The Language of American Propaganda During World War II

Propaganda became a vital tool during World War II for the Axis and Allied Powers.

From the United States to Nazi Germany, governments used the power of words and images to

sway the public to support their cause. Adolf Hitler pulled the wool over the eyes of many

German citizens through use of propaganda and legislation. Martin Niemőller said it best:

First they came for the Socialists, and I did not speak out --

Because I was not a Socialist.

Then they came for the Trade Unionists, and I did not speak out --

Because I was not a Trade Unionist.

Then they came for the Jews, and I did not speak out --

Because I was not a Jew.

Then they came for me -- and there was no one left to speak for me. (“Martin Niemoller”)

Despite the atrocities occurring overseas, the United States did not enter WWII until Japan

bombed Pearl Harbor and the Axis Powers declared war on the previously inactive country. After

entering the war, the country too used propaganda to gain support for the war efforts and show

opponents in a negative light. By use of posters, radio, movie, and song, the United States

utilized the power of words to evoke feelings of duty, patriotism, and fear in American citizens

and urge them support causes on the home-front and overseas.

Merriam-Webster defines propaganda as “the spreading of ideas, information, or rumor

for the purpose of helping or injuring an institution, a cause, or a person” (“Propaganda”).

Although the term in its current form was first used in the 17th century, the idea and use of

propaganda dates back to ancient civilizations (Merriam-Webster, “Propaganda”). The ancient

Egyptians used the Great Pyramids of Giza as propaganda during their rise to glory. In the fourth

dynasty, Khufu built the first and largest pyramid because he needed the bluff of clout created by

such a monumental task to impress his people and his enemies; in contrast, the power of his

successors enabled them to focus on conquest and expansion instead of building more

magnificent structures (Diamond 891). The ancient Romans also used art and architecture as

propaganda. The Arch of Constantine was erected around 315 CE to honor Constantine's

triumph at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (Smith). The decoration on the arch places the

Emperor in the lineage of the great Roman emperors and even uses elements from earlier

monuments to liken him to his predecessors (Smith). Generally speaking, monuments and statues

such as these were common in the Roman Empire to glorify and raise support for the empire and

its leaders (Smith). Although thousands of years separate modern times from the ancient world,

propaganda still serves the same purpose and motivates the masses.

The effects of ancient techniques appear tame compared to the atrocities propelled by the

power of propaganda during World War II. After World War I, countries around the world eyed

propaganda with a suspicious eye. Germans criticized their country's own efforts during the war

because they were angry that their enemies used the tool effectively (USHMM, “Propaganda”).

In his own response to the country's failure, Adolf Hitler wrote “Propaganda is a truly terrible

weapon in the hands of an expert,” and he used that idea to his advantage (USHMM,

“Propaganda”). Nazi propagandists studied the techniques successfully used in other countries

and put them to use as Hitler's own “truly terrible weapons” (USHMM, “Propaganda”). First,

they demonized the opposition and pushed the public to believe that only the National Socialists

could save Germany (Yourman 148-163). Then, they began a campaign to create a sense of

community by making sweeping emotional generalities that gave confidence to the German

people and creating the appealing image that the leaders of the government were just like the

common German (Yourman 148-163). The Nazis also evaded facts and pushed the idea that

Hitler's divine sanction and secular authority was all the citizens needed to follow because he

was leading their community to a higher status (Yourman 148-163). These techniques combined

with terrorization of the opposition played on the distress, fear, and hatred felt by the German

people for their country's predicament; in fact, Nazi propaganda was successful because the

German people were desperate for a saving grace (Yourman 148-163). Luckily, once Americans

accepted war propaganda it became a force powerful enough to unite citizens for a common

goal: defeating the German and Japanese enemy.

Despite efforts by the Allies to change their stance, Americans stayed weary of

propaganda to join WWII. Less than a year before the bombing of Pearl Harbor, President

Franklin D. Roosevelt delivered his historic “Four Freedoms” speech to urge Congress and the

American public to support the war overseas (“Powers of Persuasion”). Roosevelt appealed to

the American belief in freedom by presenting the war's ultimate aims as bringing freedoms to the

entire world:

The first is the freedom of speech and expression everywhere in the world. The second is

the freedom of every person to worship God in his own way everywhere in the world.

The third is the freedom from want which, translated into world terms, means economic

understandings which will secure to every nation a healthy peacetime life for its

inhabitants everywhere in the world. The fourth is freedom from fear, which, translated

into world terms, means a world-wide reduction of armaments to such a point and in such

a thorough fashion that no nation will be in a position to commit an act of physical

aggression against any neighbor anywhere in the world. (Roosevelt, “Four Freedoms”)

Even a gifted speaker like Roosevelt could not convince the public to join the war. Americans

were only willing to provide support at a distance until the threat touched their soil and woke the

sleeping giant. After the bombing of Pearl Harbor and the subsequent declaration of war by the

Axis Powers, the United States utilized writers, artists, and filmmakers to fuel an aggressive

propaganda campaign to mobilize American citizens, and they responded quickly to the words

and images that drove the Allies to victory (“Powers of Persuasion”).

One of the biggest elements of the propaganda campaign in America was the war posters

that dotted “post office walls, grocery store windows, bus stops, and bulletin boards” (Olson 16-

19). The government tapped into a variety of inspiring words and images. After Roosevelt's

“Four Freedoms” speech, Norman Rockwell used his words about freedom to create a series of

posters to urge the public to buy war bonds (Olson 16-19). The words on each poster were direct

and compelling. The poster “Save Freedom of Speech: Buy War Bonds” appealed to the

American need to help the war effort and spread freedom (Rockwell). “This world cannot exist

half slave and half free / Fight for freedom” was another poster that appealed to freedom, but it

also used emotional words such as “slave” to draw a strong reaction from the viewer (Falter).

Such posters did not need complex words or sentences because the audience was already

supportive of the war effort, so they instead focused on pathos. The appeal to emotion worked

brilliantly.

Many artists focused on the brutality facing people under Nazi control by using strong

language that provoked terrible mental imagery. One graphic from 1942 depicts working men

being arrested or executed with the accompanying words “We French workers warn you: defeat

means slavery, starvation, death” (Shahn, “We French Workers”). The words strike a cord with

the American citizen because with the focus on factory production for the war, it could be any

one of them in the same situation if the war comes home; furthermore, the words “slavery”,

“starvation”, and “death” imply the worst for the viewer if the Nazis defeat the United States.

“This is Nazi Brutality” takes the mental imagery even further: “Radio Berlin.--It is officially

announced:- All men of Lidice – Czechoslovakia – have been shot: The women deported to a

concentration camp: The children sent to appropriate centers-- The name of the village was

immediately abolished. 6/11/42/115P” (Shahn). In this instance, the image of a handcuffed man

standing with a bag over his head for execution is not as compelling as the words that make the

situation real. The verbs are the most striking; “shot”, “deported”, “sent”, and “abolished” all

indicate terrible consequences of Nazi reign. “This is Nazi Brutality” could perhaps be the most

compelling poster of the war because it puts to words what all of the images assaulting

Americans at the time were warning and fighting against. While these posters have a common

theme of slavery and death overseas, others focus on how to home-front can keep Americans

safe.

During the war the United States' focus on national security did not solely rest on the

happenings overseas. The government was concerned with spies within the United States, so

officials used campaigns against “careless talk” to convince citizens it was their duty to stay

silent to save lives. The main focus of these pieces of propaganda was to associate careless talk

with murder. One technique was to use scesis onamaton to focus on powerful adjectives and

nouns. “A careless word –a needless sinking”, “A careless word –another cross”, and “A careless

word –a needless loss” are simple and effective ways the government related death to careless

talk (“World War II Poster Collection”). Through the repetition of key words and phrases such as

“careless talk”, posters stuck in the minds of Americans to remind that their silence was

important for the security of ship sailings, war production, and troop movements (“War War II

Poster Collection”). On the other hand, conservation and rationing were important talk that the

government needed discussed on a daily basis to help at home and abroad.

Supplies were limited at home and at war, urging the government to bombard Americans

with messages to scrape and save. Many posters effectively used rhyme to stick in the minds of

viewers: “Of course I can: I'm patriotic as can be and ration points won't worry me!” (Williams).

Children gradually obtain phonological awareness that connects similar sounds. Rhyming the

words “be” and “me” connects the sounds and makes them more memorable. Such phonological

awareness is lifelong once learned, making rhyme useful in propaganda. In fact, American

musicians and composers employed this mnemonic device to create some of the most popular

songs of World War II.

The voices of Bing Crosby, Sammy Kaye, the Andrews Sisters, and other popular artists

fueled the American drive to win the war through song. World War II themed songs were simple,

catchy, and memorable because they preyed on the worries and thoughts of all Americans and

stuck in their minds by use of rhyme and other literary devices. Music functioned as propaganda

by being a constant reminder of the war effort and its importance. “Remember Pearl Harbor”

uses rhyme and repetition to make the words roll easily off the tongue and mind:

History in every century

Records an act that lives for ever more.

We'll recall,

As in to line we fall,

The thing that happened on Hawaii's shore.

Let's remember Pearl Harbor

As we go to fight the foe

Let's remember Pearl Harbor

As we did the Alamo. (Reid and Kaye)

By listening to the song, listeners hear the singers draw out the rhymed and repeated words to

emphasize them at the end of each line, which is an effective and common device to plant certain

words and phrases in people's memories.

The 1943 hit “Comin' in on a Wing and a Prayer” used the same technique. The tune also

utilized personification and foreshadowing to bring the scene to life. In the song, a plane was two

hours overdue from being back from its mission and the “radio sets were humming” as “we

waited for a word”, but then the crew broke through the humming to say they were “comin' in on

a wing and a prayer” as they “limp through the air” back to base (Adamson and McHugh). The

humming radio sets are personified and foreshadowing that soon they will hear something from

the missing crew. The plane limping through the air is personified as though the plane is humanly

limping back from its successful mission. Furthermore, the song contains an idiom. In the song

“on a wing and a prayer” means a person is doing something risky and counting luck or God to

bring him or her through. The crew is not actually flying on a wing or on a prayer; they are flying

on one engine and hoping they can land safely (Adamson and McHugh). It was a reality in war

and songs such as this provided inspiration for people to work harder to support the war effort.

After all, soldiers were dying and they had to do their part at home to help. Composers

constantly tackled serious topics such as these, but Americans were already assaulted with dark

and serious messages at home and at work. They needed something to temporarily relieve them

of harsh realities, and Disney delivered.

The song “Der Fuehrer's Face” originally appeared in a Disney cartoon of Donald Duck

and became a huge success, selling many records because of its amusing portrayal of the

Germans (“Disney Song”). Written by Oliver Wallace, the song mocks the Nazi's “Heil” and uses

an exaggerated German accent to insult them:

Ven der Fuhrer says, “Ve iss der Master Race,”

Ve Heil! Heil! Right in der Fuehrer's face.

Not to luff der Fuehrer iss a great disgrace,

So ve Heil! Heil! Right in der Fuehrer's face.

Ven Herr Goebbels says, “V own der vorld und space,”

Ve Heil! Heil! Right in Herr Goebbels' face. (“Disney Song”)

The song begins with the chorus in the AAAA rhyme scheme, making everything rhyme with

“race”. The verse contains the rhyme scheme AAAA BBCDCD EEFFE. Repetition of words

such as “face”, “race”, “good”, and “order” also helps the words stick in the listener's mind. On

the other hand, the accent is the most contagious part of the song because it distinguishes the

Nazis from Americans by more than just words. The whole concept of the song is brilliant anti-

Nazi propaganda because it combines literary devices and Nazi culture to create a laughable,

memorable tune that provides comic relief for the audience. People, however, needed more than

a few laughs to keep up morale; they needed to keep up the hope that their loved ones would

return home safely.

Men and women looked forward to their reunions after the war. The idea of having

someone waiting at home would certainly serve as motivation for the troops, but it is also no

surprise that people could be fearful of rejection after such a long separation. One song that

spoke of these fears was “Don't Sit Under The Apple Tree (With Anyone Else But Me)”. Relying

only lightly on rhyme, the composers repeated lines that highlighted this fear in a soldier:

Don't sit under the apple tree,

With anyone else but me,

Anyone else but me,

Anyone else but me, No! No! No!

Don't sit under the apple tree

With anyone else but me

'Till I come marching home (Brown, Tobias, and Stept)

Furthermore, the beginning of the song shows how a faithful woman kept a soldier going: “I

wrote my mother, I wrote my father / And now I'm writing you too; / I'm sure of mother, I'm sure

of father, / Now I wanna be sure of you” (Brown, Tobias, and Stept). Pieces like these were

motivation for citizens and soldiers to push harder to bring victory to the Allies. “'Till I come

marching home” and other similar lines served as reminders that the job was far from done.

Many women were sitting at home waiting for their men to return home, but many more were

supporting the troops by “working for victory” to bring their men home sooner (Evans and

Loeb).

Since the male workforce was needed for military service overseas, the government

found itself relying on women to fill the gap, leading the United States to start a propaganda

campaign geared toward women. The American icon “Rosie the Riveter” was born from the

women who slaved away in factories during World War II. Redd Evans and John Jacob Loeb

praised the “Rosies” of the war in the song “Rosie The Riveter”:

All the day long whether rain or shine

She's a part of the assembly line

She's making history

Working for victory,

Rosie the Riveter.

Keeps a sharp lookout for sabotage

Sitting up there on the fuselage

That little frail can do more than a male can do,

Rosie the Riveter. (Evans and Loeb)

The song gave a proper name to support the working women, lending importance to the endless

work they did. The women “smeared full of oil and grease” while “working overtime on the

riveting machine” to protect “Charlie” needed a battle cry to show how “Moscow will cheer

about” their hard work and dedication (Evans and Loeb). Evans and Loeb used positive nouns,

verbs, and adjectives to build women up such as “protecting”, “proud”, “true”, “red, white, and

blue”, “admire”, and “cheer”. Women needed to feel proud of their new roles, so the government

took to many similar tactics to change the ideal image of a woman with which people were

familiar.

Campaigns began to bring women who had never held jobs into the workforce (“It’s a

Woman’s War Too!”). Housewives lost their glamour and working women became the ideal; in

fact, propaganda suggested that women could be attractive, confident, and feminine even when

covered in grease after a day of hard labor (“It’s a Woman’s War Too!”). Women became proud

of their hard work because, as each poster told them, victory was in their hands (“It's aWoman's

War Too!”). “Milkman, Keep Those Bottles Quiet” illustrated the exhaustion women endured

after a long shift working with the “victory crew” at the factory (Raye and De Paul). In the song,

the woman tells the milk man: “I wanna give my all if I'm gonna give it / But I gotta get my

shuteye if I'm gonna rivet / So bail out, but, with that milk barrage / Cause it's unpatriotic, it's

sabotage” (Raye and De Paul). The song lists different jobs women had and blasted the milkman

for interrupting her sleep and harming her production. The composers used different nouns to

negatively name the milkman's “riot”, “clinks”, and “barrage” of noise and glass (Raye and De

Paul). Through music that told of the hardships of working for the war, women received

confirmation that they were not alone and that the world understood their sacrifices; more

importantly, knowing their value would give stressed and exhausted women the energy and the

confidence to push forward whether riveter or soldier (Raye and De Paul).

The Women's Army Corps, or WAC, was created as support since all the men were

needed at the war front. They had their own military songs to show pride for their work and

show confidence in their value while in an army full of men. After all, “The WAC is a Soldier

Too” (WAC Song Book 1). Songs such as the “WAC Song” were full of inspiring patriotic words

and messages that express the WAC's sense of duty, discipline, ability, and sacrifice:

O'er our land from sea to sea

Goes the cry for Liberty.

We must fight to keep our country free,

Will the women of America rise?

Leave their homes and friends and firesides?

The country all around

From each village, city, town,

Hear the women of America respond. (WAC Song Book 2)

Each piece appealed to pathos by bestowing pride upon the women assisting in the military

because even though men were on the front lines daily, women provided essential support for

the military's functioning. The government placed importance on women in the work force and

army; however, they also acknowledged that women had other ways of being ”the first line of

defense” (Women in Defense).

According to the United States Office of Emergency Management, “women have always

been the guardians of the homes and the children, the future of our country” and in 1941, skilled

and unskilled women held “an important place in the national defense program” (Women in

Defense). The propaganda film Women in Defense targeted women who were unsure of how they

could help the war movement. It begins with a call to “arms”: “Yesterday the pioneer woman

helped to win a continent. Today with the same spirit of determination, American women are

working to save this way of life” (Women in Defense). The film depicts women as scientists,

mechanics, and volunteers. Narrator Katharine Hepburn spoke of women bringing natural skills

to important jobs; for instance, women were sewing parachutes and seat covers with their

“nimble fingers” that were “capable of turning out perfect workmanship” (Women in Defense).

Women were also making precision instruments and weapons, excelling “through constant care

and alertness” (Women in Defense). The film consistently uses positive key words to show the

importance of women in the war effort by stating women are “pioneers”, “guardians”, “skilled”,

“natural” and “determined” (Women in Defense). In every possible scenario, the government

paints women as home front warriors that are just as good or even better than men in certain

jobs; furthermore, they drive home the importance of women's jobs by stating that women's work

allows bombers to fly, parachutes to open, weapons to wound, and dressings to save lives

(Women in Defense). Victory depended on war production, and the United States ensured all

citizens knew that the downfall of labor meant the downfall of the country.

Although industry required an increase in the women's workforce with so many men

fighting overseas, the country needed all available citizens to contribute to “the greatest

production effort in history” (The Arm Behind the Army). In 1942 U.S. Army Signal Corps

produced a propaganda film to highlight the consequences of a failure in war industry. Most

important was the idea that the military may have been “Uncle Sam's Fist”, but American

industry was “Uncle Sam's Muscle” and the “sweat of workers tips the beam” in favor of the

Allies (The Arm Behind the Army). Images and narration in the film tell of the terror under the

Nazis: labor permits, labor gangs, benefits suspension, slavery, starvation, and degradation (The

Arm Behind the Army). The narrator states that Americans knew Pearl Harbor “was a blow aimed

at their lives, their liberties, their pursuit of happiness” and that their job was to out produce the

Axis (The Arm Behind the Army). Furthermore, the U.S. Army Signal Corps used language to

demonstrate the danger of the Axis threat and the power of American industry by equating the

solder's fight with the worker's fight through all or nothing logic:

This war is industry's war. It is labor's war. They realize that defeat means the

unconditional and permanent surrender of all they are or hope to be. No sacrifice now

will be too great for them for their sacrifice now will ensure final victory, ours and theirs.

When we win, they win. (The Arm Behind the Army)

The idea is best summarized in a single line at the end of the film: “Wherever American soldiers

fight, the Arm Behind the Army fights with them” (The Arm Behind the Army). By making

workers feel that they are a direct part of the fight on the front lines, the United States placed

high importance on their daily jobs and made them feel like they were just as important as the

soldiers on the battle field, thereby providing a morale boost to Americans working in the

factories. All United States citizens were important for the war effort no matter their toil, but

some had to contribute to the safety of the nation in a different way.

After Pearl Harbor Japanese Americans and Japanese aliens came under scrutiny from the

government because of potential loyalties to Japan if the country managed to invade the United

States (Japanese Relocation). Many Japanese communities were located close to air bases, oil

wells, and ship yards, and there was concern that spies could watch movements within the

military (Japanese Relocation). The government created the propaganda film Japanese

Relocation to explain to American citizens the creation, need, and operation of Japanese

internment camps. The United States wanted to make sure to set their use of camps apart from

the Nazi concentration camps; therefore, the Office of War Information tackled issues of

housing, food, employment, religious services, education, and media in the film to ease the

minds of citizens (Japanese Relocation). In fact, the narrator made sure to make the point that

the internment camps were communities full of opportunity and support (Japanese Relocation).

To show that the Japanese harbored no ill will because of their predicament, the film told of

Japanese citizens making nets for the army (Japanese Relocation). After all, the Japanese were

“loyal American citizens” who were sacrificing for the war effort (Japanese Relocation). To end

the film, the narrator states that through the internment camps the United States is seeking to set

the standard for protecting against those with foreign loyalties by treating them with respect in

hopes that an Americans in the same situation will be treated likewise (Japanese Relocation).

Although the information served an important purpose, the American people already understood

their caution after living through the shock of Pearl Harbor, and the government's propaganda

guaranteed they would never forget.

The widespread availability of radio allowed the United States to provide direct

propaganda from President Franklin D. Roosevelt. During World War II, Roosevelt utilized

fireside chats to reach the American public on important issues. Only two days after the attack

on Pearl Harbor, the President took to the airwaves to prepare the nation for war against the

“powerful and resourceful gangsters [that] have banded together to make war upon the whole

human race” (Roosevelt, “On the War with Japan”). He described the “treachery” of Japan and

its collaboration with the Axis powers to make all the world's continents and oceans “one

gigantic battlefield” (Roosevelt, “On the War with Japan”). His words successfully linked each

one as an enemy of the American people with two words about each attack and invasion:

”without warning” (Roosevelt, “On the War with Japan”). Just as Pearl Harbor was attacked

without warning, so were other countries attacked by the Axis Powers. Roosevelt used labeling

to drive home the danger of their enemies by calling them “crafty”, “treacherous”, “bandits”,

“criminal”, “dishonorable”, and “aggressors” (Roosevelt, “On the War with Japan”). He also

built America up through positive labels by showing confidence in its ability to win the war,

sacrifice for the greater good, and save the world for future generations, yet through those same

words Roosevelt was putting pressure on the American people to follow any government petition

during the war and to be the “builders” of good in a battlefield of evil (Roosevelt, “On the War

with Japan”). The appeal to the people was emotional, but it was also realistic; the President

spoke honestly about the problems ahead, making his words more powerful and his pleas well

heard.

The common theme of Americans as a united fighting force proved important in

Roosevelt's fireside chats. On October 12, 1942, the chat titled “On the Home Front” directly

spoke to the hard working, united people who were “playing an honorable part in the great

struggle to save our democratic civilization” (Roosevelt). The whole address focused on positive

labeling on the American people and the fact that their President witnessed their effort

personally. Roosevelt used loose facts based on his authority to provide generalized positive

statements about the progress of the home front's effort:

So having seen the quality of the work and of the workers on our production lines-- and

coupling these firsthand observations with the reports of actual performance of our

weapons on the fighting fronts-- I can say to you that we are getting ahead of our enemies

in the battle of production. (Roosevelt, “On the Home Front”)

The President also addressed the concerns of the loved ones of military members by sharing their

concerns and again using his authority to provide positive support for the training, equipment,

and medical care for American soldiers (Roosevelt, “On the Home Front”). Whether these

statements about war production and military support out doing the enemy were actually true is

unimportant. The fact that they came from the authority of the President of the United States

provided all of the credit needed to influence the American people. With his status, Roosevelt

perhaps could have been the most effective propaganda tool in the government's arsenal.

Throughout World War II, the United States utilized propaganda posters, music, film and

radio to sway its citizens to join the war effort and support the defeat of the Axis Powers.

Through literary devices and other various techniques, the American government used every tool

possible to bombard the public with words and images to keep the need for war in the fore front

of their minds; more importantly, they were extremely successful. After all, Hitler’s own words

proved correct. Propaganda was “a truly terrible weapon in the hands of an expert”

(“Propaganda”). Luckily for the world, the United States' expertise in the sway of public opinion

was an unstoppable force for the common good. The power of language is undeniable after the

events of World War II, and hopefully it won't lead to such a large scale disaster again.

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