alternative fuels for marine applications

Krzysztof Kołwzan & Marek Narewski - Study on Alternative Fuels for Marine Applications

1 Clean Shipping Currents Vol 1, No 3, 2012

Pilot of adopting low-emission solutions

on ship - Ship emissions and abatement technology assessment

STUDY ON ALTERNATIVE FUELS

FOR MARINE APPLICATIONS

by Krzysztof Kołwzan Marek Narewski

Polski Rejestr Statków

February 2012



CONTENTS CONTENTS .......................................................................................................................................................................... 2 1 ALTERNATIVE FUELS...................................................................................................................................... 3

New fuels in the world maritime transport industry _______________________________ 3 Ship fuel today – status _____________________________________________________ 3 World-wide bunker fuel consumption __________________________________________ 3

1.1 LOW SULFUR FUELS ...................................................................................................................................... 5 Functional Basis___________________________________________________________ 5 Background on fuels _______________________________________________________ 5 Clarification of terminology for diesel marine fuels _______________________________ 5 Literature to Chapter 1 and 1.1 _______________________________________________ 8

1.2 GAS FUELS.................................................................................................................................................................... 9 Functional basis ___________________________________________________________ 9 General__________________________________________________________________ 9 Advantages of the gas fuel___________________________________________________ 9 The regulations on LNG as fuel for propulsion of ships ___________________________ 10 General constraints and current development ___________________________________ 12 Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) _______________________________________________ 12 Compressed natural gas (CNG) ______________________________________________ 13 Predicted costs ___________________________________________________________ 16 Annex 1 ________________________________________________________________ 17 Annex 2________________________________________________________________ 20 Literature to Chapter 1.2 ___________________________________________________ 22

1.3 BIO-FUELS .................................................................................................................................................................. 23 Functional basis __________________________________________________________ 23 Production and consumption of renewable surces of energy________________________ 24 Production of vegetable oils_________________________________________________ 26 Liquid Biofuel (LBF)______________________________________________________ 26 Availability of ethanol _____________________________________________________ 27 Ethanol as fuel ___________________________________________________________ 27 General constraints and current development ___________________________________ 27 Biofuel standards _________________________________________________________ 28 Suitability of bio-fuels for shipboard application ________________________________ 29 Technological challenges___________________________________________________ 30 Biodiesel compatibility ____________________________________________________ 30 Biofuels (LBF) on ship engines ______________________________________________ 32 Available ship engines for biofuel operation ____________________________________ 32 Advantages of biodiesel fuels _______________________________________________ 33 Biofuels in the marine sector - experience______________________________________ 37 Annex 1 ________________________________________________________________ 40 Literature to Chapter 1.3 ___________________________________________________ 42



1 ALTERNATIVE FUELS

NEW FUELS IN THE WORLD MARITIME TRANSPORT INDUSTRY The Second IMO GHG Study 2009 [1] consider the market penetration potential for seven alternative fuels: (1) marine distillates; (2) heavy fuel oil; (3) LNG; (4) LPG; (5) biodiesel; (6) synthetic diesel such as FTD; and (7) other renewable fuels. When considering potential market penetration it is assumed that:

o Oil is a significant primary energy source in 2020 and 2050 (16-28% of world primary energy in 2050);

o In 2050, fossil fuels contribute from 57-82% of all primary energy; o Previous estimates range fuel consumption for shipping in 2050 from 400-810

million tonnes. - Further, it is assumed that the sulphur regulations proposed in the revised MARPOL

Annex VI are adopted and that a global 0.5% sulphur cap is applied in 2020, with the opening for alternative equivalent compliance routes.

- It is thus considered that permission to use oil-based fuels are continued, although the cost would be expected to be higher. Therefore, the move from oil-derived fuels would have to be motivated by economy.

- Since there are already binding emission targets for GHG reductions on land it is assumed that biofuels would fetch a better price there and would not be used by ships. The same situation would apply for the use of renewable energy from land.

- Natural gas is believed to be an important energy source in the future. LNG propulsion would appear attractive for Coastwise shipping (RORO and ROPAX vessels). LNG could also be particularly interesting on tank ships where fuel tank storage above deck is expected to be feasible, with limited negative impacts.

Below is briefly outlined the competitive strength of low sulphurs, LNG to traditional marine fuels there.

- Traditional marine fuels are available worldwide, but new requirements of the MARPOL Annex VI and EU related to sulphur content and introduction of strigther environmental requirement will influence of the availability and the cost level of the traditional marine fuels.

- Today large quantities of LNG are available worldwide, and the LNG market is growing. Hence, the availability of LNG will increase. The environmental properties of LNG are superior to HFO, and LNG is considered the most promising alternative fuel in the maritime segment today.

SHIP FUEL TODAY – STATUS - In international shipping today heavy fuel oil is used as the main fuel quality for

propulsion. - Auxiliary engines and operation in harbours may require use of marine gas oil (MGO) or

of marine diesel oil (MDO).

WORLD-WIDE BUNKER FUEL CONSUMPTION - Assessed in and updated greenhouse gas study report to IMO [1]. - Annual fuel consumption data were obtained from an activity-based approach. - Fuel consumption split by Coastwise/ocean-going type of operation and high level ship

categories.



The world bunker fuel consumption is shown in Tab.1

Tab.1 World wide bunker fuel consumption (2007)

Below is shown in Fig.1 fuel consumption divided by main ship categories.

Fig.1 Fuel consumption divided by main ship categories and assumed typical mode of operation

(Coastwise shipping is mainly ships < 15000 dwt, RoPax, Cruise, Service and Fishing)



1.1 LOW SULFUR FUELS

FUNCTIONAL BASIS Oil is currently the only significant energy source for deep sea and international shipping. A significant driving force would be needed to change this; hence oil-derived fuels are considered the default choice in all scenarios. Taking the revised MARPOL Annex VI into account, oil-derived marine fuels can be classified as “global distillates” and “ECA distillates”. The principal difference between these fuels is the difference in sulphur limits. The carbon content of these fuels would not be very different when measured on an energy basis.

BACKGROUND ON FUELS In the distillation processing (boiling off) of crude oil, there are four broad product fractions or categories generated: refinery gas (primarily methane, ethane and hydrogen), liquefied petroleum gas, (primarily propane and butane), gasoline, and distillate fuels. Each of these fuel categories boils at higher temperature ranges, until the oil will not boil without thermally decomposing. The nonboiling fraction is called residuum or residual oil. Distillate fuels are further subdivided into several categories for specific uses. The "lightest," or lowest temperature boiling fraction (all distillate fuels broadly overlap in boiling range) is called kerosene, and is used for commercial jet turbine engines fuels, for small heaters and for wick-fed illuminating lamps. The next fraction, used during cold weather conditions for automotive or truck fuels in "compression ignition" engines, is called "diesel" fuel. The next higher boiling fraction is used for residential heating furnaces, called "home heating oil." This same boiling range oil is also used in warmer conditions as diesel fuel for larger land-based, on- and off-road engines, such as trucks, busses, earth moving and material lifting and moving equipment, farm equipment and railroad diesel locomotives. The next, heavier fraction supplies fuel for industrial heaters and boilers. Finally, the "heaviest," or highest boiling distillate fractions are often blended with residual oil to make fuels for large steam boilers and, with fuel preheating, for very large compression ignition engines, such as ocean-going ships. Small and medium sized marine vessels use distillate fuels in several of these land-based categories, as described below.

CLARIFICATION OF TERMINOLOGY FOR DIESEL MARINE FUELS There are two basic types of marine fuels: distillate and residual. A third type of marine fuel is a mixture of these two basic types, commonly called "intermediate." Distillate fuel, as the name implies, is composed of petroleum fractions of crude oil that are separated in a refinery by a boiling process, called distillation. Residual fuel or "residuum" is the fraction that did not boil, sometimes referred to as "tar" or "petroleum pitch". Marine fuels use has the following types and grades shown in Tab. 2 [2].

Tab.2 Oil Fuel types for marine use

Fuel Type Fuel Grades Common Industry Name

Destilate DMX, DMA DMB, DMZ

Gas Oil or Marine Gas Oil Marine Diesel Oil

Intermediate IFO 180, 380 Intermediate Fuel Oil (IFO)

Residual RMA-RMK Fuel Oil or Residual Fuel Oil



To communicate effectively in a specialty field like "marine fuels" it is necessary to be clear on thedefinitions and jargon used in this industry (which is somewhat different from the fuel type names above). In the marine industry, distillate fuels are commonly called "Gas Oil" or Marine Gas Oil; residual fuels are called Marine Fuel Oil or Residual Fuel Oil; and intermediate types are called "Marine Diesel Fuel," or Intermediate Fuel Oil (IFO) what is shown in Tab.3 and 4. While the term "diesel fuel" for land based automobile and truck use is 100% distillate, in the marine industry Marine Diesel Fuel is the blend of distillate and residual oils (intermediate types). The 100% distillate type fuel in the marine industry is the Marine Gas Oil (implying by this name that it was boiled into a gas, then condensed into a liquid oil). Fuel Oil, or Residual Fuel Oil, refers to fuels that are primarily non-boiling fractions. Depending on the pressures and temperatures in refinery distillation processes, and the types of crude oils, slightly more or less gas oil that could be boiled off is left in the non-boiling fraction, creating different grades of Residual Fuel Oils. In other words, intermediate grades of fuel oil can be made directly in the distillation process or by blending with distillate. The international standard organization (ISO) list 15 different marine fuels which meet the requirements for marine fuels supplied world wide onboard ships. Out of these 15 fuels, the 4 most important marine fuels are IFO180, IFO380, MDO and MGO. These relate to the ISO grades RME180, RMG380, DMB and DMA respectively as specified in ISO 8217:2012. MDO stands for Marine Diesel Oils and MGO stands for Marine Gas Oils [2].

Tab.3 Destilate marine fuels



Tab.3 Destilate marine fuels (continued)

Tab. 4 Residual marine fuels

Table 4 Residual marine fuels (continued)



The various parts of the shipping industry - shipowners, shipbuilders and classification societies (the depositories of technical expertise in the industry) - are actively examining a number of ways to reduce ship’s emissions. In the longer term the shipping industry is also exploring a number of alternative fuel sources to help reduce emissions. Using fuels with less total fuel-cycle emissions per unit of work done, such as biofuels and natural gas are the one of four fundamental categories of options for reducing emissions from shipping. Fuels with lower emissions include biofuels and liquefied natural gas (LNG). The use of biofuels on board ships is technically possible; however, use of first-generation biofuels poses some technical challenges and could also increase the risk of loosing power (e.g. due to plugging of filters). These challenges are, nevertheless, overshadowed by limited availability and unattractive prices that make this option appear unlikely to be implemented on a large scale in the near future. However, it is believed that LNG will become economically attractive, principally for ships in regional trades within ECAs where LNG is available.

LITERATURE TO CHAPTER 1 and 1.1 1. Second IMO GHG Study 2009. 2. ISO Standard 8217:2012, 5th Edition, Revised specification of marine fuels.



1.2 GAS FUELS

FUNCTIONAL BASIS GENERAL Efforts to reduce costs and to achive maximal profits in sea transport business are carried out to counter steady increase of oil prices and petrochemical products. One of tools in that process is aimed on R&D to introduce new technologies in shipbuilding and related maritime industries. In general, development is directed on:

- high efficiency propulsion and maneuvering systems - advanced hull forms - hybrid propulsion - gas propulsion

According to the widely known international safety regulation SOLAS - nature of LNG does not comply with SOLAS which prohibits fuel with flash point of less than 60°C ( i.e. methane – 188 °C).

The following historical and technical reasons point out attention on commercial application of the gas fuel in shipping:

• LNG has been used as a marine fuel for over 40 years in LNG carriers, • LPG/VOC have been used as boiler fuel for a number of years, • Hydrogen used as fuel in submarines and some small passenger crafts, • LNG used on ferries for over 10 years, • the use of LNG as fuel is typical in land industrial applications as it have important

advantages due to the emissions requirements.

ADVANTAGES OF THE GAS FUEL Advantages of the gas fuel can be summarized as follows:

• compared to conventional fuel oil based ship fuels, liquefied gases have significant advantages with regard to environmental effects,

• environmental legislation (NOX, SOX), CO2 reduction targets and cost benefits are the key factors to make liquefied natural gas (LNG) an attractive fuel for shipping,

• in principle, LNG is available and number of bunkering points grows steadily, the import terminals in Europe are going to be prepared to export LNG,

• small scale LNG carriers to distribute LNG are existing, • with more than 20 vessels in operation the prove of safe operation has been given, • growing number of countries and companies (engines and equipment manufacturers,

shipowners, class societies) that are deeply involved in the development of technology for the next generation of gas fuelled ships ,

• important safety aspects as follows: - bunkering during normal harbour operation, - collision risk and ranking of collision consequences, - LNG storage tank design.

The IMO IGF-Code is of utmost importance to provide an international legal framework for the technology. The Code is under development and road map is available to see current and future development as presented in Fig. 2.[3].



THE REGULATIONS ON LNG AS FUEL FOR PROPULSION OF SHIPS

Actually, there is a number of published and being prepared Rules and Regulations on LNG as fuel for propulsion of seagoing and inland ships, which are presented in the Tab. 5. The crucial rule is published in SOLAS II-2 regulation 4.2.1, that limits the flashpoint of fuels to 60°C or higher. It is major reason, that LNG as fuel for ships has not been attractive for shipowners. However, last 20 years shown that due to high cost of traditional marine fuels, the rising of cost of investment in shipping hardware and resultant actual work of number of institutions, LNG has got suitable attention from safety point of view. Combined positive experience from land industries and maritime field helped to define technical standards that actually are creating formal basis for application of the LNG as marine fuel. Major standards that back up LNG application as marine fuel include:

• IMO International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk (IGC Code),

• IMO Interim Guidelines on Safety for Natural Gas Fuelled Engine Installations in Ships MSC 285(86),

• IACS Unified Requirement M59: Control Systems for Dual Fuel Diesel Engines and Safety, • Lloyd’s Register Provisional Rules for Methane Fuelled Ships LR Rules for Natural Gas

Fuelled Ships is to be approved at TC 2011 meeting and published in 2012, • Other rules like Class Societies rules that promote the use of LNG: ABS, BV, DNV, GL

PRS and NKK [2], [4].

Incoming and advanced future legislation and international technical and safety standards to be published in the “International Code of Safety for Gas-fuelled Ships” (IGF Code) – as shown in Fig.2 [2]. The IGF Code aims are as as follows:

- the Code should provide safety measures for ships using various gases as fuel, including liquefied gas tankers,

- the Code is intended to address natural gas fuel and also other gas fuel types, such as butane, hydrogen, propane,

- the Code will cover the energy conversion systems of relevance (low and high pressure ICE, gas turbines, boilers, fuel cells),

- the Code should only address issues not already covered by SOLAS and serve as an addition to SOLAS,

- the new Code should revoke the interim guidelines.

The new Code should be set into force with SOLAS 2014 ammendents. The IGF Code application is to be for all convention ships burning gas as fuel excluding gas carriers that actually are covered by IGC Code and may extend to other fuels and ships that are covered by IMO responsibility like HSC. Fuels which will be covered by the IGF Code (Status Round-01) are as follows:

• liquefied and compressed gases, • Natural Gas, Propane, Butane (i and n), Propane/Butane mixtures, • liquids, • Ethanol, Methanol.



Tab.5 The Classification Societies rules promoting the use of LNG, [2], [4]

Class Society or Flag

Administration Rules Name Year of

publishing Ship Class Notation Comments

ABS Propulsion and auxiliary systems for gas fuelled ships

May 2012 Gas Fuelled Ship – GFS

BV Safety Rules for “Gas-Fuelled Engine Installations in Ships” Design & Installation of Dual Fuel Engines using Low Pressure Gas

May 2011 June 2007

NR 529 R01 NR 481 R02

DNV Gas fuelled engine installations, Part 6, Chapter 13 - Rules for classification of ships – Ships/High speed light craft and naval surface crafts, Special equipment and systems Additional class, New buildings

Jan 2011 GAS FUELLED

Issued first in January 2001 DNV rules cover all design safety aspects - Interim guidelines have the same content

GL Guidelines for the Use of Gas as Fuel on Ships Design and Installation of Dual fuel Engines Liqefied Gas Carriers (See I-1-2, Section 16) Machinery Installations (See I-1-2, Section 2)

2010 GF BGF

LR Provisional Rules for Methane Fuelled Ships LR Rules for Natural Gas Fuelled Ships

2012

PRS Publ. 88/P - Guidelines on Safety for Natural Gas-fuelled Engine Installations in Ships

2010

RINA Gas Fuelled Ships, Rules Appendix 7 2012 Gas Fuelled Ship

Norwegian Maritime

Directorate

Draft regulations concerning gas fuelled engine installations in cargo ships

2011

Fig. 2 IMO works schedule on developing of the IGF Code [3]



GENERAL CONSTRAINTS AND CURRENT DEVELOPMENT

LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS (LNG) INTRODUCTION Due to the increase of the oil and petrochemical products prices the shipping industry started search for alternative fuels that are also price competitive comparing to typical marine fuels like MDO. After over 20 years of preparatory steps, Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) can be used as an alternative fuel in the shipping industry.

LNG-propelled ships will be particularly attractive in case the vessel will enter Emission Control Areas (ECA) since they can meet Tier III emission levels and the SOx requirements without any treatment of the exhaust gas. It is estimated that almost 70% of the world fleet will be entering ECA areas. In addition, the availability of LNG fuels in bunkering ports is a challenge which needs to be solved before LNG becomes a practical alternative. In summary, the present potential for reduction of emissions of CO2 from ships through the use of LNG is somewhat limited, since it is mainly relevant for new buildings and because, at present, LNG bunkering options are limited.

The forthcoming NOx and SOx ECAs will provide significant additional incentives for the use of LNG propulsion in short sea operations, since ECA requirements can easily be met by LNG-propelled ships. The price of LNG is presently significantly lower (25-30%) than that of distillate fuels, making an economic incentive for a move to LNG.

BACKGROUND LNG is a cryogenic fuel that is maintained at approximately -260°F (-162°C) at atmospheric pressure. The advantage of cooling and liquefying the fuel is that the volume is decreased approximately 600 times as compared to the gas. This improves the energy density significantly for LNG. As a result, when compared to diesel fuel LNG has about 2/3 as much energy on a volume basis and almost 90% as much energy on a weight basis. Unfortunately, storing cryogenic (very cold) fuels requires special insulated tanks that significantly erode much of the volume and weight advantages of LNG.

NATURAL GAS AND LNG Natural gas is consisting primarily of methane and typical composition is:

Methane Ethane Propane Butane Nitrogen 94% 4.7% 0.8% 0.2% 0.3%

The LNG fuel has a higher hydrogen-to-carbon ratio compared with oil-based fuels, which results in lower specific CO2 emissions (kg of CO2/kg of fuel). In addition, LNG is a clean fuel, containing no sulphur; this eliminates the SOX emissions and almost eliminates the emissions of particulate matter. Additionally, the NOx emissions are reduced by up to 90% due to reduced peak temperatures in the combustion process. Unfortunately, one of drawbacks of the use of LNG is so called “methane slip”, that is leading to the increase the emissions of methane (CH4), hence reducing the net global warming benefit from 25% to about 15%.



STORAGE LNG is typically stored in highly insulated, spherical, or cylindrical tanks at low pressures, (1.05 ÷ 5 bars). Fitting these tanks on a ship is quite feasible but requires some protection measures to reduce the risk of gas release due to collision with other ships or grounding. In practice, it should be expected that the volume required to store LNG will be about 3-4 more than the comparable volume of diesel. As over 20 LNG fuels ships are in operation there is already some experience that could be used in new ship designs.

SAFETY LNG as a liquid is not flammable or explosive. As with any gas it has a flammability range. This range for LNG gas is between 5 and 15 percent when mixed with air. An explosion can only occur when the gas is in an enclosed space with air, the mixture is between 5 and 15 percent, and an ignition source is present. As with any flammable substance, proper design, regulations, and personnel training are needed to maintain a safe environment. One of the main challenges for the use of LNG as a fuel for ships is to find safe and sufficient space for the on board storage of the fuel. At the same energy content, LNG has volume 1.8-time larger than diesel oil. However, the bulky pressure storage tank requires a large space, and the actual volume requirement is in the range of three times that of diesel oil. Conversion from diesel propulsion to LNG propulsion is possible, but the LNG is mainly relevant for new buildings since substantial modification of engines related piping and allocation of extra storage apacity is required.

COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS (CNG) LNG should not to be confused with CNG (compressed natural gas). CNG is another form of natural gas storage that is used widely in transportation. Typically, CNG is stored in cylindrical or spherical tanks at pressures of 210 to 280 bars. Even at these high pressures, the energy content is less than half that of LNG. The marine classification rules, discussed more below, do not allow storage of CNG below the deck. This limitation, along with a relatively lower energy density makes CNG a less desirable choice for fueling ferries. On the other hand, there is some practical experience with the use of CNG as it was tested onboard of some ships and ferries completed in 90-ties in Europe and in US. As general guidance CNG could recommended for propulsion of shipes that navigated in local shipping, not far from chain of CNG bunkering facilities.

MARITIME STANDARDS FOR NATURAL GAS At the moment, there is no clear background for quality standards for maritime LNG as in case of diesel fuels. Several manufacturers of heavy-duty natural gas industrial engines use either the methane number (MN) or motor octane number (MON) for specification of gas quality requirements. Both the MON and the MN are measures of the knock resistance of the fuel with the difference being the reference fuels used. Natural “boil off” is to have MN in around 100 and calorific value (LCV) between 33 – 35MJ/nm3. The “forced boil off” gas will have MN in range between 70 and 80. The LCV will be higher than natural boil-off gas and quite stable at around 38 – 39 MJ/nm3, [7]. The work is being carried out by ISO working groups to adapt in maritime area standards (already existing or being under development) from petroleum or gas industries. The example could be ISO 28460 standards “Petroleum and natural gas industries – Installation and equipment for liquefied natural gas - Ship-to-shore interface and port operations”. That subject needs detailed exploration and summary of standardization work will be contained in IGF Code and related classification requirements.



Safety guidelines for application of gas fuel must be considered with reference to the following issues:

1. Location of Fuel Tank(s). 2. Applicable Regulations and Standards. 3. Machinery Arrangement. 4. Bunkering requirements as defined by the shipowner. 5. Fire and Safety requirements related strongly to the ship type and the mode of operation.

Factors that influence fuel tank location

• Ship type adds complications. • SOLAS and IGC do not permit tanks below accommodation. • Volume require approx. double that for HFO. • Cryogenic nature of LNG (-163 °C).

LNG fuel installations - Hazards to be considered

• Various failure modes of piping system leading to leakage. • Fire/explosion in spaces and adjacent to spaces. • Damage or sparking due to impact. • Failure of structural integrity of containment systems. • Mechanical/control/electrical failure. • Manufacturing defects in equipment/materials. • Error in material and equipment selection.

Machinery arrangement

• Dual fuel engines /Gas engines and Diesel engines • Inherently Safe Engine Room with ESD Concept (Emergency Shut Down). • Direct drive and/or diesel Electric • Engine Room Redundancy arrangements • Machinery space ventilation with gas safety arrangements • Pipe locations for gas leak control

Fire safety

• Water Spray Systems. • Dry Powder Systems. • Gas Detection Systems. • Temperature Detection Systems. • Hazardous Areas. • Vent Locations.

Design considerations

• Regulations and Standards to Apply - Design a system under IGC Code rules. • Location of Fuel Tank(s) • Arrangements (No LNG tank under accommodation). • Machinery Arrangement • Ventilation (From engine to hazardous area) • Hazardous zoning to IEC60092-401 (No ESD Principle) • Safety system as per IGC (Shut down, fire fighting etc.) • Bunkering



• Fire and Safety

Bunkering

• Cool Down • Inerting and Gas Freeing • LNG Composition • Spill Protection • Bunkering Time • Bunkering Location

LNG supply chain for marine bunkering

• LNG can be supplied by: o Land based stations, o Tank trucks, o Coastal tankers, o Bunker barges, o Floating bunkering stations.

LNG bunkering

Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is bunkered by pressure from land based stations, tanker trucks, coastal tankers or bunker barges. Fueling ships or ferries with LNG will require a number of considerations and in principle the understanding of the similarities and the differences from handling diesel. Since LNG is a liquid it can be pumped through hoses and attached to fueling manifolds on the vessel. Fuel transfers must be handled with care by trained personnel. Spills are avoided through proper design and training, but should a spill occur it must be contained. Fuel can be bunkered directly from tank truck or from a dedicated bunkering station at the dock.

Bunkering by Tank Truck

Bunkering by tank truck is common place for LNG vessels in Norway. The PSV’s are normally bunkered by truck, since the remote quays are far from liquefaction facilities. Tank trucks today carry about 10,000 gallons per truck so this approach is most practical for smaller loads. Dock space, transportation distance from LNG storage facility, available bunkering time and other issues can make this fueling method logistically challenging if more than a few trucks are required. The truck use for ship bunkering may require the number of truck so it should be planned in advance and sufficient safety measures for safe truck use should be implemented during such operation.

Bunkering from On Shore Storage Tanks

In some cases, it may be most practical to have a large storage capacity on shore, connected by pipe to a dockside bunker station. This approach allows for a larger quantity of fuel to be transferred in a shorter period of time, making a shorter bunkering cycle more practical. It also relieves the crew from much of the logistical issues of switching tank trucks, or directing traffic. At least some ferries in Norway are using dedicated dockside bunkering facilities. Typically the LNG tanks are located several hundred yards inland from the dock, allowing them to be filled independently from the ferries normal bunkering schedule. Underground pipes carry the fuel from the shore side tanks to an elevated hose station on the dock, allowing the ferry a convenient means of getting the fuel. A streamlined operation is critical since the bunkering cycles are as short as three days.

Forthcoming means for LNG bunkering operations:



Dedicated bunkering vessels The operational experience will prompt the optimal solutions for solving the problem of LNG bunkering. The possible solutions will include:

• Bunker barges with pusher tugs, • Coastal trading LNG carriers loading at a large import terminal.

PREDICTED COSTS The cost of bulk LNG is about the same as that of residual fuel oil, and it is significantly cheaper than distillate fuels.

LNG fuelled vessels payback period; availability and cost of LNG for bunkering

• The payback period is highly dependent on the ship value and the operating profile. • Payback period for new building / retrofitting of our ongoing projects and operating ships is

in the range of 2.5 to 5 years. • LNG is currently available in many European Countries. • Most of the operating LNG fuelled ships are bunkering LNG from trucks. The forthcoming

economically viable step will be ship to ship transfer. • Some bunkering facilities are equipped with satellite storage tanks (a few hundreds of cubic

meters each). The number of factors show influence on the ship cost and pay back during the ship operation. Ship types an operational experience are key factors that determine operational As an example - Kystvakt Barentshav – 93m and 4000 t displacement multipurpose patrol and rescue vessel in Norway operate on LNF during 70-80 % of their time at sea and average cruise speed 14 knots (in from KV Barentshav (W340) captain). The LNG tank contains 234 m3 of fuel and due to hybrid propulsion the vessels are able to spend up to three weeks at sea. The size of this manual does not allow to provide full data on costs and financial benefits of the LNG fuel used for ship operations. Our intention is to direct the interested people to study the technical literature available in the web. Up to now, only few studies have been completed where final reports are released to public and results are available in the technical press or in internet as possible reference. The most interesting are:

1. Yves Bui, Machinery concepts and LNG for meeting IMO Tier III Rules, Wartsila Technical Journal, 01.2011.

2. Oskar Levander, Handy Size LNG cruise ship concept, Wartsila Technical Journal, 01.2011. 3. F. Stuer-Lauriden, Jasper B.Nielsen, Natural gas for ship propulsion in Denmark –

Possibilities for using LNG and CNG on ferry and cargo routes, Environmental Project No 1338 2010 Miljeprojekt



ANNEX 1

EXAMPLES OF DESGIN PRINCIPLES

The examples showing some details of the possible solution for the LNG fuel installation are shown below on Fig.3, 4 and 5:

Figure 3 An example of the LNG propulsion and fuel storage onboard [8].



Figure 4 An example of LNG supply line to the gas diesel engine [8]



Fig.5 An example of vertical LNG storage tanks onboard one of new ferry concept [8]

Concept outline

• Design a system using the IGC Code

• Arrangements (No LNG tank under accommodation)

• Ventilation (From engine to hazardous area)

• Hazardous zoning to IEC60092-401 (No ESD Principle)

• Safety system as per IGC (Shut down, fire fighting etc.)

Inherently safe engine room principle are as follows:

• no accommodation/cargo space above storage tank,

• vertical tanks occupy less deck space,

• vertical tanks are easily retro-fitted,

• vertical tanks commercially available off the shelf,

• vertical tanks have reduced surface area for boil off,

• in event of ventilation failure the natural air flow from Engine room is possible.



ANNEX 2 LNG FUELLED SHIPS - SELECTED PROJECT EXAMPLES

LNG Ship projects finished [9]:

According to DNV - after year 2000:

• Car and passenger ferry to Fjord1 at Fiskerstrand yard (hull 70-9), DNV • Platform Supply Vessel (PSV) to Eidesvik at Kleven yard (hull 346), DNV • Coaster to Nordnorsk Shipping at Tersan in Turkey, DNV • 2 PSV’s at STX Brevik (hull 765, 766), DNV • PSV to Olympic Shipping at STX Aukra (hull 764), DNV • Torghatten Nord at Remontova (hull B612/1,/2,/3,/4), DNV • Viking Line at STX Finland, LR • HSLC at Incat to Buquebus (hull 069), DNV

Tab. 6 Selected ships and boats that are in operation powered by natural gas (CNG) – before year 2000 [10].

Type of vessel Location Year Engine Gas Storage “Accolade II” Bulk carrier

Adelaide, Australia

1982

Dual Fuel 2 engines

CNG

“Klatawa” Car/passenger ferry, 26 cars, 146 passengers

Vancouver, Canada

1985

Dual Fuel 2 engines

CNG

“Kulleet” Car/passenger ferry 26 cars, 146 passengers

Vancouver, Canada

1988 1994

Dual Fuel 2 engines

CNG

Canal boat Amsterdam, Netherlands 1992

Dual Fuel 1 engine CNG

Canal boat Amsterdam, Netherlands 1994

Dual Fuel 1 engine CNG

Tourist boat St. Petersburg, Russia Moscow 1999 Dual Fuel

2 engines CNG

“Elisabeth River I”, Passenger ferry, 149 passengers Norfolk, Virginia, USA 1995 Gas engine

2 engines CNG



Other ongoing or planned projects are shown in Tab. 7. Table 7 Ongoing or planned projects [9], [10], [11]

Type of vessel Class Project/ Customer Engines Gas Storage

LNG Fueled RoPax Ferry 400 passangers, 2400 Lane Meters http://www.hamworthy.com/PageFiles/2164/LNGFuelledRoPaxFerry.pdf

DNV

Proj. no 3103

Wartsila 4 x 9L50DF

LNG Tanks

Design of 14,000 TEU containership to be powered by LNG 365.5 m loa vessel with a design draft of 14 m, design speed of 24 knots

BV

Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering, liner major CMA-CGM

ME-GI (MAN Electronic – Gas Injection) 2-stroke dual fuel engine

22,490 cu m LNG prismatic tank , Daewoo patent ACT-IB Aluminium Cargo Tank – IMO type B independent LNG tank with PUF(Poly-Urethane Foam) panel type insulation.

Fish feed carrier. the LNG-fueled vessel, The overall length is appr. 75 m, beam 13.6 m. Completion by STX OSV Brattvaag shipyard in Norway in the second quarter 2013, The hull of the vessel will be built at the STX OSV Tulcea shipyard in Romania. Rolls-Royce NVC-401 LNG design. The contract value is approximately NOK 200 million (about $33.6 million).

DNV "Forage Carrier" for Eidsvaag AS/ Skretting AS

RR Bergen

LNG tanks, each in its own independent compartment

LNG fuelled Car Carrier Length 143 m) will have a capacity for 2,000 automobiles and is planned to be in service by 2015 http://articles.maritimepropulsion.com/

DNV

Shipping line Kawasaki Kisen Kaisha Ltd. (K-Lines)/ Kawasaki Heavy Industries Ltd (KHI)

Kawasaki KG-12 twelve cylinder Green Gas engines each of 5MW at 720 rpm

Two LNG tanks, each in its own independent compartment.

Design of container ship, 9,000 TEU capacity, unusual twin island design to maximize available cargo space for loading containers. It has an LOA of 308 m, beam of 48 m and draft of 14.5 m.

DNV Kawasaki Heavy Industries (KHI)

Single, electronically controlled, slow speed, two stroke, dual fuel main engine and will be offered with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)

Type B, LNG storage tanks

LNG Cat - Fast ferry:Buenos Aires – Montevideo, Length - LOA 99.0 m LWL -90.5 m, Beam 26.9 m, Over 1000 passa nger and 153 cars, Delivery 2012

DNV Buquebus/INCAT

Dual fuel GE Gas Turbine LM2500 2x22MW Wartsila waterjests LJX 1720SR

Two LNG tanks: 2 x43m3



LITERATURE TO CHAPTER 1.2 1. International Maritime Organization 2009, Second IMO GHG Study; 2. Ship Classification Rules of ABS, DNV, GL and LR, 3. G.Wữrsig, Gas as ship fuel – Status of international lesgislation, GL Presentation, 4. Presentations given during meeting at DNV – LNG in shipping on the Baltic Sea, Gdynia

30.09.2011. 5. Presentations done by ABS, DNV, GL, KR, LR and RINA sourced from internet, 6. T.Koliopulos, A.Anderseon, Development of Lloyds Register Rules nad the IGF Code,

Source internet, 7. Information About The Use of LNG as Engine Fuel, CIMAC Working Group ‘Gas

Engines’, Dec 2008, 8. A.Alderson, Practical Issues for Gas Fuelled Vessels, LR Cross Country Seminar, Busan

15.06.2011, 9. Torill Grimstad Osberg, Gas fuelled engine installations in ships Background, status, safety,

some solutions - Interferry Barcelona - October 2011, www.dnv.com), 10. The Norwegian LNG Ferry, Per Magne Einang, Norwegian Marine Technology Research

Institute (MARINTEK), Konrad Magnus Haavik, Norwegian Maritime Directorate, Paper A-095 NGV 2000 YOKOHAMA,

11. Internet.



1.3 BIO-FUELS

FUNCTIONAL BASIS GENERAL

The increased awareness of human induced global warming has created an interest in using renewable energy instead of fossil fuels. Marine transport is one of the least energy intensive way of transporting goods, however, it is also one of the sectors with the fewest available alternatives to fossil fuels. To combat global warming, all industrial sectors should take measures to cut emissions; biofuels can help achieve this in marine transport. Comparison of the properties of different fuels is illustrated in Tab.8 [1].

Table 8 Comparison of the properties of different fuels

Biofuels can be defined broadly as any fuel derived from biomass. They include biodiesel, bioethanol, a product of bioethanol i.e. ethyl tertiary butyl ether (ETBE), biogas, biomethanol, biodimethylether and bio-oil.

General division of biofuels is shown in Fig. 6.

First generation biofuels covers: Biodiesel (RME), Bioethanol, ETBE, Biogas/Landfill Gas and Straight Vegetable Oils (SVO).

Second Generation (advanced) biofuels include: Biomass to Liquid (BtL), Cellulosic ethanol, BioDME/Methanol, BioSynthetic Natural Gas (BioSNG), Bio-oil/Bio-crude, Hydrocarbons from catalysis of plant sugars, Biohydrogen, Bioelectricity/CHP and Biobutanol.

Third generation biofuels include: Algal biofuels.



BIO-FUELS

FIRST GENERATION BIOFUELS

SECOND GENERATION BIOFUELS

THIRD GENERATION BIOFUELS

Biodiesel (RME), Bioethanol,

ETBE, Biogas/Landfill Gas

and Straight Vegetable Oils (SVO)

Biomass to Liquid (BtL), Cellulosic ethanol,BioDME/Methanol,

BioSynthetic Natural Gas (BioSNG),Bio-oil/Bio-crude,

Hydrocarbons from catalysis of plant sugars,Biohydrogen, Bioelectricity/CHP

and Biobutanol.

Algal biofuels.

Fig.6 General division of biofuels

PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF RENEWABLE SURCES OF ENERGY Global energy use by source in 2010 is ilustrated in Fig. 7. The renew sources of energy included biofuels represented in 2010 app.1,32 % of global energy.

Fig.7 Global energy use by source 2010 (Source BP Statistical Review 2011)



A significant increase of world etanol and biodiesel production between years 2000 and 2010 is shown in Fig. 8.

Fig.8 World biofuels production [25]

World consumption of different sources of energy is illustrated in Fig. 9. A significant increase of world renewables included biofuels is visible.

Fig.9 World consumption of different fuels [25]



The development of the of the world biodiesel market from 2005 to 2020 is shown in Fig. 10.

Fig.10 Development of the world biodiesel market [21]

PRODUCTION OF VEGETABLE OILS The production of vegetable oils is growing and production in 2006 was 100 millions tonnes. Only a small percentage of this production volume is used for biodiesel production. In 2006 the production of biodiesel reached 6.4 million tonnes. The major part of biodiesel production being in Europe in 2006, 4.9 million tonnes biodiesel were produced, which was a 54 % increase from the previous year. Nevertheless the production capacity for biodiesel in the world is much bigger. A larger demand for biodiesel will increase levels of production. Second generation biofuels made out of biomass like wood and algae-diesel will further boost production.

LIQUID BIOFUEL (LBF) - Liquid biofuel (LBF, biodiesel) is made from vegetable oil, which also can be used directly as

unprocessed fuel. The annual vegetable oil production globally is about 100 million tonnes. (Fediol 2008).

- The majority of global biodiesel production is based in the European Union which produces 5,7 million tonnes in 2007 (70-80% of world production).

- Biodiesel has been produced in industrial scale in EUcountries since early 1990’s and the last 10 years a rapid growth in production capacities is observed. As an example the production growth from 2006-2007 was 17%.

BIOETHANOL

Bioethanol is ethanol (alcohol) that is derived exclusively from the fermentation of plant starches. Though ethanol can be extracted as a by-product from a chemical reaction with ethylene and other petroleum products, these sources are not considered renewable.

When ethanol is fermented from glucose from some natural source, the result is the production bioethanol. Bioethanol is another biofuel capable of providing enough energy when burnt to be used as a fuel for transport.



Ethanol can be manufactured synthetically from petrochemical raw materials or biologically though the fermentation of sugar.

AVAILABILITY OF ETHANOL - Global fuel ethanol production grew 27.8% to 26 million tonnes of oil equivalent (920

thousand barrels daily on a volumetric basis) in 2007 is shown in Fig. 11.

- Supply growth accelerated for the third year in a row due to increases in the US and Brazil.

ETHANOL AS FUEL - Ethanol as fuel is today used as blends in gasoline in various ratios.

- No ship engines have so far been developed to run on ethanol as fuel.

- However, engine manufacturer Scania has developed a heavy duty bus engine which operates on 95% ethanol + 5% ignition improver, indicating that in a future scenario ethanol may also be made available as s ship fuel assuming that competitive prices and production volumes can be achieved.

Fig. 11 Global Etanol Production in 2007 [24]

GENERAL CONSTRAINTS AND CURRENT DEVELOPMENT Fig. 12 shown graphically correlations between percent of biodiesel and percent change in emissions on the the four pollutants (NOX, PM, HC, CO).



Fig.12 Average emission impact of biodiesel for heavy-duty highway engines [20]

BIOFUEL STANDARDS European biodiesel physical and chemical properties in accordance with standard EN-14214 is shown in Tab. 9.

Table 9 European biodiesel standard EN 14214 [23]

Tab. 10 presents physical and chemical properties of the pure Biodiesel B100 - 100% FAME (Fatty Acid Methyl Ester)



Tab.10 Biodiesel B100 properties [23]

SUITABILITY OF BIO-FUELS FOR SHIPBOARD APPLICATION Biofuels include current, “first-generation” biofuels made from sugar, starch, vegetable oil or animal fats, using conventional technology. Among these, biodiesel (i.e. Fatty Acid Methyl Esters, FAME) and vegetable oils can readily be used for ship diesel engines. In rough terms, biodiesel could substitute distillate fuels and vegetable oils could substitute residual fuels. With some biofuels, there may be certain issues such as stability during storage, acidity, lack of water-shedding, plugging of fuel filters, wax formation and more which suggest that care must be exercised in selecting the fuel and adapting the engine [3, 4, 5, 6]. Blending bio-derived fuel fractions into diesel or heavy fuel oil is also feasible, from the technical perspective; however, compatibility must be checked, as is also the case with bunker fuels. Future processes to convert biomass into liquid fuels can be designed to synthesize various fuels that are suitable for use on board ships. Currently, biofuels are significantly more expensive than oil-derived fuels [3]. This would have to change if there is to be an incentive to use these fuels on board ships. Moreover, as discussed in the future scenarios, as long as there is a demand, driven by legislation, for biofuels to be used and for carbon reductions on shore, it will be natural to preferentially use biofuels on land, where this is credited, rather than on ships. First generation biofuels Present-day biofuels (often referred to as “first-generation” biofuels”) are produced from sugar, starch, vegetable oil, or animal fats. Many of these fuels can readily be used for ship diesels with no (or minor) adaptation of the engine. Second-Generation Biofuels



Biofuel produced from residual non-food crops, non-food parts of current crops (leaves, stems), and also industry waste such as wood chips, skins and pulp from fruit pressing is sometimes referred to as “second-generation” biofuels. These fuels are considered more sustainable. The conversion process that is needed to facilitate production of second-generation biofuel on an industrial scale and economically viable is still in development. Third-Generation Biofuels Biofuels based on using algae are sometimes referred to as “third generation” biofuels. This technology is presently at an early stage of development.

TECHNOLOGICAL CHALLENGES Some technological challenges exist when converting to biofuels from petroleum based fuels. The acidity of the fuel requires the need for acid resistant material and biofuels also require careful temperature control. These technological modifications are not technically advanced operations and biofuels can thus be used in most ship engines.

Low blends of biofuels in marine diesel oil and heavy fuel oil (MDO/HFO) may be a way of implementing biofuels for ships based on the model used for automotive transport. Switching between fuels may be done without major problems to the engine; however the fuel system may need some adjustment.

The most promising biofuels for use in ships are biodiesel and crude vegetable oil, however pyrolysis oil and other biofuels may prove to be potential alternatives. The preferred choice of raw material is rape oil or soya oil, but residual oils (waste cooking oils), palm oil, sunflower oils and others can be alternatives. Biodiesel is most suitable for replacing marine distillate and vegetable oil is most suitable for replacing residual fuels.

Certain Technical Issues Depending on source, there are certain technical issues, such as stability during storage, acidity, lack of water-shedding (potentially resulting in increased biological growth in the fuel tank), plugging of filters, formation of waxes, increased engine deposits, etc., which suggest that care must be exercised in selecting the fuel and adapting the engine. Care must be exercised to avoid contamination with water, since biofuels are particularly susceptible to biofouling. Blending bio-derived fuel fractions into diesel fuel or heavy fuel oil is also feasible from the technical perspective; however, compatibility must be checked, as with bunker fuels [6, 7, 8 ]. It should be noted that, although many of the technical challenges related to biofuels may look trivial, the consequence may be engine shutdown, which may be more critical with respect to the safety of a ship than, for instance, in the case of a car or a stationary combustion source on land. First-generation biofuels can be upgraded (hydrogenated) in a refinery. In this case, the resulting fuel is of high quality and the aforementioned practical problems do not apply. This upgrading costs energy, and hence results in additional emissions.

BIODIESEL COMPATIBILITY The most common fuel is Marine Gas Oil (MGO). Biodiesel is a product similar to regular marine fuel oils. Actually, the diesel engine was originally designed for vegetable oils. Rudolf Diesel wrote in his patent application in 1912: ”The use of vegetable oils for engine fuels may seem insignificant today, but such oils may become in the course of time as important as petroleum and the coal tar products of the present time”. A comparison of different oils with HFO and MGO is illustrated in Tab. 11.



Tab.11 A comparison of oils with the most commonly used mineral fuels

In recent years, many of the biggest engine manufacturers in the world have started testing and commercial production of engines for biofuel use in stationary energy production. The subsidizing of green energy production in the EU has increased the energy production based on biofuels. Marine engines differ from these engines; however, the differences are not overwhelming. Below are presented experiences with biofuels of several marine engines manufacturers.

Wärtsilä It is interesting to note that Wärtsilä, one of the most important engine manufacturers in shipping, also has a lot of knowledge on the use of biofuels in their engines. Since the 1980s Wärtsilä have been working on alternative fuels. In 1995 rapeseed oil was tested and approved as a viable fuel for Wärtsilä engines, and the first commercial vegetable oil fuelled power plant with a Wärtsilä engine was installed in 2003 in Germany. There has been less research within the marine division, due to the economical situation of fuels for world shipping. Due to the minimum of regulation of world shipping, marine fuels are not taxed and relatively cheap. Unlike land transport there is obviously not much room for tax relief on biofuels. Wärtsilä approved for biodiesel use in M/V Bastø III, however a technical check has to be made and some converting may be necessary. The ferry M/V Bastø III is equipped with two Vasa LN32 engines.

Man Diesel MAN B&W’s experiences with biodiesel date back to 1994. Although their research has been fo-cused mainly on non-marine applications, the company has a great deal of knowledge on biofuel compatibility in their engines. They commenced research and tests on of a wide variety of biofuels in order to figure out which were most suitable. A pilot plant for biofuels with an installed power of 750 kW was delivered in 2001. Since then the company has gained a lot of know-how on how to operate low and medium speed engines using biofuels [23]. A new milestone was reached in 2007 for MANs biofuels efforts when a large 2007 cogeneration plant, employing a biofuel version of the highest powered four-stroke medium speed engine in MAN Diesel’s range, commenced operation at Mouscron in Belgium. The Belgian plant is based on an 18 cylinder configuration type 18V48/60 engine. MAN B&W has provided engines to a number of biofuel plants. For the engines used in ferries biofuels operation could also be possible, but the main obstacle for introducing biofuels is the dif-ference in price with MGO.



Caterpillar The test on Caterpillar engines running on biodiesel in a ferry in Denmark showed that biofuels could be used on ferries. However, according to Pon Power Norway the trials ended too early to allow any conclusions on potential long term effects of using biodiesel in marine engines.

Rolls Royce/Bergen Diesel Lutz Liebenberg of Rolls Royce Norway states that they have had no experience with biofuels in their marine engines, but that they are planning to give it more attention after having received sev-eral enquiries from customers. On a general basis Rolls Royce says biofuels should be well suited for use in ship engines.

BIOFUELS (LBF) ON SHIP ENGINES Below are presented conclusions from comparision of emissions on a Wärtsilä 32 engine running on heavy fuel and biofuel (palm oil)[2]: - NOX emissions are slightly higher with LBF. This result correlates with a slightly lower fuel

consumption measurement with LBF. The reason for this is possibly the rate of heat release, which is faster with LBF operation due to the presence of oxygen acting as a combustion catalyst.

- CO emissions are in the low range with both fuels. Although an increase was recorded when using LBF, in practice it has no influence since the measured values are in both cases very low. One reason for the increase may be some cold regions in the combustion chamber causing a disturbance of the combustion process.

- THC (total hydrocarbons) emissions are significantly lower with LBF operation. The reason for this is likely to be the different composition of hydrocarbons present in HFO and LBF. HFO contains more light fractions, which evaporate more easily, thus influencing the THC emissions.

- Palm oil is, for all intents and purposes, a sulphur-free product since the fuel analyses indicated that it contained less than 10 mg/kg of sulphur. The difference, therefore, to an average quality heavy fuel with a sulphur content of ~ 2.7 % m/m is tremendous, and this difference is clearly indicated in the SOX emission levels.

- Particulate matter (PM) emissions are mainly influenced by the presence of sulphur and ash constituents in the fuel. Since palm oil is almost sulphur-free and contains only small amounts of ash constituents, such as iron, phosphorus, calcium, potassium, aluminium, magnesium and sodium, it is clear that measured particulate emissions are also much lower than with HFO operation.

AVAILABLE SHIP ENGINES FOR BIOFUEL OPERATION

- Major engine manufacturers as MAN B&W, Wärtsilä, Caterpillar and Rolls Royce all claime that biofuels may be suitable for their ship engines, but so far they have limited experience.

- From a technical point of view, only minor modification of the engines components is required to run on biofuel compared to conventional fuel. Wärtsilä experience is that, it can be concluded that liquid biofuel (LBF) operation does not, to any large extent, have an effect on the condition of:

o the combustion chamber o the exhaust system o the power system including pistons, o cylinder liners, bearings, etc. o the turbocharger and charge air system.



- The reason for these excellent results is that the fuel is relatively clean and has low ash content. - Changes to the external system have been radical. It is of the utmost importance to be able to

control the fuel temperature all the way from the storage tank to the separator, the day tank, the booster unit, the engine, and back to the booster unit’s mixing tank.

- Such changes will be required for all engines types, and this will add some extra cost to the engines and fuel system.

ADVANTAGES OF BIODIESEL FUELS Biodiesel is an obvious candidate for use in marine applications. Independent tests have found that pure biodiesel is non-toxic, readily biodegradable and essentially free of sulfur and aromatics[19]. Biodiesel is:

− environmentally friendly and will not harm fish; − "user-friendly" (a noticeable change in exhaust odor, the reduction in smell and change of

odor are more palatable with engine workers, no eye irritation); − biodegradable, and as biologically derived fuels in the event of a fuel spill, there will be

a reduced impact on the local marine environment compared to a spill involving petroleum fuels.

Biodiesel: − offers more environmental benefits for research vessels and consumers using commercial

vessels, biodiesel offers a more environmentally-friendly alternative to regular diesel. Because it is non-toxic and biodegradable, consumers and researchers may pressure owners for biodiesel use, especially in sensitive or protected waterway areas.

− is the renewable, domestic fuel. Biodiesel is made from renewable fats and oils, such as vegetable oils, through a simple refining process. The by-product glycerin is used in commercial applications from toothpaste to cough syrup.

− helps speed diesel degradation when used in blends with petroleum diesel fuel. Biodiesel degrades about four times faster than petroleum diesel fuel. Also, when blended with biodiesel, the degradation rate of petroleum diesel tripled when compared to diesel alone (according to a 1995 University of Idaho test).

− can work in several marine factions. Because biodiesel can replace or blend with petroleum diesel with little or no engine modifications, it is a viable alternative to several categories of the marine industry, including: recreational boats, inland commercial and ocean-going commercial ships, research vessels, and others as coast guard fleet. Today, much of the emphasis is on recreational boats, which consume about 95 million gallons of diesel fuel annually;

− is the safe alternative. Biodiesel has a higher flash point. Biodiesel also offers low-pressure storage at ambient temperatures, handles like diesel and is safer to transport.

− has higher lubricity. Biodiesel blended at a 20 percent rate with petroleum diesel has a lower wear scar than traditional fuel. At the 20 percent blend level, biodiesel shows improved lubricity with low sulfur petroleum diesel containing high or low aromatic levels. Start-up, power, range and cold-weather performance characteristics are similar to diesel.

− even low levels of biodiesel (1-5%) with diesel fuel offer superior lubricating properties. Recent test results showed a reduction in wear scar from 0.61 mm to 0.35 mm using a 1% blend of biodiesel with the base diesel.

− has a Positive Energy Balance, although it takes fossil energy to produce and transport biofuel, Biodiesel has a very favorable energy balance, especially relative to energy-negative ethanol from corn. Biodiesel production has positive energy balance ratios ranging



from 2.5:1 (Institute for Local Self-Reliance) up to 7.4:1 in Europe, depending on oil crop and distance required to transport the raw materials.

Lubricity Properties − Biodiesel methyl esters improve the lubrication properties ("lubricity") of the diesel fuel

blend and reduced long term engine wear[17]; − Biodisel decreases the lubricity of that fuel and changed the elastomeric properties of the

fuel resulting in the shrinking of gaskets, O-rings and seals in older engines. − To avoid the mechanical wear and fuel leaks caused so many problems (e.g., expensive

rebuilds of fuel pumps) truckers, boaters and other operators of diesel engines haveto be used a variety of petroleum additives (in extreme cases, transmission fluid).

Heat Of Combustion Properties Relative to diesel oils (DO) Biodiesel has a slightly lower heat of combustion on account of its oxygen content (DO hydrocarbons are not oxygenated). However, with the added oxygen, the net combustion efficiency for the blended fuel is increased, which should compensate for the slight drop in BTU (British Thermal Units) per gallon content. The differences would be most noticed at low rpm and high engine load when the engine would most benefit from more oxygen.

Power Differences Studies conducted in the U.S. and Europe generally indicate that blends of Biodiesel and petrodiesel result in small decreases in overall power output of engines. At a 20% blend, there would probably be no noticeable difference in power output. Good performance in fuel combustion with Biodiesel and its blends resulted in a smooth running engine. The study conducted in USA indicated that using 100% Biodiesel in marine direct-injection diesel engines, with design and construction similar to the Volvo test engine, could be recommended without any significant, noticeable differences in operation, power performance and fuel usage.

Fuel Consumption Differences Biodiesels are mono-alkyl esters containing approximately 10% oxygen by weight. The oxygen improves the efficiency of combustion, but it takes up space in the blend and therefore slightly increases the apparent fuel consumption rate observed while operating an engine with Biodiesel.

Engine Seals, Gaskets and Hoses The oxygenated methyl esters of vegetable oil cause Biodiesel to have surprisingly strong solvent properties with respect to natural rubber and several soft plastics. As a result, old rubber fuel lines and some seals or gaskets on fuel tanks may slowly deteriorate in the presence of higher concentrations of Biodiesel. The best solution is to replace affected lines and gaskets with modern synthetic hoses and seals. Boaters reported minor problems with the Biodiesel if they spilled it on decks, on their engine or into their bilges. The solvent properties of the esters in Biodiesel can loosen old paint on engines or on painted surfaces in the bilge. Besides staining raw wood surfaces, the Biodiesel is particularly harmful to teak decks with polysulfide seams (use extra caution when filling tanks via deck ports). The Biodiesel could also harm rubber engine mounts if it were spilled and not cleaned up immediately. Use paper towels or absorbant pads to remove spilled Biodiesel and then clean the surfaces thoroughly with warm soapy water.



Warranties and Engine Manufacturer Endorsements Marine diesel engine manufacturers in United States, Europe and Japan have all recognized the growing role of Biodiesel as a viable fuel additive, and in most cases, as a complete alternative fuel (100%). Engine manufacturers in Europe have a long history of supporting the Biodiesel movement, and those that produce marine engines continue to endorse the alternative fuel use in their equipment. Some manufacturers warranty their marine engines for use with 100% Biodiesel for late models or for older engines retrofitted with newer synthetic hoses and gaskets that proved more resistant to the pure methyl esters over extended periods of time. Some prefer to warranty Biodiesel engines on a case by case basis. It is necessary to contact with engine manufacturer for updates on their acceptance of biodiesels blends as an acceptable fuel within the scope of their warranties.

Safety and Aesthetic Advantages Of Biodiesel Boaters can appreciate the user friendliness of handling Biodiesel in their boats. The product has no noxious odors and is considered as harmless to handle as salad oil, but always is to be encouraged safety precautions to avoid splashing it in eyes, on clothes, on boat or into the water. The product smells and feels like cooking oil.

No Noxious Fumes / No Explosive Vapors Biodiesel vegetable oil methyl esters contain no volatile organic compounds that would give rise to any poisonous or noxious fumes. The Biodiesel does not contain any aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene, xylene) or chlorinated hydrocarbons. There is no lead or sulfur to react and release harmful or corrosive gases. However, in blends with diesel oil there will continue to be significant fumes released by the benzene and other aromatics present in the petroleum fraction (80%) of the blend.

No Risk of Explosion From Vapors Since the Biodiesel has no volatile components (vapor pressure of less than 1 mm Hg) and a high flash point, the product poses no risk of explosion caused by fumes accumulated below deck. The only significant fire risk would be from the spontaneous combustion of rags and paper towels soaked in Biodiesel and stored in an area with low ventilation, or high temperatures (like the inside of an engine room).

Storage Conditions for Biodiesel Biodiesel can be stored for long periods of time in closed containers with little head space. The containers should be protected from weather, direct sunlight and low temperatures. Avoid long term storage in partially filled containers, particularly in damp locations like dock boxes. Condensation in the container can contribute to the long term deterioration of the petroleum diesel or biodiesel. Low temperatures can cause the Biodiesel to gel, but the Biodiesel will quickly liquefy again as it warms up. In cold weather (near or below freezing), additives can be used to prevent gelation.

Fuel tanks should be kept as filled as possible (regardless of whether they contain Biodiesel), particularly during rainy winter months or periods of inactivity, to minimize the condensation of moisture. Condensed moisture accumulates as water in the bottom of tank and can contribute to the corrosion of metal fuel tanks, especially with petroleum diesel that also contains sulfur. The condensed water in the fuel tank can also support the growth of bacteria and mold that use the diesel and Biodiesel hydrocarbons as a food source.



As mentioned earlier, the addition of Biodiesel to a dirty fuel tank can accelerate the release of accumulated slime. When the boat is then used after sitting idle for a long period of time, the newly suspended sediment can accumulate and potentially clog the fuel filters. We urge all boaters to check their fuel filters often and be prepared to change them after they introduce Biodiesel to an older fuel tank that may have accumulated slime and sediment.

Lower Impact on Marine Environment Water pollution should also be reduced by using Biodiesel in boat engines since there will be more efficient burning of the fuel mixture, less carbon (soot) accumulation and particulate (smoke) emissions. Faster starting and smoother operation also should reduce the discharge of unburned fuel. Any accidental discharges of small amounts of Biodiesel should have relatively little impact on the environment compared to petroleum diesel, which contains more toxic and more water-soluble aromatics. Nonetheless, the methyl esters could still cause harm.

Spills of Biodiesel Can Still Harm the Environment For the boating environment, Biodiesel should have less impact to aquatic and marine organisms than petroleum diesel if accidentally spilled or inadvertently discharged over the side. However, spills of animal fats and vegetable oils are considered as harmful to the environment. Spilling Biodiesel into the water would be as illegal as discharging oil fuels overboard. It is recommend that the Biodiesel always be handled like any other fuel to avoid contamination of marine environment.

Emissions Reductions with Biodiesel

SOX and PM Since Biodiesel is made entirely from vegetable oil, it does not contain any sulfur, aromatic hydrocarbons, metals or crude oil residues. Biofuels are sulphur-free, thus the use of biofuels will remove the SO2 problem from shipping.The absence of sulfur means a reduction in the formation of acid rain by sulfate emissions which generate sulfuric acid in our atmosphere. The reduced sulfur in the blend will also decrease the levels of corrosive sulfuric acid accumulating in the engine crankcase oil over time. Also the emissions of particulate matter (PM) will be significantly reduced resulting in a reduced health risk.

NOX

NOx-emissions may increase slightly though the technology is available to deal with this problem. Carcinogenic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons emissions are reduced so are the emission of Carbon Monoxide emissions. Use of biofuels has in certain cases resulted in a 7% to 10% increase in the NOx emissions; however, the effect of NOX could be different if the engine was optimized (e.g., fuel injection rate and timing) for biofuel in these cases.

CO2 Only renewable CO2 will be emitted during combustion, and even though there are some greenhouse gas emissions during production of the biofuel, the climate change gas reductions will be substantial when changing from fossil fuels to biofuels. The net benefits on emissions of CO2 differ among different types of biofuels. Not all biofuels have a CO2 benefit [9, 18].The benefit is related to how the fuel is produced; hence the CO2 benefit is not necessarily a function of the type of fuel alone. Biofuels have different combustion characteristics than traditional diesel.



Carbon Monoxide Emissions Carbon monoxide gas is a toxic byproduct of all hydrocarbon combustion that is also reduced by increasing the oxygen content of the fuel. More complete oxidation of the fuel results in more complete combustion to carbon dioxide rather than leading to the formation of carbon monoxide.

BIOFUELS IN THE MARINE SECTOR - EXPERIENCE Although not currently used commercially in any part of the world, there have been a limited number of projects using biofuels in ships. For example in the Great Lakes Region in USA there have been a number of successful projects with biofuels. These and more projects demonstrate that existing engines can be modified to operate on biofuels. These and more projects demonstrate that existing engines can be modified to operate on biofuels [14].

The evidence suggests that biofuels are only used on a limited basis within the marine sector. however, we have identified some projects where biofuels have been tested. Both the short and long term effects of operating biofuels on machinery have been examined.Interestingly, a great number of projects involving biofuels in marine vessels have been conducted in the region of the Great Lakes in North America. Most of these projects are triggered by a need to reduce local emissions such as smog and sulphur emissions and are focussed on smaller recreational boats. A summary comprising various biofuel-projects is given below in the table below:

Table 12 A summary comprising various biofuel-projects [14]

Date of project

start

Focus on Type

of biodiesel

Final conclusions

Great Lakes Biodiesel Market Development Program

1998 - biodiesel in recreational boats within the Great Lakes

- study aimed to explore how a regional biodiesel distribution net could be developed

soya biodiesel

1.biodiesel may very well replace fossil fuels in recreational boat engines;

2. It also stated that if biodiesel became price-competitive with fossil fuels, some retailers would start selling it.

Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory (GLERL)

1998+7 years

research on ships to run on biodiesel to complete the objective of petroleum-free vessels. reducing NOx-emissions, monitoring long-term effects of using biodiesel and also the possible use of ethanol in small recreational boats

soya based biodiesel

1. has been successful in switching from petroleum fuels to biofuels

2. onboard mechanical and hydraulic systems have been converted to run on vegetable oils

Great Lakes Maritime Research Institute 2006 Determining the technical and

economic viability of using biodiesel in marine vessels. In addition, the study claims that new engines are often are biodiesel compatible but that the Equipment Manufacturer should be consulted before use.

soya biodiesel

Technically the study addressed some potential problems concerning the use of biodiesel in marine vessels: - tendency for biodiesel, acts as a solvent, to

soften and degrade certain rubber and elastomer compounds (in older engines) – switching to system components with.synthetic hoses and seals could resolve these issues;

- biodiesel could potentially remove deposits left in the fuel system by petroleum diesel which could then clog filters. Filters should



thus be checked and cleaned – low blends of biodiesel was said to be observed without any fuel system degradation

Annis Water Research Institute 2003 1. Cummins engine and a Detroit

diesel engine 2. Reduce the damage to the local

environment and the problems of exposing passengers to the diesel exhaust.

3. Biodiesel compatibility in two research ships on Lake Michigan.

soya biodiesel

- Using biofdiesel B20 would involve a minor risk only for the engine.

- During the conducted tests no damage to machinery was noted

BioMer Canada 2004 1.Test the use of pure biodiesel (B100)

as an alternative fuel to tour boats of various sizes; 2. Assess the economic viability and benefits of biodiesel in the routine operations of the marine industry; 4. Measure the environmental impact

of biodiesel.

biodiesel made from offal and waste cooking oils

Impact of biodiesel on: - diference in engine performance (2,3% to

3,3%); - fuel consumption (from -1,8& to 3,3%) : recommendations are summarized: • to reduce release of build-up due to the Biodiesel’s solvent effects it is necessary to thoroughly clean onboard and dockside fuel tanks before switching from petroleum fuels to biofuels. If the cleaning of storage tanks prior to the fuel switch is not possible, schedule additional fuel filter changes, • tune diesel engines e.g. by adjusting injection timing and duration, to optimize efficiency and performance before any use of B100. Note that after such tuning, the engine must run on B100 exclusively and should be readjusted before returning to petrodiesel.

Biodiesel in recreational boats (UK) 2003 The positive and negative sides with

regards to the introduction and use of biodiesel in recreational boats in the United Kingdom

Rapeseed based biodiesel (RME)

- Fuelling recreational boats in UK with biodiesel could be feasible if rapeseed cultivation reached a certain level.

- The study claims the most obvious obstacle to using biodiesel is the price of biodiesel compared to that of fossil fuels.

Earthrace 2008 65 days with a boat fuelled by 100%

biodiesel, two Cummins Mercruiser engines, both with a power output of 350 kW

biodiesel It has not been possible to obtain information about how the engine and fuel system of the Earthrace boat were adapted in order to use biodiesel.

RCCL Caribbean-based cruise ships, biodiesel

in gas turbines GE LM2500. RCCL started out with 5% blends and eventually fuelled the turbines with a 100 % biodiesel.

Biodiesel

RCCL tabled a report in favour of biodiesel which also stated that reduced soot emissions in the fuel system along with the obvious positive effects on the environment RCCL is signalling biodiesel availability as the main challenge with regards to an increased use of biodiesel.

BVEnergi 2007 - biofuel for use in a luxury yacht

with two MAN diesel 1300 hp (975 kW) engines

- running on biodiesel all summer without any engine or fuel system modifications prior to testing

biodiesel - Change fuel filters often when switching from MDO to biodiesel.

- Cleaning fuel tanks prior to using biodiesel.



The Latest Biofuels Application FINLAND – spring 2012 [15]. The 4,350 dwt Aura II has incorporates a more sophisticated diesel-electric powering and propulsion system allowing operation on biofuel. She employing the double-acting mode to enable propulsion astern or ahead in ice, and installed with three Wärtsilä 6L20 main gensets capable of running on various types of liquid bio-fuels (LBF) as well as marine diesel oil. The nascent vessel will be the first dry cargo ship in the Baltic to be equipped with a double-acting system, and it is also claimed that she will be the first commercial trader in Europe intended for continuous operation on LBF. The fuel is produced at the shipowner’s process refinery in Uusikaupunki, on Finland’s southwest coast. MDO will be the back-up fuel. Biofuels are more expensive than fossil fuels, calculations show that a typical supply ship for the Norwegian petroleum industry using MDO will almost double its fuel expenses when changing to biodiesel. Carbon dioxide-taxes could however increase in the future and by using lower priced biofuels, such as pyrolysis-oils, the price gap could be significantly reduced.

Extra Costs

Increasing production of biofuels grown on agricultural land will have an impact on the price of agriculture products, such as food. However, the increase in food prices is not expected to be dramatic. It is estimated, that even with the foreseen increase in use of biofuels, the overall prices on food will have a more moderate development than the average cost on other products. It is also important to bear in mind, that this increase comes after almost 40 years of a steady decrease in prices of agricultural products on the world market.

Some countries, both poor and rich, will benefit from an increase in food prices whilst others will loose. This is dependant upon on how much food these countries import and what proportion of the exports are made up of agricultural products. Biofuels also open up new opportunities for many poor countries, both to become less reliant upon imported oil and to produce an agriculture product which will have an almost permanent demand from the rest of the world.

However as development on new biofuels technologies evolve, biofuels that not affect foodprice at all will be available. For instance biofuels produced from agricultural waste and from residues from the forest industry will be available[14]. In summary, the present potential for reducing emissions of CO2 from shipping through the use of biofuels is limited. This is caused not only by technology issues but by cost, by lack of availability and by other factors related to the production of biofuels and their use. Additionally, the biofuels are, at present, significantly more expensive than petroleum fuels. First-generation biofuels have been criticized for diverting food away from the human food chain, leading to food shortages and higher prices. Additional issues relate to deforestation, soil erosion, impact on water resources and more. Sustainability issues related to biofuels are discussed in the UN-Energy paper “Sustainable Biofuels: a framework for decision makers” [11].

The final conclusions:

.1 the use of biofuels in marine engines represents no operational problems, provided the engines and the fuel treatment systems are prepared for such operation if and as required;

.2 the greatest barrier today to use biofuels in ships is the substantial price gap between fossil fuels and biofuels; and

.3 a significant use of biofuels in the future depends therefore of closing the price gap as well as ensuring adequate supplies of appropriate biofuels to this industry.



ANNEX 1 BIODIESEL USAGE CHECKLIST [22] Basic Terminology: Biodiesel is the pure, or 100 percent, biodiesel fuel. It is referred to as B100 or “neat” biodiesel. A biodiesel blend is pure biodiesel blended with petrodiesel. Biodiesel blends are referred to as Bxx. The xx indicates the amount of biodiesel in the blend (i.e., a B20 blend is 20 percent by volume biodiesel and 80 percent by volume petrodiesel ).

Ensure the biodiesel and biodiesel blends meet the ASTM specifications. (B100 – ASTM D6751; B6-B20 – ASTM D7467; B5 – ASTM D975). The specification for biodiesel is designed to ensure that consumers will not experience operational problems from the fuel’s use. Make sure that biodiesel meets this specification and that the fuel supplier will warrant this fact. Quality fuel will provide the consumer with improved air quality and enhanced operability. Purchase fuel only from a reputable source.

Monitor fuel filters on the vehicles and in the delivery system upon initial biodiesel use, and change them as necessary.

Biodiesel and biodiesel blends have excellent solvent properties. Over time, petrodiesel can leave deposits in fuel lines, tanks, and delivery systems. The use of biodiesel can dissolve this sediment and result in the need to change filters more frequently when first using biodiesel. More frequent filter changes may be needed until the system has been cleared of the deposits left by the petrodiesel, usually one to two loads of fuel, then filter changes should occur at normal preventative maintenance intervals. Depending upon the deposit formation in your storage tanks, it may be wise to have storage/delivery tanks cleaned prior to using a B20 or higher blend.

Be aware of biodiesel's cold weather properties and take precautions as with #2 petrodiesel use in cold weather.

A 20 percent blend of biodiesel with petrodiesel usually raises the cold weather properties 3 to 10° F (pour point, cloud point, cold filter plugging point). In most cases, this has not been an issue. Twenty percent biodiesel blends have been used in the upper Wisconsin area and in Iowa during -25° F weather without issues. Solutions to biodiesel winter operability problems are the same solutions used with conventional #2 petrodiesel (use a pour point depressant, blend with #1diesel, use engine block or fuel filter heaters on the engine, store the vehicles near or in a building, etc.). Check with your supplier to make sure the biodiesel used is appropriate for your climate conditions. For more information on cold weather use, see www.biodiesel.org/cold/ and www.biodiesel.org/pdf_files/fuelfactsheets/Cold%20Flow.pdf.

Use stored biodiesel within six months. All fuels, including petrodiesel, have a shelf life. This is also true with biodiesel and biodiesel blends. Industry experts recommend that biodiesel be used within six months of purchase to ensure that the quality of the fuel is maintained. If the biodiesel blends are to be used in applications where fuel can remain in the vehicle or equipment tanks for extended periods of time, fleet managers should consider using a fuel stabilizer.

Be aware of biodiesel's compatibility with engine components. The switch to low sulfur diesel fuel has caused most OEMs to switch to components suitable for use with biodiesel, but users should contact their OEM for specific information. In general, pure biodiesel will soften and degrade certain types of elastomers and natural rubber compounds over time. Using high percent blends can impact fuel system components (primarily fuel hoses and fuel pump seals), that contain elastomer compounds incompatible with biodiesel. Manufacturers recommend that natural or butyl rubbers not be allowed to come in contact with pure biodiesel. Blends of B20 or lower have not exhibited elastomer degradation and need no changes. If a fuel system does contain these materials and users wish to fuel with blends over B20, replacement with



compatible elastomers is recommended. For additional information, see www.biodiesel.org/pdf_files/fuelfactsheets/Materials_Compatibility.pdf.

Store biodiesel or biodiesel blended soaked rags in a safety can to avoid spontaneous combustion.

Biodiesel soaked rags should be stored in a safety can or dried individually to avoid the potential for spontaneous combustion. Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils or animal fats that can oxidize and degrade over time. This oxidizing process can produce heat. In some environments a pile of oil-soaked rags can develop enough heat to result in a spontaneous fire.



LITERATURE TO CHAPTER 1.3 1. International Maritime Organization 2009, Second IMO GHG Study; 2. Cometitive strenght of LNG, The MAGALOG Project, LNG-fueled shipping in the Baltic

Sea, Jörg Sträussler, 2009; 3. Longva, T., Eide, M.S. and Skjong, R. 2009. “A cost–benefit approach to determining a

required CO2 index for future ship designs”. Submitted to Environmental Science & Policy. 4. Vallentin, D. 2008. “Driving forces and barriers in the development and implementation of

coal-to-liquids (CtL) technologies in Germany”. Energy Policy, 36(6); 2030–2043. 5. Einang, P.M., “Gas-fuelled ships”. CIMAC paper 261; Proceedings of the 25th CIMAC

World Congress on Combustion Engine Technology,1 Vienna, Austria, 21–24 May 2007; 6. Opdal, O.A. and Fjell Hojem, J. “Biofuels in ships: A project report and feasibility study

into the use of biofuels in the Norwegian domestic fleet”, ZERO report 18 December 2007; 7. Ollus, R. and Juoperi, K. 2007. “Alternative fuels experiences for medium-speed diesel

engines”. CIMAC paper 234; Proceedings of the 25th CIMAC World Congress on Combustion Engine Technology, Vienna, Austria, 21–24 May 2007;

8. Matsuzaki, S. 2004. “The application of the waste oil as a bio-fuel in a high-speed diesel engine”. Proceedings of the 24th CIMAC World Congress on Combustion Engine Technology, Kyoto, Japan, 7–11 June 2004;

9. “Energy and greenhouse gas balance of biofuels for Europe – an update”. CONCAWE Ad Hoc Group on Alternative Fuels. Brussels. 2002;

10. http://www.concawe.org/DocShareNoFrame/docs/1/LDHHJOAAEHLEHNCOKCFLBMBEPDBY9DBYW69DW3571KM/CEnet/docs/DLS/2002-00213-01-E.pdf;

11. UN-Energy. “Sustainable Biofuels: a framework for decision makers”, April 2007, http://esa.un.org/un-energy/pdf/susdev.Biofuels.FAO.pdf;

12. UN Energy, FAO and UNEP, Overview, A Decision Support Tool for Sustainable Bioenergy, http://www.un-energy.org/sites/default/files/share/une/overview_report_biofuels.pdf;

13. A Review of the Potential of Marine Algae as a Source of Biofuel in Ireland, February 2009.Report prepared for Sustainable Energy Ireland;

14. MARINE ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION COMMITTEE, MEPC 57/INF.11, 20 December 2007, Feasibility study into the use of biofuels in the Norwegian domestic fleet Norway;

15. http://www.motorship.com/features101/ships-and-shipyards/baltic-operator-to-use-biofuel-in-new-project-cargo-carrier 16. Marine Use of Biofuel, Transport Canada, www.tc.gc.ca, 07.11.2011; 17. Technical Handbook for Marine Biodiesel In Recreational Boats, Randall von Wedel, Ph.D.,

CytoCulture International, Inc.,Point Richmond, CA,Second Edition,April 22, 1999. 18. Ohgawara, T., Okada, H., Tsukamoto, T., Iwasawa, K. and Ohe, K. 2007. “Application

study of waste-vegetable oils as a bio-fuel for diesel engine by high-density cavitation”. CIMAC paper 196; Proceedings of the 25th CIMAC World Congress on Combustion Engine Technology, Wien, Austria, 21–24 May 2007;

19. http://earthsafefuels.com/biodieselatsea.htm and http://www.biodiesel.org/markets/mar/; 20. A Comprehensive Analysis of Biodiesel Impacts on Exhaust Emissions, Draft Technical

Report, Assessment and Standards Division Office of Transportation and Air Quality U.S. EPA, October 2002;

21. OECD-FAO, Agricultural Outlook, 2011-2020; 22. http://www.biodiesel.org/pdf_files/Usage_Checklist.pdf; 23. MAN B&W Diesel press release 2007; 24. BP Statistical Review 2008. 25. BP Statistical Review 2011.



Authors note: The content Study has been created bearing in mind the available sources of information. Due to steady development of the maritime applications areas where low sulfure fuels, LNG and biofuels are to be used we strongly recommend to verify the existing konwlege both regading applicable low and rules as well reference and application information

alternative fuels for marine applications

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