edna ferber’s women characters, 1911 – 1930, and …...edna ferber’s women characters, 1911...

EDNAFERBER’SWOMENCHARACTERS,1911–1930,ANDTHEREINTERPRETATIONOFTHEAMERICANDREAMTHROUGHAFEMALELENS

AThesis

SubmittedtotheFacultyof

TheSchoolofContinuingStudies

Andthe

GraduateSchoolofArtsandSciences

Inpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthe

degreeof

MasterofArts

InLiberalStudies

AnneEfmanAbramson,B.A.

GeorgetownUniversity

Washington,D.C.

April30,2010

EDNAFERBER’SWOMENCHARACTERS,1911–1930,ANDTHEREINTERPRETATIONOFTHEAMERICANDREAMTHROUGHAFEMALELENS

AnneE.Abramson,B.A.

Mentor:MichaelCollins,Ph.D.

ABSTRACT

EdnaFerber(1885‐1963)wasaPulitzerPrize‐winningauthorandoneof

themostpopularwritersofhertime.Today,however,sheisrarelyreadinschools

orcolleges,althoughherplaysarestillproduced,andthefilmsbasedonher

novels,playsandshortstoriescontinuetobeappreciatedbyclassicfilmlovers.

ThisthesisdemonstrateshowEdnaFerbercreatedfemalecharactersintheearly

yearsofthetwentiethcenturywhostruggledagainsttheconstraintsofsociety’s

traditionalfemaleroles,whowerethefirstintheirnontraditionalprofessions,

andwhoachievedtheirownversionoftheAmericanDream.EdnaFerberalso

revisitedAmericanhistorywithstoriesthathighlightedwomen’scontributionsto

America.

ThisthesisfirstintroducesEdnaFerber,herbackgroundandherearly

yearsdrawingfromFerber’stwoautobiographies,APeculiarTreasure,1939,and

AKindofMagic,1963.Second,itdiscussestheNewWomanattheturnofthe

century;theAmericanDream,historicallyandinrelationtoFerber’sfemale

characters;andEdnaFerberasamiddlebrowmodernwriterwhoseliterary

outputhadpowerfulculturalagency.Inaddition,itshowshowEdnaFerberused

smalltownMidwesternsettingstoexploreandresolvethefemaleconflict

betweencommitmenttofamily/communityandself‐actualization.Thefocusison

EdnaFerber’sworkwrittenbetween1911and1930:theshortstoriesabout

EmmaMcChesneyinthreecollections,RoastBeefMedium1913,PersonalityPlus

1914,andEmmaMcChesney&Co.1915,andsixnovels,DawnO’Hara1911,Fanny

Herself1917,TheGirls1921,SoBig1924,ShowBoat1926,andCimarron1930,

writtenduringatimeofsignificantchangeforwomeninAmerica.Inconclusion,

thethesisdemonstrateshow,atacriticaljunctureinAmericanhistory,these

storiesofindependent,successfulwomenservedasbothmodelandinspirationto

Ferber’slargefemaleaudience.EdnaFerber’sbedrockbeliefinAmericaand

Americanwomeniswhatallowedherandherfemalecharacterstointerpretthe

AmericanDreamthroughafemalelens.

Thispaperisdedicatedtomymother,EvaOstroyEfman,whocametothebigcity,NewYork,andreturnedhometoWilkesBarre,PA.asayoungmarriedwomantorunherfamilyDryGoodsStore.AndtomyfatherSamEfman,whofirstleftRussiaandthenGalena,Illinoisbecausehewantednopartofhisfather’s,antiquesshop.

TABLEOFCONTENTS

ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................................ii

DEDICATION..............................................................................................................................................iv

INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................................1

CHAPTERONE:THEEARLYYEARS..................................................................................................6

CHAPTERTWO:THEMIDWEST,ITSPEOPLEANDITSVALUES...................................... 14

CHAPTERTHREE:THEAMERICANDREAM.............................................................................. 20

CHAPTERFOUR:THEEMERGING‘NEWWOMAN’ATTHETURNOFCENTURY...... 29

CHAPTERFIVE:MIDDLEBROWMODERNWRITERSANDMASSAPPEAL................... 39

CHAPTERSIX:DAWNO’HARAANDEMMAMcCHESNEY:CHANGEINTHEFEMININEOBLIGATION ..................................................................................................................... 46

CHAPTERSEVEN:FANNYHERSELF,TRIUMPHOFARTOVERMATERIALISM.......... 55

CHAPTEREIGHT:PIONEERINGWOMENANDTHEWESTERN,SOBIGANDCIMARRON................................................................................................................................................. 63

CHAPTERNINE:THEGIRLSANDSHOWBOAT,THEGENERATIONALNOVELS......... 76

CHAPTERTEN:CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................... 87

BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................................................... 92

INTRODUCTION

EdnaFerber’sfemalecharacters,inhershortstoriesandnovelswritten

between1911and1930,embodiedtheAmericanDream,theideathatwith

intelligenceandhardworktherearenolimitstoindividualsuccess.These

womenblazednewtrailsinawhite,male‐dominatedsocietyandengagedin

professionspreviouslyonlyenvisionedformen:farmers,pioneers,newspaper

publishers,travelingsaleswomen,andbusinesswomen.Hercharacterswere

independent,successful,self‐supporting,andvisionaryintermsofwomen’s

liberation.Herheroineswerealsopioneersinliteratureinrevealingthe

importantrolewomenhadplayedhistoricallyinthegrowthofAmericasincethe

CivilWar.

AdoptingandadaptingthepromiseoftheAmericanDreamforthemselves,

Ferber’swomenservedasmodelsfortheNewWomanworkingatatimeofrapid

industrializationintheUnitedStatesandexpandingopportunitiesinthe

workforce.EdnaFerberalsorevisitedtraditionalAmericanhistoricalnarratives

withherfemalecharactersatatimewhenwomen’scontributionstoAmerican

historyhadnotbeenacknowledgedbecause“mythicalcommemorationin

Americasooftenfixatesonmaleachievement.”1Throughfemalecharacterswho

wereentitledandemboldenedontheirjourneytoself‐definition,eachstoryand

1J.E.Smyth,EdnaFerber’sHollywood:AmericanFictionsofGender,Race,andHistory(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2010),135.

novelinthistwentyyearperiodrevealsaprocessthathelpsthosewomenself‐

actualize,leadingtoindividualachievement,self‐fulfillment,contributionsto

familyandcommunity,andthedreamattained.

ThisthesiswilldiscussEdnaFerber’sthreeshortstorycollectionsabout

EmmaMcChesney,RoastBeefMedium1913,PersonalityPlus1914,andEmma

McChesneyAndCo.1915,andsixnovelswrittenbetween1911and1930,when

herculturalagencywasatitshighestandwhenshewaspartofaselectgroupof

writers,dubbedmiddlebrowmoderns,who“advancedtheculturaldebateover

domesticityandwomen’swork,marriageandreproduction,assimilation,

consumercultureandcapitalism,andtheriseofnewtechnologies.”2Herbooks

soldexceptionallywellandtheirauthorityandimpactderivedfromtheir

powerfulmessagethatawomancoulduseallofherfacultiesandcompetitive

driveintheserviceofherownambitionandthisdrivewouldnotdiminishher

femininitybutratherenhanceit.Additionally,Ferberdemonstratedthatinthe

journeytorealizeherdreamsawomancouldholdontoold‐fashionedvaluesand

artfullybalancehertime‐honoredcommitmenttofamilyandcommunitywithher

moremodernpursuitofsuccess.

EdnaFerber’sownlifeandcareerweretheembodimentoftheAmerican

Dreamandthewellspringofherintensiveliteraryoutput.Shewasintelligent,

2LisaBotshonandMeredithGoldsmith,MiddlebrowModerns:PopularAmericanWomenWritersofthe1920s(Boston:NortheasternUniversityPress,2003),6.

disciplined,hard‐working,andpossessedextraordinarybusinessability.Sherose

fromhumblebeginnings—withoutacollegedegree—tobecomeabestsellingand

prize‐winningauthorandplaywright.EdnaFerberisrelevantbecauseshedared

toexploreandintegrateoldandnewworldsoffeminineaccomplishment.When

EdnaFerberdiedonApril16,1968,herobituaryranonthefrontpageofTheNew

YorkTimeswithafullpageinsidechroniclingherlifeandwork.Therewasa

photoofEdnaFerberwithKatharineHepburnandPresidentFranklinD.

Roosevelt,printedundertheheadline“NovelistwhochronicledAmericaisdead

at82.”3ItwasastunningtributefromthebenchmarkofAmericanjournalism,

recognizingherstatusasasignificantwriter.Theobituarystated,“Herbooks

werenotprofound,buttheywerevividandhadasoundsociologicalbasis.”

4Additionallyitnoted,“Shewasamongthebest‐readnovelistsinthenationand

criticsofthenineteen‐twentiesandthirtiesdidnothesitatetocallherthegreatest

Americanwomannovelistofherday.”5

Inherlifetime,EdnaFerberpennedtwelvenovels,publishedtwelveshort

storycollections,collaboratedonnineplays—sixwithGeorgeS.Kaufman,twenty‐

fiveofherworkswereadaptedintoscreenplays,andshewonaPulitzerPrizein

1925forherbook,SoBig.Whenshecouldtaketimeawayfromherwriting,she

3ObituaryofEdnaFerber,NewYorkTimes,April17,1968.

4Ibid.

5Ibid.

hadaseatattheexclusiveAlgonquinRoundTable.Toappreciatethedepthofher

popularity,whenshewasatwenty‐sevenyearoldreportercoveringthe1912

RepublicanNationalConvention,PresidentialnomineeTheodoreRoosevelt,after

meetingher,askedherhowshewasgoingtoresolvethemarriageissueinher

serialEmmaMcChesney.Hewrote,“IwonderifyoufeelthatIamhopelessly

sentimentalbecause...Iwouldhavelikedsomehowtoseenotonlytheboymarry,

butpoorEmmaMcChesneyatlasthavethechanceherselftomarrysomebody

decentwithwhomshewasinlove!”6AccordingtoPublisher’sWeekly,from1900

to1960,“onlyturn‐of‐the‐centurynovelist(sic)WinstonChurchilloutperformed

Ferber.”7

Ferber’strajectoryfromsmallMidwesterntownstothebigcities,Chicago

andthenNewYork,gavehertheinsightsheneededtounderstandandchronicle

thestrugglesofherlargelyfemale,lowerandmiddleclass,andimmigrant

audiences.Unabletoaffordcollege,sheenteredtheworkforceattheageof

seventeenasthefirstfemalenewspaperreporterfortheAppletonDailyCrescent

(Wisconsin)andcontinuedworkingdailyforoversixtyyearsuntilherdeathin

1968.Throughhardwork,self‐discipline,andingenuitysheroseintheworld,

6JulieGilbert,Ferber:EdnaFerberandHerCircle:aBiography(NewYork:ApplauseBooks,1998),409.

andalthoughraisedJewish,shewoulddescribeherJudaismas“thesourceofher

‘Puritan’conscience.”8

TheNewYorkTimesstated,“Ineverythingsheundertook,whethercivic

improvement,books,plays,causesagainstprejudice,shehadburning

determination.”9Thissamedeterminationisfoundineachofhersemi‐

autobiographicalfemalecharacters.Inherstorieswrittenbetween1911and

1930,andespeciallyinthenovelsofthe1920s,shewrotewithauthorityabout

womenwhomaximizedtheirintelligence,theirbusinesstalent,andtheirabilityto

persevereagainstdifficultoddsintheserviceoftheirambitionandtheirgoals.

ThisthesiswillrevealhowEdnaFerber’schildhoodandMidwestern

valuesnurturedherpositiveviewofwomenandtheirabilitytocompetein

society.Additionally,itwillshowhowFerberwasabletoreachlargeaudiences

bycapitalizingonnewtechnologiesthatusheredinmasscirculationmagazines,

Hollywoodmovies,monthlybookclubs,andnationaladvertisingandmarketing

campaigns.Finally,althoughtheroadtosuccessisdifferentandevolvingforeach

femalecharacter,thethesiswilldemonstratehowFerberexploredandresolved

theconflictbetweencommitmenttofamily/communityandself‐actualization,

therebyremovingtheobstaclestoachievingtheAmericanDream.

8ChristopherP.Wilson,WhiteCollarFictions:ClassandSocialRepresentationinAmericanLiterature,18851925(Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1992),66.

9ObituaryofEdnaFerber,NewYorkTimes,April17,1968.

CHAPTERONE

THEEARLYYEARS

Bornin1885inKalamazoo,Michigan,toanAmerican‐bornmotherof

GermandescentandanHungarian‐bornfather,EdnaFerbercameofagebefore

womenhadtherighttovoteormanychancestorealizethebenefitsoffull,

participatorycitizenship.Awoman’sfuturewastiedtoherfamilystatusifshe

wasnotmarriedortoherhusband’scareerifshewas.Everythingduringthis

timecenteredinandaroundthehomeforwomen,thedomesticsphere.A

woman’shomereflectedherfinesensibilitiesanditwasafulltimejobtomaintain

homeandfamily.Beginninginthelateeighteenhundreds,womenventuredout

andintothefieldsofteaching,socialwork,andsocialscience,butrarelycombined

workandfamily.Womentookprideintheirself‐reliance,strongworkethic,and

commitmenttotheircommunityandthesociety.Ferber’sbodyofworkandher

ownlifestylecelebratedtheseveryqualities.

AttheageofnineEdnaFerberboastedofhavingread,“allofDickens,butI

alsoadoredtheFiveLittlePepperbooks,theSt.NicholasMagazine,allofLouisa

Alcott....Ireadallthebooksinthehouse...allthebooksintheveryinadequate

littlepubliclibrary.”1Bythetimesheenteredhighschool,shewasreadingabook

aday.Whenshereachedherjobatthepaper,allofherreadingbegantoshow

1EdnaFerber,APeculiarTreasure:Autobiography(NewYork:TheLiteraryGuildofAmerica,Inc.,1939),36.

results:“Now,whenIneededit,Ifoundmyselfequippedwithafairvocabulary....

O’Henry,thewriterofshortstorieswiththesnapperending,wasthemodelafter

whicheveryyoungwriterpatternedhimself....Now,unconsciously,Icopiedhis

style;buttherewasastrongdashofDickens,too;...”2

SheidentifiedwithO’Henry’sstrongobservationsaboutthelittlefolks,the

oneswhopopulatedthesmalltownsacrossAmerica.Therewassomesimilarity

inthewriters’backgrounds.Theybothservedasshopclerks,heathisuncle’s

drugstoreandsheatherparent’sdrygoodsstore.Theybothpickedupthepatois

ofthemasses.Theywerebothnegativelyimpactedbydishonestyinbusiness;

O’Henry,accusedofstealingfromthebankheworkedat,wouldservetimeina

Federalprison,andEdnawouldseeherdreamofgoingtocollegedismantledby

anemployeewhonotonlystolefromtheFerbersbutindirectlycausedtheir

bankruptcy.InaninterviewinTheNewYorkTimesin1915,sheclaimed,“Inever

aimedtowearO’Henry’smantle,orhisshoes,orhiscloak....Iwroteaboutthe

womanwhointerestedme—thebusinesswoman.IthappenedthatO’Henrywas

interestedinher,too.”3Thisworking‐classAmericanwoman,venturingout

againstdifficultoddsandcompetinginabusinessworlddominatedbymen,

wouldremainthefocusofallofherwriting.

3JoyceKilmer,“BusinessWomanMostDomestic,”NewYorkTimes,April4,1915.

Ferber’sparents,infollowingtheirownAmericanDream,traveledtothe

smalltownsofKalamazoo,Michigan;Ottumwa,Iowa;andfinallyAppleton,

Wisconsin;tosetupageneralstore.Herfatherwasnotadeptatbusinessand

tragicallybegantolosehiseyesightatanearlyage.Mr.Ferber’sweaknesses

forcedhermotherintothedualrolesofheadofthehouseholdandbreadwinner.

Earlyon,Ferbersawthatrealwomencouldrisethroughhardshipandbe

successfulinthebusinessworldofmen.Theuprootingfromonesmalltownto

anotherwithstopsinChicago,atthehomeofhermaternalgrandparents,

enhancedFerber’sfeelingsofisolationandhelpeddevelopherabilitiesasakeen

observer.Shestates:

thetownsofmyearlychildhoodprovidedmewiththeterrorandlonelinessofSelinaPeakeinthenovelSoBigwhenshecameasaschoolteachertothelittleDutchsettlementofHighPrairiejustoutsideChicago;SabraCravatofthebookCimarronwhenshecamewithhermelodramatichusbandYanceyCravattothewildstrangelifeoftheIndianTerritory’sopeningofOklahoma;thechildMagnoliaHawksofthefloatingtheatreinShowBoat.4

IntheProgressiveErainAmerica,1890through1920,womenbeganto

adoptthemodeloftheself‐mademananduseitfortheirownself‐making.

Womenwerebeginningtoaccesshighereducationandthegrowingconsumer

culturegavethemopportunitiestobecomeentrepreneurs.Independenceand

upwardmobilitywereopeninguptowomeninbravenewways.“Ifpopular

literaturegeneratedimaginativemodelsforfemaleenterprisewherenoneexisted

4EdnaFerber,AKindOfMagic:Autobiography(NewYork:Doubleday,Doran&Co.,1963;NewYork:LancerBooks,1966),75.

inreality,itnonethelesswasmarkedbyanambivalencetowardwomen’scapacity

toreconcilethetenderqualitiesoffemininitywiththecutthroatworldof

marketplacecompetition.”5Ferber,whosechildhoodandyoungwomanhoodtook

placeatthebeginningoftheProgressiveera,wasabletomeldthevaluesofthe

nineteenthcenturywoman’sfictionswithhercompetitivenewbusinesswoman

characters.Ferber’smotherandthefarmwomenwhotradedattheirstoregave

herabedrockbeliefinwomen’sstrength.Inherhistoricalnarratives,sheoften

revisitswomenabandonedorleftbehindtosecurethedreamforherfamily,a

womanwhoisliberatedoutofnecessitytoassumethetraditionalpatriarchal

role.EdnaFerber’stwoautobiographies,PeculiarTreasurewrittenin1939andA

KindofMagicin1963,andhernieceJulieGilbert’sbiography,Ferber:EdnaFerber

andHerCircle,1978,demonstrateherdesireforwomentoachieveandherbelief

inthepowerandstrengthofwomen.

AllthathappenedinherownfamilypreparedFerbertodemandthe

dreamforwomenandreinterprethistorythroughthelensofherfemale

characters.Herwomenwerestrongandsmart,andtheyembracedtheir

responsibilitiesinintelligentways;theyweresurvivorsnotvictims.Whatever

propelsthemintotheworkforce,necessityordesirefornewareasoffulfillment,

isturnedintoamotivatingforce.ThisredefiningoffemalecharacterssetFerber

apartfromhercontemporaries.Herwomenareself‐madeandaresuccessful

5JeffreyLouisDecker,MadeinAmerica:SelfStyledSuccessfromHoratioAlgertoOprahWinfrey(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1997),xxviii.

whenmeasuredbythetraditionalstandardsofAmericansocietythatvalued

domesticsuccessforwomenandprofessionalandmonetarysuccessformen.

“Throughherheroine,EmmaMcChesney,theauthor[Ferber]attemptedto

resolvethecontradictionforenterprisingwomenwhowishedtoremainfaithful

totheidealsoftruewomanhood.”6ThewomeninFerber’swritingare

independentthinkerswhostriveforpersonalfulfillmentandserveasexamples

formillionsofwomenreadersofwhatthisnew,workingwomancanlooklike.As

hernieceJulieGilbertstates,“ShewasaprecursoroftheWomen’sLiberation

Movementbydepictingeverysingleoneofherfictionalheroinesasprogressive

originalswhodoggedlypavedlargeinroadsforthemselvesandtheir‘race.’”7

EdnaFerber’smotherJuliawasabusinesswomanoutofnecessity,asmany

ofFerber’sfemalecharacterswouldbecome.Watchinghermotherbuy,selland

maneuverinman’sworldwasthefirsthandexperiencethathelpedFerber

envisionherfemaleprotagonists.Whenspeakingofhermother,EdnaFerber

recountsthefountainfromwhichallherstrongfemalecharactersemanate.

Shebelongsdefinitelytothatraceofironwomenwhichseemstobefacingextinctionintoday’sAmerica.TheybravedtheAtlanticinthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies;theycrossedawildernessofplainandprairieintheeighteenth;theyplungedintobusinessandtheprofessionsinthe

6JeffreyLouisDecker,MadeinAmerica:SelfStyledSuccessfromHoratioAlgertoOprahWinfrey(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1997),25.

7JulieGilbert,Ferber:EdnaFerberandHerCircle:aBiography(NewYork:ApplauseBooks,1999),12.

nineteenththroughastormofhorrifieddisapproval.Hardy,indomitable,oftheearthanditsfullness.Weshallnotseetheirlikeagain.8

EdnaFerber,whowassurroundedathomeandinthestorebyhard

workingwomen,celebratestheAmericanwoman,herstrengthandhercourage,

andsherevisitshistorybygivingAmericanwomentheirhonoredplaceinit.

Ferberpassionatelybelievesthatherwomenshouldserveasmodelsand

inspirationinbusinessandhistory.Shewrote:

Themajorwomenofallmynovels,plays,andshortstorieswritteninthesepastfiftyyearsandmorehavebeendelineatedaspossessedofstrength,ingenuity,perception,initiative.ThisisbecauseIthinkthatwomeningeneral—andcertainlytheAmericanfemaleoftheUnitedStates—isstrongerincharacter,moreingenious,moreperceptiveandmorepower‐possessing(potentially)thantheAmericanmale.9

Ferber’schildhoodexperienceinthesmalltownofOttumwa,Iowa,from

agesfivetotwelve,showedherthedarksideoftheAmericanDream.Herfather

broughtanemployeetojusticeforstealing,butwhenthetrialbegan,nowitnesses

wouldtestifyonMr.Ferber’sbehalf.Theiremployees,theirneighborsandtheir

townabandonedtheFerbers.“ChildthoughIwas,thebrutalityandignoranceof

thatlittletownpenetratedmyconsciousness.”10Ferberdescribeswalkingto

8EdnaFerber,APeculiarTreasure:Autobiography(NewYork:TheLiteraryGuildofAmerica,Inc.1939),165.

9EdnaFerber,AKindOfMagic:Autobiography(NewYork:Doubleday,Doran&Co.,1963;NewYork:LancerBooks,1966),322.

schoolorthestoreinthissmalltownandhearingkidshurlanti‐Semiticremarks.

WithonlysevenJewishfamilies,therewaslittleprotectionfortheFerbergirls

whoseparentsspenttheirdaysintheirstore.Thefeelingsofbeinganoutsider

gaveherthedepthtounderstandwhatitfeltlikeforalloutsiders,immigrants,

African‐Americans,NativeAmericansandwomen,whowerestilltryingtogaina

footholdinAmerica.

ItwasinOttumwa,Iowathatherfantasiesofescapingandbecoming

famousbegan.TheFerberfamilyenjoyedthetravelingtheatershowsthatcame

throughtownandbroughtideasabouttheoutsideworld.YearslaterFerber

wouldsay,“Godblessthetheaterforwhatitgavetoafrightenedfun‐lovingfamily

offour.”11Itwasalsoherethatherfatherbegantolosehiseyesightandsheread

aloudtohimthePotashandPerlmutterstoriesfromtheSaturdayEveningPost.It

wasapowerfullessontowatchamanwhowasgoingblindlistentothesestories

andlaughsohardhebegantocry.Andhere,in1897,Ferberwenttoherfirst

movie‐ananimatograph.

Therefore,atanearlyage,Ednahadalreadyencounteredherpassionfor

reading,fortheshortstory,andforthetheater.Herabilitytowritenovels,short

storiesandplaysallowedforamulti‐disciplinedplatformforhertalent.She

neverwroteconsecutivelyinthesameform,switchingfromnoveltoshortstory

11Ibid.,56.

toplay—andshelikeddoingitall.Attheendofanovelorplay,sheoften

traveled,butwhenwritingsheneverbrokethemomentum.

Apatternhadalreadyevolved:whatwasbitterorhardandcouldcertainly

derailanyAmericanDreamistransformedintoalessoninstrengthandresolve.

ToFerber,thispromiseofAmericaisalwaysthere.Herwomenaretheunderdogs

whobattleagainsthardshipanddiscriminationandwin;thesewomenarethe

emotionalbackboneofallofherwriting.Althoughherfamilyhadbeen

bankruptedbythelawsuitinOttumwa,inlateryearswhenshevisitedIowaEdna

Ferberclaimed:

Forthefirsttimeinmylife,outofthedeepwellofrepressionwheretheyhadsolongfestered,Idraggedthosesevenyearsofmybitterlittlegirlhoodandlookedatthem.AndthecoolcleanIowaaircleansedthem,andIsawthemthen,notasbittercorrodingyears,butasastringentstrengtheningyears;yearswhoseadversityhadgivenmeandmineasolidfoundationofstamina,determinationandaprofoundloveofjustice.12

CHAPTERTWO

THEMIDWEST,ITSPEOPLEANDITSVALUES

EdnaFerbermaintainedaspiritualhomeintheMidwest,longaftershe

ceasedtolivethere.TheFerbers’movetoAppleton,Wisconsin,whenEdnawas

twelve,restoredherfaithinthepromiseofAmerica.“Appletonrepresentedthe

Americansmalltownatitsbest.Asenseofwell‐beingpervadedit.Itwas

curiouslymodernandfreeinthebestsenseofthewords.Cliques,malice,gossip,

snobbishness—alltheinsularmeannesses—werestrangelylackinginthis

thrivingcommunity.”1TheAppletonSynagogue,TempleEmanu‐El,withitsforty

JewishfamiliesmostlyfromasmalltowninGermanycalledGemuden,wasalsoa

sourceofsupport.EdnaFerberlovedherhighschooland,inhersenioryear,was

theStateofWisconsindeclamatorychampion.

Temporarilydevastatedbythelackoffundsthatpreventedherfrom

attendingNorthwesternUniversityandachievinghergoalofbecominganactress,

EdnaFerberwentdowntowntotheAppletonDailyCrescentin1902atonly

seventeenandwashiredasareporter.Afterayearandahalf,aneweditor

arrived,andshewasdismissedandshemovedontotheMilwaukeeJournal.In

trueFerberfashion,sheremembersthisexperienceasthebestthingthatcould

havehappenedtoher,statingrepeatedlythatshelearnedmorebeinga

newspaperreporterthansheeverwouldhavelearnedatcollege.Inaddition,she

alwayspridedherselfonherclaimthat,“‘Iwasonceanewspapermanmyself.’”2

Yearslatershewoulddescribehowdifficultitwastoleaveherfather.“Iwonder

nowhowIeverhadthecouragetoleavethatblindinvalid.Ittakesrealcourageto

beselfish....IamcertainInevershouldhavewrittenifIhadnotgone.“3Manyof

Ferber’swomenaretornbetweentheircommitmenttofamilyandtheirneedfor

independenceandself‐fulfillment,andcannotdecidewhethertheirdrivetoself

fulfillmentisjustifiedorselfish.

WorkinginMilwaukeeandlivinginaboardinghouse,shewasableto

experiencewhatmanyyoungwomenofherdaydid—comingtothebigcityto

findwork.ThecityservedastheGardenofEden,achancetoremakethemselves

likeAdam,rebornwithallthepossibilitiesavailabletotheNewWoman,outof

sightoffamilyandcommunity.Here,shewasalsoabletozeroinonthescopeof

Midwesternersdailylives,thesocialeventsthatgetreported,andtoinvestigate

theundersideofthetown.AttheMilwaukeeJournal,Ednachasedstoriesthrough

roughweatherandwalkedhundredsofmilesaweek.Shebecameilland

returnedhomeafterfoursyears,physicallyandemotionallyexhausted.However,

sherecoveredfromherordealbywritingherfirstnovel,DawnO’Hara,andthen

herfirstshortstory,TheHomelyHeroine,whichshesenttoEverybody’sMagazine

3Ibid.,129.

whereitwasaccepted.Althoughstillclerkingparttimeatthefamilystore,her

newcareerasawriterhadbegun.

EdnaFerberhadnointerestinemulatingtheEuropeansortheRussiansin

writingstyleorcontent.Herideologywasclosetothefoundingfathersand

earlyliterarygiants—AmericaandAmericansasrebornandpossessingthetalent

todevisealiteraturethatreflectsthenewcontinent.LikeHenryWadsworth

Longfellow,shewantedanationalliterature,“‘commensuratewithour

mountainsandourrivers....Wewantanationaldramainwhichscopeshallbe

giventoourgiganticideasandtotheunparalleledactivityofourpeople....’”4

EdnaFerberwantedtowritein“American.”

HereinAmerica,Ithought,therewaslightness,buoyance,andanelectricqualityintheair.Hereeverythingwasstilltobedone....BetweenusandtheRussianwayofthinking—or,forthatmatter,theEnglish,theFrenchortheGerman—therelaythreethousandmilesofcleansingsaltwater;and,stillmoreeffectuallyseparatingus,abulwarkoffreedomofspeech,ofthought,ofconduct.Herewasanewfreshcountry.WhynotwriteinAmerican?5

EdnaFerberwasinlovewithAmericansmalltownlife.“Whatacountryit

is!...Intheveryqualityofthesoilitselfthereseemstobesomethingthatmakes

forvitalityandexcitement,anelectricelementverydisconcertingtotheEuropean

4PaulaMarantzCohen,SilentFilmandtheTriumphoftheAmericanMyth(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2001),23.

5EdnaFerber,APeculiarTreasure:Autobiography(NewYork:TheLiterary

GuildofAmerica,Inc.1939),181‐182.

visitor.”6Shesaidmanytimesshewouldlovetositonacorneranywherein

Americaandwatchlifegoby.HerlanguageisthatofworkingclassAmericans

whosestrugglesshechroniclestoreflectwhatwashappeningsociallyand

politicallyatthetime.

EdnaFerberlikedtowriteabouttheAmericanMidWestandtheWest.

“TheMiddleWest,theFarWeststimulatesandexcitesmemorethananyother

sectionofAmerica....Itseemstometobefresher,morevital,anintegralpartof

theAmericanwayoflife.”7Shealsofavoredwritingabouttheworkingclass:“itis

themiddle‐layerworkingpeoplewhohavetherealcockinessandflavor‐ordid

have....Butthemanandwomanwithajob—ornotlongwithoutone...theystill

retainakindofprimaryAmericanfreshnessandassertiveness.”8

EdnaFerber’sworkalsoembracedRegionalism,whichbecameimportant

afterthe1850sbecauseitgavewomentheopportunitytoexploretheconditions

andconflictsaffectingthembyobservingtheirimmediatesurroundings.

Womenwritersusedgeographyasawaytotalkaboutgender;‘undercoverofregionalism...thesewomenwritersexploredtheterritoryofwomen’slives...Theywereregionalists—butnotsolelyinthewayscriticshaveconventionallythought.ThegeographyofAmericaformedan

6EdnaFerber,APeculiarTreasure:Autobiography(NewYork:TheLiteraryGuildofAmerica,Inc.1939),10‐11.

7Ibid.,255‐256.8Ibid.,365.

importantpartoftheirwork,butessentiallytheychartedtheregionsofwomen’slives,regionsbothwithoutandwithintheself.’9

EdnaFerberwouldbecomeknownforherregionalandgenerationalnovels,

whereaftercarefulresearchshewoulddevelopnarrativesthatcombinedhistory

withplaceand,especiallyintheearlynovels,recastthewoman’sroleand

establisheshercontributiontothathistoricalnarrative.Ironically,the

RegionalismalsohurtsFerber’scriticalreception.AsAngelaJanuzziwritesinher

thesis,Faulkner,Ferber,andthePoliticsof20thCenturyCanonFormation,“Ferber

madehersettingsthecenterpieceofeachbookratherthancreatingthemasmere

backdrops,andthisleftheractualstory‐tellingtobecompletelycontingentupon

regionaldescriptions,ratherthantheopposite.”10

AttheheightofFerber’spopularity,herstoriesaboutMidwesternsmall

townlife,itspeopleandtheirstruggleswerecloselyalignedwiththemainstream

marketersofliterature.ThemissionofthePulitzerPrize,createdin1917,wasto

“selectanovelreflectingthe‘whole,’oralternatelythe‘wholesome’atmosphereof

Americanlife,’aswellas‘thehigheststandardofAmericanmannersand

9ElaineShowalter,AJuryofHerPeers:AmericanWomenWritersfromAnneBradstreettoAnnieProulx(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,2009),187.

10AngelaJanuzzi,“MakingAn‘AmericanClassic’:Faulkner,Ferber,And

ThePoliticsof20thCenturyCanonFormation”(master’sthesis,UniversityofMaine,2007),47.

manhood.’”11NicholasMurrayButlerwouldgoontodominatetheprize

selectionsandextolthisidealizedgoodAmericancitizenascomingfrom“oneof

thehundredormoresmallcitiesandtownsintheMiddleWest.”12

Simultaneously,themostpopularmagazinesofherday,“cultivatedanaudiencein

thenewcitiesoftheMidwest,oftenaimingexplicitlyatsalariedwhitecollar

workersandtheirwives.”13Itwasthese“MainStreet”writerswho“readily

acknowledgedtheopenborderstheyhopedtocreatebetweenlifeandart,seeing

theirliteraryworkassocial‘potions,’intraclassallegories,patronageofsocial

classes,andscriptsforliving.”14

12Ibid.,14.13Ibid.,15.14Ibid.,19.

CHAPTERTHREE

THEAMERICANDREAM

ThepromiseofAmericathatwascriticalforthePuritansduringthe

nation’sfoundingwasthepromiseofabetterlifeforthemselvesandtheir

children.Inhisbook,TheAmericanDream,JimCullenstates:

Their[Puritans]confidence—inthemselves,intheirsenseofmissionfortheirchildren,andinaGodtheybelievedwasontheirside—impelledthemwithruthlesszealtogambleeverythingforthesakeofavision.Intheprocess,theyaccomplishedthecoretaskintheachievementofanyAmericanDream:theybecamemastersoftheirowndestiny.1

InthefoundingoftheRepublic,theDeclarationofIndependencebecametheBible

oftheAmericanDreamforthearistocratswhocreateditbyespousingLife,

LibertyandthePursuitofHappiness.Althoughsignificantgroupswere

excluded—women,AfricanAmericansandNativeIndians—intheend,those

groupswhowereexcludedusedthelanguageofabsoluterightsintheirbattlesfor

thosesamerights.

Allnotionsoffreedomrestonasenseofagency,theideathatindividualshavecontroloverthecourseoftheirlife.Agency,inturn,liesattheverycoreoftheAmericanDream,thebedrockpremiseuponwhichallelsedepends.ToparaphraseHenryDavidThoreau,theDreamassumesthatonecanadvanceconfidentlyinthedirectionofone’sdreamstoliveoutanimaginedlife.”2

1JimCullen,TheAmericanDream:AShortHistoryofanIdeaThatShapedaNation(Oxford[England]:OxfordUniversityPress,2003;OxfordUniversityPresspaperback,2004),18.

2Ibid.,10.

CullenreferstoBenjaminFranklin,as“FoundingFatheroftheAmerican

Dream”3andtheembodimentoftheself‐mademan.Franklin’sphilosophy,a

“trustinthebasicdecencyofhumanbeings,abeliefthatearthlyandheavenly

rewardsarebroadlyconsonant,andaboveall,asereneconfidencethatbothcan

beattained—reflectedthecoreconvictionsofagreatmanyAmericansofhis

time.4

Asthenationgrew,philosophers,theologiansandPresidentswereableto

espousetheirpersonalideasandtoreflectonthepromiseandpossibilities

inherentintheAmericanDream.PresidentAndrewJackson,thefirstpresident

whocamefromhumblebeginnings,wasanexemplaroftheAmericanDream.

“Bornpoorinanearwilderness,hehadforgedsuccesslargelyonhisown,byhis

strength,hisironwill,hisexertionsandconvictions.”5Thedreamofabetterlife

andupwardmobilitycontinuedtodominatepoliticaldiscourse.AbeLincoln,

speakingtoCivilWarsoldiersin1864,said,“Nowhereintheworldispresenteda

governmentofsomuchlibertyandequality.Tothehumblestandpoorestamong

usareheldoutthehighestprivilegesandpositions.”6

3JimCullen,TheAmericanDream:AShortHistoryofanIdeaThatShapedaNation(Oxford[England]:OxfordUniversityPress,2003;OxfordUniversitypaperback,2004),65.

4Ibid.,65.

5Ibid.,69.6Ibid.,97.

Cullenexplains:

IfthereisoneconstantintheDeclarationofIndependence,itliesinthewaynoversionofthestatusquoisevercompletelyacceptable.Itprovidesuswith(oftenimperceptiblyshifting)standardsbywhichwemeasuresuccessbutsimultaneouslycallsattentiontothegapbetweenwhatisandwhatwebelieveshouldbe,agapthatdefinesournationalexperience...theDeclarationwasbornandlivesasthecharteroftheAmericanDream.Itconstitutesus.7

Inthetimeframeofthesebooks,writtenbyEdnaFerberbetween1911and

1930,itwasacceptedthattheabilitytorisefromhumblebeginningstobecome

PresidentoftheUnitedStatesorchairmanoftheboardwastheexclusivedomain

ofmen.Consequently,storiesofupwardmobilityandself‐makingwerethe

domainofmenaswell.

Inhisbook,TheApostlesoftheSelfMadeMan,JohnCaweltiexaminestheimageoftheself‐mademan,thatindividualisticexemplaroftheAmericanDream.Caweltidescribesthreeprincipal‘traditions’abouttheself‐madeindividualandthe‘idealofsuccess’inAmerica:First,theProtestantworkethic,basedonthebeliefthatpiety,honesty,hardwork,andfrugalitybringapersonbothsuccessinthislifeandsalvationinthenext;second,thevisionoftheself‐mademanasaneconomicsuccess,withinitiative,competitiveness,andaggressivenessreplacingtheoldvirtuesinalatenineteenth‐centuryatmosphereofincreasedindustrialdevelopment;third,atraditionofsuccess‘tiedtoindividualfulfillmentandsocialprogressratherthantowealthorstatus.’8

However,theseprincipalsalsostronglyreflectthecomplexsetofstrengths

andcharactertraitsinEdnaFerber’swomen.Theyarevirtuousenoughtobe

electedandcompetitiveenoughtobesuccessful,andsuccessistiedtoself‐

7Ibid.,58.8SallyElizabethPeltierHarvey,WillaCather:RedefiningtheAmerican

Dream(Cranbury,NJ:AssociatedUniversityPresses,1948),7.

fulfillmentandsocialprogress.Inherautobiography,AKindofMagic,Ferber

states:

TheywereandarebooksoftheAmericandream,oftheAmericannightmare,ofthesmallnessandgreatnessandbeautyandsordidnessandromanceandtragedyofapeopleintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.Iamnotatallembarrassedtosayindeepandquietsatisfactionthatthesebookshavebeenreadbyfourgenerations....Thebookswillbereadinthenextfiftyyearsbyanotherfourgenerationsifthisworldstillmanagestopickitswayoutofthepathofthemissilesandthespaceships.Makeofthiswhatyouwill.9

Thebulkofthisstatementistrue;theywereandarebooksabouttheAmerican

Dream,butinEdnaFerber’swritingthedreambelongstowomen,dramatically

re‐aligningawoman’splaceintheworkforceandre‐imagininghistorical

narrativesconcerningtheWest.“FerberwasoneofAmerica’smostprominent

historicalnovelists,awriterwhoseuniquelyfeminist,multiracialviewofthe

nationalpastdeliberatelyclashedwithtraditionalnarrativesofwhitemasculine

power.”10Herpowerwasfurtherenhancedwhenthesenovelsweretranslatedto

themoviescreen.Althoughtranslationtothescreenmarginalizedherwomen

protagonists,theystillhadauthority.

Ferber’snovelsconsistentlyemployednarrativeelementsandthemesthatdirectlycounteredHollywood’s‘wayofseeing’history,humanagency,andtheAmericanexperience.Thenovel’sfemaleprotagonistswerescarcelysubordinatetomalehistorymakersorvictimizedbysocialconventions

9EdnaFerber,AKindofMagic:Autobiography(NewYork:Doubleday,

Doran&Co.,1963;NewYork:LancerBooks,1966),142.10J.E.Smyth,EdnaFerber’sHollywood:AmericanFictionsofGender,Race,

andHistory(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2010),5.

andconditions,asHollywoodtypicallywouldhaveit,butinsteadactively,‘drovethecourseofAmericanhistory.’11

IntheJournalofPopularCulturein1968,AbigailHamblen,writingto

acknowledgeEdnaFerber’sdeath,wroteaboutFerberandtheAmericanDream.

ReadingaFerbernovelisanengrossingexperience.TheFerbermagicmakestheAmericanDream,aswehaveseen,averyvividconcept....HereisanauthorconcernedprincipallywiththematerialityoftheAmericanDream....Forthemostpart—atleastinhermajorfiction—sheignorestheunsatisfied,thefailures,thebroodingsadnessofthoseforwhomtheAmericanDreamhasbeenasneeringdelusion.12

HambleniscorrectinsayingthatFerberdoesnotdealwiththedisillusioned,

especiallyinherearlywork.However,contrarytowhatHamblenstates,Edna

Ferberwasnot“concernedprincipallywiththematerialityoftheAmerican

Dream.”13Whenherfemalecharactersaresuccessful,mosteschewmaterialism

forpersonalfulfillmentandworkonbehalfoftheirownself‐interestandthe

welfareofothers,andtheyworkforsocialprogress.Byplacingapositive

connotationonrewardingthosewhopersevere,Ferberbringsthepossibilityof

theAmericanDreamtoavastswathofAmericanwomenwhosevaluesshewishes

toshapeandwhosedirectionshewantstosteertowardsthePromisedLand.She

didnotwriteaboutthefaileddream,becauseherwomenalwaysemergefromthe

11J.E.Smyth,EdnaFerber’sHollywood:AmericanFictionsofGender,Race,

andHistory(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2010),ix.

12AbigailAnnHamblen,“EdnaFerberandtheAmericanDream,”JournalofPopularCulture,noII(1968):408.

13Ibid.,408.

strugglevictorious,althoughtheyhaveexperiencedsomeadjustmenttotheir

goalsinthejourney.HerbeliefswereclosetothatofthewriterWilliamDean

Howellswhowrote,“thattheAmerican,‘breathesararifiedandnimbleairfullof

shiningpossibilitiesandradiantpromises.’”14Thesuccessofherwomenagainst

incredibleoddswasproofofHowell’sdictum.

OneofthefrustrationsthatEdnaFerberexperiencedasawriterwasthat

criticsandreadersfailedtounderstandhersatire.“InCimarronIwroteastory

whosepurposewastoshowthetriumphofmaterialismoverthespiritinAmerica,

andIdidshowit,butperhapsIwastooreticentaboutit....InSoBigIusedthe

sametheme...Sameresult.Terrificsales;aboutninepeopleknewwhatIwas

drivingat.”15Ferberwasaddressingmanyseriousissues:pioneerwomenwho

wantedtotransformthenewfrontierstolookliketheestablishedcitiestheyleft

behind;nativism,thepoortreatmentofimmigrantpopulations;racismagainst

AfricanAmericansandNativeAmericans;andtheillusionoflimitlesslandand

limitlesswealth.Althoughdisappointedthathersatirewasnotunderstood,ifyou

studyherreadingpublic,youngwomen,immigrantwomen,andwomenstriving

fornewfrontiersoftheirown,theirreadingherstoriesassatire,andnotuplift,

wouldcompletelyunderminetheirpowerforthewomenwhoreadthem.

14SallyElizabethPeltierHarvey,WillaCather:RedefiningtheAmerican

Dream(Cranbury,NJ:AssociatedUniversityPresses,1948),16.15JulieGilbert,Ferber:EdnaFerberAndHerCircle:aBiography(NewYork:

ApplauseBooks,1999),312.

AsAmericansmalltownswereshiftingfromaproducer‐toaconsumer‐

basedeconomy,theopportunityforupwardmobilitywasdisappearing.The

storiesthatchronicledtheupwardlymobile,includingtheHoratioAlgerstories,

becamemorepopularthaneverduringthistimeofexpansionintheearly

nineteenhundreds.Thesestoriesgavehopetothoseatthemargins,immigrants,

AfricanAmericansandwomen.InmostofFerber’sstories,afterherfemale

characterssucceedonaprofessionallevel,theygaininsecurityandareallowedto

succeedonapersonallevel.ReaderscouldnotseethesatirebecauseFerber’s

womencharacters,nomatterhowreluctant,stridentorunaware,succeedby

traditionalstandardsandwerenotvictimizedbythesysteminthepursuitoftheir

dream.Ferberalsomaintainssomeofthevalues,dedicationtofamilyand

community,thathadbeenlostintheaggressiveworldofearlytwentiethcentury

Americawhenmanyworshipedmaterialismoverallelse.Herwomenareself‐

made,butsofterandmorethoughtfulintheiraggressionandclimbtosuccess.

Consequently,Ferberwasabletocreatewomenwhoexemplifiedamorebalanced

dreamincontrastwiththeruggedindividualwhostroveforsuccessatanycost.

AgoodexampleofthisistheEmmaMcChesneyserieswhere“thevirtuesoftrue

womanhoodthatEmmabringstoheroccupation—dignity,cordiality,goodhealth

andmaternalsacrifice—createtheconditionsforhersuccess.”16Themalesin

Ferber’sstoriesareeitheranewtypeofpartner,acompanionwhoisintelligent

andsecureenoughtoallowthefemaletoliveanindependentandfulfillinglife,or

theyareconvenientlyeliminated.

Adversity,inwhichthefemaleheroineneedstosummonallofher

determination,hardwork,andintelligenceinordertoextricateherselffrom

difficultsituationsandbecomethemasterofherowndestinyintheserviceofher

dream,isamainstayofallofFerber’swomencharactersbetween1911and1930.

InEmmaMcChesney,thetitlecharacter,Emma,isasinglemotherwhostartsasa

stenographerandultimatelyrisestoatoppositionatherfactory.DawnO’Hara,

herfirstnovel,recountsthetrialsofayoungbride/newspaperwomanwho

escapesamentallyunstablehusbandandworkshardtostaydedicatedtoher

marriageandultimatelyherowncareergoals.InFannyHerself,Fanny’smother’s

deathleavesheraloneintheworldexceptforabrotherwhosemusicalstudies

shecontinuestosupport.Althoughsuccessfulinbusiness,Fannygivesitallupfor

herartandajobasanillustratorchroniclingtheillsofsociety.InTheGirls,Isaac

Thrift,thepatriarchbuildsastrongbusinessthatisalmostruinedbyhisson‐in‐

law’sembezzlementbutrescuedbyhisdaughterCarriePayson,whohasthe

businesstalentneededtorunthecompanyandprovideforherfamily.InSoBig,

afterSelinaDeJong’shusband’sdeath,shetakesoverhisfarmandsinglehandedly

bringshishardscrabbleacrestolifewithnewvegetablesthatcommandahigh

priceinthemarketplaceandwhosevarietiesmakeherfamous.InCimarron,

SabraCravat,ratherthanfallapartduringherhusband’slongabsences,manages

thenewspaperhestarted,hisaffairsandtheirhomesuccessfully.InShowboat,

threegenerationsofwomenevolvewithincreasedfreedomsandresponsibilities

tokeeptheircareersandtheshowboatalive.

TheAmericanDream,theideathatonecanbeginanewandnotbelimited

byhis/herhistoryorregressivesocietalnorms,isparticularlyrelevantfor

Ferber’scharactersintwoways.First,herwomenarenotconstrainedbysociety’s

verylimitedandlimitingviewofawoman’srightfulplace,andtheycantherefore

branchoutintonewareasofworkandfulfillment.Secondly,inherhistorical

narratives,aslayersarepeeledawayandwomen’scontributionstohistoryare

acknowledged,womenareelevatedinauthorityandstature,therebygivingthem

equalstatusinrelationtotheirmalecounterparts.Inbookafterbook,these

heroinesdealwiththepromiseoftheAmericanDream,wherehardworkand

determinationpayoff,andtheyratherthantheheroesarerewarded.

CHAPTERFOUR

THEEMERGING‘NEWWOMAN’ATTHETURNOFTHECENTURY

Inherbook,Women’sFiction,NinaBaym,describesthecriteriafor

women’sfictionwrittenbetween1820and1870.“Theyarewrittenbywomen,

areaddressedtowomen,andtelloneparticularstoryaboutwomen.They

chroniclethe‘trialsandtriumph’ofaheroinewho,besetwithhardships,finds

withinherselfthequalitiesofintelligence,will,resourcefulness,andcourage

sufficienttoovercomethem.”1ThisstandardcouldbeusedtodescribeFerber’s

fiction,onlywithachangedsetting.Ferbertakesthemoralvaluesandworkethic

fromwomen’sfictionofthatearliertimeandincorporatesthemintoher

successfulbusinesswomen’sfictionandherhistoricalnarratives.

EdnaFerber’sstatementthatatayoungageshehadreadallofLouisaMay

AlcotthelpstoexplainthebackgroundofFerber’sfemalecharacters.AsElaine

Showalternotesinherbook,AJuryofHerPeers,“Theheroineofwomen’swriting

inthe1870swas‘thecomingwoman,’theemancipatedwomanofthefuture.”2

AftertheCivilWar,andwhatwasassumedasavictoryforcivilrights,women’s

rightsbecamecenterstageinwomen’sliterature.“Radicalabolitionistshad

1NinaBaym,Women’sFiction:AGuidetoNovelsbyandaboutWomeninAmerica18201870(NewYork:CornellUniversityPress,1978;reprint,Chicago:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1993),22.(pagecitationsaretothereprintedition).

2ElaineShowalter,AJuryofHerPeers:AmericanWomenWritersfromAnne

BradstreettoAnnieProulx(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,2009),164.

promisedthataftertheemancipationoftheslavewouldcometheemancipationof

thewoman.”3AsJuliaWardHowestates:

‘Ilookedtothemasculineideaofcharacterastheonlytrueone.Isoughtitsinspirationandreferredmymeritsanddemeritstoitsjudicialverdict...Thenewdomainnowmadecleartomewasthatoftruewomanhood—womannolongerinherancillaryrelationtoheropposite,man,butinherdirectrelationtothedivineplanandpurpose,asafreeagent,fullysharingwithmaneveryhumanrightandeveryhumanresponsibility.Thisdiscoverywasliketheadditionofanewcontinenttothemapoftheworld,orofanewtestamenttotheoldordinances.’4

IthasbeenwrittenaboutLouisaMayAlcottthat“LittleWomen,(1868)is‘the

Americanfemalemyth,’andAlcott’sheroineJoMarchhasbecomethemost

influentialfigureoftheindependentandcreativeAmericanwoman....Through

thefigureofJoMarch,Alcottexploredalternativemodelsforthewomanartist.”5

InLittleWomen,AlcotttriestogivetheindependentJoanegalitarianmarriage

andshowhow,withcertainaccommodations,apartnercouldsupportherinher

work.InWork,herheroineChristieDevon,widowed,isliberatedtoleadherown

life:“Christiehasthecredibilityofthewidowwithouttheburdenofthewife.”6

ManyofFerber’scharactersfollowthesamepattern;theyareindependent

womentryingtoaffectsupportiverelationshipssotheycancontinuetoworkwith

4Ibid.,165.5ElaineShowalter,SistersChoice:TraditionAndChangeinAmerican

Women’sWriting(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1991),44.6ElaineShowalter,AJuryofHerPeers:AmericanWomenWritersfromAnne

somedegreeofindependence.Thosewhoaresinglehavetheopportunityto

strikeoutontheirown,outofnecessity.Whentheydofindapartner,itis

someonewithastrongfemalevalence,whooffersemotionalsupportandallows

theheroinetobeonanequalfooting.EdnaFerber’sideasareclosetoAlcott’s

heroineRosewhocriesoutin,RoseinBloom,“We’vegotmindsandsoulsaswell

ashearts;ambitionandtalentaswellasbeautyandaccomplishments;andwe

wanttoliveandlearnaswellasloveandbeloved.I’msickofbeingtoldthatisall

awomanisfitfor!”6

InmanyofFerber’sstories,oneofhercharacterscomestothedefenseof

theworkingwomansaying,“Anyworkiswoman’sworkthatawomancando

well.”7Ferberprovesthisstatementbyplacingherwomencharactersinjobs

usuallythoughtofasexclusivelyformen.Ferbermadeeloquentpleastowomen

inherautobiographytomakethemostoftheirlives.“Yetifeachwomanfrom

eighteentoeightywouldquietlytakestock,determinedtoliveuptohermental

andphysicalandspiritualpotentialitiesforonehouraday—evenfortwohoursa

week—ourfranticworldoftodaycouldbesavedfromitself.”8

8EdnaFerber,AKindOfMagic:Autobiography(NewYork:Doubleday,

Doran&Co.,1963;NewYork:LancerBooks,1966),340.

EdnaFerber’swomenwanttobetreatedasequals,intheworkplaceandin

marriage.Mostofthemfacethelifejourneyalone.Theyaredivorcedorwidowed

orsingle,butratherthanallowingthistobeahardship,thisbecomesasourceof

strength.Ferberdoesnottrytopaintthedynamicofahappymarriage:allofher

characters,inherearlynovels,areintheprocessoftryingtoeffectarelationship

thatwillleadtoacompanionatemarriage.AttheendoftheEmmaMcChesney

series,Emmadoesmarry,butshespendsthefirstfewweeksaftermarriage

visitinghersonanddaughter‐in‐law,alone.AlthoughSabraCravatinCimarronis

married,herhusbandisawaymuchofthetime.Ferber’ssinglewomen,through

hardworkandself‐reliance,summonalloftheirstrengthandindependenceinthe

serviceoftheirowndreams.

AsAmericaapproachedtheturnofthecentury,thechoicesforwomeninsociety

weregrowingexponentially.TheNewWomanchallengedthelimitedrolesthat

hadcircumscribedtherangeofpossibilitiesinhermother’sgeneration.As

Showalterstates:

Theprewaryearswereaperiodofexhilaratingfemalesolidarity,inthesuffragemovement,infeministclubsandprofessionalcommunities....Thenewterm‘femininism’replacedthe‘womanquestion’tosuggestaquestforintellectual,political,sexualselfdeterminationaswellasthevote,andactivefeministsjoinedtheNewWoman.9

9ElaineShowalter,AJuryofHerPeers:AmericanWomenWritersfromAnne

ThissentimentalheroinebeforetheCivilWarfounditdifficulttoexistin

therealworldbecausehernaturewasthoughttobemorefragilethan

competitive.Herinfluenceextendedonlytoherhomeandherfamily.By

contrast,theNewWomanwhoemergedattheturnofthecenturywasvitaland

energetic.“Shewasathletic,healthy,eagertotakeonchallengesinanondomestic

world.”10ItcouldbesaidthattheoldvirtuesoftheTrueWoman,purity,piety,

submissivenessanddomesticity,gavewaytotheNewWoman.Shewas“better

educatedandtrainedthanthewomanofthepast;willingandabletoearnher

living...waslessdependentonmen,botheconomicallyandintellectually.”11

Inherearlyfiction,EdnaFerbersituatesherwomenintheworkforceand

highlightshowtheywillimprovetheirownsituationaswellasthatoftheir

families,theirco‐workers,andthecommunitythatsurroundsthem.Withthe

revolutionintheworkplace,theadditionofsignificantnumbersofwomen

workers,Ferberdrawswomenwhoprovetheirworthtosocietywithout

threateningthatsocietyorshortchangingfamilyorcommunityintheprocess.

Ferberseesawomanintheworkplaceaspositiveandnurturingandasamodel

forbalancebetweenworkandfamily.However,shealsogivesthemaccessto

10LisaBotshonandMeredithGoldsmith,MiddlebrowModerns:Popular

AmericanWomenWritersofthe1920s(Boston:NortheasternUniversityPress,2003),91.

11MarthaJ.Cutter,UnrulyTongue:IdentityandVoiceinAmericanWomen’s

Writing,18501930(Jackson:UniversityofMississippiPress,1999),xv.

theiraggressionandcompetitiveness,toolstheyneedtogetahead.MartyBrooks

statesinhisthesisSelfMadeWoman:

Thefeminineupwardmobilitynarrativeswrittenbetween1900and1930werepartofamoveawayfrommaternaljustificationsofmiddleclasswomen’spublicworkandtowardmoreliberalconceptionsoffeminineinfluenceinthepublicsphere,influencebasedonself‐interestandself‐assertion.Thenarrativeof‘Americansuccess,’workingone’swayupinsocietythroughone’sindustryandgumption,becameavehiclethroughwhichwriterscouldimaginetheimpactthatwomenworkersmighthaveonsocietyinwaysthatwerenotstrictlylimitedto‘maternal’function.Itallowedwritersbothto‘test’theimpactthe‘new’workingwomanmighthaveonsocietyandtoimaginetherolethatthesewomenworkersmighttake.Italsoallowedwriterstoenvisionhow‘feminine’reformofAmericanSocietymighttakeplace.12

FerberstatesinherautobiographythatJaneAddamsandIdaTarbellwere

heroesofhers.JaneAddamswasthefounderofHullHouse,oneoftheearliest

settlementhousesinthecountry,whichservedthepoorimmigrantpopulationof

Chicago.IdaTarbellwasamuckrakingjournalistwhoexposedthemonopolistic

practicesoftheStandardOilCompany.Inherearlywork,Ferberalwaysincludes

someaspectofJaneAddams’conflictbetweenthefamilyandthesocialclaim,a

daughter’sstruggletobereleasedfromfamilyobligationssothatshecanfulfill

importantcontributionstosociety.ThissocialclaimsurfacesevenasFerber’s

womenareintheirupwardlymobileclimb.Itisaneffectivewayofbridgingthe

gapbetweengenerations,asmanyofFerber’sstoriesbegininthelatenineteenth

century.Thefemaleherousuallyrescuessomeonelessfortunate,animmigrant

12MartyBrooks,“‘Self‐Made’Women:EnvisioningFeminineUpwardMobilityinAmericanLiterature,1900‐1930”(PhDdiss.,DukeUniversity,1999),15.

factoryworker,anorphan,orsomeonecaughtinthelegalsystem.Themagichere

istherescuerwho,becauseofherworkinhelpingothers,gainsinvitalityand

intellectandheightenshervalueintheworkforce.Ferberistryingtoprovethat

women,althoughworkingoutsideofthehomeandoutsidethetraditionalsettings

ofwomen’swork—teacherandsocialworker—couldbringthemodelofgood

worksandgoodvaluestoanyworkplace.

Addamsalsoadvancedtheideaofculturalfeminism.Thisphilosophy

arguedthatwomenweremorehumanitarian,caringanddown‐to‐earththanmen

were.Byrestrictingwomen’sfreedomandkeepingtheminthehome,thelarger

societyshoweditwascorruptandunjust.Everydaylifefunctionedpoorlybecause

itwasbasedonmalevaluesandethics.Societywouldberadicallyaltered

throughtheinclusionofvaluesotherthanthedisplayofpowerandforce,

characteristicsofmen.AllofFerber’sworkisimpactedbytheseideasofJane

Addams.WhileFerberallowsherNewWomanindependence,shesoftensthe

conflictbetweenself‐sacrificeandself‐realization.

Bytheearlynineteenhundreds,theNewWomanwasincreasinglyengaged

inworkoutsidethehome.MartyBrookswrites:

...theprimechangeintheworkforcewasinthetypeofwomenenteringthelaborforceandthetypeofjobstheyoccupied...Womenintheworkingandimmigrantclassesalwaysworked,butsuddenlytheywerebeingjoinedbytheirwell‐heeledsisters.Andthese‘new’womenworkerswere

appearinginplaces,departmentstoresandofficesthatmadethemhighlyvisible.13

By1910thirty‐eightpercentoftheclericalworkforceandtwenty‐eightpercentof

thesalesforcewerewomen.Thiswasasignificantincreasefromtheendofthe

19thcentury.

Asteadystreamoftime‐savingnewproducts‐vacuumcleaners,washing

machinesandevenautomobiles‐werereleasingwomenfromthedrudgeryof

houseworkandallowingthemtotakeonnewrolesoutsidethehome.Women’s

economicenfranchisementgavethemincreasedeconomicpowerandsocial

freedom.Whereasthevotewascriticalforwomenintheearlyyears,itdidnot

proveasdynamicaforceforchangeaseconomicopportunity.InUnrulyTongue,

MarthaCutterstates:

WhenthefurorovertheNewWomansubsided,itbecameapparentthatwomenhadusedthenewimagetoclaimpersonal,political,linguistic,sexual,andsocialfreedom.Thedomesticrealmandthedomesticdiscoursewouldneveragainhavethesamesanctityaswomen’s‘natural’destiny.Thechainshadbeenbroken;thecagehadbeensprung.14

TheNewWomanimpactsFerber’shistoricalnarrativesandher

generationalnovels.HerhistoricalnarrativesrevisitAmericanwomen’s

contributionstosociety,placingtheminfrontiersettingsandvalorizingtheir

contributionstothegrowthofthenation.Ferber’sgenerationalnovelsalways

13MartyBrooks,“‘Self‐Made’Women:EnvisioningFeminineUpwardMobilityinAmericanLiterature,1900‐1930”(PhDdiss.,DukeUniversity,1999),7.

14MarthaJ.Cuter,UnrulyTongue:IdentityandVoiceinAmericanwomen’s

Writing,18501930(Jackson:UniversityofMississippiPress,1999),15.

highlightwomen,insmallbusinesses,onthefarm,orontheprairie,whowere

oftenthebrainsandthebackboneofthesesuccessfulenterprises.Withoutthe

emergenceoftheNewWoman,Ferber’sshortstoriesandherhistoricalnovels

wouldnothavehadthecredibilitytoofferthisvisionoffemininepower,and

consequentlytheabilitytopositanindependentAmericanDreamforwomen.

InaninterviewwithR.HeylbutWollensteininTheNewYorkTimesonMay

11,1924,entitledGirls–SeenbyEdnaFerber,Ferbercrystallizesherthoughts

abouttheNewWoman.Ferbercomparestheflapperofthetwentiestothemore

seriouscollege‐educatedwoman,whoalthoughstillevolving,ismoreself‐

assured.“Thesetwotypesaregoingtomergeintoonesomeday,andshe’llbe

thereal,vital,worthwhile,representativetwentiethcenturywoman.”15Ferber

believedthattheFirstWorldWarandtheresultingchangesinsocietyhadnot

allowedwomentorealizetheirfullpotentialforgrowth.However,inlookingto

thefuture,herwordsreflectWilliamDeanHowell’sshiningpossibilities—the

promisethatthedreamwillbefulfilled.HereFerbersays:

Iwouldn’twanttotradethelasttenyearsforanytwentythatwentbefore.It’sbeenglorioustoactuallyseethechangescomeinwomen’sdressingandthinkingandlivingandplanning.Icanhardlywaittoseewhatthenexttenwillbring.There’sbeenvastmotionforward:theactofprogressingtowardanewtypeofwoman.Onlyweoftodayhaven’tarrivedathercrystallization.Wehaven’tgottentoadestination;notevenastop‐over.We’restillontheway.Butinwaitingformytwentiethcenturywomanto

15R.HeylbutWollstein,“Girls—SeenByEdnaFerber,”NewYorkTimes,May11,1924.

crystallize,Icanonlylookatthemoreorlessephemeralgirlsoftoday,sovivid,soexquisite,sosureofthemselves,andwishIweretenyearsyounger!16

16R.HeylbutWollstein,“Girls—SeenByEdnaFerber,”NewYorkTimes,May11,1924.

CHAPTERFIVE

MIDDLEBROWMODERNWRITERSANDMASSAPPEAL

ThepowerofEdnaFerber’smessagecamefromherculturalagencyand

thatagencywasfueledbyherabilitytoreachlargeaudiencesduringatimeof

dramaticchange.Ferber’spopularity(atatimewhenwriters,whoworkedatthe

intersectionofpopularculture,literature,theater,magazines,radioandmovies

sawthewidestdistributionoftheirwork)madeinroadswiththeNewWoman

whowasseekingmodelsforherupwardmobilityandherculturaleducation.

“Thetermmiddlebrowwasdevisedtocondemntheattemptsofeducatorsand

writerstodemocratizeculture.”1Thepopularmagazinesofthedayincluded

Ferber’sshortstoriesaswellashernovels,inserializedformat.Inthebeginning

ofthetwentiethcentury,theeditorsofAmerican’spopularmagazineswere

powerfularbitersofliteraryandculturaltastes,andtheyinfluencedpoliticsas

well.“Thoughmodernssneeredatwomen’smagazines,theyrepresentedan

influentialmiddlebrow‘cultureofletters,’inthetwentiesandthirties.”2They

publishedFerber’sworkenthusiastically.However,theintelligentsiaresentedthe

2Ibid.,119.

factthattheaverageman“wasnotonlythecenterofthepoliticalsystem,butthe

arbiter,toaveryconsiderableextent,ofliteraryandartisticdestiniesaswell.”3

By1926,FerberhadbecomeoneofthemostpopularwritersinAmerica.

Shehadmadethebestsellerlistsandherbookswereselectedbythepopularnew

monthlybookclubs,Book‐of‐the‐MonthClubandLiteraryGuild,andmanyofher

books,shortstoriesandplayswerealreadymadeintoHollywoodfeatures.Her

relationshipwithHollywoodwasoneofthemostsuccessfulinhistory.Itbegan

withthesalein1918ofOurMrsMcChesney,(aplaysheco‐wrotewithGeorge

HobartthatwasasuccessonBroadwaystaringEthelBarrymore),andcontinued

throughthesaleofIcePalace,purchasedin1958byJackWarnerforWarner

Brothersfor$350,000and15%netprofitfromthefilm.Intheintroductionto

MiddlebrowModernsbyLisaBotshonandMeredithGoldsmith,EdnaFerberis

groupedwithwomenwriterswho,“deliberatelytargeted‘middle’audiencesfor

maximumdistributionandprofit.”4Theygoontoconcludethat“eachofthese

womenwritersstruggledtoclaimavoicewithinalargelymale,aesthetically

exclusiveliteraryestablishment;eachbridgedthechasmofpopularandcritical

4LisaBotshonandMeredithGoldsmith,MiddlebrowModerns:Popular

acclaim,yetneverreceivedthelevelofrespectsuchanachievementtypically

commands.”5

Thesheernumbersofreadersofpopularmagazinesduringthe

ProgressiveeracreatedaplatformforNewWomanliterature.Editorswere

awarethattheinclusionofpopularfictionintheirmagazineswaskeytoretaining

currentreadersandincreasingcirculation.Thenumbersarestaggering.

Cosmopolitan,whichpublishedsomeoftheEmmaMcChesneyseries,hada

circulationofonemillionby1915.In1911,theWoman’sHomeCompanion,

realizingitcouldexpanditsreadershipwithfiction,begantopublishserialized

novelsandshortstoriesineveryissue.In1927,theCompanionreachedtwo

millionviewersandwriters,includingEdnaFerber,werepaidupto$85,000fora

novelserialization.Itwasestimatedthatforeverysubscriptiontherewerean

additionalthreetofivereaders,boostingthepotentialreadingaudienceintothe

millionsandpromptingcriticallywell‐reviewedwriters,includingWillaCather

andEdithWharton,aswellaspopularmalewriterslikeRobertChambers,tolook

toserializationtoearnaliving.

FerberandHollywoodbothusedhistoryasawaytoenhancetheircraft.

“PartofFerber’suniquenesscertainlylayinherabilitytoconnecttherevisionist

historicaltrendsinAmericansocialandculturalhistoriographyduringthefirst

5Ibid.,19.

halfofthetwentiethcenturywiththeculturalpowerofHollywood.”6Hollywood

waslookingformaterialforitslargefemaleaudienceandFerbersuppliedthat

material.Herapproachtohistory,womenandrace,“fitwithHollywood’sown

ambitiontoproduceanationalhistoricalgenrethatappealedtowomen.”7

Ferber’soriginalfemalebusinesswomanandhergenerationalnovels

explorethetransitiontomodernlifeandthefreedomsthatnewgenerationsof

womengainedinthatprocess.Manyartistsaddressedtheissueofwomen’sroles

andthedynamicchangethatwastakingplace.

...butthemiddlebrowwriterpublishinginamassmediumoperatedinanarrativelandscapeofarchetypalcharactersrepresentingoldandnewwaysofbeing,aswellastraditionalandmodernconceptionsofwoman’splaceinthedevelopingindustrialorder.Theywerethusabletodrawmoreclearlythebattlelinesinagenderwaroverhowwomenweretofitintothemodernworldofnewtechnologies,educationalopportunities,andchangingculturalvalues.8

EdnaFerbertooktheprocessofmarketingherliteraryproductsseriously,

therebyenablingherreadertoaccessherstoriesthroughmanymedia.Thebroad

coalitionofAmericanwomenwhoreadherbooks,throughtraditionalandnew

media,wasneitherhighbrownorlowbrow,butpartofthevastmiddlebrow,the

littlefolkswhoFerberwaswritingabout.Itwasthiscommercializationofculture

7Ibid.,29.8LisaBotshonandMeredithGoldsmith,MiddlebrowModerns:Popular

andthegoalofprovidingaccesstoherworkbyawideraudiencethatthreatened

anddiminishedFerber’scriticalreception.ThebookSoBighadthree

adaptationsinHollywoodwithlegendarystarslikeBarbaraStanwyckandJane

Wyman.SoBigwasserializedintheWomen’sHomeCompanionfromDecember

1923throughMarch1924forwhichFerberreceived$35,000.WhenSoBigwas

firstsoldtoHollywood,itwasmadeintoasilentfilmandFerberreceived$20,000.

Whentalkingpicturescameinthefilmwasremadein1931,thestudiopaidher

another$20,000.TheironyhereisthatthebookSoBigisaboutawomanwho

turnsatruckfarmintoasuccessfulenterprise,butwhoisnotsweptupin

materialism.Instead,sheuseshermonetarygaintoreinvestinherfarmand

appreciatethenaturalbeautyoftheartandarchitecturethatsurroundher.

EdnaFerberdidthesamewiththemoneyshereceivedfromthesaleofher

books.Shekepttoarigidscheduleofwritingeachday,longafteritwasclearthat

shedidnotneedthemoney.Itwasnotthatshewasmaterialistic,althoughshe

didenjoymaterialthings;rathersheneededtoworkforherownsatisfaction.So

Bigwasabestseller,spendingsixteenweeksonTheNewYorkTimesbestsellerlist

andsellingthreehundredandtwentythreethousandbooksbeforetheageof

bookclubs.ThesuccesshelpedFerberstaytruetohercraft,andthesaleofone

bookallowedhertowriteanother.

InaletterwrittentothePulitzerPrizecommitteeEdnaFerber’sfriend

WilliamA.White,amemberofthePulitzercommitteeandeditoroftheEmporia

Gazette,makesapleaforthechoiceofSoBigasthewinner.“Thecontentionof

herbookisthatAmericaneedscreativespiritinsomethingbesidesfinance;that

weshouldexpressourselvesinbeautifulthings—beautifularchitecture,beautiful

livesandthatbeautyisthesadandvitallackofAmerica.”9Whitewouldgoonto

writeanintroductiontoacollectionofherstoriesandstate,“InSoBig,Ferber

wroteastorythatcelebratedlifeandthespirit,notsuccess.”10Eachofhernovels

wasaliteraryenterprise,runlikeabusinesswithaneyetowardmaximumsales

inallmedia.Althoughofferedlargesumsofmoney,Ferberneverrushedoutto

HollywoodtowritescreenplayslikehercounterpartsAnitaLoosorLillian

Hellman.Frankly,shewasnotdesperateforthemoney,andshedidnotlike

Hollywood.

EdnaFerberwouldalsobeconsideredanoriginalintermsofbranding.

WhenshesoldabooktoHollywood,hercontractstatedthatallprintedmaterials

andpostersreflecthernamefirst,beforethefilm’sname.Hermoviesappearedas

EdnaFerber’sCimarronorEdnaFerber’sSoBig.Thisisstilltruetoday.In

addition,sheinventedtheideaofsellinglimitedrightstodevelopherstoryor

novel.Inthecaseofthemovierightsforanybook,sheinsistedonlimitedrights,

theuseofherproductforalimitedtime.Whentheperiodexpired,she

renegotiatedandgotanadditionalsum.Eveninthetwenties,beforetheadventof

10Ibid.,46.

TV,shealwayssoldonlythefilmrightsandinsistedthatshekeeptheradioand

TVrightsforherself.Laterinthefifties,shewasabletonegotiateapercentageof

thefilm’sprofitsalongwiththeinitialpurchasefee.ShereadVarietyandthe

othertradepublicationsofthefilmindustrydailytomonitorherbrandand

maintainbothcontrolandincome.

EdnaFerberwasanastuteobserverofAmericansmalltownlife.Shewas

schooledinnewspaperworkandtheFerberfamilystoreandherliterarytalent,

businessacumen,determination,andintimacywiththelivesofthewomenshe

waschroniclingintersectedtocreatehermassappeal.Astudyofmiddle‐class

femaleconsumersbyEricLofroth,preparedinthe1930s,concludes:

Themiddle‐classfemalereaders...foundthemselvestheobjectsoftheburgeoningmiddlebrowcultureindustryofthe1920swhichproposedtouseliteratureasavehicleforself‐improvement,toprotectliteraryandculturalvaluesinamomentofenormousculturalflux,andperhapsmostimportantly,tosellbooksinanincreasinglyfluidliterarymarketplace.11

CHAPTERSIX

DAWNO’HARAANDEMMAMcCHESNEY:CHANGEINTHEFEMININEOBLIGATION

DawnO’Hara,TheGirlWhoLaughed,writtenin1911,andtheEmma

McChesneyseries(RoastBeefMedium,EmmaMcChesney&Co.andPersonality

Plus),writtenbetween1911and1915,areimportantworksinEdnaFerber’s

oeuvrebecausetheymakethecasefortheworkingwomanbyhighlightinghow

shecanenhancetheworkplace,serveasamodelforbalancebetweenworkand

familyobligations,andstillbeliberatedandentitledtofollowherowndream.

Althougheachcharacter’sinitialreasonforworkingorcontinuingworkingis

predicatedonmonetaryneeds,EmmatocareforasonandDawnahusband,the

journeythroughworkliberatesthem.Dawnisanewspaperreporterand

ultimatelypublishesherfirstnovel,andEmmarisestothenumbertwopositionof

theFeatherloomPetticoatCompany.Ferberisshowinghowawomancanfulfill

herfeminineobligationswithoutshortchangingherself.Thefamilyobligationis

animpetusratherthananimpedimenttoachievement,andbothwomenare

ultimatelynotvictimsoffamilyresponsibilities.

DawnandEmmaarebothworkingwomentryingtomakeitinaman’s

world.Eachisaloneafterabadmarriage:Emmaleavesherdishonesthusband

whohasadrinkingproblemandDawn’shusbandisinstitutionalizedafter

sufferingamentalbreakdown.Dawn,exhausted,returnshometothenurturing

andsupportofherMidwesternfamilyandEmmatravelsthroughoutthesame

MidwestwhereshebelievesthepeoplearethebestreflectionofAmerica.Dawn

struggleswithself‐doubtandfeelsconflictedabouttheobligationtostayinher

marriagebecauseherhusbandisunabletocareforhimself.Emmaburstsonthe

scenefullspeedahead,notallowingabadmarriageorachildtoholdherback.

Nothingisgoingtostopherjourneytobecomeaself‐madewoman,andsheis

happytoarticulatewhatisneededtoreachthisvaultedpositioninbusiness.

WhenwemeetEmma,shehasbeenontheroadfortenyears,hasworked

herwayupthecorporateladderandhandlestheprimeMidwestterritoryforher

employer,T.A.Buck,PresidentoftheFeatherloomPetticoatCompany.Sheisin

theprocessofraisingasontobeanupstandingcitizen—takingontheman’srole

ofteachinghimtheropes,demandingandshaminghimintoworkinghard—while

simultaneouslyhelpingherboss,nowT.A.Buck,Jr.,takeaninterestinhisfamilial

inheritance.AsinmanyoftheCinderellastoriesofthattime,sheultimatelydoes

marryherboss,butonlywhentheyareonanequalfootingthatEmmareferstoas

“aclosercorporation”andaftershehassingle‐handedlyraisedason,savedthe

company,andhelpedT.A.Buck,Jr.realizehisfullpotential.

EmmaMcChesneyexemplifiestheNewWoman,vital,energetic,andhard

working,whoseintelligenceismeldedtoastrongpersonality,anditisthe

personalitythathelpshersucceed.WhenEmma’srival,fatEdMeyers,is

questionedastowhyhiscompanydidnotsellasmanypetticoatsinSouth

America,heexplains.“Itisn’tFeatherlooms.It’sMcChesney.Herlineisnobetter

thanours.It’sherpersonality,notherpetticoats.”1Shehaslearnedagreatdealin

herprogressionfromstenographertoassistantsaleswomenandfinallyto

saleswomanforthecovetedMidwestterritory.Shesellspetticoats,shewears

petticoats,andsheknowstheproductbetterthanthepresidentofthecompany,

thefactoryworkerswhomadethemoranyoneoutontheroadsellingasimilar

product.Sheisastorehouseofknowledgeaboutherbuyers,theneedsofthe

territoryshecovers,thecitiesshevisits,andtheroutineneededtomaintaingood

healthandoptimism.Sheiscompetitiveandnotafraidtouseherknowledgeto

getthejumponthecompetitionortouseabribeasshedoeswhileinSouth

America.Tolandasale,sheusesanymeansshecan,fromdinnerstotheater

tickets.Emmaexemplifiestheemergingwhite‐collarbusinesswoman;sheis

driven,determinedandascompetitiveasanyman.Sheuseshermaternal

instinctstomodelhealthyself‐interestwithregardtoherself,herson,andher

organization.Thisservesasamodelforworkerswhocannowincorporatethese

lessonsandfeelcomfortablereachingbeyondhomeandhearth.

Allherdriveandsuccessissublimatedtothefactthatsheisamotherfirst

andforemostandshemustprovideforheryoungson.However,thezealwith

whichsheenjoysherworkandtheenergyshegetsfromthesalesprocessconnote

achangingviewofawomanwhoworksandhowshecanbebothsavedanda

savior.Whenshevisitshernewgrandchildoutwest,shecommentsonher

1EdnaFerber,EmmaMcChesneyandCo:(NewYork:FrederickStokesandCo.,1915;QuillPenClassics,2008),23.

daughter‐in‐law’sfriend’slackofenergy,“theplacid,black‐silk,rathervague

womanofmiddleage,whosefacehastheblandlookoftheshelteredwomanand

whowrinklesearlyfromsheerlackofsufficientactivityorvitalinterestinlife.”2

Emma’sthoughtsrantoherhome,“tothebig,busyfactorywithitshumming

machineryanditscapableofficestaff...toallthevitalabsorbing,fascinatingand

constructiveinterestswithwhichherbusyNewYorklifewasfilledto

overflowing.”3Herdriveisnotconflictedbecausesheisabletoachieveabalance

betweenworkandfamily,succeedatboth,anddeviseawaytousehermaterial

instinctsintohelpingothersinherworkplace.Helpingpoorimmigrantsandlow

wageearnerstotheirownmeasureofsuccesssignalsasolutiontotheproblemof

immigrantworkersandhowtodealwiththemintheAmericanworkplace.

DawnO’HarastrugglesasawomanworkingataNewYorknewspaper

whilesupportinganillfamilymember.Attheoutset,Dawnissadabouther

breakdown,herbadmarriage,andherneedtopushforacareer.Shesays,“Allmy

lifeIhaveenviedtheloungersintheparks....Theyalwaysseemedsoblissfully

care‐freeandatease—thosesprawlingmenfigures—andI,towhomsuchsimple

2EdnaFerber,EmmaMcChesneyandCo:(NewYork:FrederickStokesandCo.,1915;QuillPenClassics,2008),121.

3Ibid.,122.

joyswereforbidden,beingawoman,hadenviedthem.”4Thisisanoddreversalof

rolesandspeakstoherinternaldrive.

DawnleavesNewYorktoworkataMilwaukeepaper,becomesbest

friendswiththecityeditor,whoembodiesaHoratioAlgerstorywithinthestory,

andromanticallyseesherdoctor,Dr.ErnstVonGerhard.Hertakeonnewspaper

reportingisamodelforwomen.

Ifawomanreporterweretoburstintotearseverytimeshesawsomethingtoweepovershe’dbegoingaboutwitharednoseandpuffyeyelidshalfthetimes.Scarcelyadaypassesthatdoesnotbringherfacetofacewithhumansufferinginsomeform.Notonlymustsheseethesethings,butalsoshemustwriteofthemsothatthosewhoreadcanalsoseethem.Andjustbecauseshedoesnotwailandtearherhairandfaintshepopularlyissupposedtobeaflinty,cigarette‐smokingcreaturewhorampagesupanddowntheland,seekingwhomshemayrendwithherpenandgazing,dry‐eyed,uponscenesofhorridbloodshed.5

Dawnhastobestrong—withoutemotion—atwork,butisabletodevelop

inhernewcompanionaterelationshipwithDr.VonGerard,andhetakesherwork

andherfeelingsintoaccount.“OdearLord,don’tbotheraboutmyambitions!

Justletmeremainstrongandwellenoughtodotheworkthatismyportionfrom

daytoday....Letthisnewandwonderfullovewhichhascomeintomylifebea

staffofstrengthandcomfortinsteadofaburdenofweariness.”6Dawn’sbookis

accepted,andshemovesintoanewrealmoffreedom.Thisfulfillingmoment,

4EdnaFerber,DawnO’Hara:TheGirlWhoLaughed(NewYork:Grosset&Dunlap,1911),28.

5Ibid.,159.

6Ibid.,246.

abovemonetarygainandclearlydirectedatinner‐fulfillment,isDawnO’Hara’s

AmericanDream.“Itwon’tmeanmoney—atleast,Idon’tthinkitwill.Butitwill

meanafuture.ItwillmeanthatIwillhavesomethingsolidtostandon.Itwillbe

arealbeginning—abreathingspell—timeinwhichtoaccomplishsomething

reallyworthwhile—independence—freedomfromthistread‐mill.”7

TheempowermentandunderstandingthatEmmaMcChesneybringsto

women’stransformativeroleintheworkplaceisreflectedinherpopularitywith

readers;afterthirty‐twostoriesabouther,CosmopolitanofferedEdnaFerberthe

opportunitytowritetheserialindefinitely.Ferberrefusedforfearshewouldnot

growasawriterifshecontinued,butinthemindsofherreaders,thethirty‐two

storieswereenoughtobeanimportantlegacy.“Fullofinspirationand

transformation,thiscycleofstoriesconstituted,inmanyrespectsbusinessfairy

talesofwill,personality—Victorianfemale‘faculty’thathadbecomewhitecollar

‘capability.’”8

Emma’sgreatestcontribution—greatereventhanmodelingthe

intersectionofhardwork,personalityandaccesstoacompetitivenature—isher

abilitytomanagefemaleworkersnotbyfearorreprimandbutbytheexampleof

7Ibid.,255.8ChristopherP.Wilson,WhiteCollarFictions:ClassandSocial

RepresentationinAmericanLiterature,18851925(Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1992),79.

herbehaviorastheonewhogetsaheadbylisteningtothedesiresandstrugglesof

thewomenworkingattheFeatherloomplant.“Emmaoffersavisionofprogress

basedonsorority,empathyandtheupwardmobilityoftheoffice—themeritof

workandtheloyaltyoffashioningoneselfonone’ssuperior‘mothers.’”9Emma’s

mainthemes—thatwomenbelongintheworkforce,thatawomancanbeas

competitiveasthenextguy(EdMyers),thatcaringforandnurturingfemale

employeesbothencouragesthemandisgoodforthecompany,andthataworking

womanstillisabletotakethetimetomakemenofherboys,herson(Jock)and

herboss(Buck,Jr.)–wereprovocativefortheirtime.

DawnO’HarawaswrittenwhileEdnaFerberwasrecuperatingfroma

nervouscollapse.ShehadbeenareporterontheMilwaukeeJournal,andafter

fouryearsofchasingstories,shewasforcedtoreturnhometorestandrebuild

herstrength.Eventhoughsheworkedparttimeasasalesclerkinthefamily

store,shewasabletofinishherfirstnovel,muchasDawndoesinDawnO’Hara:

writinganovelwhileworkingatapaperandrecuperatingfromanervous

collapse.Ferberwasnotpleasedwiththebookandclaimedthathermother

submittedittothepublisher,FrederickA.Stokes,behindherback.

Ferber’sserialEmmaMcChesney,raninTheAmericanmagazine,the

publisheroftheHoratioAlgerstories,andtheninCosmopolitan,thehighest

9Ibid.,83.

circulationmagazineofitsday.Overthecourseofthreeyears,thesethirty‐two

shortstoriesmadeEdnaFerberahouseholdname.Inherbook,AFeelingfor

Books,whichdiscussestheriseoftheBook‐Of‐TheMonth‐Clubandliterarytastes,

JaneRadwayexplains,“MiddleClassreaders...valuebooksnotforlinguistic

innovation,but‘becausetheyareseekingamodelforcontemporarylivingand

evenradicaladviceaboutappropriatebehaviorinachangingworld.’”10

EmmaMcChesneyisanoriginalcharacterinAmericanliterature—thefirst

businesswoman.“TheNewYorkTimes,inareviewofEmmaMcChesney&Co.,had

recognizedtheachievementofFerber’sheroinewhentheycrownedher‘adefier

ofprecedent’and‘thepioneeramongtravelingsaleswomen.’”11Inaninterview

inTheNewYorkTimes,EdnaFerberexplainsthatEmmaMcChesneywasso

originalthatafterherfirststoryappeared,IdaTarbellencouragedhertowritean

additionalone.EdnaFerberstates:

Sheissonew—sheisonly10,or,atthemost,15yearsold!Sheissonewsheisworthtalkingabout.Buttenyearsfromnowatalklikethiswillbeananachronism.Theideathatanyoneeverquestionedtheproprietyofawoman’sgoingintobusiness,orthoughtthatsuchanactonherpartwasinconsistentwithdomesticity,willbeasobsoleteasmilestones.12

11JeffreyLouisDeckerMadeinAmerica:Self–StyledSuccessfromHoratio

AlgertoOprahWinfrey(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1997),27.12JoyceKilmer,“BusinessWomanMostDomestic,”NewYorkTimes,April

4,1915.

Asthecountryindustrializedandtherewasaneedtoincludemillionsof

middleclassandimmigrantwomenintheworkforce,modelinghowthisdramatic

changewouldplayoutandhowawomancouldcontributetothechangein

positivewayswascritical.ThismodelingiswhatEdnaFerberaccomplishedin

boththeEmmaMcChesneyshortstoryseriesandtheDawnO’Haranovel.In

WhiteCollarFictionsthisisreferredtoas“culturalwork.”“Inpartthistermhas

beencoinedtodescribethewayinwhichpopularorcriticallyprominentauthors,

intheirownday,articulateandproposesolutionsfortheproblemsshapingtheir

historicalmoment,thusprovidingtheirreadersawayoforderingtheworldand

attributingmeaningtoit.”13

13ChristopherP.Wilson,WhiteCollarFictions:ClassandSocial

RepresentationinAmericanLiterature,18851925(Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1992),20.

CHAPTERSEVEN

FANNYHERSELF,THETRIUMPHOFARTOVERMATERIALISM

In1917,EdnaFerberwrotethesemi‐autobiographicalFannyHerself.Itis

thefirstnovelorshortstoryinwhichshehighlightstheconflictinherentinthe

AmericanDream:thestruggleamongprofessionalsuccess,personalfulfillment

andtheneedforartisticexpression.ThesettingisyetanotherMidwesterntown,

Winnebago,Wisconsin.Fanny,ayounggirl,watchesasherwidowedmother

takescontrolofthefamilystoreandrunsit,likeamanwould,inordertosupport

herselfandhertwochildren.Itwasatimewhentherewere“plentyofwomen

wageearnersinWinnebago,aselsewhere;clerks,stenographers,schoolteachers,

bookkeepers.”1However,Fanny’smotherisdifferent.“ButherewasMolly

Brandeis,aJewess,settingouttoearnherlivinginbusiness,likeaman.Itwasa

thingtostirCongregationEmanu‐eltoitsdepths.Jewishwomen,theywouldtell

you,didnotworkthus.Theirhusbandsworkedforthem,ortheirsons,ortheir

brothers.”2

AfterMollyBrandeisdies,Fannysellseverythingandsetshergoalon

earningtenthousandayearwithoutsacrificinglikehermotherdid.Fannyputs

theselfishpartofherselffirst.EdnaFerbertellsthereader:

1EdnaFerber,FannyHerself(NewYork:FrederickA.StokesandCo.,1917;NewYork:QuillPen,2008),11.

2Ibid.,11.

TherecametoFannyBrandeisagreatresolve.Shewouldputherselfinahighplace.Everytalentshepossessed,everyadvantageeveryscrapofknowledge,everybitofexperiencewouldbeusedtowardthatend.Shewouldmakesomethingofherself.Itwasaworldly,selfishresolve,bornofabittersorrow,andambitionandresentment.Shemadeuphermindthatshewouldadmitnohandicaps.Race,religion,training,naturalimpulses—shewoulddiscardthemalliftheystoodinherway.ShewouldleaveWinnebagobehind....Inherplaceshewouldmoldahard,keen‐eyed,resolutewoman,whosegod‐headwastobesuccess,andtowhomsuccesswouldmeanmoneyandposition....shehadretainedinhermemorythisoneimmovabletruth:Astraightlineistheshortestdistancebetweentwopoints.3

Fannycarefullyassessedtheskillsshehadlearnedatthefamilystoreand

sethersightsonworkinginthemailorderbusiness.Shesubliminallyresponded

tohermother’swarningthatthemailorderbusinesswouldbethemonsterthat

swallowsupallthesmallfamilybusinessesacrossAmerica.Whenacontacttells

heraboutanopeningatHaynes‐Cooper,thegiantmailorderhouseinChicago,she

landsajob,andthecombinationofdomesticandworkskillslearnedin

Winnebagodeliversthefreshideasthataredesperatelyneededbymanagement.

Manywomenwereentreatedtobringtheirefficiencyandskillslearnedathome

totheworkplace;Fannydoesit.MichaelFenger,themanager,admits,“Now,asa

rule,IneveremployawomanwhenIcanuseaman.There’sonlyoneother

womanfillingareallyimportantpositioninthemerchandiseend....I’drather

haveamaninherplace;butIdon’thappentoknowanymenglove‐geniuses.”4

3Ibid.,91‐92.4Ibid.,115.

AtHaynes‐Cooper,Fannyimplementssomanygoodideassoquicklythat

sheispromotedwithinafewmonthsandrapidlymovesupthecorporate

managementchain.Hermarriedbossfallsinlovewithher,butshedoesnotget

involvedandwarnshimstronglythatshewillbesuretoleteveryoneknowifhe

stepsoutofline.Fannywillnotpermitherselftobeavictimhereandwillnotbe

luredintoaninappropriaterelationship,adangerthatbesetsmanywomenher

ageinthebigcity.Atthispointtheauthorstepsintothenoveltosay:

Myself,IconfessIamtiredofthesestoriesofyoungwomenwhogotothebigcity,theretodobattlewithfailure,tograpplewithtemptation,sinanddiscouragement.SoitmayaswellbeadmittedthatFannyBrandeis’storywasnotthatofapainful‐hand‐over‐handclimb.Shewasmadeforsuccess.Whatsheattempted,sheaccomplished.Thatwhichshestrovefor,shewon.Shewastoosure,toovital,tooelectric,forfailure.No,FannyBrandeis’strugglewentoninside.Andintryingtostifleitshecamenearmakingtheblackestfailurethatawomancanmake.Ingrubbingforthepotofgoldshealmostmissedtherainbow.5

Inanoddpassage,asifaconsciencehadbeenawakened,Ferber,the

author,warnsthereaderaboutFannyandtheperilsofsuccessshemayencounter

asshemovesupthecorporateladderandreplacestheinfant’swearbuyer.

Ferberclearlysetsupthestruggleherebetweenmonetarysuccessandself‐

fulfillment.Shewarnsthereaderthatthedriveformaterialismisattheexpense

ofbeautyandhappiness.

Formypart,IconfessthatFannyBrandeisbeginstoloseinterestforme.BigBusinessseemstodwarfthefinerthingsinher....You,too,feelthatwayabouther?Thatisasitshouldbe.Itisthepenaltytheypaywho,

5Ibid.,111.

givengenius,sympathy,andunderstandingastheirbirthright,tradethemforthetawdrytrinketsmoneybrings.6

Fannydoesmakeittothetopbutherconscienceisprovokedbytwo

specialevents.AfterabuyingtripinEurope,shelandsinNewYorkonlyto

witnessalaborstrike.UnlikeEmmaMcChesney,whotriedtooutshinethelabor

organizerswhoenterherfactorybyshowingofftheworkingwoman’ssuperiority,

Fannytakestimetosketchthestrikersandcapturethestruggleintheirfaces.As

laborerspassbyonegroup’ssignhauntsher,Infant’sWear.Herchildhoodfriend,

ClarenceHeyl,encourageshertosketchthesewomensothatothersmight

witnessthemaswell.Shedismissestheideaofacareerasanartistfor,atthat

moment,sketchingdidnotseemlikeacareer.

Theodore,herlonglostviolinistbrother,arrivesfromGermany.Hehas

studiedthereforyearsthankstothesacrificesofMollyandFannyBrandeisandis

homesulkingafterabadmarriage.HeobservesFanny’sbusinesspositionand

insteadoffeelingproud,hefeelsregret.“AndthenTheodore,thecareless,the

selfish,theblind,saidamostamazingthing.Fanny,I’llwork....AndI’lltakeyou

outofthis.Ipromiseyou.”7Hefeltsorryforher.Shestillpushesonwithher

work,butatinyspark,somefeelingofsolidaritywithhermarchinglaborsisters,

hasreachedher.Herbrother,forallofhismoderatesuccessinmusic,isafailure

6Ibid.,128‐129.7Ibid.,240.

asahusbandandahumanbeingandcannotexhibitunderstandingor

compassionforanyoneotherthanhimself.Hehasnotgrownemotionallysincehe

lefthome.

AfterHaynes‐Cooperisrestructuredandprofitsharingallowsthewomen

workingatlowpayscalestoberemuneratedadequately,Fenger,themanager,

decidestocashoutanddevelophisownmailorderbusiness.Heisallgreed,has

littleregardforthesalariesoftheworkers,andisdriventomakemoremoney—

solelyforhimself.Fengerismiserableathome,hateshiswife,andonlyfeels

excitementinthestruggleformorewealth.Fannyhasvisitedhishandsome

home,andalthoughforamomentshewishedforahomejustlikeit,shehasseen

howemptyhislifeisevenwiththematerialtrappingsofasuccessfulman.Atthis

pointFannyknowsthatthisdreamoftenthousandayear,anapartmentonLake

ShoreDriveandadriver–hasnotfulfilledheronadeeppersonallevel.Thereis

somethingmissing.Theauthorsays,“ThetroublewasthatFannyBrandeis,the

creative,wasnotbeingfed.Andthecreativefirerequiresfuel.”8

ThejudgmentofClarenceHeyl,herchildhoodfriend,thatshehad

sacrificedherselfandbeenaslavetosuccess,beginstoabsorbher.Heylstates:

Idon’tsayyou’rewronginwantingtomakeaplaceforyourselfintheworld.Butdon’texpectmetostandbyandletyoutrampleoveryourownimmortalsoultogetthere.Yourheadisbusyenoughonthisinfants’wearjob,buthowabouttherestofyou‐‐howaboutyou?Whatdoyousupposeallthoseyearsofwork,andsuppression,andself‐denial,andbeauty‐

8Ibid.,135.

hungerthereinWinnebagoweremeantfor!...Theyweregiventoyousothatyoumightrecognizehunger,suppression,andself‐denialinothers.9

Hegoesontosaythatthereisafighterrevealedinallofhersketchesandthat

fighterwillneverdie.Atthispoint,Fannycannotagreewithhimbecauseshehad

sethercoursesorigidlythattoletanythingoranyonequestionitwouldsurly

distractherfocus.

Sheproceedswithherwork,butwhenHaynes‐Cooperofficiallymovesto

profitsharingandFengercrossesthelineinhisattempttocoerceherintobeing

hisbusinesspartner,sherunsawayanddoesnotcomeback.Shesetsoutforthe

mountainsofColoradowhereClarenceHeylkeepsacabin.Nowthatshehas

achievedherbusinessgoals,sheisfreetonurtureherspiritbysketchingthosein

thelabormovementandexposingsociety’sills.Hereherself‐fulfillmenttrumps

monetarysuccess,andFannyfindsabalancedmiddlegroundinhernewcalling.

Initially,Fannywastryingtoreachherdreamthetraditionalway,byachieving

materialsuccess.Whenthedreamcomesupempty,shelookstomoregenuine

self‐fulfillment,thekindthatresultsfrommaturityandmeldingone’spassions

andtalents.SherealizesherAmericanDreaminhernewroleasanartistand

learnsagreatdealaboutwhosheisduringthejourney.

9Ibid.,161.

BeforesittingdowntowriteFannyHerself,EdnaFerberwasdoingalotof

soulsearchingaboutherownlife’sdirection.ShehadjustfinishedOurMrs

McChesney,whichopenedattheLyceumTheateronOctober19th,1915.

NowIsettleddownforthelongpullofnovel‐writing.IhadputitoffaslongasIcould,dreadingit.ItwasJanuary1916;DawnO’Harahadbeenpublishedin1911.InbetweenIhadpublishedavolumeofunrelatedshortstores,threevolumesofMcChesneystories,andhadwrittentheMcChesneyplayincollaboration.Thisseemedtomeaprettypoorperformance.AsidefromthecreatingofthecharacterofEmmaMcChesney,Ihaddonenosolidthing.10

EdnaFerberadmitsthatmostofhercharactersarebasedonpeopleshe

knewinAppleton,includinghermotherasMollyBrandeisandherselfasFanny.

Butinarevealingmomentinherautobiographyshesays,“Thetroublewasthatin

themiddleofthebookIkilledMollyBrandeisbecauseshewaswalkingoffwith

thestoryundertheheroine’sveryeyes.WhenMollyBrandeisdiedthestorydied

withher.Shewastoosustainingandvitaltodismiss.”11ItspeakstoFerber’son‐

goingstrugglewithhermotherJuliaandthebattletobreakoutonherown.Allof

herfemalecharactersstruggletobreakawayfromtheirmothersandthefamilial

roost,totrytocreatetheirownlivesandindividuatethemselvesonbehalfoftheir

owndreams.

Asinallofherbooks,EdnaFerberacknowledgesherheroes,JaneAddams

andIdaTarbell,fortheirworkwiththeunderservedinAmerica.Thesocialclaim

11Ibid.,223.

isthrownuptoFannyasawomenstrikingoutnotinservicetosocietybutin

servicetoherself.ClarenceHeyl,herfriendandloveinterest,tellsFannythatshe

isafailure.“JaneAddamswouldhavebeenasuccessinbusiness,too.Shewas

bornwithahumanitysense,andavaluesense,andasomethingelsethatcan’tbe

acquired.IdaTarbellcouldhavemanagedyourwholeHaynes‐Cooperplant,if

shehadto.”12

12EdnaFerber,FannyHerself(NewYork:FrederickA.StokesandCo.,1917;NewYork:QuillPen,2008),202.

CHAPTEREIGHT

PIONEERINGWOMENANDTHEWESTERN,SOBIGANDCIMARRON

SoBig,EdnaFerber’sPulitzerPrizewinningnovelwrittenin1924,

contraststhebitterstrugglebetweenoldhard‐workingpioneervaluesandnew

post‐WorldWarIfastmoneyandmaterialism.Sheextolsthevirtuesofthe

Victorianerabyplacingthenovelinthelatenineteenthcenturyandhighlighting

theevolvingchangesinsocietythroughtheFirstWorldWar.“SoBigwasthe

firstofFerber’snovelstoconsiderthelegacyofthepioneerwomaninthe

developmentofthenation.”1Attheturnofthecentury,SelinaPeakeisforcedto

liveinHighPrairie,afarmingtownoutsideofChicago,becauseitaffordsherajob

asaschoolteacherafterherfather’sprematuredeathwhenshewasnineteen.She

couldhavechosentoliveinNewEnglandwithtwospinsteraunts,butsheis

independentandwantstoearnherownway.

LonelyinHighPrairie,shemarriesawidowedfarmer,thehandsome

PervusDeJong,andistiedtohislandandtheroughworkoffarmingfortenyears.

HerhusbandisofDutchancestryand,likeallthefarmersinHighPrairie,his

farmingmethodsareoldcountry.“Whatwasgoodenoughformyfather,isgood

enoughforme.”2Selinaisinlovebutsheagesovernightandherintelligenceisall

butoverlookedbyahusbandwhoisincapableofhearingher.Hewasa“husband

wholookeduponconversationasaconvenience,notasapastime.”3Ononeofhis

tripstotheChicagomarkethespendstheeveningoutsideintherain,catches

pneumonia,anddiessoonafter.Selinaisleftwiththefarmandayoungsonto

carefor.Shedoesnotstoptomourn.Shortlyafterherhusband’sdeath,she

drivestotheChicagomarketonherownwithproducefromthefarm,unheardof

inthosedays.Everyoneadmonishesher,“Awomenshedon’tgotomarket.”She

replies,“Thiswomandoes.”4Selinafeelsliberatedwhenshetakesthereinsofthe

horses,andlikeallofFerber’swomen,shewillnotbeavictim.

HerewasSelinaDeJongdrivinguptheHalstedroadtowardthecityinsteadofsitting,black‐robed,inthefarmparlourwhileHighPrairiecametocondole.InSelina,astheyjoggedalongthehotdustyway,therewelledupafeelingverylikeelation.Consciousofthis,theNewEnglandstraininhertookhertotask.‘SelinaPeake,aren’tyouashamedofyourself!You’reawickedwoman!Feelingalmostgaywhenyououghttobesad....PoorPervus...thefarm...Dirk...andyoucanfeelalmostgay!...Youshouldbeashamedofyourself!’...Youthwasgone,butshehadhealth,courage;aboyofnine;twenty‐fiveacresofwornoutfarmland;dwellingandouthousesinabadstateofrepair;andagayadventuresomespiritthatwasnevertodie.5

2EdnaFerber,SoBig(GardenCity,NewYork:Doubleday,Page&Co.,1924;

NewYork:HarperPerennial,2000),82.3Ibid.,93.4Ibid.,111.5Ibid.,115

AfterPervus’sdeath,Selinaimplementsalltheideasshehashadfor

improvinghistwenty‐fiveacres.Shetakesoverthefarm,defendsherselfby

statingthatsheneedstosupporthersonandrefusestogiveupherdreamof

makingthefarmasuccess.Instead,shebecomesapioneer:firstbecauseshe

takesoverthefarmandrunsitonherownandsecondbecausesheplantsnew

varietiesofasparagusandhothousetomatoes.

ManyfeministhistoriansofwomenontheAmericanfrontierhavearguedthat‘insteadoffreeingwomenfromsocialconstraints,theWestisolatedwomenfromotherwomen,heightenedtheirvulnerabilitytomen,andincreasedtheirdomesticworkload.’Certainly,itwasSelina’ssenseofpersonalandphysicalisolationthatcausedhertomismarrythestolidPervusDeJongandwreckheryouthwithhardwork.Selinaseesthisnotasatragedybutratherasanopportunitytoembracelife,thelandscape,andAmerica’sgloriousfutureforproductivity.InSelina’sworld,womenworkharderbecausetheydotheworkofbothsexes,butunlikemen,theycansucceedatdoingallsortsofwork.6

Inmakingimprovementstothefarm,sheishelpedbyaloanfromthe

wealthyandsuccessfulfatherofanoldschoolfriendwhocomesuponher

peddlinghervegetablesinaswankyChicagoneighborhood.Aftercarefulwork

andyearsofdevotion,herfarmpaysoffhandsomely,andherproductsaresought

ayearinadvanceatpricesherpoordeadhusbandcouldonlydreamof.Shehas

succeededonherownandearnedenoughmoneytopayforherson’seducationas

anarchitect.

Afteryearsoffarming,Selinaisself‐sufficientandfeelsagreatsenseof

accomplishmentinmakinghervegetablesfamous.Atthisimportantmoment,she

islikeAdam,“selfreliantandselfpropelling.”7KristinaK.Groover,statesinThe

WildernessWithin:

Whilenaturedoesappearasametaphorforthespiritualrealminwomenwriters’texts,itismoreoftenasagardenorotherdomesticatedoutdoorspace.Mediatingbetweenuntamednatureandthedomesticrealm,themetaphoricalgardenservesasanextensionofboth,thussuggestingthefluidityofboundariesbetweenthetemporalandspiritualworlds.Further,thesubstitutionofthegardenforthewildernessreinforcestheideathatthespiritualmaybelocatedinquiteordinaryspacesofeverydaylives,ratherthanonthehorizon.8

Selinafindsthelandbeautifulanditsustainsherandherfamily.Shehasreached

theapotheosisofherspiritualjourney,notinheadingoutwestbutbyheading

intoherowntwenty‐fiveacres.

TheconflictofthegenerationsarisesinSelina’sviewofherson,Dirk

DeJong,alsoknownasSoBig.Sheistroubledbythenextgeneration,especially

hersonandhisfriends.Dirkembodiesthematerialdreamwithoutthevaluesof

hardworkandsacrifice.Hedecidestogiveuphisprofessionofarchitecture

becauseitwouldtakealifetimeofhardworkwhileearninglittlemoneytoget

ahead.Hegoesintosellingbondsbecausehewantstomakemoneyfastto

supporthisextravagantlifestyle;herunsaroundwithamarriedwomanandafast

7KristinaK.Groover,TheWildernessWithin:AmericanWomenWritersandSpiritualQuest(Fayetteville:UniversityofArkansasPress,1999),4.

8Ibid.,18.

crowdthatisinvolvedinpartiesandcharitiesandaffordshimmanycontacts.

Selinabelievesthisnextgenerationhaslostitsvalues,asitadmirescapitalism

strictlyformaterialgain.Sheseeshersonasamanwithnoconscience.“Ferber’s

faithinpioneervaluesandherrevulsionagainstpostwarmaterialismalso

appealedtohundredsofthousandsofAmericanreaders,manyofwhomhadnot

movedtothecities,experiencedtheFirstWorldWaranditsaftermathof

‘disillusionment,’orfledtoanartisticexileinEurope.”9

RalphPoel,theyoungmanwhomSelinametuponarrivinginHighPrairie

andwhomshehelpstoescapethehardlifeoffarming,returnstriumphantfrom

Europe.Heisasuccessfulsculptor,heisself‐propelledandself‐reliantandhehas

comeupthehardwaylikeSelina.ShehasplayedapartinsettlingtheMidwest

andmodernizingagriculture.Whileshebeganasapioneerwomanworking

alongsideherhusband,afterhisdeathshetookthebravestepofrunningthefarm

onherown.“Ferber’sSelinasharesthere‐envisioningoftheAmericanfrontier

landscapeandtheroleofwomenindevelopingthatideal.”10Selinadoesnot

succumbtothematerialtrappingsofthedreambutstaysclosetothelandandher

bedrockvaluesofhardwork,self‐relianceanddiscipline.Shecannotsaveherson

fromthefalsedream.Shefeelshewillcomeupempty,andhedoesbylosingthe

loveofanindependentwomanartistwhofeelshedoesnothavetheintegrityshe

10Ibid.,41.

islookingfor.BothSelinaandRalphPoelhaveachievedtheirAmericanDream

withhardworkanddiscipline,andsherealizesherdreamofeducatingherson

andgrowingfinevegetables.

Cimarron,writtenin1929,isEdnaFerber’sfirsttrueWestern.Herfriend

WilliamA.White,editoroftheEmporiaGazette,andhiswifeencouragedherto

writethestoryoftheOklahomaLandRushof1889,wherethousandsofmen,

womenandchildrencrossedthecountryincoveredwagonsforachanceatfree

landfromtheAmericangovernment.Ferberrefused,thinkingitwasastorythat

shouldbewrittenbyaman.Nonetheless,shewastakenwiththebackground

stories,theoilrichIndiansinfancycarsandhermeetingwithElvaShartel

Ferguson.ElvawasraisedinKansasandmarriedThompsonB.Fergusonin

1885.Asacouple,theyparticipatedinthreelandrunsandmovedpermanentlyto

Watonga,OklahomaTerritory,in1892,wheretheyestablishedtheWatonga

Republicannewspaper.AsherhusbandmovedintoRepublicanpolitics,hewas

appointedgovernoroftheOklahomaTerritoryin1901,sheassumedfull

responsibilityforthepaper.EdnaFerber,whostayedatElvaShartelFerguson’s

homeandtookmeticulousnotes,wasabletorecoverthewomen’sexperiencein

thisepisodeforherreadingpublic.Elvastates,“ThewagontriptoOklahoma,the

f11oundingofthepaper,thedescriptionofthetown,theeventssurroundingmy

familyandnewspaperwereusedinmyownwordsasItoldherthestory.”11

IndirectcontrasttotheestablishedmaledominatedhistoryoftheWest,

EdnaFerber,aJewishwoman,writesasuccessfulepicWestern.“EdnaFerber’s

addressofthefrontierheritage,particularlythepioneerwomaninCimarroncan

beunderstoodasanengagementwithanexistingtraditionthatuntilthattime

wasalmostentirelytheprovinceofmalewriters.”12Althoughsheconcerned

herselfwithhowshewouldtellthestoryinanewway,“Ferberofferedanew

perspectiveonwesternhistory,onethatprivilegedtheperspectivesoftwogroups

oftenignoredintraditionalaccountsofthefrontier—womenandNative

Americans.”13

YanceyCravatisthequintessentialAmericanhero;hestakeshisclaimin

thenewterritoryonlytoleaveafteritissettledandbecomestooconventional.

Heentreatshiswifetojoinhiminthelandrushbyexplainingwhattypeofwomen

maketherush,aloneiftheyhaveto.“Womenwithironin‘em.Womenwho

11W.DavidBairdandDanneyGoble,TheStoryofOklahoma.(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1994),375.

wantedlandandahome.Pioneerwomen.”14WhenSabra’sfamilyquestionshim

aboutthetypeofwomanthatwillliveinthisnewterritory,hemakesa

passionate,revisionistspeechaboutthewomenwhosettledAmerica.

It’swomenlikeherwho’vemadethiscountrywhatitis.Youcan’treadthehistoryoftheUnitedStates,myfriends...withoutlearningthegreatstoryofthosethousandsofunnamedwomen...Goodwomen,withaterribleandrigidgoodnessthatcomesofworkandself‐denial...theirstory’sneverreallybeentold.Butit’sthere,justthesame.Andifit’severtoldstraightyou’llknowit’sthesunbonnetandnotthesombrerothathassettledthiscountry.15

YanceyCravat,dreamer,orator,newspapermanandlawyer,doesconvince

hisyoungbride,Sabra,tomakethelandrushtoOklahomain1889.Assoonas

shearrives,Sabramakesitclearthat,“Idon’twanttobeapioneerwoman....I

can’tmakethingsdifferent.Ilikedthemastheywere.Comfortableandsafe....

Let’smakeitatownlikeWichita...withtrees...andpeoplebeingsociable...not

killingeachotherallthetime...churchonSunday...aschoolforCim.”16Shefails

tounderstandwhysomanymenarenotworking.YanceyexplainstheAmerican

governmentdisplacedthecattlemenandthecowboys.”Thefreerangenever

belongedtothemreally,butthattheyhadcometothinkofitastheirs....The

rangeiscutupintotownsites,andthetownintolots,beforetheirveryeyes.

14EdnaFerber,Cimarron(GardenCity,NewYork:Doubleday,Page&Co.,1930;NewYork:AmereonHouse,nodate),18.

15Ibid.,19.

16Ibid.,117.

Why,itmusthavesickenedthem—Killedthemalmost—toseeit.”17Yanceyisthe

traditionalquestinghero,whosettlestheterritoryonlytoleaveinsearchof

newer,moreunsettledlands.ItisYanceywhobringsSabratothewilderness,but

asinalltalesoftheWest,shewantstodomesticateitandturnthewildernessinto

agardenandthetownintoapropercityliketheonesheleft.

Sabrabeginsthebookasayoungbridewhostaysputandrunsthe

newspaperandherhomewhileherhusbandisawayforlongperiods,making

runsintothenewterritoriesofCubaandAlaska,andheultimatelyleavestofight

intheFirstWorldWar.Sabrabeginstoself‐actualizeduringhislongabsences,

especiallywhensheisatthehelmofthepaperandmustmakehardchoicesin

businessaswellasfamilymatters.Althoughyoungandnaive,sheobservedearly

inherarrivalthat:

Menmakesuchalotofworkofnothing....Itwasherfirstadmissionthatthemaleofthespeciesmightbefallible....Theselastthreeweekshadshownherthatthemalewasoftenmistaken,asasex,andthatYanceywasalmostalwayswrongasanindividual...Alsothathewasenthralledbythedramaticsofanyplanhemightconceive,butthathewasoftentooimpatientofitsmechanicstocarryitthroughtocompletion.18

SheacknowledgesthatsheenjoysthefreedomofOsageandher

independencefromherfamilyinWichita,Kansas.“Sabrawasemergingslowly

fromherroleofcharminglittlefool.Bydegreesshewastotakemoreandmoreof

ahandintheassemblingofthepaper’sintimateweeklyitems,whileYanceywas

17Ibid.,114.18Ibid.,107.

concernedwithcosmicaffairs.”19SabraspearheadsthedrivebytheOsage

womentocreateagoodenvironmentinwhichtoraisechildren.Shebuildsthe

weeklyOklahomaWigwamintoadailyandfinallyapaperwithmorningand

afternooneditions.ShebegsYancey,whoismentionedasGovernor,totakethe

jobasawayofshowingherfamilythatshemadetherightchoice,buthehasno

interestinsettlingdownorinpolitics.“Hewouldgoonthestumptomakeothers

CongressmanandGovernors,buthehimselfwouldnottakeoffice.‘Palaveringtoa

lotofgreasyofficeseekersandpanhandlers!Dancingtothetuneofthatgangin

Washington!Iknowthewholedirtylotofthem.’”20

Yanceyreturnshomeatpivotalmomentsinthebookandforthehistorical

backdropofthenovel.AtfirsthedefendsDixieLee,thelocalwomanofillrepute,

againsthiswifeandhergroupwhowanttorunDixieoutoftown.AsFerber

comments,“Lawinalawlesscommunitynottenyearsold;acommunitymadeup

forthemostpart,ofpeoplewhoseverypresencetheremeantimpatienceofthe

oldorder,defianceoftheconventions.”21Afteroneofhisfive‐yearabsences,he

tacklestheplightoftheIndiansinOklahomawithaneditorialthatSabraknows

willpreventhimfromelectedoffice.

19Ibid.,161.20Ibid.,216.21Ibid.,265.

Herdedlikesheepinacorral—no,likewildanimalsinacage—theyarelefttorotontheirreservationsbyagovernmentthathastakenfirsttheirland,thentheirself‐respect,thentheirlibertyfromthem.Thelandofthefree!Whentheverypeoplewhofirstdweltonitareprisoners!Slaves,butslavesdeprivedofthesolaceofwork.Whathoehavethey,whatambition,whatobjectinliving!Theirspiritisbroken.Theirprideisgone.Slothful,yes.Whynot?Eachmonthhereceiveshisdole,hispittance.LookattheOsageNation,nowdwindledtoawretchedtwothousandsouls.Themenarestillhandsome,strong,vital;thewomenbeautiful,dignified,oftenintelligent.Yettheretheyhuddleintheirmiserableshantieslikebeatenanimals,eatingthefoodthatisthrownthembyagreat—munificent—government.ThegovernmentoftheseUnitedStates!Letthembefree.LettheRedManliveafreemanastheWhiteManlives....22

Yancey’seditorialispowerfulandspeakstoFerber’sconcernaboutthe

government’streatmentoftheNativeAmericans.Thepowerofthispiececould

makeitarallyingcryforallofthoseexcludedfromtheAmericanDream,including

women.

OneofthedisappointmentsSabraexperiencesinOsageisthathervalues

clashwiththoseofherchildren,thenextgeneration.Thefreedomtheyhave

grownupwithallowsherson,Cim,tointermarrywithayoungIndianwoman.

Althoughatfirstshocked,SabraadaptsandendsupshowcasingherIndianfamily

aroundWashingtonwhereshelivessincebeingelectedtoCongress.More

difficultthanCimisherdaughter,Donna.Donnasetshersightsonawealthy

marriedmanandmaneuversenoughsothatheleaveshiswifeandmarriesher.

Theirrelationshipisallaboutwealthandmoneyandtheconsumptionofmaterial

things,butthereisnostruggleforthematerialgain.Donnatakesthemodelof

22Ibid.,281.

herhardworking,self‐sacrificingmotherandtotallyrejectsit.Shereturnshome

fromschooladeterminedwomanofeighteen.“Hermothersheregardedwitha

kindofaffectionateamusement.‘Whatarottendealyou’vehad,Sabradear,’she

woulddrawl....‘Oh—youknow.Thisbeingapioneerwomanandaprofessional

Marcyandhead‐held‐highinspiteofabumofahusband.’”23ShetellsSabrashe

doesnotwanttobeanewspaperreporter.“‘Iwanttomarrytherichestmanin

OklahomaandbuildapalacethatI’llhardlyeverlivein,andtravellikeroyalty,

andclankwithemeralds.’”24SabrabelievesDonna’sdriveformoneyis

misguided.Donnaloatheseverythingaboutthepioneertownandspirit.Donna

begshermothertolookatheractionswithoutsentiment.

Unliketherealmodel,ElvaFerguson,whosehusbandgetsappointedas

governoroftheOklahomaTerritory,Sabraherself,withthebackingofthepaper

shehasbuiltoveralifetimeandtheconnectionsmadethroughwomen’sgroups

acrossthestate,getselectedtoCongress.Ferberstates:

ThesightofawomanontheflooroftheCongressionalHousewasstillsomethingofanovelty.SentimentalAmericahadshrunkfromthethoughtofwomeninactivepolitics.Woman’splacewasintheHome,andAmericanWomanhoodwastooexquisiteaflowertobesubjectedtotheharshatmosphereoftheAssemblyfloorandthecommitteeroom.25

23Ibid.,326.

24Ibid.,327‐328.25Ibid.,368.

However,afteralifetimeoffendingforherself,Sabradoesnotshrink,andher

oratoryskillsnowmatchthoseofhererranthusband.Herpurposeistobreakthe

glassceilingforwomenandallowthemtheirdream.AsSabrastates:

IfAmericanpoliticsaretoodirtyforwomentotakepartin,thereissomethingwrongwithAmericanpolitics....Weweren’ttoodelicateandflowerliketocrosstheplainsandprairiesanddesertsinacoveredwagonandtostandthehardshipsandheartbreaksoffrontierlife...buthereinthislandthewomenhavebeenthehewersofwoodanddrawersofwater...thousandsofunnamedheroineswithweather‐beatenfacesandmud‐cakedboots...alkaliwater...sun...dust...wind....Iamnotbelittlingthebravepioneermenbutthesunbonnetaswellasthesombrerohashelpedtosettlethisgloriouslandofours....26

Yancey’sspeechisnowhers.Althoughshetriedtohelphimgetelected,starting

offasthetraditionaldevotedhelpmatewhogoesalongtosupportherhusbandin

realizinghisdreams,intheend,shebecomesthereluctantembodimentofher

ownAmericanDream.SabraisthePrairieMadonnawho,throughherhardwork

anddiscipline,risesasawomantooneofthemostprominentpositionsin

America,showcasingnotonlythepromiseoftheAmericanDreambutits

realization.

26Ibid.369.

CHAPTERNINE

THEGIRLSANDSHOWBOAT,THEGENERATIONALNOVELS

TheGirls,1921,isthefirstofEdnaFerber’sgenerationalnovels.Itdeals

withthreegenerationsofThriftwomenwholiveonthesouthsideofChicagoin

theyearsleadinguptotheFirstWorldWar.Chroniclingthreegenerationsisa

deviceFerberusestoexplorethenewfreedoms,newattitudes,andnewvaluesof

differentgenerations.TheGirlsbeginswiththepatriarch,IsaacThrift,whohad

cometoChicagoin1836,openedageneralstoreandthenmovedontorealestate

andotherinvestments.Hisdaughter,Carrie,marrieshisassistant,Samuel

Payson,andhastwodaughters.Paysonabscondswithonehundredandfifty

thousanddollarsinbonds,notes,anddeeds.IsaacThriftspendshisremaining

daystryingtomakegoodonthedebtsincurredbecauseoftheembezzlement.It

leadstobothhisandhiswife’sprematuredeaths.Hisdaughter,CarriePayson,

takesoverthebusiness.“Her[Carrie’s]mindmarchedwithherfather’s.Thetwo

woulddiscussrealestateandholdingsliketwomen.Herswasthemathematical

andlegal‐thinkingtypeofbrainrarelyfoundinawoman.”1Hertwodaughters,

BelleandLottie,arecaredforbyherspinstersister,Charlotte,whoismore

maternal.ThisallowsCarriethefreedomtoworkandearnalivingtosupport

everyone.“She[Carrie]workedlikeaman,ruledtheroost,wasasruthlessasa

1EdnaFerber,TheGirls(GardenCity,NewYork:Doubleday,Page&Co.,1921),52.

man.Shewasneitheragoodhousekeeperormarketer.”2Onedaughter,Belle,

rushesofftomarryattwentyandleavehome.Shedoesnotgofar,shestillcalls

hermotherdailyandsheisrequiredtoshowupfordinnersonFridaynights.

Lottie,yearsyoungerthanBelle,doesnotmarryandbeginstoassumethe

responsibilityofrunningthelargehomeasbothherauntandmotherareaging

andlesscapable.Sheseesthisasherobligationbutisconflictedwiththedesireto

havemoreforherself.

Lottie’sisthegenerationthatfeelstheshiftinwhatawoman’srolecanbe.

Withonefootinthepast,sheistryingdesperatelytoextricateherselffrom

obligationstohomeandfamily,andwithonefootinthefuturesheistryingto

gainsomemeasureofself‐expressionandindependence.AtfirstLottiequestions

herdesiresforfreedomandadifferentlifethanthatofhermother’sgeneration.

Shefeelsobligationstofamily,butherauntadmonishesher,“Lottie,you’regoing

tobeeatenalivebytwooldcannibalwomen....You’vegotyourwholelifebefore

you,liveitthewayyouwantto.Thenyou’llhaveonlyyourselftoblame.Don’t

youletsomebodyelseliveitforyou.Don’tyou.”3

Lottiebeginstosearchfornewavenuesofself‐fulfillmentandself‐

definition.Lottie’sfriendshipwiththefemaleJudgeBartonleadshertosome

quasi‐socialwork,asshehasagiftforreachingtheyoungwomenwhocome

2Ibid.,64.

3Ibid.,84.

throughthecourtsystem.Belle’shousekeeper’ssisterisjustsuchayoungwoman.

Lottiebringsherhometoliveunderthesameroofashermotherandaunt.Itisa

bravestep.“Inspiteofobjections,Lottiemadesporadicattemptstomingleinthe

streamoflifethatwasflowingsoswiftlypasther–thisnewlifeofserviceandself

expressionintowhichwomenwereentering.”4

Atthispoint,Lottie’sfriends,whoareallmembersoftheReadingClub,a

grouptheyformedtoimprovetheirminds,begintodriftapart.Someleavethe

groupforjobsinsettlementworkoradvertising,whileLottiespendsthebulkof

hertimechauffeuringheraunttodoctor’sappointmentsandhermothertorent

collectionsforherbusinessandmarketing.Whenamemberoftheclubmarries

atthirty‐six,theyreuniteandoneofthemdoesathoroughevaluationofthegroup

andtheirplight.Thosewhoarenotmarriedandnotworkingaredesperately

rushingtofindaplacewheretheycanfitin.BeckSchaeferattacksLottie:

Alittletruthwouldn’thurtyou,LottiePayson.Isupposeitwouldn’thelpany,eithertoacknowledgethatyou’reakindofunpaidnursecompaniontotwooldwomenwhoareeatingyoualive!—whenyourfriendJudgeBartonherselfsaysthatyou’vegotaknackwithdelinquentgirlsthatwouldmakeyouinvaluabletoherstaff....Well,Iwouldn’thavespilledallthisifCelehadbeenwillingtotellthetruth.Isaidwewerefailuresandwearebecausewe’veallowedsomeoneorsomethingtogetthebestofus—topileupobstaclesthatweweren’tbigenoughtoteardown.We’veallgoneinforsuffrage,andbleedingBelgium,andnopetticoatsandupliftwork,andwethinkwe’remodern.Wellwe’renot.We’reapastgeneration.We’retheunselfishsofties.Watchtheeighteenyearolds,they’vegotthemethod,they’renotafraid.5

4Ibid.,86.

Lottieisawareofthenextgeneration’sfeelingsaboutobligationand

independencethroughherdealingswithhereighteen‐year‐oldniece,Charley,and

theyoungJeannette,whoshehasbroughthomefromcourt.Lottiefeelssuccess

withJeannie,whohasthrivedunderherguidanceandthewarmthofagood

home.Charleyismoredifficulttograsp.Shehastakenabusinesscourseat

collegeandisworkingherwayupinadepartmentstore,andshehasfoundlove

withayoungmanwhoisapoetandabouttogotowar.Thoughhergrandmother

Carriedisapprovesofbothherworkandherboyfriend,sheisnotconcerned.

CharleytellsLottiethatifherlifeislimited,itisherownfault.Lottiesays,“Iam

justthekindofpersonthatthingsdon’thappento.”6Charleytellsherthather

methodsforbottlingupherangerareineffectualandthatsheisbeingtreatedlike

ateenager.Here,Charleytrulyrevealsthesenseoffreedomshefeels,as

comparedtothefreedomLottiecanonlydreamof.Charleystates:

Allthesecenturieswe’vebeentoldtoprofitbytheadviceofourelders.What’slivingforifnottoexperience?Howcananyoneknowwhetheryou’rerightorwrong?Oh,Idon’tmeanaboutthesmallthings.Anystrangercandecideforyouthatblueismorebecomingthanblack.Butthebigthings—thosethingsIwanttodecideformyself.I’mentitledtomyownmistakes.I’vearighttobewrong...thethingistobeabletosay,‘Iplannedthismyselfandmyplansdidn’twork.NowI’lltakemymedicine.Youcan’tlivesomebodyelse’slifewithoutyourowngettingalldistortedintheeffort.’7

5Ibid.,111.

6Ibid.,222.7Ibid.,223.

AllthewomeninthebookgearuptoservethecauseofWorldWarI,by

sellingbondsorwrappingbandagesorheadingovertoFrancetohelpinanyway

thattheycan.AlthoughLottieisdrivenbyguilt,believinghermotherwillhavea

strokeinherabsence,shegathersallthestrengthandresolveshehasandheads

toFrancetohelpinthewar.Charley,withtheconfidenceofhergeneration,

chidesherauntfornotsettingherowncourse.Charleystates:

You’veletgrandmadominateyourlife.That’sallrightherwantingto,Imean,that’shumannaturetheoldergenerationtryingtocurbtheyounger.Butyourlettingherdoit,that’sanotherthing.That’sacrimeagainstyourowngenerationandindicatesaweaknessinyounotinher.Theyoungergenerationhasgottorule.Thoseofuswhorecognizethatandactonit,win.Thosewhodon’tgounder.8

Charleyhasannouncedthatshewillmarrythisyoungmanfromtheother

sideofthetracks,apoetwithoutmuchpotentialforincome.Whenher

grandmother,Carrie,tellsherdaughter,Belle,thatshewillneedtoputastopto

themarriage,thedaughterexplainsshedoesnothavethepower.Charley,the

thirdgeneration,takesonhergrandmotherwithoutguiltandthusrevealsthe

hugeshiftinthegenerationsandtheirviewswithregardtoresponsibility,

independence,andrespect.Charleystates:

Youneverdidrespectyourownpeople—yourownfamily.You’venevershownrespecttoLottieortomother,ortofatherortoAuntCharlotte,forthatmatter.SowhyshouldIexpectyoutorespectme.I’mmarryingJesseDickbecausehe’sthemanIwanttomarry.ImaybemakingamistakebutifIamI’mwillingtopayforit.AtleastI’llhaveonlymyselftoreproach.9

8Ibid.,225.9Ibid.,265.

Everyoneinthisbookisbothfelledinsomewayoranotherbyamanand

forcedintoindependencebecauseofit.AuntCharlotte,whokissedayoung

soldiershecaredforonthewaytotheCivilWar,isexposedanddamagedbythe

experienceandspendstherestofherdaysworkinginhersister’shome.Carrie,

betrayedbyahusbandwhoembezzledeverythingfromherfamily,needsto

spendtherestofherliferefillingtheemptiedcoffersandtakingcareofher

extendedfamily.Belle’shusband,HenryKemp,seemstheonlysteadymaninthe

groupuntilhisbusinessalmostgoesunderbecauseoftheWar.Lottiebrings

homeherbabyfromFrance,whichsheraisesoutofwedlockbecauseherlover

waskilledintheWar.Charley’spoetboyfriendisalsokilledinthewar.

Thisbookcouldbeconsideredanti‐war,anti‐businessandanti‐tradition,

revealingwhathappenswhenwomenareleftbehindtocleanupthemessthat

menmakeinbothbusinessandwar.Theslowreleaseofrestrictionsforwomen

throughthesethreegenerationsallowsCharleytosetoutonherownjourney.

Whensheisnothappyinthebusinessworld,shefeelssociallyindependent

enoughtoexploredancingandjoinsaballetcompany.Lottie,whodoesnottake

theeasywayoutwithmarriagebutdoestakealover,isfreedupenoughtobring

homethebabyshehashadoutofwedlock.Thefreedomofthesecondandthird

generationtostrikeoutontheirown,withoutsacrificingbecauseofsociety’s

conventionalrules,allowsthemtodiscovertheirownhappinessaspartofthe

AmericanDream.Thesuccesshereisfreedom,inthepursuitofhappiness,in

whateverformthattakes.

Showboat,1926,isanothergenerationalnovelwhereallofthewomen,

ultimately,arelefttocareforthemselves.Showboatstraveledtosmall

MississippiRivertownswhereculture‐starvedcommunitieshadnotyetcaughtup

withthetrendsandshowsofthebigcities.EdnaFerberdiscoveredtheshowboat

whentheproducer,WinthropAmes,wasstrugglingintryoutswiththefirst

Ferber/Kaufmanplay,OldManMinick.“Whentheaterscontinuedtobehalf

emptyduringtryouts,Amessuggestedlightlythatthecompanyhireashowboat

nexttimeandfloataroundinsearchofaudiences,neverbotheringtogetoffthe

boat.”10FerbertraveleddownSouthtodoherresearchand,likemuchofher

work,thestoryisbasedonarealshowboatfamily,(theJamesAdamsFloating

PalaceTheatreinNorthCarolina)anditsstar,amulattawhoisforcedtoleavethe

boatbecauseofmiscegenationlaws.

Thestoryoftheshowboat,atravelingtheatrecompanywithsecond‐rate

actorsplayingleadingmenandladiesandingénues,issetagainstabackdropof

thereallifemelodramaoftheHawksfamily.Thewomenofthefamilyhavehad

thebenefitofAndyHawks,thecaptainoftheCottonBlossom,husbandto

PartheniaandfathertoMagnolia.Thewomen’ssomewhatsettledlifeisdisrupted

10EdnaFerber,APeculiarTreasure:Autobiography(NewYork:TheLiteraryGuildofAmerica,Inc.1939),277‐278.

whenAndyHawksaccidentlydrownsintheMississippiriver.Hiswife,Parthenia

AnnHawks(Parthy),takesoverascaptain,managestheboatwithadded

responsibilitiesandisverysuccessful.Hisdaughter,Magnolia,runsawaywith

herinheritance,herhandsomegamblerhusband,GaylordRavenal,andher

daughterKimtoliveatumultuouslifeinChicago.

TheRavenals’liveonGaylord’swinningsbutmoreoftenthannotMagnolia

isalone,waitingforhim,andindebt.Becauseofhismother‐in‐law’simpending

visit,RavenalleavesMagnoliaforgood.Outofnecessity,Magnoliagoestowork

doingtheonlythingsheknowshowtodo,singoldNegrosongsthatshelearned

asachildonboardtheCottonBlossom.Raisedonaboatwithplentyofblack

help,thesesongsareagenuinepartofherchildhoodeventhoughsheiswhite.

Nobodyseemstoquestionher,andoutoftheneedtoearnalivingshebecomesa

starinherownright.Magnoliaknewthat,“Imusttakethingsinhandnow.Ihave

beenlikeafoolishyounggirlwhenI’mreallyquiteanoldmarriedwoman....I

musttakeKiminhandnow.”11

PartheniaAnnHawksacceptedthelifeoftheshowboatwhenshejoined

herhusbandCaptainAndyHawksontheCottonBlossom.Andyadoredhislittle

daughter,Magnolia,andwantedherwithhimforthelongmonthsthatthe

showboatspentontheMississippi.ParthyisasternNewEnglandschoolteacher

11MaryRoseShaughnessy,WomenandSuccessinAmericanSocietyintheWorksofEdnaFerber(NewYork:GordonPress,1977),171.

whoneversawherselfaseitherawifeoramother.Againstherbetterjudgment

sheendsupraisingMagnoliaonboardtheshowboatsurroundedbykitchenhelp

andactors,adetachedlotofsouls,manyofwhomwereescapingthetraditional

lifeandsometimesthelawforthemonthstheboatisafloat.Magnoliaresentsher

mother’sharshruleandmarriesthefirstsuitorwhoarrived,thehandsome

GaylordRavenal.

FromthesternmatriarchalmodelofParthy,Magnolia‘sescapeisasmall

attemptatindividuating,onehermotherpredictswillfailbecauseGayisapoor

choiceforahusband.Itdoesfailand,again,Ferberleavesanabandonedwoman

totakestockandassertherself,tobecomeindependentandsuccessful.

Magnolia’sevolutionasasingerofNegrosongscouldqualifyasawoman

accessinghertalentandusingwhatshehasintheserviceofherself.Magnolia

needstocareforherchildaswell,firstinaconventschoolandthenbypayingfor

hertrainingindramaticarts.

Kim’sabilitytoreachthestagewithoutpersonalstrugglebutwith

determination,directionandeducationrevealshowfarthesethreegenerationsof

womenhavecome.Sheexpectstohaveacareer,shechoosesonethatsheis

passionateabout,sheworksbecauseshewantsto,andshemarriessomeonewho

supportsherdream.ForKim,theAmericanDreamisavailableandshehasan

expectationofhappinessinherchosenfield.KimismarriedtoaBroadway

producerwithwhomshecollaboratesandsharesalife,adedicationtoherart,

andafamily.Itisamarriageofequals.Kim’slargerdreamcomestrueatthe

handsofherdeadgrandmother,whorantheboatsowellafterherhusband’s

deaththatKiminheritsahalfmilliondollarswhichsheusestostartherown

theatercompany.KimcallsitTheAmericanTheater.

TheevolutionoftheHawkswomenonboardtheshowboathighlightsthe

generationalgainsforAmericanwomen.WhereasMagnoliamanagestoleaveher

dominantmother,althoughonlywiththefirstmanwhoarrives,herdaughterKim,

secureinherupbringingataconventschool,findsherwaytoBroadwaymusicals

withoutmuchstruggle.ThedifferenceincareersbetweenKim,the

granddaughter,andMagnolia,thedaughter,wholiterallyfightsherwayto

freedom,isgenerational,andthegaininindependencebetweengenerationsis

whatFerberwastryingtohighlight.

Ineachgeneration,thewomenaresuccessful.AlthoughParthyand

Magnoliaareforcedtoworkwiththehandstheyaredealt,Kim,thethird

generation,doesnotneedtorebelandinhertheexpectationofsuccessisa

birthright.Sheisneitherlimitedbysociety,asshehasbenefittedfromthegain

inindependence,norisshelimitedbythefamilyobligation,becauseherfamily

suggestsanewparadigm.AlthoughFerbermusesaboutthelossofthenatural

actress,onethatispluckedfromoblivionandrisestothetopofthestagebythe

shearpowerofherownability,shedoesmakeclearthattheachievementofthe

dreamistheresultofhardwork.ButwithKimshehasremovedthestruggle

towardcreativeaccomplishment,andforFerber,aswithmanyotherwritersof

upwardmobilitystories,thestruggleiswheretheexcitementis.

Kimhadnoneofthosepreliminaryhardshipsandterrorsandtemptations,then,thataresupposedtobesetthepathoftheattractiveyoungwomanwhowouldtraveltheroadtotheatricalachievement.Hersuccesshadbeeninstantaneousandsustained.

Shewasintelligent,successful,workmanlike,intuitive,vigorous,adaptable.Shewasalmostthefirstofthisnewcropofintelligent,successful,deft,workmanlike,intuitive,vigorous,adaptableyoungwomenofthetheatre.Therewasabouther—orthem—nothingofgenius,ofgreatness,ofthedivinefire.Butthedramaticcriticsoftheyoungerschoolwhoweretoolatetohaveseenpastgeniusinitsheydayandforwhomthetheatricalgeniusoftheirdaywasyettocome,viewedherperformanceandwaxedhysterical,mistakingtalentandintelligenceandhardworkandambitionforsomethingmorerare.13

EdnaFerber,whohadmanyBroadwaysuccesses,includingStageDoor,

whichtellsthestoryofyoungactressestryingtomakeitinNewYork,goesonto

saythattheperformancesoftheseyoungstarsare“Right.Asrightasan

engineeringblueprint.”14Magnoliaisasuccess—shehasmanagedtoeducateher

daughter,andsheisnotbroughtdownbyhermarriage.Partheniaisasuccess—

shehasmanagedtheCottonBlossomasaneffectivebusinesswomanafterthe

deathofherhusbandandleftalargeinheritanceforhergranddaughter.Kim,the

beneficiaryofeveryone’shardwork,hasrisentoaccomplishherdreamonthe

shouldersoftwogenerationsofstrong,independentwomen.

13Ibid.,173.

14Ibid.,173.

CHAPTERTEN

CONCLUSION

EdnaFerber’sjourneyasawriterandherprofessionalandmonetary

successduringherlifetimeserveasamodelofwhattheAmericanDreamcould

looklikeforawomanintheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcentury.Ferber

incorporatedtheattributesoftheNewWomanintohernovelsDawnO’Haraand

FannyHerselfandintotheEmmaMcChesneyseriesofshortstories,Emma

McChesney&Co.,RoastBeefMediumandPersonalityPlus.Sherevisitedhistoryin

SoBigandCimarronbyreimagininghistoricalnarrativesthatgavewomen

recognitionfortheirimportantcontributionstoAmericanhistoryandthe

settlementoftheWest.HernovelsTheGirlsandShowBoattoldthestoriesof

threegenerationsofwomen,beginninginthelateeighteenhundredsthrough

WorldWarI,andhighlightedtheexpandedopportunitiesandthedramatic

changeforwomenthatoccurredbetweenthegenerationsinthisprogressiveera.

Herwomencharacterstriumphintheirstruggletogainaccesstothepromiseof

theAmericanDreamforthemselvesandtheirfamilies.

In1925,whenaddressingtheAmericanSocietyofNewspaperEditorsin

Washington,DC,PresidentCalvinCoolidgesaid,“TheBusinessofAmericais

Business,...Wemakenoconcealmentofthefactthatwewantwealth,butthere

aremanyotherthingsthatwewantverymuchmore....Thechiefidealofthe

Americanpeopleisidealism.IcannotrepeattoooftenthatAmericaisanationof

idealists.”1AlthoughCoolidgewasphilosophicallyandliterallyaddressingmen

only,toEdnaFerber,the“BusinessofAmerica”wasalsowomen’sbusiness.She

chronicledoriginalbusinesswomen,andshewasanarchetypicalbusinesswoman

herself.Shewasawriterwhomasteredshortstories,novels,andplays,andshe

wasasuccessfulbusinesswomaninsellingherliteraryoutputtothevehiclesof

massculture‐magazines,monthlybookclubs,andHollywood.Sheisconsidered

oneofthemostsuccessfulwritersinHollywoodintermsofthenumberofher

worksthathavebeentranslatedtofilm.

InmuchofwhatEdnaFerberwroteshecelebratedthetriumphofthe

spiritovermaterialism.Aftertheclimbtosucceedinwhateverbusinessher

femalecharacterhaschosen,thesuccessisnotthetriumphofgreed,butonethat

istemperedsothatthecharactercanbereleasedtoembracemorespiritually

upliftingandself‐fulfillinggoals.Theiridealismallowsthesewomentousetheir

financialgainsintheserviceofthemselves,theirfamiliesandtheircommunity.

Thefighttosucceedisstillpresent,butitissoftenedbyfeminineintuitionand

maternalinstinctresultinginamorefeminizeddreamwithasolidunderstanding

oflife’sdisappointmentsandchallenges.Ferberwantedtomodulatethemad

grabforsuccessandmaterialismthatwassweepingthecountryduringtheearly

yearsofherwriting,1911to1930.Shehelpedthereaderrememberthebedrock

1capecodtoday,LatimeronLaw:TheBusinessofAmericaisBusiness.http://capecodtoday.com/blogs/index.php/2009/02/25/title…

valuesthatmadeAmericagreatandhowthosevaluescouldbeincorporatedto

advanceagreatergood.

EdnaFerbernourishesandsupportsherwomenintwosignificantways.

First,theyaresuccessfulevenifthatsuccessattimesisonlythefreedomto

pursuetheirownhappiness.Thiscreatesastrongmodelofself‐actualizationto

whichherlargeaudiencecouldaspire.Secondly,shechroniclesunexploredareas

forwomen’sworkandfulfillment.Again,thisexpandstherangeofopportunities

andcreatesmodelsforherwomenreaders.Herworkisemphaticallydidactic

becausehervoiceremainsinsidethenovels,anditisplainlyevidentwhatFerber

wantsthereadertothinkandfeel.Hercharactershavelittleinternalvoice:

everythingaboutthemislearnedfromtheauthor.Theseareengaging,purposeful

storiesthatarewellwritten.Theregionalimagesarepaintedingreatdetail,

whichmakesthemhardtoextricatefromtheirtimeandplace.Thehugesweep

ofmelodramaandlandscapeinthepioneerstoriesofSoBigandCimarronand

subsequentregionalnovelspromptedcriticstosaythatFerberwaswriting

screenplaysforHollywood.Thelimitedinteriorvoicesofthecharactershelped

inthetranslationtofilm.

Inherstoriesandnovels,Ferberdemonstratesthatawomancanbe

comfortableandsuccessfulineveryprofession,breakingthecorporateglass

ceilingaswellasrunningthefamilyfarm.Eachofhercharacters,afterexploring

andresolvingtheconflictbetweenobligationtofamilyandcommunityandself‐

actualization,areallowedtopursueanindependentdream.EmmaMcChesney

lovesherwork,andthechallengetokeepthebusinessgoingisvitalforherself

andherpsyche.MagnoliaHawksinShowBoatreturnstotheCottonBlossom,

afterhermother’sdeath,andtakesoverascaptain.Shehasaloveoftheriverthat

shecouldnotfindelsewhere,anditgiveshersolaceandprotectioninher

remainingyears.CarriePaysoninTheGirlsrunsthefamilybusinessoutof

necessitybutLottiePayson,herdaughter,isfreedupenoughfromsociety’sstrict

conventionstobringhomeandraiseherchildbornoutofwedlock.DawnO’Hara

growsfromanewspaperwomantoanauthorandfeelsfulfilledandindependent.

FannyBrandeisinFannyHerselfafterastunningsuccessinmailordermarketing,

decidestofollowherpassionofsketchingthoseoppressedbysociety.Sabra

CravatinCimarrontakesallthatshehaslearnedduringthestruggletosettlethe

OklahomaterritoryandbringsittotheCongressoftheUnitedStatesasthefirst

woman’svoice,clearingthewayforotherwomentofollow.

EdnaFerberherselfembodiedtheAmericanDream;allofhercharacters

aresemi‐autobiographical.ShebecameasuccessfulwriterwithalargePark

Avenueapartment,invitationstoexclusivedinnerparties,openingnightsand

weekendsinthecountrywithfront‐pagecelebrities.HerfriendsincludedNoel

Coward,GeorgeandDorothyKaufman,RichardandDorothyRogers,Alfredand

LynnLunt,andmanyotherculturalcelebrities.Ferbermingledwiththemost

excitingandtalentedgroupofpeopleinNewYork:theatercritics,newspapermen,

andauthorsofBroadwayplays,popularsongs,andHollywoodmovies.Shewas

financiallyabletotakecareofherself,hermother,andherextendedfamily.Like

allself‐madepeople,shebelievedthatAmericawasthegreatestcountryonearth,

andhertrajectoryfromalowermiddleclassgirlwithoutacollegeeducationtoa

best‐sellingauthorwaslivingproofofit.

ThisthesisexploredhasEdnaFerber’sMidwesternrootsnurturedher

positiveviewofwomenandhowsheemployedthesesmalltownsettingsto

exploretheconflictsholdingwomenbackfromtherealizationoftheirdreams.

Additionally,ithasclarifiedhowFerberwasabletoarticulatewhattheNew

Womanaspiredtoandtomodelwhatshelookedlikeathome,intheworkforce

andinthecommunity.Finally,ithasexplainedhowthenewmediaofhertime

expandedtheaudiencesforFerber’sworkandthesignificantculturalauthorityof

herfemalecharacters.

AllthatFerberlivedthroughasachildandallthatsheaspiredtoasan

adultwereembodiedinthewomencharactersshecreatedbetween1911and

1930.EdnaFerberwantednothinglessforthewomenshewroteaboutand

wroteforthanwhatsheachievedforherself,namelytheopportunitythrough

hardworkandingenuitytoachievetheAmericanDreaminawayappropriatetoa

woman.

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edna ferber’s women characters, 1911 – 1930, and …...edna ferber’s women characters, 1911...

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