American Government Review

The problem of Government. But what is government itself, but the greatest of

all reflections on human nature? If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary. In framing a government which is to be administered by men over men, the great difficulty lies in this: you must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place oblige it to control itself. A dependence on the people is, no doubt, the primary control on the government; but experience has taught mankind the necessity of auxiliary precautions.

Key concepts in Madison’s quoteControl of man and government imply that

ethics (the study of the good) is the foundation of all governments.

Man and his principles of self-government are the primary requisite of a good society and the primary control on the abuses of government.

Due to the weakness of man, auxiliary precautions are necessary. These auxiliary precautions come from the structure of the government (division of power, checks etc.)

American GovernmentAmerican government is a grand

experiment on the ethics of the soul and the structure (form) of the government.

American GovernmentTo understand this experiment

we must enter the conversation on ethics and government beginning with Socrates and follow its development though history.

Plato’s Republic According to Plato, real things are eternal

and unchangeable. Thus physical things are never real, but are objects by which one can see reality as one uses reason contemplate them. For example, Sally or Dick are not real but the concepts of human, gender, age, magnitude and multitude are real. The realities can be seen through reason based on careful observation of Sally and Dick. Reality exists only in true ideas (eidos).

Plato’s Republic From the eidos, decreasing levels

of reality include the physical, and the types and shadows of the physical, i.e. drawings, paintings, sculpture etc.

Plato’s RepublicThe purpose of government is to

seek justice in the city and the soul through the perfect form (eidos). It will never exists in the physical world unless chance or divinity bring it to pass.

Plato’s RepublicThe way the soul is governed

determines the way city is governed. Another way to say this is that the ruling principle that governs the soul creates the form (eidos) of the soul. This same principles when aggregated into a community of souls (The City), determines the form of the city. Creating ideal souls is the only way to create an ideal city.

Plato’s Republic Virtue is excellence of anything in

being that thing.Socrates’ cardinal virtues, are

temperance (moderation), courage, wisdom, and justice correct.

Plato’s RepublicJustice of the city is when the

best (philosopher kings) govern the people though the auxiliaries.

Justice of the soul is when reason governs the desires though the passions.

Plato’s Republic Aristocracy of the soul and the

city degrades to timocracy, to oligarchy, to democracy to tyranny.

Aristocracy is the rule of the best; virtue is its ruling principle.

Timocracy is the rule of the nobles (not kalon); honor is its ruling principle.

PlatoOligarchy is the rule of wealth;

love of money is its ruling principle.

Democracy is the rule of the majority of people; equality is its ruling principle.

Tyranny is the enslavement of the people for the sake of the ruler; desire (represented by eros) is its ruling principle.

PlatoThe education of the philosopher

king follows the divided line. Types and shadows are the most important step and must occur first; the imagination is the faculty. This forms the character of the young child through the study of music (all 9 muses) and the development of the body though gymnastics.

PlatoA general knowledge of the

physical world and its facts and history come second; faith (pistis) is the faculty by which it is known. Knowledge of mathematic objects is next; logic (dionia) is the faculty. Knowledge of the good, the true, and the beautiful though the dialectic comes last; gnosis is the faculty is the faculty by which they are known.

PlatoPlato like other Classical Greek saw no divisions of

society. He saw only the city, not the city divided into government and society.

Plato’s ideal government was limited in size; it could not be too small or too large. To control the size, Socrates controls population growth, through control of marriage and child birth.

Plato controls factions by attempting to abolish them, giving all rulers the same desires and opinions. He does this by a strict control of education (removing the child from it mother in infancy), having all husbands and wives in common, and having all property in common among the rulers.

AristotleThe final end (goal) of man is

happinessWhile not complete, virtue is

required for happiness.Virtue can only be obtained

though hexis (active work developing into habit).

Virtue is a mean condition, never an extreme.

AristotleOne never knows a thing until one knows

its cause.4 causes interact to cause a thingMaterialEffectiveFormalFinalThink of an artists creation and apply to

all nature—if you came upon a house already built could you determine the 4 causes

AristotleThe purpose of the city (role of

government) create an environment where man could most effectively develop the virtues necessary to be happy.

These virtues include: justice, magnanimity, courage, liberality, friendliness, proper ambition, quick wittedness, contemplativeness etc.

AristotleSize matters.If a city is too small it is deficient

in developing the virtues.If it is too large it is excessive in

developing them.Like Plato, only the City State

could accomplish this.Like Plato, there was no division

between society and government.

AristotleBad regimes allow one man or

faction to rule for their own advantage.

Good regimes require rule according to law, not to the advantage of any man or group (faction).

Bad Forms of GovernmentTyranny—oneOligarchy—fewDemocracy—many

Good Forms of GovernmentMonarchy—oneAristocracy—fewPolity—a mixed form that seeks

to balance faction.Plato’s attempt to get rid of

faction though unifying men’s desires is and excess and thus not virtuous. One must live with some faction but balance and control them.

AristotleMany forms of government may

be good depending on the disposition of the people.

A polity combining oligarchy with democracy balances the two faction and should last longest with justice if tempered with aristocracy.

This creates a middle class that moderates the two factions.

AristotleA classical leadership education,

somewhat like Plato without the destruction of family, is necessary.

Francis BaconMan, being the servant and interpreter

of Nature, can do and understand so much and so much only as he has observed in fact or in thought of the course of nature. Beyond this he neither knows anything nor can do anything.

Empiricism replaces reason as the primary epistemology.

This method applies to all knowledge not just science.

Epistemology: how one Knows AuthorityReasonEmpiricismPragmatismIntuitionEstheticism

BaconKeeps Material causeKeeps Effective causeFormal cause = laws of natureThere is no final cause

Knowledge is power. The purpose of knowledge is to rule nature.

Thomas HobbesBacon’s studentPerforms a thought experiment

on the origin of society.State of Nature is a State of WarSelf Preservation is the only law

of nature.You can to anything to preserve

your life.

HobbesMan is so tired of War that he

relinquishes his right to self preservation to create society governed by a will so powerful that it forces men to live in peace. This is called the Leviathan.

Nations live in a state of nature.Only a world Leviathan can

create world peace.