Introduction

Reasons Alloparental Care Occur

Benefits of Alloparental Care

Conclusions

Interest in this study derives from the altruistic indications of this behavior, since helpers seem to directly improve the survival and consequently the reproductive success of the breeding individuals, at the expense of the helper. (Gilchrist, 2007)

Researchers use a cost-benefit analysis strategy to determine why Alloparental Care and Cooperative Breeding occurs in Birds and Mammals. It is though that these phenomenon occur when there are benefits to the Alloparent, the Genetic Parent, the Offspring, or the entire Group.

ALLOPARENTAL CARE: Individuals other than the genetic parent contribute to the care of conspecific young (Wilson in Riedman, 1982)

COOPERATIVE BREEDING: Situations where more than a single parenting pair show helping behavior towards offspring (Jennions & Macdonald,

1994)

ADOPTION: Special Case

At least 3% of bird and mammal species exhibit cooperative breeding characteristics (Komdeur, 2006)

http://www.fanpop.com/spots/zebras/images/24515117/title/baby-zebra-photo

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K-Selectivity of Mammals & Birds

› Energy-Intensive Prolonged Offspring Care

Gestation & Post-Natal Cost (Riedman, 1982)

› Limited Production Output

Kin selection allows helpers to increase their fitness

indirectly (Elman et all, 1991)

Social Nature of Mammals & Birds

› Tight Kingship Bonds

› Social & Cooperative Structure

Leads to cohesive group benefits (Jennions & Macdonald, 1994)

› High-Density Breeding Colonies

Individuals have a reduced chance of mating success, so

they opt to help until conditions become more favorable (Riedman, 1982)

Animals sometimes care

for offspring, not their

own, due to lack of Kin-

Recognition (Pierotti, 1991)

The death of offspring

drive individuals to assist

family members with

offspring care (Pierotti, 1991)http://nilikutashani.wordpress.com/2010/04

/05/walvis-bay/

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INCREASED FORAGING EFFICIENCY: Group

size increases ability to catch, produce, & defend

food (Clutton-Brock, 2002)

A PLACE TO CALL HOME: Helpers stay to “pay

rent” during limited territory conditions (Gilchrist, 2007)

http://blog.simplyhike.co.uk/index.php/2011/05/kingfisher-family-

caught-on-camera/

Reciprocal Cooperation of Parents

› Breeders may exchange beneficial acts as a form of

reciprocal altruism (Clutton-Brock, 2002)

Reciprocal Cooperation of Offspring

› Offspring assist alloparent in raising his/her own

offspring (Gilchrist, 2007)

PARENTAL EXPERIENCE: Helpers gain experience raising young (Riedman, 1982)

INCREASED STATUS: Placement to succeed dominant individual

(Cockburn, 1998)

PROTECTION: Reduced predation risk

(Jennions and Macdonald, 1994)

REPRODUCTIVE BENEFITS: Breeders trade reproductive allowances for help (Gilchrist, 2007)

http://www.africatravelresource.com/africa/

guide/article-what-are-the-best-animal-

interaction-experiences-on-safari/

Brown Hyena

Birds & Mammals are able to participate in

Alloparental Care due to their Life History and

Sociality

Alloparental Care occurs when there is minimal

cost to the Alloparent, a benefit to the Alloparent,

or when the cost-benefit ratio evens out to

neutral. However, some researchers believe

mutualism may play an important role in the

evolution of cooperative behavior. (Clutton-Brock, 2002)

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Cockburn, A. Evolution of helping behavior in cooperatively breeding birds. 1998. Annual Reviews Ecological Systems. 29: 141-177.

Clutton-Brock, T. 2002. Breeding together: kin selection and mutualism in cooperative vertebrates. Science. 298: 64-68.

Emlen, S.T, Reeve, H.K., Sherman, P.W., Wrege, P.H., Ratnieks, F.L.W., Shellman-Reeve, J. 1991. Adaptive versus nonadaptive explanations of behavior: The case of alloparental helping. The American Naturalist. 138: 259-270.

Gilchrist, J.S. 2007. Cooperative behavior in cooperative breeders: costs, benefits, and communal breeding. Behavioural Processes. 76: 100-105.

Jennions, M.D. and Macdonald, D.W. 1994. Cooperatice breeding in mammals. Tree. 9: 89-93.

Komdeur, J. Variation in individual investment strategies among social animals. 2006. Ethology. 112: 729-747.

Pierotti, R. 1991. Infanticide versus adoption: An intergenerational conflict. The American Naturalist. 138: 1140-1158.

Riedman, M.L. 1982. The Evolution of alloparental care and adoption in mammals and birds. The Quarterly Riview of Biology. 57: 405-435.