american government final review

8/9/2019 American Government Final Review

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American Government

Chapter 1 The Study of American Government

Power the ability of one person to get another person to act in accordance with the first

persons intentions. People who exercise political power may or may not have the authority

to do so.

Authority the right to use power

Direct democracy all, or most, citizens participate directly in either holding office or

making policy

Representative democracy people elect leaders to represent them. For representative

democracy to work, there must be an opportunity for genuine competition of leadership.

This requires that individuals and parties be able to run for office, that communication be

free, and that voters perceive that a meaningful difference exists.

Majoritarian politics when the actions of officeholders follow the preferences of the

people very closely. In this case elected officials are the delegates of the people, acting as

the people would act were the matter put to a popular vote. The issues handled in a

majoritarian fashion can only be those that are sufficiently important to command the

attention of most citizens, sufficiently clear to elicit an informed opinion from citizens, andsufficiently feasible to address so that what citizens want can actually be done.

Elite identifiable group of persons who possess a disproportionate share of some valued

resource

Marxism government is a reflection of underlying economic forces, primarily the pattern

of ownership and the means of production. All societies are divided into classes on the basis

of the relationships of people to the economy. In modern society two major classes contend

for powercapitalists and workers. Whichever class dominates the economy also controls

the government, which is nothing more than a piece of machinery designed to express and

give legal effect to underlying class interests.

Power elite theory a nongovernmental elite makes most of the major decisions, but this

elite is not composed exclusively of corporate leaders. The important policies are set by a

loose coalition of three groupscorporate leaders, top military officers, and key political

leaders. Government is dominated by a few top leaders, most of whom are outside the

government and enjoy great advantages in wealth, status, or organizational position. They

act in concert, and the policies they make serve the interests of the elite.

Bureaucratic theory all institutions fall under the control of large bureaucracies whose

expertise and specialized competence are essential to the management of contemporary

affairs. Government agencies are dominated by those who operate them on a daily basis.

Pluralist theory political resources are so widely scattered that no single elite has

anything like a monopoly over them. There are so many governmental institutions in which

power may be exercised that no single group can dominate most of the political process.

Policies are the outcome of a complex pattern of political haggling, compromises, and

shifting alliances. Almost all relevant interests have a chance to affect the outcome ofdecisions. Not only are the elites divided, they are responsive to their followers interests,

and thus they provide representation to almost all citizens affected by a policy.

Chapter 2: The Constitution

Articles of Confederation created a league of friendship among the states that could

not levy taxes or regulate commerce. Each state retained its sovereignty and independence,

each state had one vote in Congress, 9/13 states were required to pass any measure, and


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the delegates who cast these votes were picked and paid for by state legislatures. Congress

had the power to make peace, coin money, appoint the key army officersbut the army was

small and dependent for support on independent state militiasand allowed to run the post

office. There was no national judicial system to settle land claims among states. To amend

the Articles, all 13 states had to agree. Many leaders of the Revolution, such as Washington

and Hamilton, believed that a stronger national government was essential.

Shays Rebellion in 1787 a group of ex-Revolutionary War soldiers, plagued by debts and

high taxes and fearful of losing their property, forcibly prevented the courts in western

Massachusetts from sitting. The governor of Massachusetts asked the Continental Congress

to send troops to suppress the rebellion, but it could not raise the money or manpower. In

desperation private funds were collected to hire a volunteer army, which dispersed the

rebels. State delegates were galvanized by the fear that state governments were about to

collapse from internal dissension.

Virginia Plan called for a strong national union organized into 3 governmental branches

the legislative, executive, and judicial. The legislature was to be composed of two houses,

the first elected directly by the people and the second chosen by the first house from among

the people nominated by state legislatures. The executive was to be chosen by the national

legislature, as were members of a national judiciary. The executive and some members ofthe judiciary were to constitute a council of revision that could veto acts of the legislature;

that veto, in turn, could be overridden by the legislature. A national legislature would have

supreme powers on all matters on which the separate states were not competent to act, as

well as the power to veto any and all state laws. At least one house of the legislature would

be elected directly by the people.

New Jersey Plan enhanced the powers of the national government, but did so in a way

that left states representation in Congress unchanged from the Articleseach state would

have one vote. Thus not only would the interests of small states be protected, but Congress

itself would remain to a substantial degree the creature of state governments.

Great Compromise contained a House of Representatives consisting initially of 65

members apportioned among the states roughly on the basis of population and elected by

the people and a Senate consisting of two senators from each state to be chosen by the

state legislatures. It reconciled the interests of small and large states by allowing the former

to predominate in the Senate and the latter in the House. This reconciliation was necessary

to ensure that there would be support for a strong national government from small and large

states.

Judicial review the power of the Supreme Court to declare an act of Congress

unconstitutional. It is a way of limiting the power of popular majorities by safeguarding the

Constitution against popular passions.

How to propose/pass an amendment can be proposed either by a 2/3 vote of both

houses of Congress or by a national convention called by Congress at the request of 2/3 of

the states. Once proposed, an amendment must be ratified by of the states, either

through their legislatures or special ratifying conventions in each state.Checks and Balances

Congress can check the president in these ways:

-by refusing to pass a bill the president wants

-by passing a law over the presidents veto

-by using the impeachment powers to remove the president from office

-by refusing to approve a presidential appointment (Senate only)

-by refusing to ratify a treaty the president has signed (Senate only)


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Congress can check the federal courts in these ways:

-by changing the number and jurisdiction of the lower courts

-by using the impeachment powers to remove a judge from office

-by refusing to approve a person nominated to be a judge (Senate only)

The President can check Congress by vetoing a bill that it has passed and can check the

federal courts by nominating judges.

The Courts can check Congress by declaring a war unconstitutional and can check the

president by declaring actions by him or his subordinates to be unconstitutional or not

authorized by law.

Federalism the division of political power between a national government and several

state governments. By dividing power between the states and the national government, one

level of government can serve as a check on the other.

Faction political division created by the diverse interests in America. Madison believed

that factions could help protect democracy. One faction might come to dominate

government, or a part of government, in one place, and a rival faction might dominate it in

another. The pulling and hauling between these factions would prevent any single

government from dominating all government.

Antifederalists believed that a strong national government would be distant from thepeople and would use its powers to annihilate or absorb the functions that belonged to the

states. Congress would tax heavily, the Supreme Court would overrule state courts, and the

president would come to head a large standing army. The nation needed a loose

confederation of states, with most of the powers of government kept in the hands of state

legislatures and state courts. If a national government existed, it should be heavily

restricted. They proposed limiting the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court, checking the

presidents power by creating a council that would review his actions, leaving military affairs

in the hands of state militias, increasing the size of the House of Representatives, and

reducing the power of Congress to levy taxes. They wanted a bill of rights to be added to the

Constitution.

Madison argued that liberty is safest in large republics. In a small community, there will

be relatively few differences in opinion or interest; people will tend to see the world in much

the same way. If anyone dissents or pursues an alternative interest, he will be confronted by

a massive majority and will have few allies. But in a large republic there will be many

opinions and interests; as a result it will be hard for a tyrannical majority to form or organize,

and anyone with an unpopular view will find it easier to acquire allies. He suggested that the

national government should be at some distance from the people and insulated from their

momentary passions. Liberty is threatened as much by public passions and popularly based

factions as by strong governments.

Federalist Papers written by Hamilton to promote the Constitution, with help from John

Jay and Madison. They probably played only a small role in securing ratification. In Federalist

10 Madison argues for the benefits of political factions, or special interests. He recommends

regulating factions, not eliminating them. In No. 51 he argues that coalitions formed in alarge republic would be more moderate than those formed in a small one because the bigger

the republic, the greater the variety of interests, and thus the more a coalition of the

majority would have to accommodate a diversity of interests and opinions if it hoped to

succeed.

Liberties guaranteed by the Constitution prior to the Bill of Rights:

-writ of habeas corpus may not be suspended (except during invasion or rebellion)

-no bill of attainder may be passed by Congress or the states


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-no ex post facto law may be passed by Congress or the states

-right of trial by jury in criminal cases is guaranteed

-the citizens of each state are entitled to the privileges and immunities of the citizens of

every other state

-no religious test or qualification for holding federal office is imposed

-no law impairing the obligation of contracts may be passed by the states

The Bill of Rights

Amendment 1: freedom of religion, speech, press, and assembly, the right to petition the

government

Amendment 2: Right to bear arms

Amendment 3: troops may not be quartered in homes in peacetime

Amendment 4: no unreasonable searches or seizures

Amendment 5: grand jury indictment required to prosecute a person for a serious crime. No

double jeopardy. Forcing a person to testify against himself is prohibited. No loss of life,

liberty, or property without due process.

Amendment 6: right to speedy, public, impartial trial with defense counsel and right to cross-

examine witnesses

Amendment 7: jury trials in civil suits where value exceed $20Amendment 8: no excessive bail or fines, no cruel and unusual punishments

Amendment 9: unlisted rights are not necessarily denied

Amendment 10: powers not delegated to the US or denied to states are reserved to the

states

Slavery in the Constitution it is never mentioned explicitly. In determining the

representation of the House, 3/5 of all other persons are included in the states population.

The convention agreed not to allow the new government by law or constitutional

amendment to prohibit the importation of slaves until 1808. The Constitution guaranteed

that if a slave were to escape and flee to a nonslave state, the slave would be returned.

Economic interests at the Convention the Framers tended to represent their states

interests on important matters. Except with respect to slavery, they usually did not vote

their own economic interests.

Economic interests and ratification delegates who were merchants, who lived in cities,

who owned large amounts of western land, who held government IOUs, and who did not own

slaves were more likely to vote to ratify the new Constitution than were delegates who were

farmers, who did not own public debt, and who did own slaves.

Ways of Amending the Constitution

To propose an amendment

-2/3 of both houses of Congress vote to propose an amendment or 2/3 of the state

legislatures ask Congress to call a national convention to propose amendments

To ratify an Amendment

-3/4 of the state legislatures approve it or ratifying conventions in of the states approve it

Key facts-only the first method of proposing an amendment has been used

-the second method of ratification has been used only once, to ratify the 21st Amendment

-congress may limit the time within which a proposed amendment must be ratified. The

usual limitation has been 7 years

-thousands of proposals have been made, but only 33 have obtained the necessary 2/3 vote

in Congress

-27 amendments have been ratified


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Complaints about separation of powers by making every decision the uncertain

outcome of the pulling and hauling between the president and Congress, the Constitution

precludes the emergence of the kind of effective national leadership the country needs. An

increase in presidential power would help the voters hold the president and his party

accountable for their actions. Typically the president cannot get his policies adopted by

Congress without long delays and much bargaining. Government agencies responsible for

implementing a program are exposed to undue interference from legislators ad special

interests.

Line Item Veto Act passed by president Clinton in 1996. It gave the president the power

to selectively eliminate individual items in large appropriations bills, expansions in certain

income-transfer programs, and tax breaks. But it also left Congress free to craft bills in ways

that would give the president few opportunities to veto favored items. It was struck down in

Clinton v. New York, holding that the Constitution does not allow the president to cancel

specific items in tax and spending legislation.

Line-item veto allows the chief executive to approve some provisions of a bill and

disapprove others

Chapter 3: FederalismDevolution the effort to devolve onto the states the national governments functions in

areas such as welfare, health care, and job training. Between 1994-1996, Republican

majorities in the House and Senate made proposals to accelerate the devolution of national

power. There are three main factors driving devolution: the beliefs of devolutions

proponents, the realities of deficit politics, and the views of most citizens. By 1994 many

governors of both parties were convinced that the time had come to let state capitals take

the lead in figuring out how best to address social problems and administer public health

and welfare programs. Congressional Republicans sought not only to fund entitlement

programs with block grants instead of categorical grants but also to make major cuts in

entitlement spending.

Block grants money from the national government for programs in certain general areas

that the states can use at their discretion within broad guidelines set by Congress

Federalism a political system in which there are local units of government, as well as a

national government, that can make final decisions with respect to at least some

governmental activities and whose existence is specially protected. Local units exist

independently of the preferences of national government and can make decisions on a least

some matters without regard to those preferences. Political power is locally acquired by

people whose careers depend for the most part on satisfying local interests. As a result,

though the national government may have vast powers, it exercises many of these powers

through state governments. Federalism has many effects, but its most obvious effect has

been to facilitate the mobilization of political activity. A federal system, by virtue of the

decentralization of authority, lowers the cost of organized political activity. Federalism was

one device whereby personal liberty was to be protected.Sovereignty supreme or ultimate political authority. A sovereign government is one that

is legally and politically independent of any other government

Unitary system one in which sovereignty is wholly in the hands of the national

government, so that the states and localities are dependent on its will

Confederation a system in which the states are sovereign and the national government is

allowed to do only that which the states permit


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Federal regime one in which local units of government have a specially protected

existence and can make some final decisions over some governmental activities

Hamiltons view of federalism since the people had created the national government,

since the law and treaties made pursuant to the Constitution were the supreme law of the

land, and since the most pressing needs were the development of a national economy and

the conduct of foreign affairs, the national government was the superior and leading force in

political affairs and its powers ought to be broadly defined and liberally constructed.

Jeffersons view of federalism the federal government was the product of an

agreement among the states; and though the the people were the ultimate sovereigns,

the principal threat to their liberties was likely to come from the national government. Thus

the powers of the national government should be narrowly constructed and strictly limited.

McCulloch v. Maryland James McCulloch, the cashier of the Baltimore branch of the Bank

of the US, which had been created by Congress, refused to pay a tax levied on that bank by

the state of Maryland. He was convicted for failing to pay the tax. The Court decided that,

although the federal government possessed only those powers enumerated in the

Constitution, the extent of those powers required interpretation. To carry out these powers

Congress may reasonably decide that chartering a national bank is necessary and

proper to fulfilling its power to manage money. Chief Justice John Marshall decided that thegovernment of the US was not established by the states, but by the people, and thus the

federal government was supreme in the exercise of those powers conferred upon it. having

already concluded that chartering a bank was within the powers of Congress, Marshall then

argued that the only way for such powers to be supreme was for their use to be immune

from state challenge and for the products of their use to be protected against state

destruction. The states may not tax any federal instrument.

Nullification the right of the states to nullify a federal law that, in the states opinion,

violated the Constitution

Special-act charter applies to a certain city and lists what that city can and cannot do

General-act charter applies to a number of cities that fall within a certain classification,

usually based on population

Dillons rule authorizes a municipality to exercise only those powers expressly given,

implied by, or essential to the accomplishment of its enumerated powers

Home-rule charter - reverses Dillons rule and allows a city government to do anything

that is not prohibited by the charter or state law. City laws cannot be in conflict with state

laws, and the states can pass laws that preempt or interfere with what home-rule cities want

to do

Dual federalism holds that that though the national government is supreme in its sphere,

the states are equally supreme in theirs, and these two spheres of action should be

separate. Applied to commerce, this implies that there are such things as interstate

commerce, which Congress can regulate, and intrastate commerce, which only the states

can regulate, and the Court can tell which is which.

United States v. Lopez the Court held that Congress had exceeded its commerce clausepower by prohibiting guns in schools

United States v. Morrison the Court said that attacks against women are not, and do

not substantially affect, interstate commerce, and hence Congress cannot constitutionally

pass the Violence Against Women Act

Printz v. United States the Court invalided a federal law that required local police to

conduct background checks on all gun purchasers. The Court ruled that the law violated the


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10th Amendment by commandeering state governments to carry out a federal regulatory

program.

Alden v. Maine the Court held that state employees could not sue to force state

compliance with federal fair-labor laws

Federal Maritime Commission v. South Carolina Ports Authority the Court

expanded states sovereign immunity from private lawsuits

Police power a generally recognized state power. It refers to those laws and regulations,

not otherwise unconstitutional, that promote health, safety, and morals. Thus the states can

enact and enforce criminal codes, require children to attend school and citizens to be

vaccinated, and restrict the availability of pornographic materials.

Initiative allows voters to place legislative measures directly on the ballot by getting

enough signatures on a petition

Referendum enables voters to reject a measure adopted by the legislature. Sometimes

the state constitution specifies that certain kinds of legislation must be subject to a

referendum whether the legislature wishes it or not

Recall a procedure whereby voters can remove an elected official from office. If enough

signatures are gathered on a petition, the official must go before voters, who can vote to

leave the person in office, remove the person from office, or remove the person and replacehim with someone else.

Grants-in-aid money that Congress gives the states. The greatest growth of these

programs began in the 1960s and has continued steadily ever since. They provide state and

local governments with roughly 1/5 of their annual budgets. The system grew so rapidly

because it helped state and local officials resolve a dilemma: on one hand they wanted

access to the superior taxing power of the federal government; on the other hand, prevailing

constitutional interpretationat least until the 1930sheld that the federal government

could not spend money for purposes not authorized by the Constitution. The solution was to

have federal money put into state hands. Until the 1960s most federal grants-in-aid were

conceived by or in cooperation with the states and were designed to serve essentially state

purposes. However, in the 1960s the federal government began devising grant programs

based less on what states were demanding and more on what federal officials perceived to

be important national needs. Federal officials were the principal proponents of grant

programs to aid the urban poor, combat crime, reduce pollution, and deal with drug abuse.

Some of these programs even attempted to bypass the states, providing money directly to

cities or even to local citizens groups.

Why federal money is so attractive to state officials the money is already there.

During most of the 19th century, the federal government was taking in more money than it

was spending. The high-tariff policies of the Republicans produced a large budget surplus.

By the mid-20th century, the federal income tax proved to be a flexible tool of public finance,

for it automatically brought in more money as economic activity grew. Third, the federal

government, unlike the states, managed the currency and thus could print more money

whenever it needed it. Federal money to states seems like free money. That every statehas an incentive to ask for federal money to pay for local programs means that it is difficult

for one state to get money for a given program without every states getting it.

Intergovernmental lobby made up of mayors, governors, superintendants of schools,

state directors, county highway commissioners, local police chiefs, and others who had

come to count on federal funds. The purpose of this lobby is to obtain more federal money

with fewer strings attached.


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Categorical grants a grant for a specific purpose defined by federal law. Such grants

usually require that the state or locality put up money to match some part of the federal

grant, though that amount can be quite small. Governors and mayors often complain about

categorical grants because their purposes are too narrow to meet local needs. One response

to this problem was to consolidate several categorical or project grant programs into a

single block grant devoted to some general purpose and with fewer restrictions on its use.

They are supervised by special committees of Congress.

Block grants began in the mid-1960s to consolidate various categorical grant programs.

They grew more slowly than categorical grants because of the different kinds of political

coalitions supporting each; the federal government likes the control it has over categorical

grants. Also, because this program and revenue sharing cover such a broad range of

activities, no single interest group has a vital stake in pressing for their enlargement.

Revenue sharing adopted in 1972 with the passage of the State and Local Fiscal

Assistance Act. It distributes about $6 billion/year in federal funds to states and localities,

with no requirement as to matching funds and freedom to spend the money on almost any

governmental purpose. The goal of this and the block grant program was to give the states

and cities considerable freedom in deciding how to spend money while helping to relieve

their tax burdens. However, the money available from block grants and revenue sharing didnot grow as fast as the states had hoped nor as quickly as did the money available through

categorical grants. The federal government also steadily increased the number of strings

attached to the spending of this money.

Conditions of aid when the federal government tells the state government what it must

do if it wants some grant money. Some conditions are specific to particular programs, but

most are not.

Mandates when the federal government tells the states what they must do. Sometimes

the mandates must be observed only if the states take federal grants, but sometimes they

have nothing to do with federal aid. Most mandates concern civil rights and environmental

protection. Some mandates create administrative and financial problems, especially when

they are written in vague language. Some mandates take the form of regulatory statutes

and amendments that expand on previous legislation. Others represent new areas of federal

involvement. The federal courts have helped fuel the growth of mandates based on their

current interpretation of the 10th Amendment.

Operational grants for purposes such as running state child-care programs

Capital grants for building local wastewater treatment plants

Entitlement grants for transferring income to families and individuals. Includes AFDC

and Medicaid.

Second-order devolution a flow of power and responsibility from the states to local

governments

Third-order devolution the increased role of nonprofit organizations and private groups

in policy implementation

Welfare surpluses the billions of dollars in unspent welfare funds that the statesamassed in the late 1990s after cutting welfare programs, permitting states to increase their

spending.

Chapter 4: American Political Culture

Political culture a distinctive and patterned way of thinking about how political and

economic life ought to be carried out. Americans do not judge their political and economic


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systems in the same way. It consists of a peoples fundamental assumptions about how the

political process should operate

Five important elements in the American view of the politicalsystem liberty,

equality, democracy, civic duty, and individual responsibility

Political ideology refers to more or less consistent sets of views concerning the policies

government ought to pursue. Up to a point people can disagree on ideology but still share a

common political culture. Some ideologies, however, are so critical of existing government

policies and practices that they require a fundamental change in the way politics is carried

out and thus embody a different political culture as well.

Civic duty a sense that one has an obligation to participate in civic and political affairs

Civic competence - belief that one can affect government policies. Both of these principles

are important to American political culture

American views of economic equality Americans are more likely to think that freedom

is more important than equality and less likely to think that hard work goes unrewarded or

that the government should guarantee citizens a basic standard of living

Civic role of religion religious institutions are the countrys major source of volunteer

and community services. In many urban communities, religious organizations are major

providers of many social and health care services. Since there is no orthodox or officialreligion, it is difficult for a corresponding political orthodoxy to emerge. Churches offer ready

opportunities for developing and practicing civic and political skills, creating miniature

political systems. Developing a participatory political culture was undoubtedly made easier

by the existence of a participatory religious culture.

Adversarial spirit created by the American preoccupation with the assertion and

maintenance of rights. It reflects our long-standing distrust of authority and of people

wielding power, both through political and religious traditions.

Class consciousness thinking of oneself as a worker whose interests are in opposition to

those of management, or vice versa. There is not a high degree of class consciousness in

America due to the combined effects of religious and ethnic diversity, an individualistic

philosophy, fragmented political authority, and a relatively egalitarian family structure.

Americans believe that the opportunity for success is available to people who work hard.

Culture war ideological disagreement between orthodox and progressive camps. It has

been made more widespread by the increase in the proportion of people who consider

themselves progressive and the rise of the media. The tensions generated by the culture

war affect our views as to how well our government works, how much influence ordinary

people can have over it, and how large a measure of freedom we ought to grant our

opponents.

Distrust in government since the 1950s, there has been a more or less steady decline in

the proportion of Americans who say they trust the government in Washington to do the

right thing. Americans are much more supportive of the country and its institutions than

Europeans are of theirs.

Political efficacy a citizens capacity to understand and influence political events. Thissense of efficacy has two partsinternal efficacy (the ability to understand and take part in

political affairs) and external efficacy (the ability to make the system respond to the

citizenry). Since the mid-1960s there has been a fairly sharp drop in the sense of external

efficacy, but not much change in the sense of internal efficacy.

Chapter 5: Public Opinion

John Q. Public the average person on the street


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Middle America - refers to Americans who have moved out poverty but are not yet affluent

and who cherish the traditional middle-class values

Silent majority consists of people who uphold traditional values, especially against the

counterculture of the 1960s

Problems with public opinion it suffers from ignorance, instability, and sensitivity to the

way questions are worded in polls

Role of family the majority of young people identify with their parents political party.

This process begins early in life. As people grow older, they become more independent, but

a great deal of continuity remains. The ability of the family to inculcate a strong sense of

party identification has declined in recent years. The proportion of citizens who say they

consider themselves to be Democrats or Republicans has become steadily smaller since the

1950s. This drop has been greatest among those who strongly identify with one party or

another. Weaker voters have always had a weaker sense of partisanship than older ones.

Children are more independent from their parents in policy preferences than in party

identification.

Religion Catholic families are somewhat more liberal on economic issues than white

Protestant ones, while Jewish families are much more liberal on both economic and social

issues than either Catholic or Protestant families. One theory behind this phenomenon isthat of social status, which predicts that people for traditionally poorer backgrounds are

more likely to vote Democratic. A second theory emphasizes the content of the religious

tradition. Fundamentalists are more likely than some other groups to oppose cuts in defense

spending, abortions, and to favor prayer in schools. Fundamentalists and

nonfundamentalists have about the same opinion on economic issues. Evangelical Christians

have become increasingly attracted to Republican presidential candidates, while Jews and

those without a religious orientation have been consistently supportive of the Democratic

Party.

Christian Coalition a political movement representing the views of conservative

evangelical Christians. It was founded by Pat Robertson and led by Ralph Reed. People allied

with the coalition quickly won power in many local Republican Party organizations. It was

strongest in the South, Midwest, and West, but was a strong force across the nation in the

1994 elections. It disbanded after 2000.

Gender gap the difference in political views between men and women. Men have become

increasingly republican since the 1960s, while voting behavior of women has remained

unchanged. The biggest reason for this gap seems to involve attitudes about the size of

government, gun control, spending programs aimed at the poor, and gay rights.

Schooling college students are more liberal than the population generally. The longer

students stay in college, the more liberal they are. Students studying the social sciences

tend to be more liberal than those studying engineering or the physical sciences. Going to

college also increases the rate at which people participate in politics.

Social Class the voting patterns of different social classes have become somewhat more

similar since the 1950s. Class voting has declined sharply since the 1940s. Unskilled workersare still more likely than white-collar workers to vote Democratic. The divisions among social

class are not as strong as they once were mainly because of the increased importance of

extensive schooling, which brings better-educated people to the higher ranks of society.

Race African Americans are usually Democrats. The differences between white and black

Americans may be narrowing. Latinos also tend to identify themselves as Democrats, but

not as heavily. Asians tend to identify with the Republican Party. Japanese Americans are


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some of the most conservative, whereas Korean Americans are more liberal. Mexican

Americans are more Democratic than Cuban Americans and Puerto Ricans.

Region the South is more accommodating to business and less so to organized labor than

the Northeast. White southerners have become more conservative since the 1960s and less

Democratic.

Political ideology a coherent and consistent set of beliefs about who ought to rule, what

principles rulers ought to obey, and what policies rulers ought to pursue.

Pure liberals liberal on both economic policy and personal conduct. They want the

government to reduce economic inequality, regulate business, tax the rich, allow abortions,

protect the rights of the accused, and guarantee freedom of speech and the press. They are

more likely than average to be young, college-educated, and either Jewish or nonreligious

Pure conservatives conservative on both economic and conduct issues. They want the

government to cut back on the welfare state, allow the market to allocate goods and

services, keep taxes low, and curb forms of conduct that they regard as antisocial. They are

more likely to be older, to have higher incomes, to be white, and to live in the Midwest.

Libertarians conservative on economic matters and liberal on social ones. They want

small, weak governmentone that has little control over either the economy or the personal

lives of citizens. They are more likely to be young, college-educated, and white, to havehigher incomes and religion, and to live in the West.

Populists liberal on economic matters and conservative on social ones. They want a

government that will reduce economic inequality and control business, but they also want it

to regulate personal conduct. They are more likely to be older, poorly educated, low-income,

religious, and female and to live in the South or Midwest.

Political elite people who hold office, run for office, work on campaigns, lead interest

groups and social movements, and speak out on political issues. The more a person is an

activist, the more likely it is that he will display ideological consistency on the conventional

liberal-conservative spectrum. The reasons for this greater consistency seem to be

information and peers. This group includes politicians, bureaucrats, members of the media,

and interest group leaders who have a stake in the growth of government. Because of that,

they often have progovernment views even though they have high incomes. Those that

have access to the media raise and frame important political issues. Elite views shape mass

media views by influencing both what issues capture the publics attention and how those

issues are debated and decided. They also state the norms by which issues should be

settled. By doing this they help determine the range of acceptable and unacceptable policy

options. Elite opinion of foreign affairs is much more influential than that of domestic issues

such as crime and unemployment.

Chapter 6: Political Participation

Voting-age population only 2/3 of the US voting-age population is registered to vote

Registered voters - ~60% of registered voters vote

Motor-voter law designed to make voter registration easier. Requires states to allowpeople to register to vote when applying for a drivers license and to provide registration

through the mail and at some state offices. It took effect in 1995, and has had mixed results.

It has not changed the two-party balance of registrants.

Fifteenth Amendment expands voting rights. In the 1870s the Supreme Court held that

it did not necessarily confer the right to vote on anybody; it merely asserted that if someone

was denied the right, it could not be on the grounds of race. This interpretation opened the


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door to literacy tests, poll taxes, and the grandfather clause, all designed to keep blacks

from voting.

Voting Rights Actof 1965 suspended the use of literacy tests and authorized the

appointment of federal examiners who could order the registration of blacks in states and

counties where fewer than 50% of the voting-age population were registered or had voted in

the past presidential election. In also provided criminal penalties for interfering with the

right to vote. It led to an increase in the amount of African Americans who voted.

Nineteenth Amendment allowed women to vote in 1920.

Voting Rights Act of 1970 gave 18 year olds the right to vote in federal elections

Twenty-sixth Amendment lowered the voting age in state elections to 18

Voting eligibility rules all persons 18 or older can vote, there may be no literacy test or

poll tax, states may not require residency of more than 30 days in the state before a person

may vote, areas with significant numbers of citizens not speaking English must give those

people ballots written in their own language, and federal poll watchers may be sent into

areas where less than 50% of the voting-age population participates in a presidential

election

Twenty-third Amendment allowed members of the District of Columbia to vote in

presidential electionsReasons for decreased voter turnout the hindrances of registration, a decline in

popular interest in elections and a weakening of the competiveness of the two major parties.

Increasing voter turnout would not have a substantial effect on the outcome of elections.

Rising distrust in politics, increased youth of the population, more minorities. Political parties

are no longer as effective as they once were in mobilizing voters, ensuring that they are

registered, and getting them to polls. People no longer feel that elections matter

Australian ballot a government-printed ballot of uniform size and shape that is cast in

secret. Its use cut back on vote buying and fraudulent vote counts

Activists about 1/9 of the population, people who are highly educated, have high

incomes, and tend to be middle-aged. They participate in all forms of politics.

Voting specialists people who vote but do little else; they tend to not have much

schooling or income and be older than the average person

Campaigners get involved in campaign activities. They are better educated than the

average voter, have a clear identification with a political party, and take strong positions

Communalists do not like the social conflict of partisan campaigns. They reserve their

energy for community activities

Parochial participants do not vote and stay out of election campaigns and civic

associations but are willing to contact local officials about specific problems

Factors that increase political participation increased age, increased schooling, religious

involvement

Chapter 7: Political Parties

Political party group that seeks to elect candidates to public office by supplying themwith a label by which they are known to the electorate. It exists as a label in the mind of

voters, an organization that recruits and campaigns for candidates, and as a set of leaders

who try to organize and control the legislative and executive branches of government.

Parties have become weaker in all 3 areas. The federal system of government in the US

decentralizes political authority and thus decentralizes political party organizations.

Federalism means that political parties acquire jobs in local offices, meaning that the

national political parties will be coalitions of local parties, and national party officials rarely


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have as much power as local ones. Political parties are closely regulated by state and

federal laws, and these regulations have the effect of weakening the power of parties. The

president does not need the organization of a political party to get elected.

Federalists supporters of Hamilton. Opposed the followers of Jefferson, Republicans. The

first parties were loose caucuses of political notables in various localities, with New England

being strongly Federalist and much of the South being Republican. The republicans were

much more successful

Jacksonians political participation became a mass phenomenon. The party system was

built from the bottom up. Party conventions were created to replace caucuses.

Mugwumps/ progressives opposed to the heavy emphasis on patronage, disliked the

party machinery, was fearful of the heavy influx of immigrants into American cities and of

the ability of party regulars to organize them into machines, and wanted to see the party

take unpopular positions on certain issues. Their great skills lay in the areas of advocacy and

articulation. At first they tried to play a balance-of-power role, then later began to espouse

measures to curtail or abolish political parties. They favored primary elections to replace

nominating conventions, nonpartisan elections at the city level, argued against corrupt

alliances between parties and business. They wanted strict voter-registration requirements

that would reduce voting fraud, pressed for civil service reform to eliminate patronage, andthey made heavy use of the mass media as a way of attacking the abuses of partisanship

and of promoting their own ideas.

Initiative & referendum advocated by the progressive party. The effect of these

changes was to reduce the worst forms of political corruption and to make boss rule of

politics difficult. They also made political parties less able to hold officeholders accountable,

and less able to assemble the power necessary for governing the fragmented political

institutions created by the Constitution

Critical / realigning periods times when sharp and long-lasting changes occur in the

popular coalition supporting one or both parties. There have been 5 realignments so far:

1800 (when the Jeffersonian Republicans defeated the Federalists), 1828 (when the

Jacksonian Democrats came to power), 1860 (when the Whig party collapsed and the

Republicans under Lincoln came to power), 1896 (when the Republicans defeated William

Jennings Bryan) and 1932 (when the Democrats under Roosevelt came into office). There

are two kinds of realignmentsone in which a major party is so badly defeated that is

disappears and a new party emerges to take its place, and another in which the two existing

parties continue but voters shift their support from one to another. A realignment occurs

when a new issues of utmost importance to the voters cuts across existing party lines and

replaces old issues that were formerly the basis of party identification.

Split tickets creates divided government

Office-bloc ballot lists candidates by office

Party structure at each level a separate and almost entirely independent organization

exists that does pretty much what it wants, and in many counties there is virtually no

organization at all. In every state there is a Democratic and a Republican state partyorganized under state law. Typically each consists of a state central committee, below which

there are county committees and sometimes city committees.

National convention a meeting that occurs every 4 years to nominate a presidential

candidate. Over the years the Democratic convention has shifted from the South and toward

the North and West and in the Republican convention away from the east and toward the

South and Southwest. Democrats give extra delegates to large states while the Republicans


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give extra ones to loyal states. They are now heavily influenced by ideologically motivated

activists.

National committee delegates from each state and territory that manage party affairs.

Selects the time and place of the next national convention and decides the rules by which

delegates will be selected

Congressional campaign committee helps members of Congress who are running for

reelection or would-be members running for an open seat or challenging a candidate from

the opposition party.

National chairman does the day-to-day work of the party, elected by the committee

Soft money funds to aid parties, not used to back candidates by name

Democratic Delegate selection rules equal division of delegates between men and

women; establishment of goals for the representation of African Americans, Hispanics, and

other groups in proportion to their presence in a states Democratic electorate; open

delegate selection procedures, with advance publicity and written rules; selection of the

75% of the delegates at the level of the congressional district or lower; no unit rule that

would require all delegates to vote with the majority of their state delegation; restrictions on

the number of party leaders and elected officials who could vote at the convention; a

requirement that all delegates pledged to a candidate vote for that candidate. These ruleswere altered by the Hunt Commission in 1981 to increase the influence of elected officials

and to make the convention a somewhat more deliberative body. The commission reserved

about 14% of the delegate seats for party leaders and elected officials, who would not have

to commit themselves in advance to a presidential candidate, and it replaced the rule

requiring the delegates pledged to a candidate vote for that candidate.

Superdelegates elected officials at party conventions

1992 Democratic delegate requirements the winner-reward systems of delegate

distribution, which gave the winner of a primary extra delegates, was banned. The

proportional representation system was put into use. This system divides a states publicly

elected delegates among candidates who receive at least 15% of the vote. States that

violate the rules are now penalized with the loss of 25% of their national campaign

delegates.

Political machine a party organization that recruits its members by the use of tangible

incentives and that is characterized by a high degree of leadership control over member

activity. They provided immigrants with services in exchange for their support. As voters

grew in education, income, and sophistication, they relied less on the advice and leadership

of local party officials. And as the federal government created a bureaucratic welfare

system, the parties welfare system declined in value.

Hatch Act made it illegal for federal civil service employees to take an active part in

political management or political campaigns by serving as party officers, soliciting campaign

funds, running for partisan office, working in a partisan campaign, endorsing partisan

candidates, taking voters to the polls, counting ballots, circulating nominating petitions, or

being delegates to a party convention. These restrictions gradually took federal employeesout of machine politics, but they did not end the machines.

Ideological party values principle above all else. Usually contentious and factionalized.

The most firmly ideological parties have been independent third parties. In the 1950s and

60s these ideological groups were reform clubs within local Democratic and Republican

parties. In the 1960s and 70s these reform movements were replaced by more focused

social movements. The result is that in many places the party has become a collection of

people drawn from various social movements. Internal factionalism is now more intense, and


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things for their constituents that a president cannot. They take credit for things that the

federal government provides to their district or state, they send letters to large factions of

their constituents and can visit their districts. Presidents get little direct credit for

improvements and must rely on the mass media to communicate with voters. Presidents are

held responsible for everything that goes wrong, whereas members of Congress can duck

responsibility. Congressional elections are largely independent of presidential ones. The way

people get elected to Congress has two important effects. First, it produces legislators who

are closely tied to local concerns, and second, it ensures that party leaders will have

relatively weak influence over them.

Coattails when the election of a popular president could help congressional candidates in

the same party. There has been a sharp decline in their value. The weakening of party

loyalty and of party organizations, combined with the enhanced ability of members of

Congress to build secure relationships with their constituents, has tended to insulate

congressional elections from presidential ones.

Monetary restraints federal law restricts the amount that any single individual can give

a candidate to $2000 in each election. To be eligible for federal matching grants to pay for a

primary campaign, one must first raise at least $5000 in individual contributions of $250 or

less, in each of 20 states. In response to Watergate, a law was passed stating thatindividuals cannot contribute more than $1000 to a candidate during a single election. All

federal election contributions and expenditures are reported to a Federal Election

Commission. All contributions over $100 must be disclosed, with name, address, and

occupation of contributor. No cash contributions over $100 or foreign contributions. No

ceiling on how much candidates may spend out of their own money unless they accept

federal funding for a presidential race. An individual may not make federal political gifts

exceeding $95000 every two years, of which only $37500 may to a candidate. No

corporation or union may give money from its own treasury to any national political party

(until recently). Members of minor parties get some support in presidential elections from

the federal government provided they have won at least 5% of the vote in the last election.

Political action committees a committee set up by and representing a corporation,

labor union, or other special interest group. They can give up to $5000 per election. A PAC

must have at least 50 members, give to at least 5 federal candidates, and cannot give more

than $5000 to any candidate in any election or more than $15000 per year to any political

party. Most give much less per candidate. It must register at least 6 months in advance of

an election. They may fund electioneering communications up to their expenditure limit.

Over half are sponsored by corporations, about 1/10 by labor unions, and the rest by various

groups, including ideological ones. Ideological PACs have increased faster than any other

kind.

Malapportionment results from having districts of unequal size

Gerrymandering drawing district boundaries in unusual shapes that make it easy for the

candidate of one party to win election in that district

Sophomore surge when most newly elected members become strong in their districtsvery quickly. It is the difference the candidates get the first and second time they run for

election. The main reason for this surge is that members of Congress have figured out how

to use their offices to run personal rather than party campaigns. They also cater to their

constituents distrust of federal government by claiming to run against it.

Delegates congress people who do what their district wants. Tend to value getting

reelected over all other concerns and seek out committee assignments that will produce

benefits for their districts.


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Trustees congress people who use their judgment without regard to the preferences of

their districts. Seek out committee assignments that give them a chance to address large

questions that have no implication for their districts.

Qualifications for the House must be 25, must have been a US citizen for 7 years, must

be an inhabitant of the state from which they are elected

Qualifications for the Senate must be 30, must have been a US citizen for 9 years,

must be an inhabitant of the state from which they are elected

Privileges cannot be sued or persecuted for anything that they say or write in connection

with their legislative duties

Clothespin vote a vote cast by a person who does not like either candidate and so votes

for the less objectionable of the two

Position issue one in which the rival candidates have opposing views on a question that

also divides the voters. Since 1860 many of the great party realignments have been based

on differing position issues.

Valence issue when the question is whether a candidate fully supports the publics views

on a matter on which everyone agrees. What voters look for on valence issues is which

candidate seems most closely linked to a universally shared view. Have become more

important in recent years.General election used to fill an elective office

Primary election used to select partys candidate for an elective office

Closed primary voters must declare in advance that they are a registered member of the

political party in whose primary they wish to vote.

Open primary you can decide when you enter the voting booth which partys primary you

wish to participate in

Blanket primary an open primary that lists the candidates from all parties. Allows for

split-ticket voting

Runoff primary if no candidate gets a majority of the votes, there is a runoff between the

two with the most votes

Presidential primary used to pick delegates to the presidential nominating conventions

of the major parties. They can be run in three main ways. When delegate selection only is in

place, only the names of prospective delegates to the convention appear on the ballot.

Delegate selection with advisory presidential preference means that voters pick delegates

and indicate their preferences among presidential candidates. Binding presidential

preference primaries mean that voters indicate their preferred presidential candidates and

delegates must observe these preferences

Democratic Party v. La Follette the Supreme Court decided that political parties, not

state legislatures, have the right to decide how delegates to national conventions are

selected.

Visual brief filmed episode showing the candidate doing something that a reporter thinks

is newsworthy. These are cheaper than advertising and seem more credible to viewers.

These generally do not provide much informationSources of campaign money presidential candidates get part of their money from

private donors and part from the federal government; congressional candidates get all their

money from private sources. In the presidential primaries candidates raise money from

private citizens and interest groups. The federal government will provide matching funds for

all monies raised from individual donors who contribute no more than $250. The

government also gives lump-sum grants to each political party to help pay the costs of its

nominating convention. In the general election the federal government pays all the costs of


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each candidate up to a limit set by law. Congressional candidates get no government funds,

most of their money comes from individual donors. Incumbent members of Congress

running for reelection get over a third of their money from PACs, challengers have to put in

much more of their own money.

Independent expenditures ordinary advertising that is directed at or against

candidates, but not made at the candidates wishes.

Bipartisan Campaign Finance Reform Act of 2002 banned soft money contributions

to national political parties from corporations and unions. Any money the national parties

get must come from individual donations or PAC contributions as limited by federal law. The

limit on individual contributions was raised from $1000 per candidate per election to $2000.

Independent expenditures by corporations, labor unions, trade associations, and nonprofit

organizations were sharply restricted. None of these organizations can use their own money

to refer to a clearly identified federal candidate in any advertisement during the 60 days

preceding a general election or the 30 days preceding a primary contest. Newspapers,

magazines, and radio and television stations were not affected. The law shifts influence

away from business and unions and toward the media.

Party influence on elections there are more registered Democrats, but Democrats are

more likely to defect from their party. Republicans do better among independents. MoreRepublicans than Democrats vote in elections.

Prospective voting when one examines the views that the rival candidates have on the

issues of the day and then cast their ballot for the person with the best ideas regarding

these matters. Prospective voting requires a lot of information about issues and candidates.

Those who vote prospectively tend to be political junkies. It is more common among people

who are political activists, have a political ideology that governs their voting decision, or are

involved in interest groups with a big stake in the election.

Retrospective voting involves looking at how things have gone in the recent past and

then voting for the party that controls the White House is one likes what has happened and

voting against that party if one does not. It does not require excessive amounts of

information. Elections are decided by retrospective voters. Some believe that retrospective

voting is based largely on economic conditions.

Importance of campaigns they awaken the partisan loyalties of voters. They give voters

a chance to see how candidates handle pressure. They give voters an opportunity to judge

the character and core values of the candidates. The desire of voters to discern character,

combined with the mechanics of modern campaigning lend themselves to an emphasis on

themes at the expense of details. This tendency is reinforced by the expectations of

ideological party activists and single-issue groups.

Party loyalty the loyalty of most identifiable groups of voters to either party is not

overwhelming. Only African Americans, businesspeople, and Jews usually give 2/3 or more of

their votes to one party or the other; other groups display tendencies, but none that cannot

be overcome. The groups that make up the largest part of the Democratic voteCatholics,

union members, southernersare also the least dependable parts of the coalition. Eachparty is a weak coalition of diverse elements that reflect the many divisions in public

opinions.

Chapter 9: Interest Groups

Reasons interest groups are socommon the more cleavages there are in a society,

the greater the variety of interests that will exist. The American constitutional system

contributes to the number of interest groups by multiplying the points at which such groups


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can gain access to the government. When political authority is shared by the president, the

courts, and Congress, there are plenty of places where one can argue ones case. The

weakness of political parties in this country may help explain the number and strength of

our interest groups. Where parties are strong, interests work through the parties; where

parties are weak, interests operate directly on the government. Big periods for interest

group formation have been the 1960s and 70s, 1770s, 1830s and 40s, and 1860s.

Lobby to attempt to influence governmental decisions, especially legislation. A lobby is a

group organized for this purpose

Lobbyist people who spend at least 20% of their time lobbying, people who are paid at

least $5000 in any 6-month period to lobby, corporations and other groups that spend more

than $20000 in any 6-month period on their own lobbying staffs. Twice a year, they must

report the names of their clients, their income and expenditures, and the issues on which

they worked.

Reasons for the rise in interest groups broad economic developments create new

interests and redefine old ones. Government policy helped create interest groups, especially

veterans groups. Professional societies became important in part because state

governments gave to such groups the authority to decide who was qualified to become a

professional in that field. Workers had a difficult time organizing so long as the government,by the use of injunctions, prevented strikes. Unions began to flourish after Congress passed

laws in the 1930s that prohibited the use of injunctions to private labor disputes, that

required employers to bargain with unions, and that allowed a union representing a majority

of the workers in a plant to require all workers to join it. Political organizations do not

emerge automatically, someone has to exercise leadership, often at personal cost. These

organizational entrepreneurs are more abundant at some times than others. They are often

young, caught up in the social movement, drawn by the need for change, and inspired by

some political or religious tradition. The more activities government undertakes, the more

organized interest groups there will be that are interested in those activities.

Interest group any organization that seeks to influence public policy. Well-off people are

more likely than poor people to join and be active in interest groups. Interest groups

representing business and the professions are much more numerous and better financed

than organizations representing minorities, consumers, or the disadvantaged. The most

important task of interest groups is providing information. Interest group activity is a form of

political speech protected by the First Amendment; it cannot be lawfully abolished or much

curtailed. The most significant legal constraints on interest groups come from tax code and

federal finance laws. If an organization does any serious lobbying, it will lose its tax-exempt

status

Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act requires groups and individuals seeking to

influence legislation to register with the secretary of the Senate and the clerk of the House

and to file quarterly financial reports. The Supreme Court restricted this laws application to

lobbying efforts involving direct contacts with members of Congress. This law had little

practical effect.Institutional interests individuals or organizations representing other organizations,

such as business firms, governments, foundations, and universities.

Material incentives money or things and services readily valued in monetary terms

Purposive incentive the appeal of an interests stated goal. If the attainment of those

goals will also benefit people who do not join, individuals who do join will have to be those

who feel passionately about the goal, who have a strong sense of duty, or for whom the cost


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of joining is small. Groups that rely on purposive incentives tend to be shaped by the mood

of the times. Thus such organizations have a powerful motive to stay in the public eye.

Ideological interest groups organizations that attract members by appealing to their

interest in a coherent set of controversial principles. Tend to arise out of social movements

Public-interest lobby when the purpose of the organization will principally benefit

nonmembers. The most visible of these groups are highly controversial. There are two kinds,

those that engage in research and lobbying and those that bring lawsuits designed to

advance their cause. Many of these groups often do better when the government is in the

hands of an administration that is hostile to their views.

Social movement a widely shared demand for change in some aspect of the social or

political order. The effect of a social movement is to increase the value some people attach

to purposive incentives. As a result new interest groups are formed that rely on these

incentives.

Foundation grants grants from foundations to public-interest lobbying groups

Federal grants money given to support projects that interest groups have undertaken

Political cue a signal telling the official what values are at stake in an issue. Cues are

made known by ratings that interest groups make of legislators.

Grassroots lobbying an effort to generate public pressure directly on governmentofficials. It is a part of the outsider strategy. Fewer regulations

Revolving door the practice of former federal government officials taking jobs in private

industry as lobbyists or consultants. Some worry that this may give private interests a way

of improperly influencing government interests

Chapter 10: The Media

Muckraker a journalist who searches through the activities of public officials and

organizations, especially of business firms, seeking to expose conduct contrary to the public

interest

Sound bite a video clip of a presidential contender speaking. Their average length has

decreased significantly

Narrowcasting the proliferation of television and radio stations that target highly

segmented listening and viewing audiences, and the relative decline of electronic and print

media that reach large and heterogeneous populations

Relationship between politics and media though politicians take advantage as best

they can of the communications media available to them, these media in turn attempt to

use politics and politicians as a way of both entertaining and informing their audiences.

Because we have separate institutions that must share power, each branch of government

competes with the others to get power. One way to compete is to try to use the press to

your advantage and make the other side look bad. Cynicism and distrust of government and

elected officials have led to an era of attack journalism.

Adversarial press one that is suspicious of officialdom and eager to break an

embarrassing story that will win for its author honor, prestige, and money. One side effect ofthe increasingly adversarial press nature of the press is the increased prevalence of

negative campaign advertising

National press most of the American press is composed of locally owned and managed

enterprises. The existence of a national press is important because government officials pay

great attention to what these media say about them and their programs. Reporters and

editors for the national press tend to differ from those who work for the local press. They are

usually better paid and have more liberal political views.


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Gatekeeper the media influences what subjects become national political issues and for

how long

Scorekeeper the national media keep track of and help make political reputations, note

who is being mentioned as a presidential candidate, and help decide who is winning or

losing in Washington politics. This role often leads the press to cover presidential elections

as if they were horse races rather than choices among policies

Watchdog close scrutiny of public officials. The media have an instinctive and profitable

desire to investigate personalities and expose scandals. They tend to be tolerant of

underdogs and tough on frontrunners.

Rules governing the media newspapers and magazines need to license to publish, their

freedom to public may not be restrained in advance, and they are liable for punishment for

what they do publish only under certain highly restricted circumstances. The First

Amendment has been interpreted to mean that the government cannot place prior

restraints on the press except under very narrowly defined circumstances. Once

something is published, a newspaper or magazine may be sued or prosecuted if the material

is libelous or obscene or if it incites someone to commit an illegal act. However, this is very

hard to prove. In general, your name and picture can be printed without your consent if they

are part of a news story or some public interest. If a paper attacks you in print, the paperhas no legal obligation to give you space for a reply. Court must decide in individual cases

whether the need of a journalist to protect confidential sources does or does not outweigh

the interest of the government in gathering evidence in a criminal investigation. In general

the Supreme Court has upheld the right of the government to compel reporters to divulge

information as part of a criminal investigation. No one may operate a radio or television

station without a license from the Federal Communications Commission. Radio broadcasting

has been deregulated the most.

Telecommunications Act (1996) allowed one company to own as many as 8 radio

stations in large markets (5 in smaller ones) and as many as it wished nationally. As a result,

a few large companies now own most of the big-market radio stations.

Equal time rule if a station sells time to one candidate for office, it must be willing to sell

equal time to opposing candidates

Right-of-reply rule if a person is attacked on a broadcast, that person has the right to

reply over the same station

Political editorializing rule if a broadcaster endorses a candidate, the opposing

candidate has a right to reply

Fairness doctrine required broadcasters to give time to opposing views if they broadcast

a program giving one side of a controversial issue. In 1987 the FCC abolished this rule,

though most follow it voluntarily

Trial balloon when a source may want to test public reaction to a policy

Loaded language using words to persuade people of something without actually making a

clear argument for it

Market any area easily reached by a television signalSelective attention when citizens only see and hear what they want

Mental tune-out when citizens ignore or get irritated by messages that are not in accord

with existing beliefs

Effects of media probably have much less to do with how people vote in an election and

much more to do with how politics is conducted, how candidates are perceived, and how

policies are formulated. National nominating conventions have been changed to fit the

needs of television broadcasters. Some candidates have found it possible to win their partys


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nomination with expensive advertising campaigns that bypass the parties and weaken them.

Watching the television affects the importance that people attach to certain issues. The

media help set the political agenda on matters with which the citizens have little personal

experience, but they have much influence over how people react to things that touch their

lives directly. The media also affect how we perceive certain issues and candidates. In a

presidential election it is unlikely that newspaper endorsements make a difference

Press secretary heads a large staff that meets with reporters, briefs the president on

questions he will likely be asked, attempts to control the flow of news from cabinet

departments to the press, and arranges briefings for out-of-town editors

Routine stories public events regularly covered by reporters and involving relatively

simple, easily described acts or statements. These are covered in almost exactly the same

way by almost all the media. The political opinions of journalists have the least impact on

these types of stories

Feature stories public events knowable to any reporter who cares to inquire but

involving acts and statements not routinely covered by a group of reporters. Thus a reporter

must take initiative and select a particular event as newsworthy, decide to write about it,

and persuade an editor to run it

Insider stories information not usually made public becomes public because someonewith inside knowledge tells a reporter

Background story one that explains current policy and is given on the condition that the

source not be identified by name

Chapter 11: Congress

Independence of Congress representatives and senators can vote on proposed laws

without worrying that their votes will cause the government to collapse and without fearing

that a failure to support their party leadership. Because Congress is constitutionally

independent of the president, and because its members are not tightly disciplined by a party

leadership, individual members of Congress are free to express their views and vote as they

wish. They are also free to become involved in the details of lawmaking, budget making, and

supervision and administration of laws. They are voted for as individuals rather than

members of their parties. Members of Congress are more concerned with their own

constituencies and careers than with the interests of their party. And since Congress does

not choose the president, members of Congress know that worrying about the voters they

represent is much more important than worrying about whether or not the president

succeeds with his programs. Congress tends to be a decentralized institution, with each

member more interested in his own views and those of his voters than with the programs

proposed by the president.

Powers of Congress

-to lay and collect taxes, imposts, and excises

-to borrow money

-to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states-to establish rules for naturalization and bankruptcy

-to coin money, set its value, and punish counterfeiting

-to fix the standard of weights and measures

-to establish post offices and post roads

-to issue patents and copyrights by inventors and authors

-to create courts inferior to the Supreme Court


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-to define and punish piracies, felonies on the high seas, and crimes against the law of

nations

-to declare war

-to raise and support an army and navy and make rules for their governance

-to provide for a militia

-to exercise exclusive legislative powers over the seat of government and other places

purchased to be federal facilities

-to make laws

Seventeenth Amendment provided for the popular election of Senators

Filibuster a prolonged speech made to delay action in a legislative assembly, only takes

place in the Senate

Rule 22 provides that debate can be cut off if 60 members of the Senate present and

voting agree to a cloture motion

Marginal districts districts where the winner gets less than 55% of the vote

Safe districts where the winner wins by 55% or more. Congressional seats have generally

become safer

Reasons for Democratic dominance ofCongress Democratic-controlled state

legislatures have redrawn congressional maps to give Democrats and advantage. Democratsdo well in low-turnout districts such as minority-dominated inner cities, while Republicans do

well in high-turnout districts such as affluent white suburbs. Congressional incumbents also

enjoy certain built-in electoral advantages over challengers, and the Democrats were in the

majority when these advantages grew. Democrats have more experienced congressional

candidates, have more closely reflected district-level voters policy preferences, and have

been able to fashion winning, district level coalitions from among national Democratic

constituencies such as organized labor, civil rights activists, feminists, and

environmentalists. The democrats were also in the majority when the mood turned anti-

incumbent. This mood, coupled with the effects of redistricting after the 1990 census and

the shift of the South to the Republican party brought the Republicans to power in the House

and Senate in the 1994 elections.

Conservative coalition a coalition between southern Democrats and Republicans. During

the 1960s and 70s this coalition came together about 1/5 of the time and usually won when

it did. However, many southern Democrats in Congress were replaced by southern

republicans. This has made Congress, especially the House, more ideologically partisan

Ways to influence legislation conducting hearings, marking up bills in committee

meetings, and offering amendments

Representational based on the assumption that members want to get reelected, and

therefore they vote to please their constituents. Occurs most often when constituents have

a clear view on some issue and a legislators vote on that issue is likely to attract their

attention, such as civil rights bills. The problem with the representational explanation is that

public opinion is not strong and clear on most measures on which Congress must vote. On

many issues the average member of the House has opinions close to those of the averagevoter. Senators, by contrast, are often less in tune with public opinion.

Organizational based on the assumption that since most constituents do not know how

their legislator has voted, it is not essential to please them. But it is important to please

fellow members of Congress, whose goodwill is valuable in getting things done and in

acquiring status and power. When voting on matters where constituency interests or

opinions are not vitally as stake, members of Congress respond primarily to cues provided


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by their colleagues. The principal cue is party. Additional organizational cues come from the

opinions of colleagues with whom the member of Congress feels a close ideological affinity.

Attitudinal based on the assumption that there are so many conflicting pressures on

members of Congress that they cancel each other out, leaving them to vote on the basis of

their own beliefs. This view becomes more important as Congress becomes more

ideological. As this polarization increases, members of opposing parties are more likely to

challenge, investigate, and denounce each other

Party organization in the Senate the majority party chooses one of its members to be

president pro tempore of the Senate, whose job it is to preside over the Senate. Having a

tiny majority in the Senate does not affect most important votes since the other side can

filibuster, but having your own party control the chairmanships is very important because it

helps determine what issues will go to the floor to vote. The key aspect of selecting party

leaders, of making up the important party committees, and of assigning freshman senators

to Senate committees is achieving ideological and regional balance. Compared to the

Senate of the 1950s and 60s, todays Senate is less party-centered, less leader-oriented,

and hospitable to freshmen, more heavily staffed, and more subcommittee-oriented

Majority leader chosen by the senators of the majority party. Schedules the business of

the senate, usually with the minority leader. Has the right to be recognized first in any floordebate.

Minority leader chosen by the senators of the minority party

Whip helps the party leader stay informed about what party members are thinking, rounds

up members when important votes are to be taken, and attempts to keep a count on how

the voting on a controversial issue is likely to go.

Steering committee the democratic committee in the Senate that assigns senators to

the standing committees

Committee on committees the Republican equivalent of the Steering committee

Party structure in the House leadership carries more power in the House than in the

Senate because of the House rules. Being so large, the House must restrict debate and

schedule its business with great care; thus leaders who do the scheduling and who

determine how the rules shall be applied usually have substantial influence. Com

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