower. Therefore, CALL may be expected to
promote success in language learning while making the learning experience more enjoyable
and closer to learners time management needs and technological preferences.
However, when it comes to classroom situation, many educators are skeptical about the
effectiveness of computer-based activity for language learning particularly given the import-
ance of real-time interaction, oral production, and immediacy of feedback. CALL can also
be seen as a way to reduce face-to-face teaching time as well as cost. Yet, blended learning1
has many advantages. In fact, blended learning can achieve even better outcomes than ex-
clusively face-to-face learning, as we will attempt to show.
Structure of the Unit of Study Language Skills 203: Listening and
Speaking
Blended learning was recently introduced to languages units at UWS, Australia. Here, we
will focus on an intermediate level language unit of study called Language Skills 203:
listening and speaking which is an umbrella unit involving the ve languages currently
taught, namely Arabic, Chinese, Italian, Japanese and Spanish, through a one hour lecture
in English (on how to develop skills and achieve success in L2 learning) and a two and a
half hour language-specic, face-to-face, tutorial. The subject aims to promote listening and
speaking skills based on grammatical knowledge gained previously. Multimedia used in this
class was: (a) Bebo social networking; (b) tandem language learning through instant text
messaging; and (c)an e-movie project. These were utilisedgenerally as out-of-class activities
aiming at consolidating the learning objectives (both grammatical and situational) covered
in the face-to-face session each week. We will now illustrate these language activities and
show how we align activities and learning objectives. The Japanese L2 class, which used
the full range of media, will provide the focus for this illustration.
Bebo Social Networking (http://www.bebo.com/)
Bebo is a friendly website for children and adults of all ages. Though mostly used for com-
ment and chat among friends, it can also be utilized for studies. There are many social net-
1 According to the New South Wales Department of Education Blended Learning is learning which combines
online and face-to-face approaches.
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working systems such as Facebook, Myspace, LinkedIn, to name just a few. However, Bebo
was selected because of its variety of functions and capacity to handle non-alphabetic char-
acters. Bebo can handle Arabic, Chinese and Japanese texts without any difculties or text
encoding, so it was chosen because the subject taught (Languages Skills 203) comprised 5
languages, as explained earlier, with between 15 and 25 students each. Short video clips and
picture slide shows can be easily uploaded on the Bebo site, which is also relativelyprotected
from mass advertising intrusion. This is a crucial factor in choosing a social networking
system in educational contexts. We created one Bebo site per language tutorial exclusively
within the group. In order to illustrate Bebo as a L2 learning tool, part of the Japanese pages
are shown as examples in (1), (2) and (3). The screen in (1) is the tutors home page where
a photo and self introduction in Japanese are uploaded. Every student in a group has his/her
own homepage linked to everybody elses. Thus every student can view the homepage of
the tutor and his/her colleagues, send comments, and participate in quiz or opinion polls
created by others. The screen in (2) shows some video clips which the tutor uploaded as a
weekly listening quiz. Students also uploaded their own video clips as part of required tasks.The screen in (3) shows the results of one student-generated opinion poll. The table in (4)
summarises activities using various Bebo functions paired up with all four language skills
speaking, listening, writing and reading as well as real time communication skills using
on-line text chat and cultural activities such as the creation of culture-oriented quizzes.
(1) Screenshot of Bebo Homepage Showing User Prole
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(2) Screenshot of Video Clip (With Listening Quiz) on Bebo
(3) A Student-generated Opinion Poll: Which Food Do You Like Best, German, Italian or
French?
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(4) Bebo Activities and Language Skills Summary
Examples of activities using BeboLanguage skills
BlogWriting
Comments; reading friends sitesReading
Creation of video clipsSpeaking
Listening quizzes; Youtube clipsListening
On-line chat; commentsCommunicating through text
exchange and collaboration
Creation of cultural quizzesCultural understanding
Friendly peer language correctionsLanguage awareness
Next, we show how we align teaching objectives with on-line activities. Recall that Bebowas used as weekly homework to reinforce teaching objectives introduced in the in-class
lesson. The table in (5) below displays examples of weekly teaching objectives aligned with
on-line activities.
(5) Aligning Teaching Objectives with On-line Activities Using Bebo (Excerpt)
Weekly Online Homework (to be Done
in Japanese)
Topic of In-class Lesson and
Learning Objectives
Week in the
Semester
Set up your Bebo siteTalkabout yourself, your family and
friends
4
Upload your personal prole. Describe
yourself using various adjectives.Adjective inection formsInvite all your classmates as friendsJapanese word processing
Upload a video clip on your show &
tell.
Show & Tell: describe items of
sentimental value to you.
5
Listening comprehension quizzes based
on the tutors show & tell video clip.
Noun modication,adjectiveconnec-
tions.
Vocabulary of shapes, colours, pat-
terns, etc.
Upload opinion poll. Ask three ques-
tions and write the result of your opinion
Best 3 in my class
Distinguish better than~ and best
among ~.
6
poll (best and better) on your blog
site.
Blog what do you want to become in
the future? Support your plan with an
indication of your abilities
Job interview: expressing your abil-
ities
Potential form, permission and
must
10
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Friendly peer corrections of your
classmates grammatical errors on their
Express your opinion
I think~, it may be ~, you should
~
11
Bebo site (send comments to two
classmates).Upload quiz related to Japanese people,
language, culture, society, history, etc.
In Week 4, the topic of the lesson is talking about yourself, your family and friends with
a grammatical focus on adjective inections. Also, word processing using Japanese characters
is introduced. Bebo homework for this week is to set up the students Bebo site and upload
a personal prole (about yourself, your pet, family and friends) using various adjectives.
For example, a student wrote:
(verbatim)(I am short and my hair and eyes are brown. I think I am gentle and cheerful but
sometimes I am quiet and cool).
To do this task the student used various adjectives involving polite and connective forms.
In Week 5, the topic of the lesson was show and tell: describing belongings of sentimental
value to you. The grammatical focus was noun sentential modication with vocabulary of
shapes, colours, patterns and other variables. Bebo homework this week was to listen to a
teachers video clip on show and tell on Russian dolls, where she explained why she had
a sentimental attachment to them. The teachers video clip was used as comprehension
practice for the students, who were then required to upload a short video clip about their
own show & tell this week. Examples of show & tell are a dog given by a girl friend
and a soft toy grandmother made. One student showed a single-lens reex camera and some
photos in her video clip. Then she offered some information about them. She explained:
(verbatim)
(I bought this camera ve years ago when I went back to Hong Kong. I could carry
this camera with me everywhere and taking photos was fun. Here are three photos which
are photos I took when I was a high school student.)
Thus this student successfully and purposefully used various noun modications. The table
in (5) also lists Week 6, 10 and 11 activities where creation of opinion polls, blogging, and
friendly peer language corrections were selected as homework. From these examples, we
can see that teaching objectives are aligned with on-line Bebo activities each week. Data
from students work above clearly show that such activities signicantly help achieve the
weeks teaching objectives. We also used Bebo to promote cultural awareness and under-
standing. One such Bebo activity was the creation of cultural quizzes; an example taken
from one students site is shown in (6) (English translations have been added in brackets).
By both creating and answering cultural quizzes, all students in the group benet from, and
promote, cultural understanding in a fun way.
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(6) (What is Tanabata?)
1. (A letter writing your wish)
2. (A special item of clothing)
3. (The festival of the stars.)4. (A reworks festival)
There are a number of advantages and great potential in using social network platforms in
L2 teaching and learning. First, it increases motivation in students by using technologies
closer to the students lifestyle (i.e., time- and location-independent design). Second, it in-
creases students opportunity for guided, autonomous self-study. Third, it maximizes students
input (both in reading and listening) and output (speaking and writing) outside face-to-face
classes. Furthermore, it promotes collaboration among students and it provides authentic
contexts (such as opinion polls, self descriptions) while engaging students innovative, cre-
ative and/or artistic ability.
Tandem Language Learning Via Instant Messaging
Another multimedial instrument, instant text messaging through the popular MSN, was used
for tandem language learning.2
25 intermediate Japanese L2 students at UWS and 23 rst
year English L2 students at Kanda University of International Studies (KUIS), Japan, parti-
cipated in tandem learning. Tandem pairs were matched based on mutual interests. Students
engaged in three one-hour chat sessions (30 minutes in English and 30 minutes in Japanese
at each session) over a semester. Thus each student plays the role of language tutor using
his/her native language as well as the role of a language learner when using the other language.
The rst session, organized within class time, introduced students to MSNMessenger andhad them nd out about each other. The second session had students nd out about their
partners university life while for the third session students found out about their partners
culture and/or controversial current issues. Students were required to organize two chat
session times to submit reections and transcripts after each session. Students were also
asked to send their partner some language corrections and suggestions after each chat.
According to Schweinhorst (2003), tandem learning promotes bilingualism, reciprocity
and learner autonomy. Other benets include: fostering intercultural competence (Woodlin,
2003), language coaching and modeling (Brammerts & Calvert, 2003), motivation through
autonomy and fostering integrative motivation as well as cooperative learning and language
awareness (Finkbeiner, 2001). Payne and Whitney (2002) demonstrate that on-line chat can,
indirectly, improve L2 oral prociency. Chat can lead to greater learner noticing of problem-
atic L2 language than in face-to-face communication (Lai & Zhao, 2006). Our students
language development through tandem learning is presented below.
2In tandem learning a group of students learning a second language engages in a learning interaction with another
group of students who are native speakers of the language. These, in turn, are also learners of a second language
which is the native language of the rst group. So, each group is, alternatively, learning from, or teaching the other
group. In our case the groups were learners of Japanese L2 in an Australian university, and learners of English L2
in a Japanese university.
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E-movie Project
The third multimedia activity used in this unit is a group-prepared e-movie. Typically,
between four and six students formed a group to do this task. The tasks undertaken for this
project are:
1. Outline the story and its cultural relevance
2. Write a script in Japanese
3. Make a video using Windows Movie Maker or any similar program
As a rst step the students conduct an investigation of the culture they are learning about,
then choose a topic/situation, construct conversation using appropriate speech levels and -
nally, collaboratively, make a 10- to 15-minute e-movie with a theme/story behind it. Com-
ponent A and B above should be submitted halfway through the semester so that students
receive feedback in time (from peers and the tutor) and have an opportunity to improve the
story/script. Students are encouraged to use their ownL2 grammatical structures and expres-sions learned in the tutorials as much as possible. Video shooting and editing were independ-
ently organised by the students. Unsurprisingly, none of the students reported technical
problems or sought technical help from the teaching staff. The movie viewing session was
organised in the last tutorial of the semester. Among the e-movie topics used by the students
there were childrens folk stories in which cultural values and historical background are in-
tegrated. One group, after investigating childrens stories, created an e-movie titled Mo-
motaroo, about a peach boy who was found in a large peach as a baby by an old childless
couple and was raised as their child. Peach Boy fought against devils who lived in
Onigashima (the isle of devils) located to the north of Japan with some help from Japanese
native animals such as a dog, a pheasant and a monkey. The devils were defeated by them.Peach Boy brought back lots of treasures retrieved from the devils and returned them to the
people, who lived happily ever after. The devils and the treasure in this story respectively
symbolize feudal authority in Japan and tax (such as rice) unreasonably conscated by the
authorities.
Another e-movie was High School Grafti. It is a story of a teenage boy who moved to
a new high school somewhere in Japan. The story takes up a serious social problem both in
Japan and in Australia: bullying. The story tells how and why this boy was bullied by new
classmates, how the problem was ignored by his teacher, and how he overcame the problem.
The story also captures how he developed new friendships at the high school. The group
which created this e-movie conducted a thorough investigation of Japanese high school and
teenage student culture.What is particularly worth noticing about our students movie scripts was the many collo-
quial and xed expressions which they managed to incorporate, which, on reection, they
would have had little opportunity to learn or practice in exclusively face-to-face tutorial
settings. Laufer & Hulstijn (2001) propose three major factors affecting learning and retention
of new L2 words: (a) degree of need; (b) degree of search; and (c) degree of evaluation.
Regarding degree of need, it is mild when the task is introduced by the teacher, while
it is strong when the needs are created by the learners themselves. Degree of search be-
comes stronger when the student checks a word in the dictionary or asks for the meaning of
the L2 word from the teacher/native speaker (rather than the word and its meaning being
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just given unrequested by the teacher or listed in a textbook). Degree of evaluation is
higher when the student has an opportunity to compare the meaning of a L2 word with other
words such as synonyms and nds out the best word according to the context. L2 words are
best remembered and retained when the involvement load of the above three factors is
higher. As can be appreciated, writing an e-movie script requires high involvement load on
all three factors as it is designed to maximise students learning outcomes and retention of
L2 words and expressions.
Evaluation of Blended Learning
According to Miyamoto (2001), introduction of multimedia in L2 teaching and learning
should be evaluated from multiple aspects. One aspect concerns learners perceptions, such
as learner characteristics (motivation and computer orientation), usability of on-line tasks
and learner satisfaction. Evaluation on this aspect is even more important for on-line activities
than face-to-face activities as the former largely rely on the learners autonomous learning:if the evaluation by the students on this aspect is low, they simply are not engaging in these
on-line activities. Another aspect is students linguistic development. This aspect is equally
important. L2 learning through multimedia may be fun and appealing to young students, but
if the linguistic outcome is poor we cannot evaluate the on-line activities as successful L2
learning and teaching tools. Beyond these, we propose that further aspects to be evaluated
include development of cultural awareness and communication skills. As a rst step in
evaluating our blended learning project, we investigated learner perception through question-
naire and language development by analyzing transcripts of tandem language production
over the semester.
Students Perceptions
A questionnaire on blended learning experience was administered in Week 10 (towards the
end of the semester). The questionnaire consists of both Likert scale and open questions.
The graphs in (7) to (9) show results of Likert scaling questions on students perception of
CALL, their preferred learning mode (i.e., face-to-face, on-line, or blended learning) and
satisfaction level respectively. The scaling range is: 1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree,
3=neutral, 4=agree, 5=strongly agree. Students perceptions are deemed positive if the average
score is higher than (neutral) 3 and negative if it is lower than 3. Then (10) presents a
selection of open comments.
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(7) Perception of CALL
Q1 I like using computers for study
Q2 I prefer to study without computers
Q3 On-line activities helped me learn at my own pace
Q4 Using the computer helped me learn the language more effectively
(8) Preference on Learning Mode: Face-to-face, On-line, or Blended Learning?
Q1 I prefer the on-line activities
Q2 I prefer face-to-face language learning activities
Q3 I think computers should replace face-to-face teaching
Q4 I prefer a mix of face-to-face and on-line language learning activities
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(9) Satisfaction Level
Q1 I nd the on-line activities easy to do
Q2 I nd the on-line activities very useful
Q3 I nd the on-line activities motivating
Q4 At this moment I am very enthusiastic about learning this language
Q5 At this moment I am satised with my study
(10) Some Typical Open-question Answers (Verbatim) on Face-to-face/Blended Learning
liked best least
Liked leastLiked best
Feedback and correctionsTime and space management
Very difcult to receive feedback and correc-
tions, and understand it.
You could practice what you had learnt at
your own pace and as many times as you
Not being able to ask for help from your
teacher or friends.
liked, as well as being able to listen to words
or dialogues.
The ability to practice in my own time. It was
interactive so therefore more stimulating and
Technical issues
Too much time, and due to other studies
found it difcult to access theon-line compon-
ent all the time
motivating. It combined many components
from understanding to pronunciation, reading,
and writing. Can be difcult when stuck on an activity
Personally i would prefer face to face classes,
but i did enjoy how convenient it was when
it came to time
Others
It takes time to do
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It can be time-consuming, leaving less time
for study
Technical issues
That its endless and you choose how far you
want to delve into it. Nothing
They are always there to look back on.Motivation
I agreed with teachers use of technology in
encouraging L2 acquisition. It was fun, inter-
active & offered classmembers the opportun-
ity to get to know each other beyond class
environ.
It was fun, and it was a way of speaking to
classmates. This non face-to-face way of
communication reduces the need for cond-
ence, and also gives you a little more time to
think about your response, or search for newnecessary vocabulary.
Others
Enjoyed learning colloquial Japanese, espe-
cially slang, which cannot be found in the
textbook. and wanted to learn more
The Bebo site was a fun
Kills time when bored, and can practice
whenever.
The students evaluation can be summarized this way. First, regarding students perceptionof CALL, intermediate Japanese students like using the computer for study; they believe
on-line activities help them study more effectively and, crucially, at their own pace. As for
learning mode preference, our students found both on-line and face-to-face components
useful. However, they do not want the computer to replace face-to-face. Their preferred
learning mode is, unequivocally, blended learning. Students rating regarding satisfaction
level indicates that intermediate students found on-line activities easy to do and useful and
they are relatively satised with their study. It is worthwhile noting that obligatory UWS-
wide teaching evaluation administered at the end of semester revealed that, compared to
other units taught at UWS, our students rated their satisfaction level with this unit signicantly
higher than the UWS mean in all question items. The question asking whether their interest
in learning increased as a consequence of this class was rated highly positively.
Language Development
Even where satisfaction levels are high we must still ask whether (and measure what) students
have actually learnt. To do this, ve students3 text messages in the three tandem sessions
over the semester were analysed in terms of lexical and syntactic development. Lexical
3These ve students were selected for focused analysis because they completed all tandem sessions, with the same
pair student, exchanged e-mails to give feedback to their pair, thus we can more coherently and consistently trace
their language development and metalinguistic awareness.
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learning is a key component of language learning (Nation, 2001). Also, syntax is lexically
driven (Bresnan, 2001) and L2 learners syntactic structure is a crucial indicator of their
current level of language acquisition (Pienemann, 1998; Pienemann, Di Biase & Kawaguchi,
2005) evaluated through language-specic developmental measurements (cf. Kawaguchi,
2005 for Japanese L2).
(11)
(12)
Here we show the results of the ve students, Clarence, Jan, Dani, Lee and Charlie, who
participated in all three tandem sessions with the same tandem partner and completed all
required tasks. Lexical analysis shows, in (11), the number of words produced per sessionand, in (12), the cumulative word-types produced per session. All ve learners increased
the number of tokens in the second session compared to the rst session, but some of them
decreased in number in the third session. We believe that text exchanging slowed down in
speed due to task difculty in the third session (i.e., cultural and controversial issues). On
the other hand, (11) shows that all ve learners uniformly increased cumulative word type
with each session. This indicates that all learners used a number of new vocabulary items
in each session. Assignment of conversation topics for each session mighthave hada positive
effect in encouraging students to use a range of vocabulary items. However, in spite of lex-
ical growth, signicant individual differences are found in these students in the production
of types and tokens in each session. Comparing Clarence and Charlie, whose lexical produc-
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tion were the smallest and the largest respectively among the ve students, the difference in
both number of tokens and types produced is, remarkably, over 1:5.
(13) Japanese L2 Learners Sentence Patterns
Session 3Session 2Session 1
CanonicalCanonicalCanonicalClarence
CanonicalCanonical, Adverbial
clause (conditional: -ba
and tara if)
CanonicalDani
Adverbial clause (-toki
when)
Passive
sentential modication
for noun
CanonicalCanonicalCanonicalCharlie
Adverbial clause (-kara
because)
Sentential modication
for object noun
Complement clause (-to
omoimasu I think that)
Adverbial clauses (-kara
because)
Complement clauses (-to
omoimasu I think that)
Sentential modication
for noun
Adverbial clause (- toki
when)
Conditional (-tara if)
Benefactive
Conditional (-tara if)
OBJ topicalisation
Similar results are obtained with the analysis of sentence patterns produced by the same ve
Japanese L2 learners. Here we selected three students whose lexical productions are thelowest (Clarence), the middle (Dani) and the highest (Charlie), as (13) shows. Clarence
produced canonical sentences only, which is Subject-Object-Verb order in Japanese, from
Session 1 to Session 3. No other sentence patterns were produced by him. Dani, on the other
hand, showed dramatic progress. He also produced canonical sentences only in Session 1,
just like Clarence. However, by Session 2 he produced adverbial clauses and by Session 3
passive and sentential modication of the noun. Charlie was already able to produce such
sentence patterns as adverbial and complement clauses in Session 1. Yet he too produced
new structures in each session: conditional and benefactive in Session 2; sentential modic-
ation of noun and object topicalisation in Session 3. Again, we found large individual differ-
ences in terms of grammatical development. In summary, two learners (Dani and Charlie)
expanded their sentence structures from one session to the next. However, one student
(Clarence) did not develop his Japanese L2 syntax as he continued to produce only canonical
sentences through to the end of the semester. Further, Clarence produced far fewer text
messages compared to other students. This justies close monitoring of the students by the
teacher when using on-line activities.
Conclusion
While reporting on the introduction of blended learning in an intermediate L2 Japanese class
in Australia this paper demonstrates that socio-pedagogical and motivational objectives
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pursued through the introduction of new communication technologies should, crucially, be
aligned with linguistic objectives because CALL by itself may be insufcient in promoting
language development. CALL is shown to have the capacity to support the input hypothesis
(Krashen, 1985; Long, 1996) as well as the Output (Swain, 1985) and the interaction (Gass
& Mackey, 2007) hypotheses. Motivation appears to be enhanced by the autonomous
learning afforded by the new technologies. All three CALL activities introduced allow the
less condent, less procient and shy students to interact, possibly more so than face-to-face
interaction, and perhaps achieve better outcomes and greater benets. However, CALL is
not free from problems. Analysis of text production reveals enormous individual differences
in lexical and syntactic development. Results from one student show only small progress
with lexical learning and no development of syntax over the semester. This suggests that the
language teacher using CALL should monitor students performance using reliable measures.
Future research should also capture changes in students goals and motivations over the
course of their study (Levy & Stockwell, 2006) as well as changes in cultural and linguistic
awareness. We also show here that CALL is not simply a replacement of face-to-face assome teachers seem to believe, but it offers far greater opportunities than the traditional
language classroom for self-paced language production and comprehension. In face-to-face
interaction many language students aredisadvantaged by having to comprehend and produce
immediately (i.e., in a time-constrained mode) in the language they are learning. Technology
allows asynchronous interaction, which gives students time to perceive, construct andproduce
their message at their own pace. Paradoxically, many of these activities could not be enter-
tained face-to-face.
Acknowledgemnts
The Authors wish to thank the UWS Learning and Teaching Action Plan (LTAP) and the
School of Humanities and Languages for supporting the Blended Learning project on which
this paper is based.
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About the Authors
Dr. Satomi Kawaguchi
Satomi Kawaguchi teaches Japanese and second language acquisition at the University of
WesternSydney. She is also the coordinator of Honours Program in Languages andLinguist-
ics. She has published many articles on Processability Theory and language learning, partic-
ularly Japanese L2. She is interested in developing theory-practice connections in language
learning.
Dr. Bruno Di Biase
Bruno Di Biase is the Acting Head, School of Humanities and Languages, University of
Western Sydney. He teaches undergraduate and postgraduate courses in Second Language
Acquisition as well as Grammatical concepts and Italian L2. His research interests and
publications focus on language learning and theory construction in Processability Theory.
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